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Divided We Stand: the 1775 Quebec Campaign and the Rise of Nations, 1760-1815 by Nathan Wuertenberg BA in History and Spanish

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Divided We Stand: the 1775 Quebec Campaign and the Rise of Nations, 1760-1815 by Nathan Wuertenberg BA in History and Spanish Divided We Stand: The 1775 Quebec Campaign and the Rise of Nations, 1760-1815 by Nathan Wuertenberg B.A. in History and Spanish, May 2012, McDanieL ColLege M.A. in History, May 2014, BaLL State University M.PhiL. in History, January 2018, The George Washington University A Dissertation submitted to The Faculty of The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 31, 2020 Dissertation directed by Denver Brunsman Associate Professor of History The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University certifies that Nathan Wuertenberg has passed the FinaL Examination for the degree of Doctor of PhiLosophy as of July 17, 2020. This is the finaL and approved form of the dissertation. Divided We Stand: The 1775 Quebec Campaign and the Rise of Nations, 1760-1815 Nathan Wuertenberg Dissertation Research Committee: Denver Brunsman, Associate Professor of History, Dissertation Director David Silverman, Professor of History, Committee Member Katrin Schultheiss, Associate Professor of History, Committee Member ii © Copyright 2020 by Nathan Wuertenberg All rights reserved iii Dedication To my wife, Jeneice, who made me better at 15 and makes me better at 30. iv Acknowledgments I have been extraordinarily fortunate in the company I keep outside the academy. My parents have constantly and consistently encouraged me to be inquisitive and enthusiastic about learning. My oldest friend, Benjamin Wilt, his wife Dorothy, his sisters Katie and Hannah, his brother Zach, his cousins Peter and Marcus, and his parents Kelly and Sherry, have all instilled in me an appreciation of the value of kindness, hard work, and eternal optimism. My friends from McDaniel College, Jacob, Andrew, Dawn, Bryan, Lauren, Laura, Sam, the Olivias, and the Betsys, made my time as an undergraduate worth every penny of student loan debt. My friends from Ball State University, Alex, Jen, and Jim, made two years in a studio apartment fly by. Those from George Washington, Andreas, Johnny, Alexa, Lauren, Becky, Hillary, Andrea, and Sam, helped me survive the big city with a little more grace and a little less cynicism. I’m so grateful I’ve managed to stay in touch with everyone since leaving the city. I’m also grateful for everyone I’ve met since I did. I wouldn’t have survived my return to small town America without people like Olivia Scott, Chelsea Latorre, Sutha Johnson, Sarah Cranstoun Palfrey, Mike McClung, Shelby Donnelly, and Amanda Young. I have been similarly fortunate within the academy. My undergraduate advisors, Drs. Stephen Feeley, Amy McNichols, and Uriel Quesada, showed me how to translate a lifelong love of learning into a career. My M.A. advisor, Dr. Daniel Ingram, and my committee members, Drs. Jennifer DeSilva, Nicole Etcheson, and Douglas Seefeldt, prepared me in immeasurable ways for the many challenges of pursuing a doctorate in history. My Ph.D. advisor, Dr. Denver Brunsman, and committee members Drs. David Silverman, Marcia Norton, Katrin Schultheiss, Trevor Jackson, and Gautham Rao, made v those challenges inestimably more surmountable. Denver in particular has been a constant source of support, guidance, and assurance. So too has Sir Michael Weeks, who has been instrumental to the successful completion of my education and is a gentleman, scholar, and friend. I am also extremely grateful to Dr. James F. Jones, Jr., a personal mentor who has graciously shared the knowledge he has gained over the course of decades in the academy and offered me invaluable advice, encouragement, and assistance. My good fortune in academia has been echoed during my various forays into the archives. The archivists and staff at the Library and Archives Canada, the National Archives of the United Kingdom, the New York Public Library, the West Virginia & Regional History Center, the Bibliothèque national de France, American Antiquarian Society, Houghton Library, and John Hay Library were unfailingly kind and helpful. Those at the archives at which I received fellowships, the Society of the Cincinnati Library in Washington, D.C. and John Carter Brown Library at Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island, similarly went out of their way to make my time at their institutions as enriching and fulfilling as possible. Everyone I have met over the course of my research for this project has done much to ensure its success. Thank you. vi Abstract of Dissertation Divided We Stand: The 1775 Quebec Campaign and the Rise of Nations, 1760-1815 This dissertation is an exploration of the profound influence of violent conflict on the deveLopment of identities across imperiaL, nationaL, raciaL, and culturaL boundaries. The study uses the 1775 rebeL invasion of Quebec during the American War for Independence as a window into such processes. An examination of the Quebec Campaign reveaLs the deep ties between the American War for Independence (1775-1783), the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763), and the War of 1812 (1812-1815). During this broader era, American, British, French, Canadian, and indigenous identities coaLesced into something resembling those observed in later periods. Situating Quebec at the center of this narrative offers new insight into such processes. The British conquest of the province in the Seven Years’ War had important consequences not only for those within its borders but those without as weLL. Out of that event were born historicaL forces that – after being stretched and reformed by the course of the War for Independence – found their ultimate expression in the War of 1812 over five decades later. Those forces reLated to identity formation were perhaps most impactful, driving the peoples of Quebec and the continent surrounding it to segregate themseLves aLong the Lines of race and culture. This division formed the foundation of the nations that emerged from this era in North America’s history. It aLso had ramifications for those living across the AtLantic, where evolving notions of empire and nationhood in Britain and France struggled to keep pace with changes on the ground in the western hemisphere. As a vii result, peoples across two continents experienced dramatic changes in how they defined themseLves and others. Torn apart by decades of war, those peoples buiLt the nations of North America on the ashes of a common past. Divided, they stood and faced the future. viii Contents Dedication iv Acknowledgments v Abstract of Dissertation vii Introduction 1 Chapter 1: Surrounded by Conquests: Governing Quebec and the Borderlands, 1760-1778 30 Chapter 2: Command and Supply: RebeL Diplomacy, MiLitary Necessity, and the Struggle for Quebecois and Indian ALLies, 1760-1779 79 Chapter 3: Lafayette’s LittLe Irruption: French Reform, Noble Honor, and the Question of Quebec, 1760-1780 132 Chapter 4: Clash of Confederacies: The St. Lawrence Indians and the War for Independence, 1760-1781 179 Chapter 5: Governed by Conquests: Party Politics, Class Tensions, and Popular Resistance in Quebec, 1760-1786 235 EpiLogue: More Scratching Pens: The Documents that Divided the Nations, 1783-1814 292 Bibliography 328 Introduction In his journaL of the ContinentaL Army’s 1775 siege of Fort Saint-Jean, the British commander Major Charles Preston observed that “there were EngLishmen fighting against Englishmen, French against French and Indians of the same Tribe against each other.”1 Preston’s comment hints at the complex forces at play in determining loyaLties and aLLiances in the larger War for Independence during which the siege of Fort Saint-Jean took place. Group identity did not aLways or consistentLy determine which side of the conflict individuaLs chose to support. In many respects the struggle for coloniaL independence took on shades of civiL war, with combatants often facing members of their own communities across the battLefieLd in defiance of the edicts of their nominaL leaders.2 In many others, however, the extent to which the boundaries dividing those communities had yet to solidify Lends the conflict shades of something eLse entireLy. The question of group identity itseLf during the period was considerably more muddled – and therefore Less determinative of aLLegiance – than externaL appearances might suggest. A conflict in which EngLishmen fought Englishmen, French fought French, and Indians fought Indians can thus be seen as something more than a struggle between communities or within them. It can aLso be seen as a struggle to make communities as weLL. The process of making communities has been described by a myriad of scholars studying a variety of topics using a plethora of terms.3 One of the most important 1 “Journal of the Siege of Fort St. Johns,” in Arthur G. Doughty, ed., Report of the Work of the Public Archives, for the Years 1914 and 1915 (Ottawa, ON: J. de L Taché, 1916), 19. 2 See David Armitage, “CiviL War and Revolution,” Agora, 2009, 18-22. [provide the full citation as listed in the bibliography] 3 For just a smaLL sampling of such studies, see The William and Mary Quarterly forum on “Ethnogenesis”: James Sidbury and Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra, “Mapping Ethnogenesis in the EarLy Modern AtLantic,” The William and Mary Quarterly 68, no. 2 (2011): 181-208; James H. Sweet, “The Quiet Violence of Ethnogenesis,” The William and Mary Quarterly 68, no. 2 (2011): 209-214; CLaudio Saunt, “The Indians’ Old WorLd,” The William and Mary Quarterly 68, no. 2 (2011): 215-218; Pekka Hämäläinen, “Lost in 1 observations to emerge from this scholarship has been the extent to which opposition drives the formation of identities forward, pushing individuaLs and groups to define themseLves in terms of their perceived opposites.4 This is as true of eighteenth-century North America as it is of anywhere eLse.5 Early American identities are studies in opposition, with individuaLs and groups positioning their sense of seLf in reLation to how they perceived both internaL and externaL enemies.
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