UNIVERSITY OF GOTHENBURG Department of Earth Sciences Geovetarcentrum/Earth Science Centre

The impact of natural conditions

on farmers´ livelihood situations - on the slope of Mount Wenchi, in rural Ethiopia

Erika Hultman Rickard Näsström

ISSN 1400-3821 B642 Bachelor of Science thesis Göteborg 2012

Mailing address Address Telephone Telefax Geovetarcentrum Geovetarcentrum Geovetarcentrum 031-786 19 56 031-786 19 86 Göteborg University S 405 30 Göteborg Guldhedsgatan 5A S-405 30 Göteborg SWEDEN ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This bachelor paper in geography is based on research that we did as part of the Minor Field Study program, sponsored by the swedish aid organisation Sida. It was conducted in Ethiopia during two months in the spring of 2010.

We would like to thank Staffan Rosell for giving us the idea from the start and for all the encouragement and valuable inputs during this project; Mats Olvmo for guidance, help and tutorial; Abdi Girma for spotless interpreting and helpful assistance during our field work; Lars Johansson for interesting conversations and help with GIS; Gustaf Asplund for letting us stay in his house in Addis Ababa; Sofia Thorsson and Eskil Mattson for believing in our project idea; Jessica Lindquist, Martin Madar Johansson and Robert Ekberg for keeping our spirit up with a pleasant working atmosphere.

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ABSTRACT

This paper is about farmers in three villages on the slope of Mount Wenchi in rural Ethiopia, and their struggle for retaining and improving their livelihood situations by being affected by, and in its turn affecting, the nature in which they live. Our study analyzes the impact of natural conditions and other livelihood aspects on farmers’ livelihood situation, with focus on natural capital. Some of the methods we have been working with are interviews, both semi-structured and focus group interviews, field mapping with a GPS, soil sampling and we also developed our own livelihood classification system.

The three villages are all at different altitude and there are dissimilarities in the possibilities for ones livelihood situation caused by the varying natural conditions. In the village at the lowest altitude they have flat land, irrigation, large land areas, better soil than the other villages; and in the village at the highest altitude they are subjected to erosion, have sloping and small land areas and unproductive soils. These differences reflect and explain the dissimilarities between the villages; the possibilities for a good livelihood situation decreases as the altitude increases on the slope of Mount Wenchi. The most significant differences are concerning topography, water accessibility, land areas and soil physical properties.

Our study further indicates that for poorer households, dependant on rain fed agriculture, enset plays a more important role than it does for richer households. But it is clear that enset is a security for farmers in Wenchi Woreda, it guarantees food when the cereal crop harvests fail, and even rich farmers grow it close to their homestead.

Key words: natural conditions, livelihood, natural capital, Ethiopia, agriculture, soils.

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TABLE OF CONTENT INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1. Purpose of the study ...... 1 2. Definition of key terms ...... 2 3. Livelihood, soils and land use ...... 2 4. Setting of the study area...... 4 4.1 Ethiopia...... 4 4.2 Climate ...... 6 4.3 The agro climatic zones ...... 7 4.4 The livelihood zones according to USAID ...... 7 4.5 Livestock ...... 9 4.6 The Woliso- Mt Wenchi area ...... 9 5. Factors influencing soils ...... 10 5.1 Climate ...... 10 5.2 Topography ...... 11 5.3 Organisms and vegetation ...... 11 5.4 Soil physical factor ...... 12 5.5 Soil Degradation ...... 13 5.6 Erosion control ...... 14 5.7 Fertilizers ...... 15 METHODS ...... 16 1. Literature review ...... 16 2. Climate data ...... 16 3. Field methods ...... 16 4. Selection of villages ...... 16 5. Observation methods ...... 16 6. Interview methods ...... 17 7. Soil sampling ...... 17 8. GIS ...... 18 9. Livelihood classification system ...... 18 RESULT ...... 21 1. Specific location settings ...... 21 1.1 Waldo Xalfam Kebele, Adera Gotti ...... 22

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1.2 Fite Wato Kebele, Chorro Gotti ...... 23 1.3 Mete Walga Kebele, Yaya Gotti ...... 24 2. Season calendars ...... 25 3. Precipitation and temperature ...... 25 4. Interviews ...... 27 4.1 The soil ...... 27 4.2 Fertilizers ...... 27 4.3 Categories of the land ...... 28 4.4 Crop diversity ...... 29 4.5 Livestock ...... 30 4.6 The importance of enset in the area ...... 33 4.7 Selling of harvested crops ...... 33 4.8 Land tenure ship ...... 33 5. Soil tests ...... 33 6. Livelihood classification system ...... 37 DISCUSSION ...... 39 1. Natural capital ...... 39 1.1 Soil ...... 39 2. Human capital ...... 40 2.1 Season calendars ...... 40 2.2 Soil management ...... 40 2.3 Fertilizers ...... 41 2.4 Crop diversity ...... 41 2.5 Livestock ...... 42 3. Economic capital ...... 42 3.1 Selling of harvested crops ...... 42 4. Livelihood situation...... 43 5. Concluding remarks ...... 44 CONCLUSIONS ...... 46 REFERENCES ...... 47 APPENDIX ...... 50

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INTRODUCTION Natural conditions such as topography, altitude, rainfall pattern, temperature and soils have major impact on the possibilities of having a sustainable livelihood. With harsh conditions ones struggle for life is hard. Altitude, topography, temperature and rainfall distribution are factors that are impossible for humans to change, instead it is necessary to try to adjust life after them.

Ethiopia is a country where the great majority of the population lives on agriculture. It is also a country that has suffered from famine plenty of times. One reason for that is the fact that many farmers cannot handle droughts and changes in rainfall patterns, which makes their cultivation go wrong and leads to crop failure. When having little or no capital, neither financial, natural nor human, it is sometimes very hard to resist nature’s way.

Soil is one of the most significant factors for agriculture, and since agriculture is of such importance to farmers in rural Ethiopia; soil is enormously important. Its quality, e.g. its nutrient status and susceptibility to erosion, decides to a large extent the possibilities for cultivation. A fertile soil is necessary in order to get good yields. It is one of the few natural conditions that are possible for us humans to actually change to receive better conditions.

Over several decades Ethiopia has seen substantial food and cash aid for food insecure people, mainly in the more droughtprone eastern half of the country from north to south, but everywhere in Ethiopia the rural population live overwhelmingly by their own efforts. Central to understanding livelihood amongst poor households is an understanding of food security, since the poorer the household, the larger the proportion of its total income is spent on getting food. ”Many definitions of food security can be found throughout the humanitarian world. At a minimum, however, they all share the core concepts contained in the following definiton: Ensured access to sufficient food for all people at all times.” (Feg consulting, n.d.)

We chose to perform our study in Wenchi, an area 110 km on the road to Jimma, southwest from Addis Ababa. We chose this location after meeting phd student Staffan Rosell who had visited the region while performing fieldwork in Wollo. Compared to Wollo, and large parts of the central and northern part of the higland, he thought that the livelihood situation in Wenchi seemed better off in many ways. We gained interest and decided to locate our field study there, it felt extra interesting since we could not find any earlier work about the area. We wanted to describe a region that seemingly is not worst off in Ethiopia, but still struggles every year for a sustainable livelihood.

1. Purpose of the study This study aims to analyze how the natural capitals, and other livelihood aspects, affect the farmers’ livelihood situations on the slope of Mount Wenchi, in rural Ethiopia. Natural conditions such as altitude, topography, water facilities, soils and rainfall patterns are matters of great interest. We take into account various possibilities that the farmers have for improving their present conditions; by evaluating their land use strategies, their knowledge on soil fertility and soil management practices.

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We aim to compare three villages on different altitudes on the slope of Mount Wenchi, with varying natural capital situations.

We will put emphasis on the following questions:

Are the natural conditions affecting people’s livelihoods differently along the slope of Mount Wenchi? - Do altitudinal differences play an important role in agriculture? - How is the annual rainfall pattern affecting farmer’s possibilities for agriculture? What is done by the farmers in order to improve their livelihood situation? - What do they use their land for? - What soil management practices are being done? Is land tenure-ship an important question for the farmers? What types of classifications are being used to categorize soils and land use? - Is there a hierarchy embedded between them?

2. Definition of key terms These are the definitions of most important terms used in our study, we are aware of different definitions of them, but these are the definitions we found most correct for this study.

 Livelihood- The activities and the assets that determine the lives of individuals or households. For a sustainable livelihood four aspects are often highlighted, these are natural capital, economic capital, human capital and social capital.  Natural capital - is the natural resource stocks such as soil, water, altitude, and temperature.  Natural condition – with this term we mean a general description of all livelihood aspects. Since all aspects are interlinked, we discuss them in a broad term by using natural conditions. An economic aspect such as infrastructure are for example in a large extent dependant on natural capital aspects.  Soil fertility – is the possibility for the soil to store and release nutrients for the plants to absorb.

3. Livelihood, soils and land use Livelihood is a term often used in studies focused on development studies. The term can apply on both general terms over a broad mass as well as on grass root level describing one household. Ellis (1999 p.30) describes livelihood as ”The activities, the assets, and the access that jointly determine the living gained by an individual or household”. Chambers and Conway (1992, p.30) define livelihoods as follows:”A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable which can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation; and which contributes net benefits to other livelihoods at the local and global levels and in the short and long term”.

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Scoones (1998) adds that a sustainable livelihood should not undermine the natural resource base, and groups different types of capital; natural capital, economic or financial capital, human capital and social capital. The natural capital is the natural resource stocks such as soil, water and air; the economic or financial capital is the capital base such as cash, savings, infrastructure and technologies; the human capital which means the skills, knowledge, health and ability for work; and the social capital which means the social resources such as networks and social relations.

Corbeels et.al (2000) article “Farmers’ knowledge of soil fertility” discusses that the concept of soil fertility has different meaning depending on who defines it; scientists define it as land that is capable of continually producing high yield of mixed crops. Whilst farmers in Tigray take into account outcomes as crop performance, yields, and all factors affecting plant growth. To evaluate if the fertility is declining farmers often talk about reduced crop yields, and soil moisture is often suspected to be the underlying factor. According to Vyas (2006) soil fertility is the capacity of the soil to supply plant nutrients in available amount, usable form and required proportion. Soil productivity is a soils’ capacity to produce crops and is expressed as in terms of yield/ha, where the fertility is one of the factors by determining the magnitude of crop yields. The crop yields are dependent on the following factors;

- climatic, such as rainfall, relative humidity, temperature and sunlight; - edaphic, such as texture, soil moisture, structure, soil aeration, soil temperature, water holding capacity, infiltration rate, nutrient status/fertility, clay content, organic matter, pH and CEC; - agronomic factors; such as selection of crop and variety, time and method of sowing, soil management, fertilizers management, irrigation management, weed management, pests and disease management and drainage management.

The factors can be classified as uncontrolled factors (climate and the physical composition of soil), partially controlled factors (soil moisture, aeration, temperature, water holding capacity, organic matter content, CEC. pH and soil fertility) and completely controlled factors (the agronomic factors). Improving of the soil productivity can be done by modifying the partially controlled factors and the completely controlled factors. (Vyas, 2006)

When asked, farmers in Corbeels et.al. (2000) study classified their soils in 3 categories according to fertility. They chose the following categories, reguid meriet (fertile), mehakelay meriet (moderately fertile), and rekik meriet (infertile). An interesting thing is that reguid means thick, rekik thin, and mehakelay describes something between, while meriet means land. (Corbeels et.al. 2000)

Haileslassie et.al. (2006) study was conducted in Galesa watershed and Gare in the central highlands of Ethiopia. The study compares two different agricultural systems, one enset based system and one teff based. Farmers in Galesa practicing the enset-based system recognize four types of soils Diimilee (reddish-brown), Magaalee, Gurraacha and Boorilee (brownish/grey), while those at Gare, also identified Diimilee, Magaalee Boorilee plus Kossii and Kooticha (Vertisols) In some cases, soil quality is defined only on the basis of depth and vulnerability to erosion Gurraacha soils are considered to be

3 fertile soils and therefore they are not fertilized. Urea and DAP were the only mineral fertilizers used on cereals in the area. Farmers gave more weight to specific land use than sustainability of the whole system, which is revealed through uneven transfer of nutrients between different fields. Such nutrient oversupply on some locations and depletion in different land uses implies that sustainability is threatened. In both farming systems the fields planted with cereals contained low organic matter, this was probably due to the combination of plowing these fields, which lowers the organic matter content, and leads to a lower return of organic residues. In both systems the soils close to the homestead had a bigger content of organic matter.

Moges & Holdens (2008) work in Umbolo catchment in southern Ethiopia identifies 3 different classes of land-use; garden, grassland and outfield. The garden is situated close to the house and living area and mainly planted with enset, chatt, vegetables and sugarcanes. In order to maintain fertility it receives organic homemade fertilizers. It is very rare for the garden area to receive external inputs of inorganic fertilizers. In food insecure areas the garden plays an important role, and the enset is often planted there to avoid possible losses thru soil erosion as is the case in the outfields. The area in front of the garden is the grassland and is being used as grazing area. Besides the dung and urine from the grazing animals the farmers apply as much manure as they can spare to the grassland, to promote the grass-growth so that the animals can feed. In other parts of the region the grasslands does not receive any additional inputs of manure, but the scarcity of grazing spots in Umbolo makes it a necessity if they want to keep the animals grazing. The outfields are located far from the garden and mainly used for corn and beans. This area does not receive any home-made fertilizers because of the distance from the house, it would require more labor, and its higher risks of erosion.

According to Morgan (2005) the particles least resistant to erosion are silts and sand. A high silt content, above 40% in a soil means it is highly erodible, likewise soils with a clayey content between 9 and 25 percent are also highly erodible. But according to Haileselassie et.al. (2006) high clay content and related CEC in combination with a higher pH value and base saturation are favorable soil fertility parameters. Soils with high content of base minerals are generally more stable, as these contribute to the chemical bonding of the aggregates. Soils with less than 3,5 per cent organic content, can also be considered erodible.

4. Setting of the study area

4.1 Ethiopia Ethiopia has an area of 1 133 380 km2 and is situated at the horn of Africa, as shown in figure 1. The country is landlocked after Eritrea gained independence in 1993. It is geographically dominated by the Ethiopian High Plateau, which is the highest mountain region in Africa, stretching above 4000 m.a.s.l. The country’s largest lake, Lake Tana, is found in the plateau and the Blue Nile which is one of Figure 1. Shows Ethiopias location in Africa. (CRS, Catholic relief services, 2010)

(http://education.crs.org/wyd/ethiopia, 4 gathered 2010-05-22) the sources of the River Nile, originates by the lake. The Great Rift Valley stretches through the entire country, from the south-west to the north-east and is up to 60 km wide. A deep hollow is located east of the High Plateau, reaching 100 meters below the sea surface and the area is known for its abundant volcanic activity. The rainfall in Ethiopia varies from below 500 mm in the south-eastern and eastern parts of the country to a mean precipitation of above 2000 mm in the western region of the country. The capital city, Addis Ababa, is found in the center of the country and is home to 3 231 000 out of the 82 800 000 inhabitants in the country. Most of the Ethiopians live in rural areas, mainly in the highlands where the climate is pleasant, the precipitation is good and the soil is fertile. At least 64 different ethnic groups exist and many different languages are spoken but one national language, Amharinja, is known by most ethnic groups. Christianity is the religion of two thirds of the inhabitants, and Islam is the second most practiced religion. Agriculture is the most important industry, in which over 80 % of the working Ethiopians are occupied. Most common is having a small farm for family consumption only and by using old fashion tools. The entitlement of practicing agriculture is inherited and land split up during estate distribution causes decreases in land sizes which lead to farmers having insufficiently small land areas and gives them problems to live on their harvests. One of the most common crops grown in the country is teff, an indigenous cereal type that is used to make the national dish; the injera bread. (Utrikespolitiska institutet) Figure 2. Picture of an enset plant (Enset picture, 2008) Another important crop is enset, which is mainly grown in the southern part of the country. It is very similar to a banana plant and can be up to 10 meters high and 1 meter in diameter. The pulp and quality fiber are eaten and are very rich in carbon-hydrates. More than 20 % of the Ethiopian population are depending upon the enset plant which for them is also much more than just food; “Farmers say that “enset is our food, our clothes, our beds, our houses, our cattle- feed, our plates.” (The “tree against hunger”, 1997. P.18) See figure 2 for picture of enset.

Crewett and Korf (2008) describes the Ethiopian governments land policy that is based on state ownership, they only give out usufruct rights to land holders. They expect that privatisation will lead to a few rich landowners, pushing away the poor farm households from their land. Critics to this point of view argues that the state ownership only prevents development of the Ethiopian land market, and holds back an increase of productivity. In Oromia region, the legislation has been viewed as progressive. ” The legislative text is a masterpiece of dialectical reasoning as it translates the federal imperative of state ownership with measures to improve ‘subjective’ tenure security of land cultivators, i.e. the perception of peasants that their use rights are secure.” (Crewett & Korf, 2008. P. 209) The Oromia region allows higher level of tenure security than other regions, since it does not allow redistribution of land plots. But if the land is needed for more important public use, or if the farmer fail to use their land in every production season, or leaves a bit of land unused for more than 3 years it can be taken away from them. Except for that, the farmers are entitled lifelong usufruct rights to their land.

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Ethiopia is divided into different levels of administrative zones; first there are the regional zones, in which woredas are smaller parts. The woredas are in their turn divided into kebeles, which are the smallest administrative zones. The kebeles are then divided into gottis, comparable with a village.

4.2 Climate There are three general climatic seasons in Ethiopia: Kiremt (the main rainy season June to September) Bega (dry season October to December/January) and Belg (small rainy season February/March to May). The rainfall over the tropical semi-arid and arid areas varies largely throughout the year. These variations during Kiremt effect agricultural production to a large extent. The annual rainfall during June to

September in eastern, southern and southwestern Ethiopia has declined Figure 1. The distribution of annual precipitaion over Ethiopia. (Atlas of the Rural Ethiopian Economy, 2006) since 1982. An increase in the sea- surface pressure over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean is corresponding to a decline in annual rainfall at a number of places. These declines are caused by the constant warming of the South Atlantic Ocean between 1986 and 2002. It appears that the warmer the South Atlantic Ocean and the higher the pressure over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean the less the Kiremt rainfall there is over the lowlands of eastern, southern and southwestern Ethiopia. See figure 3 for illustration of the annual rains in Ethiopia.

The Kiremt rainfall in the highlands is positively correlated to both the equatorial eastern Pacific sea- level pressure and the southern oscillation index and negatively correlated to sea-surface temperature over the tropical eastern pacific ocean, which confirms that the warm El-Niño-Southern Oscillation are associated with Kiremt rainfall below average in the highlands. Warm sea surface temperatures over the South Atlantic Ocean favor enhanced rainfall over the highlands. A cool tropical Indian Ocean tend to be associated with intensified Kiremt rainfall over the northwest and central highlands, and reduced rainfall over the semi-arid lowlands of northeastern, eastern, southern and southwestern Ethiopia. In general the sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean are not significantly correlated with the main rainfall of the semi-arid lowland areas of eastern, southern, and southwestern Ethiopia, except at marginal zones in transition to the Ethiopian Highlands. Overall, ENSO has little influence on the main rainy season in that part of equatorial East Africa where southern Ethiopia is located. (Seleshi & Zanke, 2004)

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4.3 The agro climatic zones Ethiopia is divided into five major climatic zones, based on elevation and temperature. Our chosen study area stretches out in two of them; woina dega and dega. The woina dega zone is found in temperate highlands in altitudes reaching between 1500 and 2500 m.a.s.l. The zone is warm to cool semi-humid and has an average annual temperature reaching between 16-20 degrees C. Soils are light brown to yellow, red brown and red clay soils. It is considered the most productive zone for agriculture and all of the country’s most important crops such as wheat, teff, barley and corn are most commonly grown and most of the population lives there. (Atlas of the Rural Ethiopian Economy, 2006)

The Dega zone is the area reaching from altitudes of 2500 m.a.s.l. up to 3200 m.a.s.l. The average annual temperatures are 10 -16 degrees C and the annual rainfall is between 1000 and 2000 mm. It is cool to humid. Barley and wheat are suitable crops to grow in the zone. The soils are mainly clay, brown and dark-brown on slopes and vertisols in areas that are more flat. The dega and woina dega zones generally consist of most of the country’s agricultural areas, and the areas in the lowlands are more known for their livestock. (13 Suns Tours, n.d)

4.4 The livelihood zones according to USAID Attempts have been done to classify different areas in Ethiopia into livelihood zones, one approach is carried out by USAID.

4.4.1 Chebo-Inchini, enset, barley and cattle (CIE) livelihood zone The zone chebo-inchini enset (CIE) livelihood zone is one of the two zones Wenchi woreda is covered by. It is characterized by crop and livestock production. See wealth breakdown in figure 4. The crop production lies within the agro ecological zones, Dega in the highlands and Woina Dega in the midlands. And it stretches between Ameya, Dawo, Wenchi and Woliso woreda. The biggest rain season is between June and September, and the zone receives between 800-1600mm of rain annually. The soils are clay loams which are moderately fertile and the CIE zone is best known for enset, barley, wheat and flax production. Some farmers use fertilizers but the use of it and different

Figure 2. Wealth breakdown, in the CIE livelihood zone (USAID)

7 seed varieties is more rare here than in neighboring livelihood zones. The most contributing source of income for the middle and the better off is crop sale, and after that it is livestock sale. For the poorer households added to this list is also local labor, brewing and handicrafts. The big hazards are pest, frost and diseases, but under normal circumstances the livelihood zone should be self- sufficient. The access to markets is relatively good since there is access to all weather roads, which lead to central markets. The trade for crops is at its peak during the harvest months of November and December, just after the hunger season, which is from August to October, when cereal stocks run low. Purchases are necessary, especially for the poor and the very poor that have to purchase 40- 50% of their food. (USAID, 2010)

4.4.2 Ameya-Wolisso-Ambo Teff and Cattle (AWT) livelihood zone The Ameya-Wolisso-Ambo, teff and cattle (AWT) livelihood zone is found in the South West Shoa and the West Arsi administrative zones, and the Wonchi Woreda is one of the woredas. The agro ecology of the area is woina dega or midland. The main rainy season, genna, is between june to september and the area receives between 900mm to 1200mm rain annually and the maximum temperatures lie on 24C-35C. In some places there is irrigation, but most farmers depend on the rains to feed their crops. Producing crops and rearing livestock are the main economic activities. The topography differs between plain land and undulating land and there are many mountains and rivers within the zone. The vegetation consists mostly of bush scrubs and eucalyptus trees. The soil is considered clay/loamy and fertile. The zone is considered food self-sufficient and most of the woredas are productive. The farmers in all wealth groups produce more than half of their annual amount of food required. Teff and wheat are the most important crops. The access to markets is good. Land and livestock are the most important determinants of wealth, the bigger the size of the household the richer the landholders. Thanks to the large land areas the better-off farmers have the possibilities to grow a larger variety of crops. See wealth breakdown in figure 5. The fact that the better-offs have oxen and other livestock is also positive. The largest source of income is crop sales for everyone except for the poorest ones who are dependent on agricultural labor. (USAID, 2010)

Figure 3. Wealth breakdown, in the AWT livelihood zone (USAID)

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4.5 Livestock Animals play many important roles in agriculture; they are used for milk, meat and work such as plowing land and collecting water. “Regardless of elevation, ethnic group, or degree of dependence on enset in dietary intake, it appears that livestock play a critical role in maintaining soil fertility (and thus agricultural sustainability). Livestock therefore play a critical role in enset farming systems, as they provide: 1) manure for important plant crops, including enset; 2) food, especially milk and occasionally meat for the family; 3) traction for plowing; and 4) a source of wealth that can be sold to provide cash in times of need. Additionally, in ethnic groups that use equines for transportation and hauling, bundles of enset are transported to local markets. Livestock are also kept as an indicator of wealth and sources of prestige among rural cultivators.” (The “Tree Against Hunger”, 1997. p.29) In agriculture cattle play important parts in the daily work and food supply, for example they help with collecting water, plowing the fields and giving milk.

4.6 The Woliso- Mt Wenchi area The Woliso (N8.53 E37.92)-Mt Wenchi (N8.76 E37.88) area is situated in the center of the region Oromia. The town Woliso lies 110 km west from Addis Ababa, illustrated in figure 6 and is positioned on the foot of the volcano Mt Wenchi. The area has a varied undulating topography ranging in altitude from 2000 m.a.s.l in the southeast to approximately 3000 m.a.s.l. altitude in the northwest, see figure 7. (Map of Ethiopia 1995). The annual rainfall in Ethiopia varies from below 500 mm in the south-eastern and eastern parts of the country to a mean precipitation of above 2000 mm in the western region of the country. Central Oromia receives approximately 1000-1500

Figure 6. The setting of Ethiopia in Africa, and the location of Figure 7. The topography of Wenchi Woreda. Woliso in relation to Addis Ababa in frame (Hultman & ( (Hultman & Näsström, 2010b) Näsström, 2010a)

9 mm of rainfall annually.(NMA, 2008). The population of Oromia is approximately 30 million people. Rain-fed agriculture is predominant in the study area. The most common staple food for farmers in the agro-climatical zones where the study area is found is teff (Eragrostis tef) and enset (Entset ventrcosum), however, agriculture is diversified

5. Factors influencing soils Soils are of great importance for agriculture, a soil’s status is the most significant determinant of productivity. It is a factor that is influenced by both nature and humans, and constantly changing.

5.1 Climate Climate is the ruler of rate and type of soil formation, and of the amount of vegetation distributed at a specific area. It also governs the type of geomorphologic processes and consequently many other natural phenomena. Temperature and rainfall are the two most important influences on both soil and vegetation. They determine the intensity of chemical and biochemical processes in the soil.

The atmosphere absorbs most of the short wave radiation, and the radiation that reaches the soil partly absorbs and becomes heat and partly reflects back. Some of the heat produced in the soil is kept but the rest is lost by convection of hot air and back radiation. Temperature affects the rate of reactions in the soil, for every rise in degree the speed of chemical reactions increases. The amount of moisture evaporating in a soil and the rate of biological breakdown of organic matter are also increased when temperature rises. Most climates are seasonal, therefore chemical and biological reactions vary during the year. In warm seasons the reactions are accelerated if enough water is available and in the dry or cool season they are reduced in speed. The amount of vegetation cover is also affected by the amount of radiation and temperature in the soil, which are determined by climatic variations, latitude and altitude, cloudiness, soil color and soil moisture content among other things. (FitzPatrick. 1980)

The moisture in soils includes all forms of water entering the soil system, such as precipitation including rain and snow, or water supplied by lateral movements over the surface. Underground water is another way, and flooding by rivers is often an important contributor. The moisture that enters the soil consists of dissolved CO2 and is a diluted acid solution which is more reactive than pure water. The quantity of precipitation has no direct correlation to the actual amount entering the soil, which is determined by intensity of rainfall, vegetation cover, infiltration capacity, permeability, slope, speed of snow melting and the original moisture content of the soil. (FitzPatrick. 1980)The amount of moisture in the soil depends on the amount of precipitation and evaporation at a specific place. Together with high temperatures, moisture accelerates chemical reactions, therefore thick and well-developed soils are often found in low and warm latitudes. Wind effects soil in different ways, i e. by accumulating sediment suitable to become parent material or it can remove soil in areas with little vegetation covering the soil. (de Blij et.al. 2004)

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5.2 Topography All land surfaces are constantly changing through erosion and weathering. Most topographic features are very slow, with some exceptions such as sand dunes and volcanoes. Topography influences soils in many ways, for example in determining the thickness. On gently sloping or flat locations material tend to remain and the layer of soil is thick. With an increase in the angle of the slope the erosion hazard raises, in slopes the soils tends to be shallow. Vegetation helps to keep soil in slopes. The relief is an important factor in determining the rate of moisture in a soil and in areas with a large difference between the highest and lowest point an additional factor is climate, which gives different characteristics to the soils along the slope. (FitzPatrick. 1980)

5.3 Organisms and vegetation The types and amounts of vegetation growing in an area are affected by climate, vegetation creates a microclimate at the surface of the soil where processes in soil formation take place. Except for in the tropics, the more vegetation on the soil means the more organic matter in the soil. Humus is the dark layer at the top of the soil, which consists of partly decomposed organic matter. Soils rich in humus are considered the most fertile soils. Plant nutrients, such as nitrogen compounds and potassium, circulate through the system thanks primarily to bacteria and fungi. The nutrients are constantly changing into simpler compounds that can enter into plants through the roots and help them grow. Dead plants return the nutrients to the soil, and the cycle is closed unless vegetation is removed by any reason. If so, artificial nutrients and fertilizers are needed. (de Blij et.al. 2004)

The supply of litter is dependent on the biomass of the vegetation, which is largest in the tropical rainforests. Apart from supplying litter to the soil, vegetation also plays an important role in the soil formation process by letting mineral elements move up and down the roots, sorting soil particles. (Adams et.al. 1996) The organisms that influence the development of soils vary from microscopic bacteria to large animals and human beings. Almost all living organism on the earth have an effect on the soil in some way. The tropical vegetation adds the largest amounts of organic matter. Though the biological activities, especially those done by microorganisms and termites, are much greater in warm areas and therefore the soils developing in such areas often contain the least organic matter. Higher plants act as binders by extending the roots into the soil, and in that way it prevents erosion. The higher plants also catch up falling rain which protects the underlying soil and helps defend it against reduced permeability and the creation of an erosion hazard. The higher plants also shade the soil from the sun, protecting it from high amounts of evaporation. Thanks to the higher vegetation, soils below trees are neither too dry nor too moist. (FitzPatrick, 1980)

The activities of man are so many and various, and most soils have in some way been affected by human impact. The main purposes of the activities are cultivation of the soil to produce food. (FitzPatrick, 1980) Land use systems can generally be classified as agricultural, including arable, pastoral and forestry systems, or non-agricultural systems, including urban, industrial or recreational systems. What type of land use system that will be used on a certain location depends largely on soil properties. Other important aspects before using a land might be socio-economic status of the land user, questions about land tenure ship, and political and infrastructural characteristics in the region.

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Soil plays an important role and controls the yields in all of the land use systems, but they also have power over how well fertilizers and pesticides will work. (Ellis & Mellor, 1995)

5.4 Soil physical factor Land use is one of the factors that influence erosion most, many practices being done on the land leave the soil without or with a weaker vegetation cover for protection. Soil texture has a big influence on land use capability, clay soils are quite good at preserving water and nutrients, but they are often poorly drained, and because they often are wet, they respond slowly to changes in air temperature. That means that in temperate environments, clay soils will delay crop germination in spring. They are therefore hard to cultivate and are known for their heavy texture, one good thing about them though is that they are resistant to erosion. Sandy soils are quite the opposite of clay soils, they can’t hold water and are freely drained of water and nutrients, and therefore they respond quickly to changes in air temperature. They are easy to cultivate with their fine texture, the problem with them is that they are not as resistant to erosion as clay soils. When their moisture limitation is reached and all the pores are full of water the capillary suction disappears and ponds are created, and since sandy soils have bad capillary storage it is common with surface ponds and runoffs on them. Silty soils is a third type that is known for crusting and capping, which leads to low infiltration and overland flows which may cause soil erosion. So for agriculture it would be best with a medium- textured loam. Other important factors are soil structure, porosity and pore size and tilting. The porosity and pore size are influenced by soil texture and how far the structural development has come. They also have a major influence of water retention and aeration of soils. The porosity can be reduced by pressure and compaction from heavy agricultural machinery which leads to water logging and bad germination from the crops. The amount of plant available water is also an important factor, it depends largely on texture, porosity, pore size distribution, degree of structural development and organic content, and it is at its maximum in soils close to their field capacity. In fine textured clayey soils the plant available water is often poor, the water is often held in small pore spaces unavailable to plants, in those soils water logging is common and drainage recommended. (Morgan, 2005)

The exchange capacity of a soil is the measure of its ability to hold and release a variety of elements and compounds, such as plant nutrients. Positively charged nutrients are called cations, and the most important are calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium, which are all alkaline cations. The cations may be adsorbed onto a clay particle or soil organic matter and once adsorbed they are not easily washed away during rains or watering and they provide an available nutrient reserve for the plant roots. Cation exchange capacity is the measure of the amount of negatively charged sites available in a soil. Sandy soils with little organic matter have a low CEC and clayey soils with lots of organic matter have high CEC. Organic matter such as humus always has high CEC, but with clayey soils it depends on the type of clay. The minerals adsorbed can easily be exchanged by other cations, a process called cation exchange, which is highly dependent upon the texture of the soil and the content of organic matter.

Soil organic matter is mainly plant residues, in different stages of decomposition. The accumulation of the organic matter is balanced between return or addition of plant residues and their loss due to

12 the decay of residues by microorganisms. Organic matter is important in agriculture because it improves the physical and chemical properties of soil and is beneficial for soil quality. It helps to stabilize soil particles, which prevents erosion. Organic matter also improves the soil structure, aeration, water penetration, workability, water holding capacity and stores and supplies nutrients for plants. The climatic conditions, most of all temperature and amount of rainfall, have a major impact on the amounts of organic matter. The accumulation of organic matter is greater in areas with lots of precipitation and low temperatures. Decomposition of organic matter is greater in warmer and drier climates. Using fertilizers increases the amounts of organic matter since it increases the productivity which leads to an addition of plant residues. Erosion decreases the amount of organic matter, since the soil particles richest in organic matter usually are transported easily. (Alberta, 2008)

The proportion of the cation exchange capacity by the basic cations calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium is called base saturation. It is related to soil acidity and if the percentage of the base saturation increases the pH increases. The pH value shows the acidity or alkalinity of soil, where 7 is the neutral point, and is one of the most descripting measurements of the general chemical structure of a soil. Increased base saturation also increases the availability of the nutrient cations to plants. Base saturation below 100% is an indicator of a cation exchange capacity that is partly occupied by hydrogen and/or aluminum ions.

The cations that are adsorbed may become available to plants, since the roots also posses cation exchange capacity. Microorganisms and hydrogen ions from the root hairs can replace nutrient cations which can then be released into the soil solution and be taken up by the surfaces of the roots and soil organisms that are adsorptive. After being released into the soil there is a risk of them being lost by water. (Washington State University, 2004)

5.5 Soil Degradation Soil can lose material in 4 forms; gases, solutes, particulate material and vegetation removal. They can further be divided into surface and subsurface losses. Surface losses includes gases, they are produced and lost to the atmosphere in the decomposing of organic matter. Solutes are taken up as nutrients by vegetation and later lost during harvest for example, it also includes particle losses through wind and water erosion. Subsurface losses can either occur in solute or solid form, the losses of the solute form depend on the materials solubility plus temperature and speed of water movement. In solid forms it will only occur if the soil is large textured with big pore spaces for particles to transport in to drainage channels. “According to the Global Assessment of soil degradation project, about 15 percent of the global land area between 72oN and 57oS is degradated.” (Ellis & Mellor, 1995, p. 238f) Soil degradation has been defined as decline in soil quality through misuse by human activity. Our misuse leads to a decline in fertility through changes in nutrient, organic matter and structure status. This also leads to environmental problems such as erosion, compaction, acidification, salinization/sodification and so on. (Ellis & Mellor, 1995)

When it comes to soil erosion it is important to draw a line between background erosion and erosion influenced by humans. The background erosion often occurs at the same pace as soil formation,

13 videlicet around 1 cm every 100-400 years. But when the removal of soil, by wind or water, exceeds the formation, soil erosion occurs. It is controlled by different factors such as, erodibility of the soil, slope steepness and slope length, land use practices and conservation methods. (Ellis & Mellor, 1995) Water erosion is closely connected to how water acts on land. When the raindrops reaches the surface, either by through fall or by leaf drainage, it may be stored in small depressions or hollows on the surface or it infiltrates the soil and becomes soil moisture or percolates all the way to the groundwater. When the soil is unable to handle more water and has reached its infiltration capacity, the excess water moves down slope within the soil as interflow, above the soil as subsurface flow, or it becomes runoff on the surface causing erosion by rills and overland flows. One component that is really effective when it comes to protecting the soil is a layer of vegetation, it absorbs energy from falling raindrops, running water and wind, and it also creates an opportunity for the roots to increase the mechanical strength of the soil. How effective it is against falling raindrops depends on the height, stability and density of the vegetation cover. If the plant is too high the falling drop may regain most of its energy, the raindrops can also join together on leafs and thereby become more erosive. Plants can also help in reducing the velocity of running water by adding roughness to the flow. (Ellis & Mellor, 1995)

Compaction is the compression of soil into a smaller volume, often affecting density, porosity and resistance to penetration. One of the main reasons for compaction is the use of heavy agricultural machines, compaction is at its highest in the wheel tracks. The most important factors for acidification to take place are perhaps long term leaching and microbial respiration. Acids found in rainwater, carbonic acid, and decomposing material can stimulate leaching, so the leaching of bases is biggest where the precipitation exceeds the evapotranspiration. Salinization describes the gathering of salts in the soil, sodification is when the soil exchange is dominated by sodium ions. It occurs mostly in arid regions where evaporation halts are bigger than precipitation, and also where parent materials and ground water contain much sodium salts. As water evaporates, salts precipitates out and forms saline soils. These processes often occur naturally but human activities sometimes help to speed them up, for example if eucalyptus trees are replaced by shallow-rooted grass which can cause the ground-water table to rise and salinization/sodification accelerate. Another factor triggered by humans is overwatering, which also moves the ground-water table up and in the same way affects the soil. (Ellis & Mellor, 1995)

5.6 Erosion control The strategies of soil conservation must be based on protecting the soil by covering it. This will help protecting it from splash erosion, it will increase the soils infiltration capacity to reduce runoff, and it will also create roughness on the surface to decrease the velocity of water in overland flows and wind. Different techniques can be divided into agronomic measures which emphasis the role of vegetation as a protective factor, soil management emphasis the preparation of the soil to build a good structure, and mechanical methods include engineering solutions such as terraces or wind brakes. The mechanical methods are often ineffective on their own since their main task is to control the flow of excess water and wind, they are also very costly to install and terraces for example often leave the less fertile subsoil’s exposed, which may lead to lower yields. The mechanical methods are

14 often best used in a combination with other methods, the agronomic methods are for example cheaper, easy to fit in existing farming system plus they deal directly with the erosion problem. Shifting cultivation will according to Morgan (2005) maintain the soils fertility and reduce erosion to tolerable levels. The determine factor is the length of the fallow period, but increasing population pressure and people’s desire to raise their living standards cause for a change from crops necessary for the household into cash-crops. This results in a declining and sometimes elimination of the fallow period, which in turn will lead to erosion problem. Further explanations of different practises are found in appendix 4.

5.7 Fertilizers The value of organic matter in the soil is big, and it is even more important in combination with base minerals, because these bond chemically with the organic matter and it forms together the mix of clay and humus. Then the base minerals are retained in the soil, instead of being lost thru leaching or sub-surface flows. Where these minerals are not present, they should be added by fertilizers, because they are essential for plant growth. But mineral fertilizers should not be used without an organic material in the soil. If that happens the risks of structural decline gets higher and hence also the risks of increased erodibility. (Morgan, 2005)

Fertilizers are composed of various materials mixed to contain different levels of nutrients depending on what the label say. When it comes to nitrogen two forms of nitrogen are used, Nitrate-Nitrogen and Ammonium-Nitrogen. The former is directly consumed by the plants, but it easily leaches from the soil or converts into gas. Ammonium-Nitrogen on the other hand is not subject to leaching or gas-conversion, but it is not consumed by the plants immediately. Instead it converts to Nitrate- Nitrogen during the growing season by soil microorganisms. That is why blends with fertilizers often contain different forms of nitrogen, so that the plants will have use of it all throughout the year. (DAO, 2003)

Urea is a granular fertilizer material that is very high in nitrogen content, 46%, it is a fertilizer that does not contain either Nitrate-Nitrogen or Ammonium-Nitrogen. Instead it quickly converts to Ammonium-Nitrogen after 2-10 days after being placed in the soil. (DAO, 2003) Diammonium phosphate, or DAP as it also is called is a granular nitrogen-phosphate fertilizer. It is a very effective fertilizer used for all kinds of crops and soils, DAP is most efficient in spring and autumn, at replowing of the soil. It contains mostly phosphate and nitrogen, and it is well soluble in water. (Agro-trade, n.d)

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METHODS

1. Literature review We collected information about the history of the land use and information about the most important crops; teff and enset. Before going to Ethiopia we studied literature and maps concerning relevant literature on land use, soils, and people’s livelihood.

2. Climate data Annual precipitation is a big factor to understand the land use and soil productivity in the selected area. We have got access to monthly rainfall data between the years 1984-2007, and temperature data, mean minimum and mean maximum for the same time period.

3. Field methods We choose three villages to do our field studies in, the villages were chosen based on our conclusions from our earlier studies of literature and topological maps over the area. In each village we did observations, mapping and semi-structured interviews which were often carried out alongside with the other methods. (Mikkelsen, 1996)

4. Selection of villages Our choices of villages were partly planned before coming to the study area, and partly randomly chosen while going up and down the slope observing the area. Our given prerequisites were that the villages had to lie on different altitudes, at least 500 meter in difference between the highest and the lowest. We had also planned before being on set to have three different villages, for comparative reasons. While at the area we went with our car up the slope and observed the area thru the car window and discussed among the two of us what places looked interesting and with our GPS we could see the altitude. Since our study is about the natural conditions of agriculture, the topography played an important role in our choice. Having decided a village we went to the chairman and showed him our recommendation letters and asked if we were allowed to use his village in our study. After that we performed a focus group interview with a group of six persons, chosen by the chairman.

5. Observation methods We have performed land evaluations using a combination of ground survey and aerial survey with google earth choosing locations to further survey on set. We visualized the land use in the villages by making maps. Making a map or a diagram means that we shift the focus from verbal to visual communication. We sketched maps over land use, fields and natural resources, elevation etc. Maps show where resources, activities, borders, problems and opportunities are located. They are very important for the understanding of the community. The actual drawing was made by us with pen and paper while walking around with the farmers. (Mikkelsen, 1996) We used a GPS to get coordinates of both the observations points and other objects significant for the map. Fields and land areas were measured using the GPS and we used a camera to document how the fields looked like in order to

16 make the mapping easier later on when we drew the maps again, more accurate than during our walk in the fields.

6. Interview methods We chose to perform interviews instead of questionnaires because we wanted the answers to be honest and diversified, we did not want people to fill out a folder with answers already given by us. Interviews are generally unstructured or semi structured, they take a conversational fluid form and they vary according to people’s interest. It is people-oriented and allows the interviewees to explain their answers and their lives thru their own words. (Valentine, 2005) We performed individual semi- structured interviews because we wanted in-depth knowledge about people’s situation and views on our field of study. We used a written guide (see appendix 1) for the interview so we could enlighten every aspect of the study. During the interview we took notes that we compiled later back at the hotel. (Andersen, 1998) Since we wanted to keep our study as objective as possible we randomly choose the interviewees among all the households in each village. Altogether we interviewed six or seven farmers from each village, which generated nineteen interviews altogether. The interviews were conducted outside, so we could watch over the land in question. We found it important to be very clear about the objectives of our interview, we also had to be aware of the fact that some people might not want to answer us which though never actually happened. Therefore it was vital for the people we interview to feel that they could end the session any time they wanted, and that they did not have to answers the questions if they did not want to. (Valentine, 2005)

Aside from the individual interviews we also performed focus group interviews. In a focus group there are typically six to eight people who discusses a particular topic under minimum guidance of a facilitator, which in this case was us. (Mikkelsen, 1996) We performed these interviews to get a bigger picture of the village life, which spots is ranked as the best, and so on.

Since the language is unknown to us and the knowledge of English is very poor in rural Ethiopia, we used an interpreter during our interviews. The fact that he came from Addis Ababa and we interviewed farmers on the countryside could have had some influence on our results, but it is hard for us to tell, since we do not speak Amharina.

7. Soil sampling We took soil samples in the two of the three villages where we did interviews, in order to get results on the nutritional status of the soils and through that being able to analyze the fertility. In each of the villages we took samples in four different types of crops, and one in unused land. For every sample we dug nine holes 15-30cm deep, spread out within a specific field, and then mixed the soil up in a bucket and divided every sample into two bags. The soil parameters we wanted to analyze were texture, organic content, PH, nitrogen, base minerals and cation exchange capacity. We handed in the samples at the National Soil Laboratory in Addis Ababa where they were analyzed. The procedure was in line with a judgment sampling, which means that we choose locations to dig, it was not performed randomly. (Landon, 2003)

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The methods used at the National Soil Laboratory when analyzing our samples were the following; 1. Soil pH was determined in a 1:2.5 soil-water solution by a digital pH meter and the electrical conductivity was measured on a conductivity meter. 2. The total organic carbon was analyzed using the Walkley-Black combustion method. 3. The particle size analysis was carried out applying the Bouyoucos hydrometer method. 4. The cation exchange capacity and the exchangeable bases were analyzed with the ammonium acetate method. (National Soil Laboratory, 2010)

8. GIS To analyze the spatial data we collected we used a geographic information system called ArcGis. GIS is a computerized information system that collects data, stores it, refines it and helps with the analysis and visualization of the results. A GIS program makes it easier to use large amounts of data and to analyze the spatial connections which in other cases would be hard to see. (Harrie & Eklundh, 2008) We used GIS to make our mapping of the fields digital and more visual. The data we put in was easier to handle and to analyze, it also gave us the opportunity of putting the mapped areas on a bigger map, which perhaps gave us information on a larger scale.

We mapped the fields in WGS 84, but for our GIS analysis we bought shape-files with information over Wenchi woreda from the Central statistical Agency in Addis Ababa. Those files were projected in Adindan and therefore we had to transform them files into WGS 84 in order to make them compatible with the rest of our project files. Once this was done it was necessary to transform all files from WGS 84, since it is a geographic coordinate system, into UTM Zone 37N which is a projected system and therefore makes it possible to calculate the size of fields. We also used a DEM- model to visualize the topography and the altitude in the woreda. This was to further visualize the conditions in our study area.

9. Livelihood classification system With inspiration from USAIDS livelihood classification system we developed our own classification system in order to compare our three different study site’s livelihood situation objectively. In USAIDS system they used markets, seasonal calendars, wealth breakdowns, sources of food, sources of cash and hazards to divide Ethiopia into different livelihood zones. (USAID, 2010) In their system they classified the whole country which may lead to generalizations to simplify and visualize the diversity in everyday Ethiopia. Our system is based upon our observations, facts and statistics we got from the interviews with farmers. It is therefore based on a grass root level, and then compiled in a village level. The factors we thought to play major roles to the farmers’ livelihood situations are presented in a bulleted list below along with an explanation.

 Land area cultivated / household member, According to USAID a family of 4-5 people need at least 1 hectare of land in most cereal based areas to provide enough basic food plus the cash from produce sales to pay for the essentials of life. (USAID, 2010) The land size plays an enormous role in people’s livelihood situation, and to rank this we used a scale between 0-5

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to put point according to how many square meters people owned per capita. (The classes used were: 0-500 = 1p, 501-1000=2p, 1001-1500=3p, 1501-2000=4p, 2001-<=5p)  Slope, plays an important role for erosion and possibility of cultivating the soil. We used our observations and measurements with an angular gauge to rank the fields. Here we besides slope angel took into account visible signs of erosion. (The classes used were: distinct signs of erosion and heavy slope angle > 10% = 0p, Erosion signs and slope angel of <10% = 1p, Signs of erosion or slope gradient of 5-10% = 2p, No visible signs of erosion, and flat land = 3p)  Estimated land quality, is considering how big area on the fields not being used, farmers own perception of soil fertility and their possibility of growing different crops. (The classes used were >20% unused land, <5 different crops grown and bad perception of the soils fertility = 0p, >10% unused land, <5 different crops grown and bad perception of soil fertility = 1p, >5% unused land >5 different crops grown and good perception of the soils fertility = 2p, Almost no unused land, >8 different crops grown, or one crop on fields bigger than 1ha, and good perception of soil fertility = 3p.)  Water, is referring to distance/road conditions and topography features and transport possibilities between farmers house and closest water spring. (The classes used were: No access to fresh drinking water = 0p, Hilled topography and >2,5km, single way, to water well with sparse access to transportation = 1p, Flat topography with <2,5km to water well and access to transport = 2p, Flat topography and <1km to water well.)  Healthcare, is taking into account the distance/road conditions and topographic features between farmers’ house and closest clinic. The same categories as in the water categories were used.  Market, is important to peoples possibilities of selling and buying crops. We take into account the distance to the market, the size of the market and way of getting there. (The classes used were: No access to any market = 0p, hilled road >2,5km to get to village market with small possibility of transportation =1p, Flat road <2,5km to get to local market with possibility of transportation = 2p, Flat road <1,5km to get to local or city village =3p .)  Risks of being affected by diseases, estimates the risk of being affected by diseases, mainly malaria and diseases transmitted thru water.(The classes used were: Small diets of food, suffers from malaria epidemic, no fresh drinking water = 0p, Suffers from malaria epidemic or no fresh drinking water = 1p, Access to fresh water and not affected of malaria but have a small diet = 2p, Not affected of anything = 3p  Livestock, estimates access and ownership of animals, divided into working cattle (ox, horse, donkey) and domestic animals (hen, cow, goat, and sheep). If a lot of land is not cultivated it might be because the farmers use it for grazing. We gave working cattle 0,5point/animal and domestic animals 0,25p because we thought the working animals to be of a greater use.  Other income, if people sell at the market, work for other farmers or have another job. Anything that gives them a little extra money to improve their livelihood situation. (The classes used were: No source of income = 0p, potential of selling small amounts of harvest or working on other people farm =1p, having another job for > 50 % of the time = 2p, Having another job for >75% of the time or being able to sell large quantities of the harvest = 3p.)

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 Diversified food, analyze the possibility of diversified diet, how many meals eaten per day and source of protein. (The classes used were: 1 meal eaten per day = 0p, 2 undiversified meals eaten per day with no addition of protein = 1p, 2-3 meals eaten per day with possibility of extra protein inputs 4-5 times / week = 2p, Diversified diet with no lack of protein = 3p)

These factors were separately ranked, and given a score between 0-3, (except land area/capita where we used the scale 0-5 hence to the important role it plays) the higher the score, the better possibility for a diversified and good livelihood. To get a view as objective as possible we both ranked all farmers and thereafter calculated an average for each village.

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RESULT

1. Specific location settings Wenchi woreda has an area of 461,1 square kilometers, and the population size is 93153 (Census commission, 2008, p.71) in 23864 households. That equals 259 person per km2, but in the Dega zone the population density is 303 person per km2, while it in Woina Dega is around 205 person per km2, of the population 98% lives in rural areas. Table 1 illustrates the land use in the Woreda.

In general people in Wenchi woreda determine the soil fertility by the color, softness, thickness of the soil and by how susceptible it is for erosion. The most fertile soil is the red and black, and grey is the least fertile. But Area depending on who you ask, Land use in Wenchi Woreda (km2) Percent of total area the grey soil can be used Cultivated land 244,9 52% for different crops and still Land impossible to use 88,7 19% be productive. On a Grazing land 60,95 13% simulated transect line, Natural forest 46 10% figure 8, all focus groups said that the soil is most Cultivated irrigated land 13,7 3% fertile in the valleys and House / living areas 14,1 3% then gradually decreasing Land covered by water 4,9 1% uphill since the soil is Communal forest 0,12 0% eroding downhill. So the Total area km2 473,37 100% topsoil erodes and Table 1. Showing land use in Wenchi Woreda, Agricultural office) the difference in total areal are due to different sources of information. (Hultman & Näsström, accumulates in the valley, 2010) the soil in the valley is therefore the thickest. Soils in the area are classified in three categories, Koticha, which is black soil,

Kajafer, red soil, and Borole, grey soil. The Borole is clayish and therefore has the ability to hold water and is often being used for enset. The Kajafer is a very loose soil with good infiltration, it is sandy and good for barley and wheat. The

Koticha aggregates when wet and have a good water holding capacity, it is good for crops that otherwise finds it hard to get the water necessary. The Koticha is the one soil that is most important to plow, on the Kajafer and Borole it is possible to use howing1. In the Dega zone it is mostly the Kajafer that is attending, or reddish-brown as the people at the agricultural office in Chitu describe it, it is moderately fertile and Figure 4. Simulated transect line, scale shows the focus groups perception of soil fertility, 1 being most fertile. (Hultman & Näsström, 2010) 1 Traditional way of breaking up hard soil.

21 very susceptible to wind and water erosion. To prevent the wind erosion enset is often used as windbreakers. In the Woina Dega zone it is also red soil that is predominate, but it is around 11% black soil, estimated by agricultural office.

The main challenges facing Wenchi woreda are according to the agricultural office the lack of possibility to cultivate the land with ox/tractor, the shortage of inputs, they don’t have the possibility of providing all farmers with all seeds they need, and another big problem is the pest that affects enset plants. When a plant is affected they have to cut it down and plant different crops on the ground, after 3-4 years the bacteria is gone from the ground and it is possible to plant enset there once again. A crop failure of enset can strike hard on a family since one root of the plant is food for four persons in two months. When the disease strikes they may have to buy enset, one root costs around 600birr. A further problem facing the population of Wenchi woreda is the bad infrastructure, there are hardly any roads, and the few that exist are in bad condition. One major problem is the supply of fresh drinking water, today more than 60% of the population does not have clean drinking water, it is only 20-26% that have. To get to the water wells the people in our study has to walk at minimum 2 km single way, every day, this is a task performed by women and children.

Due to the shortness of oxen and tractors many farmers have to rent an ox to plow their land, which costs around 600birr for a whole year. Many farmers that cannot afford it work on someone’s land to lend their ox. The last land redistribution in Wenchi Woreda was in 1976 gregorian calendar, and then the land was distributed between women and men, children can only inherit land.

Within the woreda we chose three different kebeles, and within them we chose one village; these specific areas are presented below.

1.1 Waldo Xalfam Kebele, Adera Gotti Waldo Xalfam is situated at an altitude between 2420ma.s.l. – 3000m.a.s.l with an area of approximately 20,9 km2 it is the eleventh biggest kebele out of twenty-four in the woreda, see figure 9. Adera gotti is situated at 2700 m.a.sl. According to Waldo Xalfam officals it lives 7299 people in 1460 households in the kebele. The topography in the area is dominated by a folded landscape which plays a big part for most farmers’ prospects of operating productive agricultural activities. When asked about the area in a focus group, farmers from Adera thought besides the steepness and erosion, the size of the kebele to be the biggest problem, they complained that it is too many people living on to small area. They also mentioned that the soils weren’t productive Figure 5. Setting of Waldo Xalfam Kebele and Adera enough because of the erosion and low fertility. Gotti, in Wenchi Woreda. (Hultman & Näsström, 2010c)

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The soils in their area are, according to the focus group, reddish-brown all over with differences in thickness, it is the second most fertile soils after deep black soils. In general they think that if they can prevent surface runoffs by using terraces, contour plowing, mulching, ditching and fertilizers their soils would give much more product. But different aspects keep them from this, for example too small land or lack of resources or knowledge. Even though the heavy scars from erosion in the landscape they think that it is worse upslope Mount Wenchi, but better conditions down slope. Another challenge they are facing is their dependency on the rain. Since there are no dams or water reservoirs in the area they need to wait for the rain season to start before they can plant their barley and wheat.

To get the water they need for cooking and drinking each day the farmers of Adera Gotti have to walk 2,5km down to the village of Dariyahn, where the water Bono2 is open 2 hours in the morning and 2 hours in the evening, water there costs 25 cents for 20 liters. The average water consumption estimated by the focus group is 25 l / day for a family of six. The distance is the same for the closest health care clinic, and on the one road, which is in good enough condition for traffic, it is rare with public transports and the most common way to get from one place to another is by foot or with a donkey.

1.2 Fite Wato Kebele, Chorro Gotti Fite Wato is situated at an altitude between 2230 m.a.s.l. – 2600 m.a.s.l. with Chorro at around 2500 m.a.s.l. The area of Fite Wato is 16,2 square kilometers and it is the 8th smallest kebele in Wenchi woreda, see figure 10, but still it lives 6249 persons there in 1250 households. The most striking feature of Fite Wato is the giant gullies spread all over the area. The topography is folded and very steep on some places, but it is still flatter than higher up on the mountain. The farmers’ fields have got less elevation here, but as far as large scale erosion they have got more visible problems. This is according to our focus group in Fite Wato one of the biggest problems along with the low fertility of the soil and their dependency on the rains. They don’t think their soil is productive and it is mostly because of the slopes and the erosion. The most common methods they use to prevent soil losses are contour plowing, Figure 6. Setting of Fite Wato Kebele and Chorro Gotti, in Wenchi Woreda. (Hultman & Näsström, homemade fertilizers, and bought fertilizers. The 2010c) homemade fertilizers are best since it lasts for

2 Freshwater well, which in Ethiopia goes under the name Bono

23 three seasons and are cheaper. According to the participants in our focus group the soil in Fite Wato is much more sensitive than it is in other nearby areas.

Every day the people of Chorro have to walk the 3,8km with a rise in altitude of 80-100m to get water for the day. This water is also from the town of Dariyahn, and costs 25 cents for 20 liters. The same as in the case with Adera, the closest health care clinic for people of Chorro is in Dariyahn. There are no water dams or reservoirs to collect rain water, instead people seem somewhat frightened of too much water since they have the massive gullies as scaring example. The agricultural office in Chitu is performing what they call bench terraces; they dig holes that are 20cm wide, 2 meter long and 50cm deep. These bench terraces are supposed to collect the rain water and hold it until it infiltrates the soil.

1.3 Mete Walga Kebele, Yaya Gotti Mete Walga is located at the lower east corner of the Wenchi Woreda, and it reaches between approximately 2000m.a.s.l to 2200m.a.s.l, with Yaya located at 2050m.a.s.l. Mete Walga is 22,3 square kilometers large, and its population is 5520, divided on 1101 households, see figure 11. It is a very flat area below the slopes of Mount Wenchi. Therefore they only have trouble with erosion in a few areas where there are big slopes. But they complain instead that if it rains much the soil goes to soft. And there has been a change on what used to be cultivated land, because of more water in the ground it turns into swamp areas. The cultivated area decreases since they cannot drain the swamp areas to get rid of the water. But in Mete Walga the people are not really dependant on when the rain comes, that is because they have Figure 7. Setting of Mete Walga Kebele and Yaya irrigation from the nearby Walga River. They Gotti, in Wenchi Woreda. (Hultman & Näsström, mostly use the irrigation on corn, vegetables 2010c) and fruit since those are sensitive to drought, and they can use it all throughout the year. The soil is red, black and grayish in some places, and the fertility differs, in some places it is fertile and in some places it is not. To keep the soil fertile they use crop-rotation, fallow and fertilizers, both homemade and bought, but the homemade one is the best they say. They have always been using homemade fertilizers, but when they were insufficient they had to start buying.

In Mete Walga it is possible to harvest some crops twice every year thanks to the irrigation, they live closer to both Chitu town and Woliso, so when times get tough they think it is a good opportunity being able to get a job in town. It also means that they can easier travel to one of these towns and

24 sell their harvests. Their closest water Bono is around 2,3km away, but the road is flat and the public transports often go by here. Most families own a donkey or horse also that works as transportation. The closest health-clinic is in Chitu town, 2-3 kilometers away.

2. Season calendars In each of the three villages we did a focus group interview and one of the subjects of discussion was the farmers’ activities over the year. We called it ‘season calendars’, the results presented in figure 12, and we asked the farmers what they normally do in each month. In Ethiopia the year starts with meskerem, the month we call September, but we decided to show the result according to our year. There is also a thirteen’s month in the Ethiopian calendar, pagume, but it consists of only 5 days and therefore we do not include it in the result. The planting period is when the precipitation is at its highest so the seeds will get sufficient amounts of water. In Yaya it is possible to plant and harvest all year round except for a couple of months hence of the irrigation.

Figure 8. Shows the activities performed in the different Gottis every month along with monthly precipitation average 1999- 2008. (Hultman & Näsström, 2010)

3. Precipitation and temperature As seen in the precipitation diagrams, figure 13 and 14, the variations in the annual precipitation are not that big. It varies from a maximum of 1277 mm in 2004 to a minimum of 1055 mm in 2001. When these years are being compared from month to month it is the four months with most rainfall that shows the most obvious differences. During June, August and September, it rains 229 mm more during 2004 than under 2001. But in July it rains more than 80 mm more during 2001. When compared with the monthly average between 1984-2008 the deviations are biggest to June and July 2001, then it differs 80 mm per month, but seen over both months the amount precipitation is equal.

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Rainfall 1999-2008 1400 1200 1000 800 600 Rainfall (Mm) 400 200 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Figure 9. Shows annual precipitation amounts in mm from 1999-2007 over Woliso. Unfortunately information is missing from 1999 and 2005. (Hultman & Näsström, 2010)

Monthly precipitation comparison 400.0 350.0 300.0

250.0 2001 200.0 Precipitation 2004 (Mm) 150.0 Average 100.0 1984-2008 50.0 0.0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Figure 10. Shows the monthly precipitation average in Woliso between 1999-2008, compared with 2001 and 2004. (Hultman & Näsström, 2010)

Altogether 2001 received around 166 mm less precipitation than the average year, while 2004 on the other hand received 56 mm more than average. Temperature wise these years do not show any significant deviations in comparison with the average temperatures in the area. As figure 15 shows there is a temperature peak between February and May when the maximum just below 30 C0, the temperature is at its lowest around August and forward. That fits well in with the precipitation diagrams, since it is most rain during June-September. Noticeable is that the average minimum do not vary as much as the average maximum. During June to October when a lot of rain fall it do not get colder in minimum, but it is not as warm as before in maximum.

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We have learned that the farmers in Wenchi woreda do not have any complaints about the precipitation. They have had no problems with recent changes in rainfall amounts or patterns that had affect on their cultivation.

Min/max temperature 2001, 2004 and average 1999-2008 30.0 2001

25.0 2004

20.0 Average 1999- 2008 Celsius 15.0 2001 10.0 2004 5.0 Average 1999- 0.0 2008 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Figure 11. Averages of minimum and maximum temperatures between 1999-2008 in Woliso. (Hultman & Näsström, 2010)

4. Interviews Below we present the results from our interviews.

4.1 The soil Low soil fertility is thought to be an equally big problem in all the three villages. Erosion is the next biggest soil problem in Adera and Chorro, whilst salinization is the second biggest problem in Yaya.

When we asked the farmers if they have problems with their soil, everyone except for one farmer said yes. Low soil fertility was the most common problem in all the three villages; all but two of the farmers were of the opinion that their soil had low fertility. In Adera and Chorro soil erosion was an equally severe problem as low fertility, but in Yaya no one complained about it. In Adera one farmer said that there was too much clay in the soil, which makes it hard to work with and the crops grow poorly. Some of the farmers also said that flooding caused problem for them. All farmers did soil management practices such as side plowing, channels and ditches. In Chorro half of the interviewed farmers thought that their land was too small to be able to grow enough amounts of crops to support their families. In Yaya we got complaints about salinization.

4.2 Fertilizers The farmers in all the three villages buy fertilizers to increase the soil fertility. In Yaya they can also use homemade fertilizers.

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As mentioned earlier, all the farmers we have interviewed have problems with the fertility of their soil and all of them buy fertilizers to improve the fertility. Depending on the size of their lands, it cost them between 700 and 2000 birr per year. The amount of needed fertilizers also depends on whether there is water in the vicinity, which gives the possibility to use homemade fertilizers. The farmers in Adera do not have that possibility since they live far from the closest watercourse. Also Chorro lies far from a spring but half of the farmers we interviewed use homemade fertilizers anyway. In Yaya all of our interviewed use homemade fertilizers, since they have irrigation and never have to suffer from lack of water. In all three villages the farmers have been using fertilizers for about 10-30 years, and the most common reason is either that their parents used it or because the government/agricultural office informed them about the positive impact it has on agriculture. In Adera it is the only possibility for increasing the soils’ fertility since they cannot use homemade fertilizers. A common reason for starting to use fertilizers was that other farmers in the village started to use it, and even without suffering from bad yields many of our interviewed farmers started. And now they agree with each other that the soils have become used to the fertilizers and it would probably be impossible to stop use it now without getting a decrease in crop yields.

4.3 Categories of the land In Adera the farmers categorized their lands in enset area and plowed are, and though that the enset area was most important since it is possible to harvest all year around. In Chorro enset area and plowed area were the most common categories, but also grazing and vegetables. The enset area was the most important one for the majority of the farmers, also here because it can be harvested during the whole year. In Yaya the categories grazing/garden, cultivated/plowed area and place for vegetables. Eucalyptus, coffee and chatt were also mentioned. The majority of the farmers found those areas where they could get the highest income as their most important one.

On our question about which categories the farmers would group their land, in Adera all farmers answered enset area and plowed area. All of them except for one farmer thought that the enset area was the most important one, since enset is possible to harvest all year round and is a very important source of food in the village. The one farmer who thought that the plowed area was most important did not yet have any harvest from their enset field, since they recently moved to the village and the enset plants were still too young to harvest. They said that in a few years the enset area would be the most important for them for the same reason as the others.

In Chorro we also got the answers enset area and plowed area from everyone, but also grazing and vegetables were common categories. The majority found the enset area most important, and the plowing area was the second most important. The reason was the same as in Adera, that they could harvest the enset all year round.

In Yaya three categories were used by all the farmers; grazing/garden, cultivated/plowed area and place for vegetables. Eucalyptus, coffee and chatt were also given their own groups by those farmers who grew them. The grazing/garden area consisted of grass or land in fallow, either close to the house or out in the fields, and the farmers let their cattle graze there. The cultivated/plowed areas were fields where the soil was plowed before planting and common crops were corn and enset. The

28 place for vegetables was simply used for vegetables. In Yaya the farmers had larger land areas than in the other villages, which might explain why they could have land for grazing all year round instead of only after harvest as was more common in the other two villages. Two farmers choose the vegetable area as their most important one, with the explanation that vegetables and especially tomatoes give the highest income for them. The farmer who had coffee and chatt as two categories thought they were his most important since they give him the highest income. Three said the cultivated plowed area was most important because they got good yields on them.

4.4 Crop diversity The number of crop types grown is different in the villages. Most types are found in Yaya and the least types are found in Chorro.

In Adera the diet is based on enset, the interviewed farmers said that many days they eat enset exclusively. Wheat and barley are the most important crops after enset, see figure 16, but the harvests are often just large enough to live on for half a year. Except for potato, fruits or vegetables are not grown in either Adera or Chorro. Except for all of the crops grown in the other two villages, the Yaya farmers grow vegetables such as tomatoes and onion, lots of corn and they also have better income than they do in the other villages and can therefore in a larger extent buy products to improve their diet.

Noticeable is the difference in quota areal enset is grown on between the villages, as illustrated in table 2. In Adera it is on 22,4 percent of our measured area, while in Chorro it is grown on 38,6 percent and in Yaya only on3,8%. Corn is grown on the largest area in Yaya; 32,2 percent, in Chorro grazing is the second largest; taking up 25,9 percent, while in Adera it is wheat; taking up 38,3 percent. The grazing areas in Adera make up only 3,8 percent, while it in Yaya is on 18,4 percent. The sums do not add up to 100% since we chose not to show crops below 1%.

70

60

50

40 % of all crops Yaya 30 % of all crops Chorro % of all crops Adera 20

10

0 Enset Tef Barley Wheat Potato Unused land

Figure 12. Shows the comparison of the most common and important crops between the three villages. (Hultman & Näsström, 2010)

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In Yaya these crops were wheat and tomato (mixed cropping), cabbage, garden area, chili, trees, wheat and teff, corn and coffee, sweet banana, coffee, bamboo, nursing enset, onion, flowers. All these categories together compiled to the missing 2,9% in Yaya shown in table 2. In chorro the only categories below 1% were eucalyptus and onion, together they add up to 0,2%, and last the missing categories from Adera was eucalyptus, onion, cabbage, beans and garlic, they together add up to 1%. See field sketches (figure 17) and photographs (figures 18 & 19) for visualization of the fields.

Table 2. Shows the percentage of crops grown in the three villages. (Hultman & Näsström, 2010)

4. 5 Livestock In Yaya they have the highest number of livestock and in Adera they have the lowest. In Adera only half of the farmers we interviewed have animals. Cow is the most important kind to have, used for milk. Those who do not have an ox either plow their land by hand or are forced to rent an ox.

In Chorro all the farmers have animals, the majority more than two different types. All but two of the farmers we interviewed own their own ox, and all farmers use oxen for plowing. Animals good for working, such as horses and donkeys, are also common to have and are useful for collecting water and other hard work. In Yaya it is common to have more than four different kinds of animals. A big difference from the other villages is that animals like goats, hens and sheep are frequently used for eggs, milk and cheese. All the farmers we interviewed have their own ox and most of them have donkeys also.

30

Adera

Chorro

Yaya

Figure 13. The fields we mapped on our fieldstudy. Notice the difference in the scalebars. (Hultman & Näsström, 2010) 31

Figure 18. A steep wheat field in Adera.

Figure 19. Out in the fields in Yaya. Notice the flatness of the landscape.

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4.6 The importance of enset in the area Enset is the most important crop in the area, all farmers grow it and since it is harvested all year round it is a good source of food and the farmers depend on it for survival. Enset takes up larger percentage of the total cultivated areas in Adera and Chorro than in Yaya.

When walking around in the villages it is easy to understand how much the farmers care about their enset plants; they are always kept close to the houses and carefully taken care of. One drastic problem that enset plants have to face is bacterial diseases. There are several kinds of bacteria and they can attack the enset plant at any stage of its maturity. Enset farming is a time costly activity and farmers have to put in many years of work and money to succeed with having a good and productive enset field. When the bacteria destroy the plants it is impossible to use them and new plants are needed, which takes years before they are ready. The diseases spread easily and can cause major problems and even abandoning of land. There is very little research done about enset diseases and therefore it is a very severe problem for farmers who are dependent upon the plant.

4.7 Selling of harvested crops In Yaya all farmers sell parts of their harvests, some even grow crops specifically for selling and therefore get high and continuous incomes. In Adera and Chorro the farmers do not sell large parts of their harvest, often nothing at all.

In Adera the majority of the farmers do not sell parts of their harvest, mainly because they never get a surplus and have to keep everything within the family for the sake of their survival. Also in Chorro most farmers do not have the possibility to sell crops and gain income, and this year was extra tough for them because of the disease spreading out on the enset fields, lowering the yields. In Yaya all the farmers sell parts of their harvest. Many of them are specifically growing crops that give extra much income, for example tomatoes.

4.8 Land tenure ship All of the interviewed farmers perceived that they owned their land. No one mentioned that the government owned the land. When we asked them about this they answered that yes, the government also owns the land, but since they have usufruct for life they percieve it to be their land. They were not afraid of land distribution or that the government would take their land away from them.

5. Soil tests We have performed soil samples in the highest and the lowest of the villages in the study area; Adera and Yaya. The analysis of them indicates that the soils are better in Yaya than in Adera.

As enset is the most important crop throughout the whole study area, we have put extra focus on analyzing the soil tests for enset. Figure 20 shows the amount of four kinds of base minerals found in enset and the cation exchange capacity, with a comparison between the villages. Yaya has higher

33 amounts than Adera in all parameters, often about twice as much. The relationships between the minerals in the enset within the villages are similar.

Content of base minerals in Enset 35 30 25 20 Yaya Enset Cmol/Kg 15 Adera Enset 10 5 0

Figure 20. Shows the content of base minerals and the CEC in the soil samples from the enset we have tested. The results for same type of crop are shown next to each other for comparable reasons. (Hultman & Näsström, 2010)

According to people in Wenchi the Borole is clayish and should be used for enset, our soil samples shows on the other hand that the soils which enset is grown on are loams with a clay content of 27per cent on both samples. The Kajafer should be a loose sandy soil with high sand concentration, good for wheat and barley. Our samples shows that the soils used for wheat are clay soil in Yaya with a sand content of 19 per cent. In Adera it was a clay loam soil with 35 percent sand. The Kajafer aggregates when wet and should be at its best with crops that needs large quantities of water, since it is good at holding water. This should mean that it is a clay soil, which is found on corn, wheat, teff and unused land in Yaya.

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Content of base minerals in different crops 30 Enset Average 25 Wheat average 20 Teff Average Cmol/kg 15 Unused land 10 average 5 Potato average

0 Yaya corn

Figure 21. Shows the content of base minerals and the CEC in the soil samples from the different crops we have tested. The results for same type of crop are shown next to each other for comparable reasons. (Hultman & Näsström, 2010)

In order to see if there are differences in the fertility of the soils depending on what type of crop is grown on it, we have done a comparison between the varies crops, using average values from the soil samples in both the villages. There is no corn grown in Adera, so for corn we have only one soil sample. Figure 21 shows the averages of the total amounts of base mineral content in the soils, by crop. Enset has the highest amounts in all the parameters except for sodium.

As shown in table 3, the silt contents in our samples were not too high, there is only a few limits of value, but since they are just above the 40 percent limit Morgan mentions, they are not in any real danger of eroding. The percentages of clay content are neither too high nor too low, there are just three samples that has a clay content between 9-25 percent, which according to Morgan would make them susceptible for erosion. But since the values are just above 25 it is the same as the silt content; too small of a difference to mean any real danger. Noticeable is that the organic matter content is too low and leaves the soil susceptible for erosion in all samples from Adera, but only in the potato sample in Yaya. Notice also the big difference in organic matter between the two villages, the average in Yaya is twice as big as the average in Adera. In line with Haileslassie et. Al:s (2006) theories, the soils most fertile among our samples are enset, corn and wheat in Yaya. These were the samples with a high combination of clay content, CEC, pH values and base saturation. Morgan (2005) also points out that high contents of base minerals can stabilize the soils, the highest values in our study are found in enset, corn, wheat and teff, all in Yaya.

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Table 3. Shows the values of total nitrogen, organic matter, pH, sand, silt, clay, the base minerals and the cation exchange capacity in each of our testes soils. The values marked with red color are thought to be too low and increasing the risk of soil erosion. (Hultman & Näsström, 2010)

Figure 14 Shows a comparison of the totals of the highest values of the different base minerals in all of the tested crops. (Hultman & Näsström, 2010)

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The comparison in figure 22 is done by first totaling the values from the soil samples of all crops per farmer and then comparing how many farmers in each of the two villages had the highest amounts of each value in each type of crop. The diagram shows the relation between the villages, where the higher percentage means that a larger number of farmers have higher values of each parameter in each type of crop than do the farmers in the other village.

The natural conditions are by far best in Yaya. Figure 21 emphases the natural conditions in the soil, which according to us is a major factor determining the livelihood situation on Mount Wenchi. As seen; the conditions in Yaya are better in everything except for the sodium value. This thesis is also strengthened in table 3 where the contents of parameters determining the soil fertility are higher in Yaya than in Adera.

6. Livelihood classification system Our livelihood classification system was used to get an idea of how our three villages differ from each other, and according to the system Adera is the least favorable of the villages and Yaya is the most favorable one.

In the system we compared the three villages by using our own observations and interview material, in order to get a view of the farmers’ livelihood situation. The comparison is shown in figure 23.We based the system on the categories; size of cultivated land area per household member, slope, estimated land quality, water, healthcare, market, risks of being affected by diseases, livestock, other income and diversified food3. We ranked the different subjects separately and gave scores that we later put together. We based the classification system on facts about land sizes, members of households and number and types of livestock. We also used information about what crops were grown, how far away the villages are from healthcare, markets and water facilities. A large part of the system was also based on our own estimations of what we had seen and heard during our time in the area.

Livelihood average 25 20 15 10 Livelihood average 5 0 Adera Chorro Yaya

Figure 23. Our livelihood index comparison after our classification system. (Hultman & Näsström, 2010)

3 See explanations of the different categories on method paragraph.

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After ranking all the farmers separately we calculated an average for each village which we based the comparison on. Our livelihood classification resulted as follows; Adera received the least points, 12,7 in average, Chorro got 14,1 points in average, and Yaya had an average score of 20,3 points. This is just an indication of the situation on the slopes of Mount Wenchi. The additional table used can be found in appendix 5. In Yaya both the total and the average size of land was undeniably larger than in the other two villages, see table 4. They also had more livestock totally, even though Chorro had a higher total of the livestock in the category ox, donkey, and horse. Chorro has the least square meters per household member, and Yaya has distinctly the highest. Noticeable is that one farmer in Yaya has extremely large land area, 51645 m2, and only two persons in the household.

land size land size member of m2/member ox, donkey, hen, cow, goat, gotti m2 hectare household of household horse. sheep. Adera 1 905.7 0.09 3 302 0 0 Adera 2 8039.4 0.80 4 2010 0 0 Adera 3 1496.9 0.15 5 299 2 0 Adera 4 2927.6 0.29 3 976 1 0 Adera 5 6743.8 0.67 6 1124 2 0 Adera 6 4898.0 0.49 9 544 2 1 Adera 7 2417.2 0.24 5 483 0 0 Chorro 1 8758.6 0.88 9 973 2 2 Chorro 2 2572.6 0.26 8 322 1 1 Chorro 3 7328.4 0.73 6 1221 2 1 Chorro 4 5960.3 0.60 4 1490 0 1 Chorro 5 402.7 0.04 7 58 1 1 Chorro 6 2183.3 0.22 4 546 3 2 Yaya 1 13839.3 1.38 6 2307 2 3 Yaya 2 51645.9 5.16 2 25823 2 2 Yaya 3 10093.5 1.01 4 2523 1 1 Yaya 4 12774.9 1.28 4 3194 1 0 Yaya 5 11398.6 1.14 10 1140 1 4 Yaya 6 9825.2 0.98 8 1228 2 1

Adera avg. 3918.4 0.39 5 783.67 1 0.14 Chorro avg. 4534.3 0.45 6.3 715.95 1.8 1.33 Yaya avg. 18262.9 1.83 5.7 3222.86 1.5 1.83 Table 4. Shows the facts that we grounded our classification system on. (Hultman & Näsström, 2010)

Another thing worth to notice is that one farmer in Chorro has an extremely small land area, 402 m2, and are seven persons in the household, this is a factor that lowers the total land area size in the village. Adera has the smallest average land size area, but being fewer members per household gives them a better average on the land size per household member. Adera also has the lowest number of livestock.

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DISCUSSION We will put emphazise on 3 out of the 4 different aspects of livelihood that Scoones (1998) put up. These aspects will be natural capital, economic capital, and human capital. We will not focus on social capital since that is beyond the reach and aims of this study.

1. Natural capital Water plays an important part in agriculture, both by being a condition for irrigation which is very positive for the productivity and by watering the cattle. Using homemade fertilizers requires water in the vicinity which is a scarcity in Adera and Chorro. Instead they are dependent on rain fed agriculture and can only plant their cereals between June and August, the enset is planted over a wider period of time. In Adera and Chorro the harvest period is when the precipitation is at its lowest, from the end of November to beginning of February. A decline in precipitation during June to September probably would not make a big difference since it is so much rain anyway. It would be more devastating with a change in rainfall during the harvest months, November-February.

In Yaya the land is flat and they have irrigation. Because of the flatness they do not have problems with erosion but instead if there is much water added and the drainage is poor there is a risk for salinization when the groundwater table rises, and the water evaporates. It is a phenomenon people have been complaining over in Yaya, but not something the other villages suffers from. Instead they have problems with the slopes, which at some places are very steep and increase the surface runoff which leads to soil degradation thru soil losses and erosion.

In Adera the farmers have small land areas in relation to Yaya, which means that they can grow fewer amounts of crops and cannot leave large parts in fallow or grazing without decreasing the arable land. This, in line with Morgans theories (2005), might result in loosing important nutrients in the soil thru erosion by not letting it rest. The size of the fields are frightening small in some places, according to USAID a person needs around 2000-2500m2 for a sustainable livelihood, the average in Adera was 783.67m2, in Chorro 715.95m2, and in Yaya 3222.86m2. This is a difference due to area size only, it is not depending on the average family sizes since they are similar, there is only a difference in 0,7 person/household between the highest; Chorro, and the lowest; Yaya. There is only Yaya that live up to USAIDs recommendation over land size. But even there it is farmers whom we interviewed that live of 1100-1300 m2 per person.

1.1 Soil Soil erosion is a large problem in Adera and Chorro, they are both situated in hilly areas and have large slopes. The land areas are relatively small but they are forced to leave parts in fallow and wait for it to gain fertility which prevents them from getting as big yields as they could if their land was larger and the soil more productive.

According to our interviews, the farmers in Yaya seem to suffer least from problems with the soil. It does not seem as if the soil texture is worse in Adera than it is in Yaya, but combined with the hilly topography in Adera, the texture makes the soil more susceptible for erosion. Our results are

39 strengthened by Fitzpatrick (1980) who claims that the material tends to remain on flat and gently sloping locations, and thereby stay thick, while an increase in angle raises the erosion hazard and leads to thin soils. The natural conditions for productive soils are much better in Yaya than in Adera, this is based on the comparison of base minerals and cation exchange capacity between the two villages. Worse soil fertility leads to a bigger need for fertilizers which means that it is more expensive than if the soil would be more fertile naturally.

2. Human capital

2.1 Season calendars Our season calendars show that in Adera and Chorro the planting of seeds corresponds to the months in which there is the highest precipitation, which confirms what the farmers have said in the interviews; that they wait for the rainy season to plant their seeds. It is not an option; they are simply forced to wait for the rains in order to plant seeds since it is impossible to do it without water. This makes the farmers in Adera and Chorro more susceptive for climatic changes, since they are dependent on the rains and if the rains are delayed they will have problems. If the planting of seeds has to wait the crops might not have the possibility to grow enough before it is time to harvest them, which results in lower yields and therefore less harvested crops to eat or sell.

The harvest months are similar in Adera and Chorro, namely four months in a row where all the crops are harvested, except for enset which can be harvested all year round. In Yaya they harvest their crops during almost the entire year and the agricultural seasons float into each other while they are separated in the other two villages. One reasons for this is that the farmers in Yaya have larger land areas which make them able to use parts of it for grazing at all time, and do not need to wait with preparation or plantation just because their livestock needs grazing areas. With large land areas they can also grow a larger variety of crops that have different growing pace and can therefore be harvested at different times. One important reason for the long harvest period is naturally that there is irrigation in Yaya. That means it is possible to plant seeds not only once a year during the rainy period, but also during the drier periods which means that they can harvest many times a year.

The farmers in Adera and Chorro are dependent on the rains for agriculture, while the farmers in Yaya can operate regardless of time for the rainy season. The cultivating and preparing of the land for planting is longer in Yaya than in the other villages. This is because of the possibility to plant seeds most of the months and therefore they need to make some parts of the land ready for plantation during the majority of the year. Harvesting many times a year means that the food supply is more evenly distributed over the year which spells increased food security. With having only one harvest, it would be devastating if it went bad.

2.2 Soil management Except for the usage of fertilizers the soil management practices are sparse on all of our study sites. Most common in Adera are side-plowing and drainage channels. This is to keep the fields from flooding, but in many cases it speeds up the runoff so the water does not infiltrate the soil. Morgan (2005) means that the soil must be protected by covering it, which would reduce run offs and create

40 roughness on the surface to decrease overland flows. Since the rainfall pattern is as varied as it is, with a peak average in July at around 250mm and a low in October-February it is hard to keep the water in the soil during the dry spells, due to evaporation. In Chorro we did not observe many soil management practices except for the bench terraces, which were constructed quite recently so they had not seen any effects of them yet. This will both add more water to the soil as well as it stops runoffs, which hopefully will have a decreasing effect on the gully development. Neither in Yaya have they performed many soil management practices besides using fertilizers and irrigation. Since their land is flat they do not have the need for practices such as terraces. Drainage ditches are not common despite the risk of salinization and increasing swamp areas. The contents of organic matter and base minerals are much higher in Yaya than in Adera, something that can be due to the losses in nutrients and organic matter thru runoffs and plowing, but also by the extra inputs from the irrigation in Yaya. Also the cation exchange capacity is higher in Yaya, which means that the soil is better prepared to take up and use the higher level of base minerals.

2.3 Fertilizers There are no big differences in the amount and annual price of bought fertilizers between the villages. The interesting thing about that is that the sizes of the lands are very different. This means that the farmers in Adera spend more money per square meter than the farmers in Yaya do. There is though a simple explanation, namely that they have irrigation in Yaya and it is possible to use homemade fertilizers. That makes the need for bought fertilizers smaller there than in Adera, where bought fertilizers are seen as the only possibility to increase the soil fertility. Also as our tests have shown, the soils are less fertile in Adera and therefore more fertilizers are needed in order to get good yields. One interesting observation is that the amount of total nitrogen is very similar between Adera and Yaya, this is probably due to the greater use of fertilizers per m2. The erosion hazards and constant losses of topsoil would otherwise mean that nitrogen would be lost.

2.4 Crop diversity Yaya has the most diversified diet of the villages, which probably makes the farmers there healthier and gives them more energy to work. In Yaya we found twenty-seven different crops/land use classes, while in Chorro there were only nine and Adera had sixteen different classes. This does not only mean that people in Yaya grow more crops and therefore they can eat diversified food. It also means that they have an extended possibility to sell, trade or buy food to obtain a diversified diet.

Enset is important in all the villages, but it is of extra importance in the upper two villages where it makes up a larger percentage of the total amount of cultivated land. Having a large variety of crops makes the risk of crop failure for some types less drastic than if there are many alternative kinds of crops. Enset is also the only crop they can harvest all year round, and it is not as dependent on the rains before being planted as cereal crops are. The fact that people in Yaya only grow enset on 3,8 percent of their land clarifies that they are not as dependent of the crop as the people in Adera and Chorro are. This is due to their large lands and possibilities of growing diversified crops. Their large areas also give them the opportunity to have parts of it assigned for grazing. Suprising is that the highest percent grazing area was found in Chorro, where people in average have 2500 m2 less land

41 per capita than in Yaya. Adera fits well into USAIDs livelihood classification zone CIE, with the difference that instead of enset and barley, it is enset and wheat that is most commonly grown.

2.5 Livestock In Yaya the farmers have slightly more animals than in the other villages, which lighten the work that is otherwise done by man and gives dairy products to enrich the diet. Thanks to the animals, much manure is produced which is positive for the crops. The land in Yaya is bigger than in the other villages though, so therefore more manure is needed. Having animals gives the farmers a possibility to get some money quick by selling them, if there is an emergency or something else that may require money. This would be harder in Adera, since they have no or very few possibilities to save money; they always live on the edge. Having many animals eases the burden of doing heavy work and the farmers can in a larger extent focus their energy on other tasks. In Adera cattle to plow is not commonly used, instead they practice plowing by hand. That is a tough work and renting an ox is expensive, so both are negative musts for the farmers in order to maintain their land. Livestock means less hard body work for the farmers, added milk and eggs to the diet, a source of income in crises by selling. Less body work makes the farmers less exhausted and the work can probably be done in a shorter period of time when done with help from cattle.

3. Economic capital

3.1 Selling of harvested crops In Yaya they have the possibility to choose what to grow, what is most advantageous for them. They can therefore grow cash crops, such as in this case tomatoes and chatt, which they can sell and know that they will gain high income from. Income is an important part of having potential for expanding or improving ones’ land, being able to buy medicine if someone gets sick or paying for the children’s school material. In Yaya they are close to the markets, both in Chitu and Woliso, which probably makes the selling easier. In the upper two villages it takes longer time and more energy to get to the closest market.

For example the enset disease strike hardest to those most dependent on it, if a farmer does not sell anything else they will not have the 600 birr necessary to buy a enset root. And for those with a surplus of enset it is a good source of extra cash. In Adera not many people get surplus of their yields, and can therefore most of the time not sell anything. Neither in Chorro is selling of crops a common thing. Even if they would want to sell their crops, they have to travel at least 2-2,5km on bad roads with their products for sale. The way of doing this would be by foot, donkey or public transport, but since public transports are not very common that high up they are left with using animals or walking. Not many farmers here have incomes enough to be able to buy things often; therefore many inhabitants probably lack important nutrients that are found in vegetables and fruits.

Land tenure-ship is not an important question, this is because the farmers feel very secure in owning their land. This goes well with Crewett and Korfs (2008) description of the land security for farmers in Oromia, they are not afraid of land redistribution since it is not allowed by the legislation.

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4. Livelihood situation The highest average livelihood score is in Yaya and the lowest is found in Adera, with Chorro in between the two. The results from our classification system indicate that the possibilities of a sustainable livelihood decreases as the altitude increases on Mount Wenchi. To repeat the altitudes of our study sites, Adera is located at 2700m.a.sl, Chorro is located at 2530m.a.s.l, and Yaya at 2055m.a.s.l. So between Adera high up on the slope and Yaya, at the foot of the volcano there is 700m difference in altitude. The biggest differences among our classes were probably found between Land area cultivated / member of household, slope, fertility and in the diversified food category. The sizes of the fields are in average four times as big in Yaya as in Chorro, and four and a half times as big as in Adera. And it is not just the size that makes the difference, the flatness of the landscape along with the possibilities to use irrigation makes agricultural activities far easier in Yaya. The topography was flat in Yaya and far steeper uphill. The fertility classes are, as everything else, interlinked with other categories and the slope gradient was a contributing factor to the extent of erosion and also the irrigation made the soil give more generous returns and therefore farmers in Yaya are far better off than the farmers in Chorro and Adera.

The livestock situation is similar in Yaya and Chorro, in average people have 3,1-3,3 different types of animals, this is far from the situation in Adera where people in average have 1,1 different types animals. This along with the much bigger fields and closeness to Woliso and Chitu makes the possibilities for a diversified diet bigger in Yaya then in the two other study sites.

Our classification system is considering a smaller area than the USAID livelihood system does, therefore we might have been able to see things that USAID did not mention. For the same reason some of the facts in their system did not really accord with what we have observed and heard. Also their system is probably more generalized since it is done for the whole country and the different zones are bigger and grouped to reflect the most important and striking features of the different parts of the country. But overall our system agrees with USAID and the differences between the two climatic zones in which we have conducted our study; woina dega and dega, are very similar in the two systems. The most important significations we can tell from the system are that there are differences in prerequisites and possibilities for farmers on the slope of Mount Wenchi. It differs between the flat land by the foot of the slope and the more undulating land higher up on the slope. This goes very well with the things we have learned from our interviews and the results of the soil samples, where we found a clear distinction between our upper two villages and the lowest village.

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5. Concluding remarks We can see a distinct splitting of the way farmers divide their land, this division is mainly due to natural conditions and farm size area. A joint denominator amongst our study sites is that cultivated/plowed area was acknowledged at all locations. That is probably to compare with Moges & Holden (2008) outfield category, since they are both situated further from the houses than the other categories and they do not receive any home-made fertilizers. In Yaya they also acknowledged the garden area, but they combined it with the grazing area, in the garden area class they also included enset, which people in Chorro and Adera recognized as a category of its own. Chorro and Aderas garden areas fits in very well with Moges & Holdens (2008) garden class, since the enset always grew close to the homestead, and if home-made fertilizers were being used anywhere, it was on the enset. This highlights the value of enset especially in Adera and Chorro. It is hard to say why enset is being planted close to the homestead, but Moges & Holden (2008) believes that the reason is to avoid possible losses thru erosion as is the case in the outfields. This area is also acknowledged as the most important one in Adera and Chorro. The enset fields also showed high numbers of base mineral content and organic matter content, compared to the other soil samples their values were at the top. That strengthens Haileslassies et.al. (2006) indication that fields planted with cereals have lower values of organic matter due to the combination of plowing and low return of organic residues. In Yaya people instead of garden recognized the areas that gave highest income as the most important ones, these areas were mainly what they called places for vegetables, on which they grow cash crops, such as corn and tomato. These fields were also recognized at two farms in Chorro, this was on two of the largest farms, but still they were not thought to be more important than enset. Also grazing area was recognized in both Yaya and Chorro, but these were merely smaller areas in front of the house where they kept the animals. Most of the grazing was performed on wheat, teff, and barley fields after harvest season. It was not as described in Moges & Holden (2008), areas where dung and manure was added as extra source of nutrients, these areas were not applied any extra inputs to. This is explained by the lack of grazing spots in Umbolo, which is not the case in Wenchi. What type of land use system that will be used on a certain location depends largely upon soil properties. Other important aspects before using a land might be socio-economic status of the land user, questions about land tenure ship, and political and infrastructural characteristics in the region. (Ellis & Mellor, 1995) But we can see from our study that the poorer a farmer is, the less options for different land use systems are available.

To classify soils people in Wenchi woreda use the three types Koticha, Kajafer and Borole, these names were determined by the colour of the soil, this is in contrast to the farmers in Corbeels (2000) study who used reguid meriet, mehakelay meriet and rekik meriet, which were determined by the thickness of the soil. Although the types are being based on different properties of the soil, perceptions of fertility are embedded in the names. In Haileslassie et.al (2006) different types of soils are defined in different crop systems, but in likeness with Wenchi, Borole and Koticha are identified. The soil quality is there determined by thickness and vulnerability to erosion. In Wenchi woreda the soil fertility is defined by the color, softness, thickness of the soil and how susceptible it is for erosion. While various scientists in Corbeel (2000) define soil fertility as land capable of continually

44 producing high yields of mixed crop, Vyas (2006) uses that explanation to describe soil productivity, and presents instead another definition of soil fertility. This further indicates that Corbeel (2000) was right in that soil fertility is defined differently depending on who is being asked.

Selling of crops is, besides selling of livestock or working at other farmers’ land, one of few possibilities for the farmers to earn income. Having low yields results in having little or nothing to sell which leads to little or no income. This in its turn means that the possibility of buying food to enrich the diet is not very good, since the economic resources are scarce. At the same time, those farmers with little yields are in bigger need of extra food than those having high yields. So this means that the farmers with less income need to buy the largest amount of food in order to survive, which is a logical thought but in reality it is not realistic. Having little income but a large need to buy food probably leads to a forced reduction of meals, which is a bad base for having energy to work in the fields, carrying water or other energy demanding tasks. Income simply improves the quality and prosperity of life. This is in line with USAIDs theories that poor households need to buy 40-50% of their food. (USAID 2010)

A positive thing for the Wenchi Woreda is that the farmers do not suffer much from changes in rainfall patterns or amount of precipitation as they do in many other parts of the country. (Seleshi & Zanke, 2004) This means that they are not as subjected to problems such as crop failure because of changed growing seasons, or famines caused by droughts and lack of sufficient precipitation.

The majority of the Ethiopians live in rural areas of the country and mainly in the highlands, where the climate is more pleasant, the precipitation better and the soils are more fertile than in other parts. Agriculture is the most important industry for the largest part of the population. (Utrikespolitiska institutet) Wenchi is a typical highland area where practically all household are occupied in agriculture, depending on it for survival. Working in three different villages has been interesting since we have got to see different shades within a relatively small area.

Our results indicate that one of the main challenges of Wenchi Woreda is the lack of fresh water wells; too much energy is lost by getting water every day. Another big challenge is the infrastructure, there is one road from Woliso up the slope to Wenchi, and on that road the public transports are sparse. The enset pest is mainly hitting the poorer households in Chorro and Adera, since the farmers in Yaya are not equally dependent on enset. The shortness of ox/tractor to cultivate the land is also a problem, but not as immediate as the other. In general our understanding of the main challenges facing Wench Woreda fits well into the apprehension from the agricultural office in Chitu.

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CONCLUSIONS

 Our results indicate that the possibilities of a good livelihood on Mount Wenchi decreases as the altitude increases. This is mainly due to differences in topography, water accessibility, land areas and soil physical properties. That indicates that farmers in Yaya have a much bigger chance to have a sustainable livelihood compared to people in Chorro and Adera.

 The knowledge of soil fertility is similar on all study sites, it is mainly based on tradition.

 Enset is grown close to the homestead at all the study sites, but for poorer households, dependant on rain fed agriculture, enset plays a more important role than for households that are better off.

 There are not many soil management practices being done on any of the studied sites, a common denominator is fertilizer which everyone use. In Adera and Chorro the farmers has got too small fields to perform soil management practices, and in Yaya they are not in any need of it.

 The farmers in Adera and Chorro are dependent on the rains for agriculture, while the farmers in Yaya can operate regardless of time for the rainy season.

 Land tenure-ship is not an important question for the farmers, since they feel tenure secure.

 The main challenges facing the people in Wenchi woreda are probably the lack of fresh water wells. In Chorro and Adera it is also enset pest and small land areas that challenge their livelihood situation.

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ed. 2007. An everyday geography of the global south, Oxon & New York: Routledge. Ch. 2. REFERENCES (Ellis & Mellor, 1995) S. Ellis, A. Mellor., 1995. Soils and Environment. London and New York: Printed references Routledge.

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(Andersen, 1998) Andersen. I, 1998. Den (Haileslassie et.al.2006) Amare Haileslassie Æ uppenbara verkligheten, val av Joerg A. Priess Æ Edzo Veldkamp Æ Jan Peter samhällsvetenskaplig metod. Lund: Lessche, Springer Science+Business Media. Studentlitteratur AB. 2006. Smallholders’ Soil Fertility Management in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia: (Chambers & Conway, 2007) Chambers. R & Implications for Nutrient Stocks, Balances and Conway. G. 1992. Structure and agencies, Sustainability of Agroecosystems,[Online] lives, living and livelihoods in Riggs. J ed. 2007. Available at: An everyday geography of the global south, http://www.springerlink.com/content/047864 Oxon & New York: Routledge. Ch. 2. 1580821t81/fulltext.pdf, [Acessed 22 April (Crewett & Korf, 2008) Crewett. W & Korf. B, 2010] 2008. International Food Policy Research (Harrie & Eklundh, 2008) Harrie. L, Eklundh. L, Institute, ROAPE Publications Ltd, CAPRi Forskningsrådet Formas, Geografisk Working Paper 91. Land Tenure in Ethiopia; informationsbehandling teori, metoder och Continuity and Change, Shifting Rulers, and th tillämpningar, 4 ed. 2008 the Quest for State Control. (Landon, 2003) Landon J.R, 1991. Booker (Corbeels et.al. 2000) International institute tropical soil manual, a handbook for soil for environmental development. Corbeels. M, survey and agricultural land evaluation in the Shiferaw. A, Haile. M. 2000. Farmers’ tropics and subtropics. Oxon: Booker Tate knowledge of soil fertility and local Limited. management strategies in Tigray, Ethiopia. Managing Africa’s Soils No. 10 [Online] (Mikkelsen,1996) Mikkelsen, B.,1996. Methods Available at: for development work and research, a guide http://www.iied.org/pubs/pdfs/7421IIED.pdf, for practitioners. 2nd ed. New Delhi: Sage. [Acessed 20 September 2009] (Moges & Holden 2008) Moges. A, (de Blij et.al. 2004) de Blij. H.J, Muller. P.O, Holden.N.M, 2008. Soil Fertility in Relation to William Junior. R.S., 2004. Physical geography Slope Position and Agricultural Land Use: A the global environment, 3rd ed. New York: Case Study of Umbulo Catchment in Southern Ethiopia [Online] Available at: Oxford University press. http://www.springerlink.com/content/k53556 (Ellis, 2007) Ellis, F. 1999. Structure and 4571837480/fulltext.pdf, [Acessed 17 May agencies, lives, living and livelihoods in Riggs. J 2010]

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(Morgan, 2005) Morgan .R.P.C, 2005. Soil (USAID, 2010) United States Agency for Erosion and Conservation, 3rd edition. Maldon, International Development, USAID. Oxford & Carlton: Blackwell Publishing. (The “tree against hunger”, 1997) American (Rigg, 2007) Rigg. J, Routhledge. 2007. An association for the advancement of science everyday geography of the global south. Oxon with Awassa Agricultural Research Center, & New York: Routledge. Kyoto University Center for African Area Studies and University of Florida, 1997. “The (Scoones, 1998) Scoones. I. 1998. Sustainable tree against hunger. Enset-based Agricultural rural livelihoods, a framework for analysis IDS Systems in Ethiopia” [Online] Available at: working paper 72. [Online] Available at: http://www.aaas.org/international/africa/ens http://www.uvg.edu.gt/instituto/centros/cea/ et/enset.pdf, [Acessed 22 April 2010] Scoones72.pdf, [Acessed 17 May 2010] (Seleshi & Zanke, 2004) Seleshi. Y, Zanke. U. 2004. Recent changes in rainfall and rainy Internet references days in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa & Darmstadt. (Utrikespolitiska institutet) Utrikespolitiska Royal Meteorological Society. [Online] institutet. 2010. Landguiden, länder i Available at: fickformat. [Online] Available at: http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/ www.landguiden.se, [Accessed 5 May 2010] 109062442/abstract, [Accessed 25 September 2009] (Feg consulting) Feg consulting. 2010. [Online] Available at: http://www.feg- (Valentine, 2005) Valentine. G. Using consulting.com/core_issues/social, [Accessed interviews as a research methodology in 5 May 2010] Flowerdew. R & Martin. D ed 2005. Methods in human geography, a guide for students (13 Suns Tour, n.d) 13 Suns Tours, Ethiopian doing a research project. 2nd ed. Harlow: Tourism Comission. N.d. [Online] Available at: Pearson Prentice Hall. Ch.7. www.13suns.com/climate, [Accessed 22 April 2010] (Vyas, 2006) Vyas A.K., 2006. Introduction to Agriculture, 4th edition. New Delhi: Jain (USDA) United States Department of brothers. Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service. [Online] Available at: www.fas.usda.gov, (Atlas of the Rural Ethiopian Economy) [Acessed 28 April 2010] International food policy research institute, Washington, DC, USA & Central Statistical (Washington State University, 2004) Agency, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 2006. Atlas of Washington State University, Tree Fruit the Rural Ethiopian Economy. Addis Ababa. Research and Extension Center. 2004. [Online] Available at: (Population Census Comission, 2008) Federal http://soils.tfrec.wsu.edu/webnutritiongood/s Democratic republic of Ethiopia population oilprops/04CEC.htm, [Acessed 24 April 2010] Census commission, 2008. Summary and Statistical Report of the 2007 Population and (Alberta, 2008) Government of Alberta, Housing Census; population size by age and agriculture and rural development. 2008. Soil sex, p.71. organic matter. [Online] Available at: http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/de

48 ptdocs.nsf/all/aesa1861, [Acessed 12 May (Catholic relief services, 2010) Catholic Relief 2010] Services, 2010. [Online] Available at: http://education.crs.org/wyd/ethiopia, (DAO, 2003) Prince Edward Island Canada, [Acessed 20 May 2010] District Agricultural Office. Urea Fertilizer in Crop Production. 2003. [Online] Available at: (Atlas of the Rural Ethiopian Economy, 2006) http://www.gov.pe.ca/af/agweb/index.php3? Ethiopian Mapping Authority. seasonality number=71253, [Acessed 4 May 2010] delimitations were adapted Biophysical context in National Atlas of Ethiopia, 2004;, (Agro-trade, n.d) Agro trade group limited, 1994. Precipitation data from WorldClim, Presnenskaya nab.8, bld.1, City Business University of California, Berkeley. p20 Ch 3 Center Moscow. N.d. [Online] Available at: (Hultman & Näsström, 2010) Information http://www.agro- processed and visualized by Hultman.E. and trade.su/article/en/fertilizer/dap.htm, Näsström.R, 2010. [Acessed 5 May 2010] (Hultman & Näsström, 2010a) Administration (smc, 2008) 2008. [Online] Available at: zones, shapefiles, USAID. [Acessed 31 March www.soilminerals.com, [Acessed 12 May 2010] 2010] (Hultman & Näsström, 2010b) Hultman. E, Näsström. R.,2010, höjdmodell, [online], Other resources source 1, Japan’s Ministry of Economy, Trade and industry (METI) and NASA, (GDEM), ASTER (Map of Ethiopia, 1995) SCRP, Ministry of Global Digital Elevation Model, 2009, Acessed Natural Resourses, Development and 12/1-2010, source 2, CSA,Ethiopian Central Environmental Protection; Ethiopian Mapping Statistical Agency, Wenchi woreda shapefile, Authority (EMA); The Ethio-GIS Project of the Acessed 26/3-2010. Group for Development and Environment (GDE, University of Berne, Switzerland). 1995. (Hultman & Näsström, 2010c) Hultman. E, Ethiopia, Agroecological Belts. Southwestern Näsström. R.,2010 source, CSA,Ethiopian sheet, 1:1 000 000. Central Statistical Agency, Wenchi woreda shapefile, Acessed 26/3-2010. (National Soil Laboratory) A compilation about soil testing methods from the National Soil Laboratory, Addis Ababa,

(NMA, 2008). National Metrological Agency, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2008.

Figures

(Enset picture, 2008) Anon., 2008. [Online] Available at: http://www.toiquiviensdethiopie.com/?s=ens et, [Acessed 24 May 2010]

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APPENDIX Appendix 1. Interview guide

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Appendix 2. Soil parameters Organic matter

Soil organic matter is mainly plant residues, in different stages of decomposition. The accumulation of the organic matter is balanced between return or addition of plant residues and their loss due to the decay of residues by microorganisms. Organic matter is important in agriculture because it improves the physical and chemical properties of soil and is beneficial for soil quality. It helps to stabilize soil particles, which prevents erosion. Organic matter also improves the soil structure, aeration, water penetration, workability, water holding capacity and stores and supplies nutrients for plants. The climatic conditions, most of all temperature and amount of rainfall, have a major impact on the amounts of organic matter. The accumulation of organic matter is greater in areas with lots of precipitation and low temperatures. Decomposition of organic matter is greater in warmer and drier climates. Using fertilizers increases the amounts of organic matter since it increases the productivity which leads to an addition of plant residues. Erosion decreases the amount of organic matter, since the soil particles richest in organic matter usually are transported easily. (Alberta, 2008)

Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

The Exchange Capacity of a soil is the measure of its ability to hold and release a variety of elements and compounds, such as plant nutrients. Positively charged nutrients are called cations and are of greatest interest. Two types of cations are found; the acidic or acid-forming kind, and the basic or alkaline-forming kind. The hydrogen cation (H+) and the aluminum cation (AL+++) are acid-forming and not plant nutrients, soils with high levels of H+ and Al+++ are acid soils with a low pH.

The most important of the positively charged nutrients are calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium, which are all alkaline cations. The cations may be adsorbed onto a clay particle or soil organic matter and once adsorbed they are not easily washed away during rains or watering and they provide an available nutrient reserve for the plant roots. Clay particles are almost always negatively charged which makes them hold nutrients with a positive charge. Soil organic matter is both positively and negatively charged and can hold onto both cations and anions, which are the negatively charged nutrients. Cation exchange capacity is the measure of the amount of negatively charged sites available in a soil.

Sandy soils with little organic matter have a low CEC and clayey soils with lots of organic matter have high CEC. Organic matter such as humus always has high CEC, but with clayey soils it depends on the type of clay. The breakdown of organic matter is dependent on temperature, moisture and the availability of oxygen. If one of those factors increases the breakdown accelerates. In hot southern climates, organic matter usually breaks down much faster than in northern climates where the moisture and oxygen are equal and building up of organic matter is easily done.

Organic matter that comes from compost and manure or is remained from the crops of last year has low exchange capacity at first until it has been broken down into humus. High level of humus gives higher exchange capacity. To increase the humus in a soil, adding of organic matter and having soil

51 life such as earthworms and microorganisms which are required during the break down. (smc, 2008)

The minerals adsorbed can easily be exchanged by other cations, a process called cation exchange, which is highly dependent upon the texture of the soil and the content of organic matter. Generally, the higher amounts of clay and organic matter in a soil, the higher CEC. (Generally, the cation exchange capacity increases in soils when the pH increases) The relative proportions of the different cations adsorbed by clays are determined by two factors. One is that cations are not held equally tight by the soil colloids, and the other is that ten relative concentrations of the cations in soil solution helps to determine the degree of adsorption. Soils that are very acid have high concentrations of H+ and Al+++ and in neutral to moderate alkaline soils, Ca+ and Mg2+ are dominating. Na is adsorbed in high quantities in soils that are poorly drained. (Washington State University, 2004)

Base Saturation

The proportion of the cation exchange capacity by the basic cations calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium is called base saturation. It is related to soil acidity and if the percentage of the base saturation increases the pH increases. Increased base saturation also increases the availability of the nutrient cations to plants. Base saturation below 100% is an indicator of a cation exchange capacity that is partly occupied by hydrogen and/or aluminum ions.

CEC and Availability of Nutrients

The cations that are adsorbed may become available to plants, since the roots also posses cation exchange capacity. Microorganisms and hydrogen ions from the root hairs can replace nutrient cations which can then be released into the soil solution and be taken up by the surfaces of the roots and soil organisms that are adsorptive. After being released into the soil there is a risk of them being lost by water. (Washington State University, 2004)

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Appendix 3. The most commonly grown crops

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Appendix 4. Soil management practices

Shifting cultivation is when the location of the fields is rotated, this method is often used in the tropics. It starts with an area that is been cleared by slash and burn technique, if it is possible to obtain two crops a year the second crop is grown after the harvest of the first, otherwise the land is put in weed fallow. Typical crops being used is corn, cassava, yam and upland rice. After using the land it is being left for secondary forest and scrub once again. If the land is not put to rest it will lose its fertility and the erosion rate will rise rapidly. Cover crops are used as method during the off-season or as ground protection under trees. For them to be effective it has got to establish quick and provide cover, it has to suppress weeds and also improve the porosity of the soil. Ground cover protection is grown under tree crops to protect the soil from water drops falling from the canopy.

Strip-cropping is using row crops or other crops with good protection abilities in strips aligned in a contour to protect from wind. Then erosion is mostly limited to the strips, but the eroded material stops at the next strip. This may lead to a gradual build-up of terraces behind the strips. The plants in the cover strips are usually grasses.

Multiple cropping. The goal of multiple cropping is to increase the production without extra damage on the soil. This is done either by the growth of two or more crops in sequence, or by intercropping, growing two or more crops on the same land at the same time. Intercropping of corn with cassava for example offers double canopy protection.

Mulching is when the soil is covered with crop remains, it protects the soil from splash erosion and reduces velocity of wind and water. It is often used as an alternative to cover crops in dry areas where cover crops grow too slow to be effective. It can also be effective in preventing evaporation and in lowering the soil temperature. But this requires the right climate, if it is too cold the mulch will do damage by lowering the soil temperature, as it decomposes the mulch it will also compete with the crops for nitrogen. How effective contours are depends on how long and steep the slope is. But ploughing, planting and cultivation on the counters will help against soil losses. On sandy and silty soils they can also store water instead of letting it runoff.

Contour bunds are around 2m wide earth banks with 3 important functions, they should act as barriers to runoffs, form a water storage area on the upslope side, and to break up the slope in segments that prevents overland flows. They are most suitable for slopes between 1 to 7 degrees angle. A study in the Wallo province, Ethiopia showed that soil bunds only reduce soil loss in the lowest of slopes examined, in this case 6 degrees angle.

Terraces are earth walls constructed across the slope to stop surface runoffs and to shorten the slope length. They can be classified into diversion terraces which main task is to channel the runoffs

54 to a suitable place, retention terraces is used where the farmer want to conserve water by storing it on the hillside, Bench terraces are a series of shelves and rises constructed on steep slopes. A problem with terraces is that they vary in size on irregular slopes and making it hard for machinery. There’s also a risk of terraces failure during storms, if that happens the water gathered in ponds on the hillside will do much damage. Another important soil conservation practice is to create waterways for excess water to runoff in without creating an extra opportunity for erosion or sediment transport. Three major types of waterways can be used in a surface water disposal system, the first one is diversion system, here diversions are upslope of farmland areas, they stop and divert the water running above the farmland to grass waterways. Terrace waterways has the same function, they collect it from inter-terrace area and divert it to grass waterways. The grass waterways are designed to handle the runoffs from the other waterways and empty it in a natural river. Stabilization structures can play important roles in gully prevention. Small dams are built across gullies to trap sediment and reduce channel depth. They have a high risk of failure, but are still being used since they provide temporary stability, they are often also combined with agronomic treatments of the nearby land.

Windbreaks are placed in angles against erosive wind, this not only decreases the speed of the winds, but it also breaks up the lengths of open field in which the wind can blow. The physical structure can be stone walls, brush fences or living vegetation. Living vegetation is called shelter belts, and it also reduces the evaporation, creating higher soil temperature in the winter and lower in the summer, and also higher moisture content in the soils. (Morgan, 2005)

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Appendix 5. Livelihood classification system

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