History of Ancient Institute for the Study of Western Week 2: “The Age Charioteers” October 8, 2018

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The Charioteers

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The Bronze Age Charioteer The Charioteer of Delphi, also known as Heniokhos (Greek: Ηνίοχος, the rein-holder), is one of the best-known statues surviving from Ancient Greece, and is considered one of the finest examples of ancient bronze sculptures. The life-size statue of a driver was found in 1896 at the Sanctuary of Apollo in Delphi. It is now in the Delphi Archaeological Museum. ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The Bronze Age Charioteers

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The Bronze Age Charioteers

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 BRONZE AGE CHARIOTEERS

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 Origin and Diffusion of Indo-European Language

Charioteers BRONZE ( + tin=bronze)

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The Bronze Age, 3000 BC

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 Bronze Age Copper Ingot from Crete You make Bronze from Copper and Tin

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 Bronze armor shields knives swords jewelry

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 WHERE DOES THE STORY START? Pontic–Caspian steppe region

BLACK SEA CASPIAN pontus=bridge SEA

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 REGION

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 Origin and Diffusion of Indo-European Language

Charioteers BRONZE (copper + tin=bronze)

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 LANGUAGE

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 SIR WILLIAM JONES 1746-1794

Establishes the idea of a Indo-European Language as root of all. ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 “The language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure: more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either; yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists.” Jones had concluded that the Sanskrit language originated from the same source as Greek and Latin, the classical languages of European civilization. He added that Persian, Celtic, and German probably belonged to the same family. European scholars were astounded. The occupants of , long regarded as the epitome of Asian exotics, turned out to be long-lost cousins. If Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit were relatives, descended from the same ancient parent language, what was that language? Where had it been it spoken? And by whom? By what historical circumstances did it generate daughter tongues that became the dominant languages spoken from Scotland to India? ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 SIR WILLIAM JONES 1746-1794

Establishes the idea of a Indo-European Language as root of all. ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 Indo-European Language distributions at 100 BC

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 “The recovery of even fragments of the Proto- Indo-European language is a remarkable accomplishment, considering that it was spoken by nonliterate people many thousands of years ago and never was written down.

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 “ Although the grammar and morphology of Proto-Indo-European are most important in typological studies, it is the reconstructed vocabulary, or lexicon, that holds out the most promise for archaeologists. The reconstructed lexicon is a window onto the environment, social life, and beliefs of the speakers of Proto-Indo- European.”

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 “Proto-Indo-European contained words for otter, beaver, wolf, lynx, elk, red deer, horse, mouse, hare, and hedgehog, among wild animals; goose, crane, duck, and eagle, among birds; bee and honey; and cattle (also cow, ox, and steer), sheep (also wool and weaving), pig (also boar, sow, and piglet), and dog among the domestic animals. "

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 “The horse was certainly known to the speakers of Proto- Indo-European, but the lexical evidence alone is insufficient to determine if it was domesticated. All this lexical evidence might also be attested in, and compared against, archaeological remains to reconstruct the environment, economy, and ecology of the Proto-Indo- European world.”

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 PIE traveled in warrior bands; practiced ritual sacrifices of cattle and horses; drove wagons; recognized a male sky deity; probably avoided speaking the name of the bear for ritual reasons; and recognized two senses of the sacred (“that which is imbued with holiness” and “that which is forbidden”). Many of these practices and beliefs are simply unrecoverable through archaeology.

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The proto-lexicon offers the hope of recovering some of the details of daily ritual and custom that archaeological evidence alone usually fails to deliver. That is what makes the solution of the Indo-European problem important for archaeologists, and for all of us who are interested in knowing our ancestors a little better.

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 Historical Linguistics How Languages Evolve, Change

Historical linguistics was created as a discipline in the nineteenth century, when scholars first exposed and analyzed the rules we follow when speaking and listening. I do not pretend to know these rules adequately, and if I did I would not try to explain them all. What I hope to do is indicate, in a general way, how some of them work so that we can use the “reconstructed vocabulary” of Proto-Indo-European with some awareness of its possibilities and limitations.

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 Just one example of language change:

Some Basic Rules of Language Change: Phonology and Analogy

Two general phonetic rules help us make these decisions. One is that initial hard consonants like k and hard g tend to change toward soft sounds like s and sh if they change at all,

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 “Some dismiss reconstructed Proto-Indo-European as nothing more than a hypothesis. But the limitations of Proto-Indo-European apply equally to the written languages of ancient Egypt and , which are universally counted among the great treasures of antiquity.

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 “ No curator of Assyrian records would suggest that we should discard the palace archives of Nineveh because they are incomplete, or because we cannot know the exact sound and meaning of many terms, or because we are uncertain about how the written court language related to the ‘real’ language spoken by the people in the street. Yet these same problems have convinced many archaeologists that the study of Proto-Indo-European is too speculative to yield any real historical value.”

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 How Long did it last?

Proto-Indo-European probably refers to less than a thousand years of language change. (maybe 3500-2500) It took less than a thousand years for late Vulgar Latin to evolve into seven , and Proto-Indo-European does not contain nearly enough internal grammatical diversity to represent seven distinct grammars.

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 2500 BC

By 2500 BC the language that has been reconstructed as Proto- Indo-European had evolved into something else or, more accurately, into a variety of things,—late dialects such as Pre- Greek and Pre-Indo-Iranian that continued to diverge in different ways in different places.

The Indo-European languages that evolved after 2500 BC did not develop from Proto-Indo-European but from a set of intermediate Indo-European languages that preserved and passed along aspects of the mother tongue. By 2500 BC Proto- Indo-European was a dead language.

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 THE PICTURE EMERGES

1.LANGUAGE EVOLUTION 4000-3000 BC

2. THE , wagons, animals 3000 BC

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The Invention of the Wheel 3400 BC

“Archaeological and inscriptional evidence for wheeled vehicles is widespread after about 3400 BCE. …..the real explosion of evidence begins about 3400 BC. Wheeled vehicles appeared in four different media dated between about 3400 and 3000 BC—a written sign for wagons, two- dimensional images of wagons and carts, three- dimensional models of wagons, and preserved wooden and wagon parts themselves. These four independent kinds of evidence appeared across the ancient world between 3400 and 3000 BCE, about the same time as wool sheep, and clearly indicate when wheeled vehicles became widespread.”

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 3500 BC Mesopotamian Wagons: The Oldest Written Evidence Clay tablets with “wagon” signs impressed on them were found in the Eanna temple precinct in Uruk, one of the first cities created by humans. About thirty-nine hundred tablets were recovered from level IVa, the end of Late Uruk. In these texts, among the oldest documents in the world, a pictograph (figure 4.3.f) shows a four-wheeled wagon with some kind of canopy or superstructure. The “wagon” sign occurred just three times in thirty-nine hundred texts, whereas the sign for “sledge”—a similar kind of transport, but dragged on runners not rolled on wheels—occurred thirty-eight times. Wagons were not yet common.

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 CLAY MODELS OF WAGONS, , , 3500 BC

“Baden-style polished and channeled ceramic mugs and small pots were used across southeastern Europe about 3500–3000 BCE. Similarities between Baden ceramics and those of northwestern in the centuries before Troy I suggest one route by which wheeled vehicles could have spread between Mesopotamia and Europe. Three-dimensional ceramic models of four-wheeled wagons were included in sacrificial deposits associated with two graves of the Late Baden culture at Budakalász dated about 3300–3100 BCE. Paired oxen, almost certainly a team, were found sacrificed in Grave 3 at Budakalász and in other Late Baden graves in Hungary. Paired oxen also were placed in graves of the partly contemporary Globular Amphorae culture (3200–2700 BCE) in central and southern Poland. The Baden wagon models are the oldest well-dated three-dimensional models of wheeled vehicles.”

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 Drawings of Earliest found clay models of wagons. 3500 BC. Hungary

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE WHEEL It would be difficult to exaggerate the social and economic importance of the first wheeled transport. Before wheeled vehicles were invented, really heavy things could be moved efficiently only on water, using barges or rafts, or by organizing a large hauling group on land. Some of the heavier items that prehistoric, temperate European farmers had to haul across land all the time included harvested grain crops, hay crops, manure for fertilizer, firewood, building lumber, clay for pottery making, hides and leather, and people.

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 Andrew Sherratt bundled the invention of the wheel together with the invention of the plow, wool sheep, dairying, and the beginning of horse transport to explain a sweeping set of changes that occurred among European societies about 3500–3000 BC.

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 WHEEL SPREADS; LANGUAGE AND WHEEL

Regardless of where the wheel-and-axle principle was invented, the technology spread rapidly over much of Europe and the between 3400 and 3000 BC. Proto-Indo-European speakers talked about wagons and wheels using their own words, created from Indo- European roots. Most of these words were o-stems, a relatively late development in Proto-Indo-European phonology. The wagon vocabulary shows that late Proto-Indo-European was spoken certainly after 4000 BCE, and probably after 3500 BC.

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 SO WHAT IS THE HOMELAND FOR THESE INDO -EUROPEANS WHO WERE USING HORSES AND WAGONS

WHERE DID THEY COME FROM

CAN AN HISTORICAL RECONSTRUCTION OF THEIR LANGUAGE GIVE US SOME CLUES?

YES

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 THE LOCATION OF THE PROTO-INDO- EUROPEAN HOMELAND “The speakers of Proto-Indo-European were tribal farmers who cultivated grain, herded cattle and sheep, collected honey from honeybees, drove wagons, made wool or felt textiles, plowed fields at least occasionally or knew people who did, sacrificed sheep, cattle, and horses to a troublesome array of sky gods, and fully expected the gods to reciprocate the favor. These traits guide us to a specifikind of material culture—one with wagons, domesticated sheep and cattle, cultivated grains, and sacrificial deposits with the bones of sheep, cattle, and horses.”

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 HOW LANGUAGE EVOLUTION AND VOCABULARY ALLOWS US TO NARROW DOWN POSSIBLE PLACES OF ORIGIN FOR INDO EUROPEAN LANGUAGE The absence of honeybees east of the Urals eliminates any part of Siberia. The temperate-zone flora and fauna in the reconstructed vocabulary, and the absence of shared roots for Mediterranean or tropical flora and fauna, eliminate the tropics, the Mediterranean, and the Near East. All these requirements would be met by aN Indo-European homeland placed west of the Mountains, between the Urals and the , in the steppes of eastern and .The internal coherence of reconstructed Indo-European—the absence of evidence for radical internal variation in grammar and phonology—indicates that the period of language history it reflects was less than two thousand years, probably less than one thousand. (4000-3000 BC)

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 THE PICTURE EMERGES

1.LANGUAGE EVOLUTION 4000-3000 BC

2. THE WHEEL, wagons, animals 3000 BC

3. THE HORSE domesticated by 3700 BC

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 Domestication of Horses, Eurasian Steppe Region, 3700 BC

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 “Until recently it has been difficult or impossible to determine when and where horses were domesticated. Early horse domestication left very few marks on the equine skeleton, and all we have left of ancient horses is their bones. For more than ten years I have worked on this problem with my research partner, and also my wife, Dorcas Brown, and we believe we now know where and when people began to keep herds of tamed horses. We also think that horseback riding began in the steppes long before were invented, in spite of the fact that chariotry preceded in the warfare of the organized states and kingdoms of the ancient world.”

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 David Anthony and his wife now believe they know when and where horses were domesticated and the wheel-chariot invented. HOW DID THEY DO IT?

Horses Teeth

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 IN THE ANCIENT DAYS WHERE DID WILD HORSES LIVE? EURASIAN STEPPE REGION Animal domestication, like marriage, is the culmination of a long prior relationship. People would not invest the time and energy to attempt to care for an animal they were unfamiliar with. The first people to think seriously about the benefits of keeping, feeding, and raising tame horses must have been familiar with wild horses. They must have lived in a place where humans spent a lot of time hunting wild horses and learning their behavior. The part of the world where this was possible contracted significantly about ten thousand to fourteen thousand years ago, when the Ice Age steppe —a favorable environment for horses—was replaced by dense forest over much of the Northern Hemisphere. The horses of North America became extinct as the climate shifted, for reasons still poorly understood. In Europe and Asia large herds of wild horses survived only in the steppes in the center of the Eurasian continent. ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 WHY WERE HORSES DOMESTICATED? The earliest evidence for possible horse domestication in the Pontic-Caspian steppes appeared after 4800 BCE, long after sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle were domesticated in other parts of the world. What was the incentive to tame wild horses if people already had cattle and sheep? Was it for transportation? Almost certainly not. Horses were large, powerful, aggressive animals, more inclined to flee or fight than to carry a human. Riding probably developed only after horses were already familiar as domesticated animals that could be controlled. The initial incentive probably was the desire for a cheap source of winter meat. Horses are easier to feed through the winter than cattle or sheep. Horses have the instinct to break through ice and crusted snow with their hooves, not their noses, even in deep snows where the grass cannot be seen. They paw frozen snow away and feed themselves. ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 HORSEBACK RIDING PRESENT IN PONTIC CASPIAN REGION: 3700 BC

Over the long term it would have been very difficult to manage horse herds without riding them. Anywhere that we see a sustained, long-term dependence on domesticated horses, riding is implied for herd management alone. Riding began in the Pontic- Caspian steppes before 3700 BCE. It may well have started before 4200 BCE. It spread outside the Pontic-Caspian steppes between 3700 and 3000 BCE, as shown by increases in horse bones in southeastern Europe, , the Caucasus, and northern . ECONOMIC & MILITARY EFFECTS OF HORSEBACK RIDING A person on foot can herd about two hundred sheep with a good herding dog. On horseback, with the same dog, that single person can herd about five hundred.dition.

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 THE PICTURE EMERGES

1.LANGUAGE EVOLUTION 4000-3000 BC

2. THE WHEEL, wagons, animals 3000 BC

3. THE HORSE domesticated by 3700 BC

4. INDO EUROPEANS SPREAD OUT CARRY LANGUAGE WITH THEM

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 THE EARLY WESTERN INDO–EUROPEAN LANGUAGES DISPERSE A succession of Pontic steppe tribal segments fissioned from their home clans and moved toward what they perceived as places with good pastures and opportunities for acquiring clients. The migrating Yamnaya chiefs then organized islands of authority and used their ritual and political institutions to establish control over the lands they appropriated for their herds, which required granting legal status to the local populations nearby, under patron– client contracts. Western Indo–European languages might well have remained confined to scattered islands across eastern and central Europe until after 2000 BCE, as Mallory has suggested.37 Nevertheless, the movements into the East Carpathians and up the valley occurred in the right sequence, at the right time, and in the right directions to be connected with the detachment of Pre– Italic, Pre–Celtic, and Pre–Germanic—the branch that ultimately gave birth to English.

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 THE PICTURE EMERGES

1.LANGUAGE EVOLUTION 4000-3000 BC

2. THE WHEEL, wagons, animals 3000 BC

3. THE HORSE domesticated by 3700 BC

4. INDO EUROPEANS SPREAD OUT CARRY LANGUAGE WITH THEM

5. CHARIOTS (Bronze Age)

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ARTHUR COTTERELL CHARIOT

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 WHERE WERE CHARIOTS INVENTED?

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 CHARIOTS “Chariots were invented earliest in the Pontic-Caspian steppes, where they were used in warfare. They were introduced to the Near East through , with steppe horses and studded disk cheekpieces. The horse-drawn chariot was faster and more maneuverable than the old solid-wheeled battle-cart or battle- wagon that had been pulled into inter-urban battles by ass-onager hybrids in the armies of Early Dynastic, Akkadian, and Ur III kings between 2900 and 2000 BCE. These heavy, clumsy vehicles, mistakenly described as chariots in many books and catalogues, were similar to steppe chariots in one way: they were consistently depicted carrying javelin-hurling warriors, not archers. When horse-drawn chariots appeared in the Near East they quickly came to dominate inter-urban battles as swift platforms for archers, perhaps a Near Eastern innovation. Their wheels also were made differently, with just four or six spokes, apparently another improvement on the steppe design.” D. W. Anthony ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The culture (1990s) Widely regarded as the origin of the Indo-. The earliest known chariots have been found in Sintashta burials, and the culture is considered a strong candidate for the origin of the technology, which spread throughout the and played an important role in . Sintashta settlements are also remarkable for the intensity of copper mining and bronze carried out there, which is unusual for a steppe culture.

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 SINTASHTA ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE, RUSSIA

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 SINTASHTA ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE, RUSSIA

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 SINTASHTA ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE, RUSSIA

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 SINTASHTA CHARIOT BURIALS DISCOVERED SINCE 1990s 2000 BC

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 2000 BC

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The Charioteers Scholars noticed more than a hundred years ago that the oldest well-documented Indo-European languages —Imperial Hittite, Mycenaean Greek, and the most ancient form of Sanskrit, or Old Indic—were spoken by militaristic societies that seemed to erupt into the ancient world driving chariots pulled by swift horses. Maybe Indo-European speakers invented the chariot. Maybe they were the first to domesticate horses. Could this explain the initial spread of the Indo-European languages? For about a thousand years, between 1700 and 700 BCE, chariots were the favored weapons of pharaohs and kings throughout the ancient world, from Greece to .

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The Charioteers and Later History Large numbers of chariots, in the dozens or even hundreds, are mentioned in palace inventories of military equipment, in descriptions of battles, and in proud boasts of loot taken in warfare. After 800 BC chariots were less important as they became vulnerable to a new kind of warfare conducted by disciplined troops of mounted archers, the earliest cavalry. If Indo- European speakers were the first to have chariots, this could explain their early expansion; if they were the first to domesticate horses, then this could explain the central role horses played as symbols of strength and power in the rituals of the Old Indic , , , and other Indo-European peoples.

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The Bronze Age, 3000 BC

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The Bronze Age, 2000 BC: Chariots with metal wheels.

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 Origin and Diffusion of Indo-European Language

Charioteers

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The Monteleone Chariot

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 It was originally uncovered at Monteleone di Spoleto and is currently part of the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in . Though about 300 ancient chariots are known to still exist, only six are reasonably complete, and the Monteleone chariot is the best-preserved and most complete of all known surviving examples. Carlos Picón, curator of the museum's Greek and Roman department, has called it "the grandest piece of sixth- century Etruscan bronze anywhere in the world." ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The Monteleone Chariot

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The Monteleone chariot was part of a , containing the remains of two human corpses, along with two drinking cups. Measuring 131 cm in height and designed to be drawn by two horses, the chariot itself is constructed of wood covered with hammered bronze plates and carved ivory decoration. The bronze plates are decorated with Homeric iconography; the main panel depicts Achilles being handed his armor by his mother, Thetis. The chariot's frame and plating is additionally adorned with animals and mythological creatures, rendered in detail. The chariot's decorations would also have included inlaid amber and other exotic materials, but only the bronze and ivory decorations have survived. The chariot's wheels have nine spokes (rather than the classical Greek four, the Egyptian six, or the Assyrian and Persian eight; excavated chariots from Celtic burials have up to twelve spokes). Contemporary curators at the Museum had long suspected that the chariot's original 1903 reconstruction was not historically accurate. In 1989, under the direction of Italian archaeologist Adriana Emiliozzi, the Metropolitan Museum began a five- year reexamination and restoration of the chariot. During the restoration, it was discovered that the chariot had in fact been originally assembled incorrectly; additionally, evidence was uncovered indicating that the chariot, previously thought to have seen little actual use, had in fact been involved in a serious accident at some point during its life.The newly restored chariot's reinstallation was scheduled as part of the major renovations of the Metropolitan Museum's Greek and Roman galleries, opening to the public on April 20, 2007.

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The Shield of Achilles

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The Monteleone Chariot

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 CHARIOTS AND ARISTOCRACY Chariots were supreme advertisements of wealth; difficult to make and requiring great athletic skill and a team of specially trained horses to drive, they were available only to those who could delegate much of their daily labor to hired herders. A chariot was material proof that the driver was able to fund a substantial alliance or was supported by someone who had the means. Taken together, the evidence from fortifications, weapon types, and numbers, and the tactical innovation of chariot warfare, all indicate that conflict increased in both scale and intensity in the northern steppes during the early Sintashta period, after about 2100 BC. It is also apparent that chariots played an important role in this new kind of conflict. ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 1.LANGUAGE EVOLUTION 4000-3000 BC

2. THE WHEEL, wagons, animals 3000 BC

3. THE HORSE domesticated by 3700 BC

4. INDO EUROPEANS SPREAD OUT CARRY LANGUAGE WITH THEM

5. CHARIOTS (Bronze Age)

6. THE HYPOTHESIS

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The : Language and Culture

The Kurgan hypothesis is one of the proposals about early Indo-European origins, which postulates that the people of an archaeological "Kurgan culture" in the Pontic steppe were the most likely speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language. The term is derived from kurgan (курган), a Turkic loanword in Russian for a or burial mound. The Kurgan model is the most widely accepted scenario of Indo-European origins.

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 Origin and Diffusion of Indo-European Language

Charioteers

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 Pontic-Caspian Steppe Region

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 , 1921-1994, Language and Culture

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 Lithuania

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 Joseph Campbell, The Power of Myth

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The Kurgan hypothesis is one of the proposals about early Indo-European origins, which postulates that the people of an archaeological "Kurgan culture" in the Pontic steppe were the most likely speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language. The term is derived from kurgan (курган), a Turkic loanword in Russian for a tumulus or burial mound. The Kurgan model is the most widely accepted scenario of Indo-European origins.

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 PROTO INDO EUROPEAN LANGUAGE EVOLUTION

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 PROTO INDO EUROPEAN LANGUAGE THE WHEEL, wagons, animals 3000 BC

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 PROTO INDO EURO LANGUAGE EVOLUTION THE WHEEL, wagons, animals 3000 BC THE HORSE domesticated by 3700 BC

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 PROTO INDO EURO LANGUAGE EVOLUTION THE WHEEL, wagons, animals 3000 BC THE HORSE domesticated by 3700 BC THE CHARIOTS (Bronze Age)

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The Bronze Age Charioteers

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 The Bronze Age Charioteers

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 History of Ancient Greece Institute for the Study of Western Civilization Week 2: “The Bronze Age Charioteers” October 8, 2018

ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019 ThursdayOctober 17, 2019