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Cherokee Agricultural Productivity in Comparative Perspective, 1835-1850

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Cherokee Agricultural Productivity in Comparative Perspective, 1835-1850 A Measure of History: Cherokee Agricultural Productivity in Comparative Perspective, 1835-1850 by Matthew T. Gregg (Under the direction of Dr. Fred Bateman) Abstract In the first essay, the technical efficiency and total elasticity of production of Cherokee farm households are estimated from information contained in the 1835 Cherokee census. It is determined that the most productive Cherokee farms can be best isolated by grouping households in terms of whether they sold their excess crops rather than in terms of racial or cultural differences across households. On the free Cherokee farms, after controlling for location and farm size, there was no significant relationship between various household racial compositions and the probability of selling crops to the market; therefore, the racial mix of a household, holding other factors constant, was not a determinant of the most productive Cherokee free farms. In the second essay, differences in Cherokee agricultural productivity prior to removal are compared to those of white farmers who later cultivated the same land. This analysis hinges on a matched sample collected from the manuscripts of the 1850 population, slave, and agricultural federal censuses. This comparative analysis shows that the marginal contribution of adult males and females to farm output did not differ between these two societies. This change in traditional gender roles on Cherokee farms is consistent with the increase in the relative price of hunting, the high amount of weavers and spinsters in the 1835 Cherokee census, and the few work alternatives for Cherokee males other than farming. For example, on the few Cherokee households that operated mills and ferryboats, the marginal contribution of women to farm output was substantial. In the last essay, the level of marketable surpluses on Cherokee and white farms located in western North Carolina in 1850 is estimated. White farms produced a far greater amount of marketable surpluses than did Cherokee farms. To ensure being above subsistence, these Cherokees adopted labor gangs, called the gadugi, which redistributed output on a need basis. Assuming identical risk preferences and shirking levels, it is shown that Cherokee households would have adopted the gadugi under a large number of scenarios, while white farmers simultaneously would have avoided teams because the relative price of being above subsistence substantially differed on Cherokee and white farms. Index words: Native American Economic History, Productivity Analysis, Sampling. A Measure of History: Cherokee Agricultural Productivity in Comparative Perspective, 1835-1850 by Matthew T. Gregg B.A., Roanoke College, 1994 A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Athens, Georgia 2003 c 2003 Matthew T. Gregg All Rights Reserved A Measure of History: Cherokee Agricultural Productivity in Comparative Perspective, 1835-1850 by Matthew T. Gregg Approved: Major Professor: Dr. Fred Bateman Committee: Dr. Scott E. Atkinson Dr. Christopher M. Cornwell Dr. Donald C. Keenan Dr. C.A. Knox Lovell Electronic Version Approved: Maureen Grasso Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia August 2003 Acknowledgments I wish to thank the entire dissertation committee on their assistance through the long and arduous process of completing this dissertation. When first starting this project, I only had a vague idea of the empirical methods to estimate productivity measures; thus, I am deeply indebted to Professor Knox Lovell for numerously listening to my naive ideas, and skillfully processing these ideas into something representing coherent logic and economic reasoning. I would also like to thank Professor Fred Batemen for reading over my earlier drafts, correcting my “weird” sentences, and patiently listening to my concerns over merging a social history into an economic history. You have instilled in me the drive and confidence to become a fellow economic historian. I also greatly appreciate the uncompensated knowledge transfers given by Professor Don Keenan over the years. Your insights and clarifications helped strengthen the dissertation as well as my knowledge of economics in general. This dissertation would not have been possible without the financial assistance of the National Science Foundation (NSF) through the NSF Doctoral Dissertation Improvement Grant (#0217185). Obtaining this award truly increased the quality of the dissertation by allowing me to collect data from the 1850 federal manuscript censuses which will be freely available in the near future through the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR). A special thanks goes to the UNC Imaging and Photographic Services for rapidly processing my microfilming requests and the UGA Interlibrary Loan Department for acquiring working papers, unpublished manuscripts, and other obscure documents by defunct economists and anthropologists. iv v I’ve been fortunate to make some good friends while studying here, all of which have made this experience rewarding and enjoyable. From the late nights in the economics department with Andy Fisher and Deepa Sridhar where studying was often substituted for gossiping, to my soccer team, the infamous Chupacabras, who often substituted winning payoff games for the more rewarding “moral” victories, and to the intense conversations over politics and economic research with Alexey Smurov, Darrin Gulla, and Matt Bonds at the nearest watering hole, thanks for the good times. Finally, and most importantly, I thank my family – my mother, father, and sister – for their love, support, and council during my graduate school career. Their contributions, both in terms of emotional and monetary assistance, smoothed over the hard times and helped me stay the course throughout the many years of graduate school. I will always be grateful for your love and support. Dedication I dedicate this dissertation to my late grandmother Katherine Berenson, who did not have a chance to see the completion of my graduate program, but her excitement of having a Ph.D. in the family inspired me to write this dissertation. vi Table of Contents Page Acknowledgments . iv List of Figures . x List of Tables . xi Chapter 1 Introduction . 1 2 The 1835 Cherokee Census . 11 2.1 A Selection from the Cherokee Census . 14 2.2 Summary Statistics from the Census . 16 2.3 Cherokee Output and Input Variables: Definitions 21 2.4 Sample Tests . 32 3 The 1850 Matched Sample of Southern Farmers . 40 3.1 Allotment of Southeastern Cherokee Land . 41 3.2 The 1850 Southern Sample . 45 3.3 Definitions of Variables . 51 3.4 Sample Tests . 55 4 Race, Readers, and Rednecks: Identifying the Determi- nants of Cherokee Agricultural Productivity . 71 4.1 A Brief History of the “Civilization” Program . 72 4.2 Multi-Factor Productivity: Theory . 80 vii viii 4.3 Empirical Method: Stochastic Frontier Analysis . 81 4.4 Empirical Method: Corrected Ordinary Least Squares . 85 4.5 Results . 86 4.6 Sociological and Economic Forces among the Cherokees . 89 4.7 Productivity Differences Across Groups . 91 4.8 Who were the Sellers? . 95 4.9 Summary . 98 5 “Indianizing” American Agriculture: A Comparative Anal- ysis of Cherokee-White Farm Production . 108 5.1 General Trends in the Cherokee and White Data . 109 5.2 Oaxaca Decompositions: Methodology . 115 5.3 Oaxaca Decompositions: Empirical Findings (Free Farms) . 119 5.4 Understanding Differences in Free Farm Technology 120 5.5 Oaxaca Decompositions: Slave Farms . 121 5.6 Oaxaca Decompositions: Empirical Findings (Slave Farms) . 122 5.7 Summary . 123 6 “Traditional” Cherokee Agriculture, the Gadugi, and the Marketable Surplus in Antebellum North Carolina . 138 6.1 The Formation of the Quallatown Settlement . 142 6.2 The Gadugi . 145 6.3 Contemporary Observations and Generalizations . 146 6.4 Data ............................. 148 ix 6.5 Estimation of Marketable Surpluses . 152 6.6 Explanations for Low Cherokee Food Surpluses . 156 6.7 Model of Team Production . 163 6.8 Food Production Expanded: Pork and Dairy Esti- mates . 166 6.9 Commercial Production in Haywood County . 169 6.10 Summary . 171 7 Conclusion . 174 Bibliography . 179 Appendix A Instructions for Assistant Marshals . 191 B Relationship between Income and Marketable Surpluses . 194 List of Figures 1.1 Cherokees in the Southeast, 1835 . 10 2.1 Joint Household Production on the Farm . 25 2.2 Sample Page from the 1835 Cherokee Census . 34 3.1 Counties Established on Former Cherokee Land, 1850 . 58 3.2 Sample Page from the U.S. Census of Agriculture . 59 4.1 Returns to Scale on Cherokee Free Farms . 92 4.2 Cherokee Nation, 1835 . 100 6.1 Cherokee Nation and Quallatown, North Carolina, 1850 . 173 x List of Tables 2.1 Cherokee Free Households: Population Characteristics . 35 2.2 Cherokee Slave Households: Population Characteristics . 36 2.3 Cherokee Free Households: Agricultural Characteristics . 37 2.4 Cherokee Slave Households: Agricultural Characteristics . 37 2.5 Interactions with Mill/Ferryboat Dummies . 38 2.6 Aggregate Mean Values of Sample Statistics and T-Tests, 1835 . 39 3.1 Sampling Results . 60 3.2 Southern Free Farms, 1850 Sample . 61 3.3 Southern Slave Farms, 1850 Sample . 62 3.4 Aggregate Mean Values of Sample Statistics and T-Tests, Alabama, 1850 .................................... 63 3.5 Aggregate Mean Values of Sample Statistics and T-Tests, Georgia, 1850 64 3.6 Aggregate Mean Values of Sample Statistics and T-Tests, North Car- olina, 1850 . 65 3.7 Aggregate Mean Values of Sample Statistics and T-Tests, Tennessee, 1850 .................................... 66 3.8 Age Distribution of Slaves by Gender, Sample Tests, Alabama, 1850 . 67 3.9 Age Distribution of Slaves by Gender, Sample Tests, Georgia, 1850 . 68 3.10 Age Distribution of Slaves by Gender, Sample Tests, North Carolina, 1850 .................................... 69 3.11 Age Distribution of Slaves by Gender, Sample Tests, Tennessee, 1850 70 xi xii 4.1 Testing for Both Homogeneity and Linear Homogeneity . 87 4.2 Translog Estimates: Cherokee Free and Slave Farms . 101 4.3 Mean Scale Elasticities: Free Farms . 102 4.4 Technical Efficiency Ratios Across Categories: Free Farms .
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