Allusion, Volume 06 No 01 February 2017, 9-16
The Resistance of Galileo Galilei against The Church’s Domination in Bertolt Brecht’sThe Life of Galileo
Gondo Handianto Rina Saraswati English Department, Universitas Airlangga
Abstract
The Society is divided into two classes, bourgeoisie (oppressor) and proletariat (oppressed) based on Marxism. The conflicts that are occurred between these two classes are determined by social justice and wealth. This kind of phenomenon is well portrayed in the drama called The Life of Galileo. This drama provides the representation of the Church’s domination in science (Geocentric) into all aspect of society including science. This study attempts to reveal Galileo’s resistance against Church’s domination represented within the drama. This study also intends to reveal Galileo’s resistance (Heliocentric) which is represented through science against Church’s domination. The writer used Karl Marx’s theory and Louis Althusser’s theory with the approach to the Marxist criticism in science through a process called ‘interpellation’. In the end, it is found that Galileo’s resistance in Bertolt Brecht’s The Life of Galileo is the impact of the Church’s domination, the perpetual friction between scientific ideology, and also the Dogma which prevent Galileo from spreading the truth. Keywords: domination, ideology, interpellation, resistance, science
1. Introduction Social class determination was very strong at 15th century when it determined how people could eat, spoke, worship and so forth. The social class was deemed to be a culture and people admired this condition, but some people tried to fight against this culture. Those people became marginal because they believed that struggle would bring the prosperity of life. According to Paola E. Signorett, the cause of Italian problems was the church strict dominance, and developed into the lost religious moorings and had kept the Italians become politically divided (72). Moreover this situation was the cause of reformation orthodoxy and convicted to some Italy’s most brilliant intellectuals-philosophers and scientists such as Giordano Bruno, who was burned as a heretic in 1600, Tommaso Campanella, who was imprisoned in 1599 for 27 years, and Galileo Galilei, who was forced to recant his Copernican beliefs and was placed under permanent house arrest in 1633 (Signorett 73). As an interesting phenomenon in 15th century, the dominance issue of churches in science is also brought to life in some literary works. The writer chooses a literary work The Life of Galileo that comes from one of the most important figures in Europe and especially twentieth Century literature. The Life of Galileo is a drama from early twentieth century by Eugen Bertolt Friedrich Brecht that represents the marginality of science against the domination of religion, or cage of new era of science. The play is based on the life of Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) who was a key figure in the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century. Even if the setting of the whole play is in the seventeenth century, in fact Bertolt Brecht was all wrong about the seventeenth century in general and about Galileo Galilei in particular. Brecht wanted to develop his own epic theatre, and he had done his job by accepting the evidence of his senses. The Life of Galileo is a paradigmatic work of contemporary scientific theatre not only because of the playwright’s reputation, but also for its outcome and the influence on the later theatrical productions at that era. Nevertheless, the truth (fact) does not have to be plausible but fiction does (Brecht 11).
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In The Life of Galileo, the whole story told about how a scientist was struggle for demanding the truth and justice. However, Galileo changed his attitude that originally he was a man who was determined to reveal the truth and finally he became afraid to the fearful power of church. Then, he surrendered with his determination about his discovery. Nevertheless, Galileo’s thought would become a great change in history and it proved the new truth. The interesting point here is about how an initial resistance changes the perspective of the world that represents by Galileo Galilei’s character as a determination to reach the truth as a beginning of the modern world. Galileo believed that all things must be considered logically and academically. In the end, Galileo lost his will to try struggle because the Church used their apparatus to prevent his thought. The problem of using apparatus to gain a power that Galileo has to face in this drama is well known in Post-Marxism theory as Ideological State Apparatus and Repressive State Apparatus introduced by a French Marxist Philosopher Louis Althusser. He believes that the attitude of people through a process called interpellation or hailing the subject, which ideology’s power gives some individuals identity by the structures and prevailing forces of society (Althusser, Ideological Apparatus State. Modern Theory: An Anthology 181). Beside, Althusser also adds about the vast majority of the “good” subject: “People are inserted into practices, governed by the rituals of the Ideology. It means that people recognize the existing state of affairs, that really is true that it is so and not otherwise, and that they must be obedient to god, to their conscience, to the priest, to the boss, and so forth”. (Althusser, Ideological Apparatus State. Modern Theory: An Anthology 181) Using an ideology to gain a domination trough the society is not a new issue since there have been many researches on the Ideological State Apparatus and Repressive State Apparatus especially in literary works, including the studies from Tripti Tyagi, Ihsan Alwan Muhsin, and Ira Kristanti Bumbungan which equally analyze the Ideological and Repressive State Apparatus. Tripti Tyagi focused on protagonist character Mary Turner in Doris Lessing’s The Grass is Singing who was affected by the ruling ideological practices prevailed in the society, Ihsan Alwan Muhsin analyzed Galileo Galilei in Bertolt Brecht’s The Life of Galileo who was affected by the Church ideology and described as disastrous man, and Ira Kristanti Bumbungan applied Ideology and Ideological State Apparatus in Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things based on the caste that influence the people related with Christianity and Marxism. As those two studies also concerns with the Ideological and Repressive State Apparatus, the three previous studies above can help the writer to develop this study that bring issue about the resistance ideology against the dominance power that has not been addressed in their studies. Moreover, this study is focused on how the Church’s dominance as an Ideological State Apparatus operating toward people socially and politically and also about Galileo Galilei’s resistance against the Church’s dominance in Bertolt Brecht’s The Life of Galileo. 2. Marxist science Marxist criticism is related with Galileo's perspective about science. In order to give a correlation between the source of bourgeois and raw materials, the writer attempts to explain about the production of industrial development. Marxist science describes that our lives today are determined in every respect by the capitalist system of production related with industrial and science that have jurisdiction in which we live (Ranciere 61). In the capitalist society, there is an action by people that fated to be opposite with the domination through a revolution. This weight held by people who feel injustice in this world, and those people called proletariat. For sure, the proletariat try to observe the bourgeois as their concept to gain equality. It could be conceived by their participation in the political and economic education that held by bourgeois. Althusser argued that under modern capitalism during modern period, the education system had become the primary focus of class struggle to gain “human dignity” (qtd. in Ranciere 86). Moreover, the achievement of “human dignity” would make possible it to be accessed within the placing of morals and politics on the same scientific basis, putting an end to the separation between the certainty of science and the affirmations of moral experiences “by giving point to fact and ground to value” (Thomas 17). Every part that brings dignity and value in science must be determined by equality and justice in the society. Nevertheless, the science of society was necessary to keep the harmonious
10 The Resistance of Galileo Galilei against The Church’s Domination in Bertolt Brecht’s The Life of Galileo relations of various fragments of humanity (Thomas 17). Althusser also provides that the separation between “objects of knowledge” and “real objects” into several work which he discovered products of scientific theory. He said that the latter are their referents, the referents provided by a real, material world that present themselves to the scientist. The scientist’s task is to make objects of knowledge congruent with real objects at the levels of tasks to be performed or work (theoretical production), since the chance of the two can in no way be anticipated or taken for established (qtd. in Thomas 120). The raw material for scientific activity is provided by ideological conceptions of the world whose ideological character is covered under the nearness of sense impressions, uncovering its ideological system and can be the work of science (Thomas 121). As Althusser said, Ideologies by their very nature cannot admit to reveal their own ideological character (qtd. in Thomas 123). Indeed, only science has the wherewithal to do this. It is because science has the capacity to go beyond the immediate relations of everyday life. Ideology by contrast fails to reflect on itself or even to identify itself as ideological (Thomas 123). On the other hand, Althusser’s science is the imagery relationship of individuals to their real condition of existence that the science would appear as irreversible in history. The history of the science is the history of the defeats of irrationalism (Thomas 121). But the fight among man and domination of science is without end. Furthermore, Althusser in his memoir, The Future Lasts Forever said that he was astounded to find that science had such a great impact in his theory that he never expected before (184). In his essay The Humanist Controversy, Althusser thought that the disputes between sciences against ideology would be eternal, and Marxism would be ideology that is secure against bourgeois ideologies. Moreover, Althusser also added that history of materialism is based on the class struggle, and an eternal conflict between Marxist science and some ideologies like humanism (266). 3. Discussion 3.1. Galileo’s science Most people know that Galileo’s discovery is related with physics and astronomy. His investigation of the laws of motion (3. 61), water pumps (7. 92), and improvements on the telescope (3. 78) helped further the understanding of the world and universe around him. Both led him to question the current belief of the time, which all things revolved around the Earth. The new physics that Galileo offer is related with the change in the economic foundation. It is determined with the precision of material transformation and natural science. On the other hands, Galileo’s science is the example to the invention of industrialization. The new knowledge has been learned by Galileo, and all of which tends towards a conflict. The knowledge of physics by Galileo that represented in drama is also confirmed as the history of the defeat of irrationalism. According to Marxist criticism, the base has an important role in determining the rationalism which people tend to understand a concept of production. According to Althusser, the portrayal of the base in society is related with the fact of material world (The Future Lasts Forever 184). Indeed, the theoretical of production (science) is not prevailed into the society. In the beginning of the drama, it can be observed in the dialogue that depicts the condition of society. People tend to do things with a ridiculous method in order to solve a problem. There was a group of masons arguing, and Galileo said, “… after five minutes' discussion … a method which had been employed for a thousand years …” (1. 65-67). Yet, no one of those people is able to solve the problem with their knowledge of production which is beyond the human expectation. According to Althusser, the scientist’s task is to make objects of knowledge compatible with real objects and to be performed or work (theoretical production) (qtd. in Thomas 120). In addition to the “theoretical of production” is applied in the society, another reason for Galileo’s science is the existence of knowledge in the society that Galileo is living in. Those are the science and the real objects. In the scene 8 after Galileo’s thought had been rejected, to the monk Galileo explained about his new water pumps might develop the virtues of happiness and prosperity (7. 89-93). This dialogue indicated that science could bring wealth in life. It could give an effort to the people that the invention might change
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their status and their class. Galileo believed that his invention was better instrument because it had a value in order to develop the qualities of prosperity. From those points of view, the writer attempts to elaborate that Galileo’s science represents how a scientist must acts according to scientific ideology. Althusser gave the term about “Scientific Ideologies” that was referred to philosophical representations by affecting the development of science, society and even the nature of scientific concepts (The Future Lasts Forever 184). The phenomenon of Galileo’s science brought him to the domination of production. This condition made Galileo to choose the thought that he would become a saviour in humanity, even though the disputed between Galileo’s sciences against the Church’s science would be faced. 3.2. The church’s domination in the life of Galileo According to Althusser, religious ideology as the “interpellation” of the subject is the new “core of Christianity” which gives religion no other reality than a dominance of dogma (qtd. in Ranciere 76). The Ideology here is a dogma by the church. Dogma here is a teaching that contains and organizes people’s activities according to the values of life in the drama. In this drama, the Church’s state apparatus was controlled by the pope, cardinals, bishops, and inquisitors. As bourgeois or ruler, they also could be accompanied by monarchs, businessman, and aristocrats in order to dominate the society. For ruling class, those relations are the system that needs some function of apparatus to maintain and secure their domination. Nevertheless, the Church is an apparatus form which is able to keep their interest to rule the Subject (ideology) or the people. The Church is also considered as a repressive apparatus. On the other hand, the State is a machine of repression, which enables the ruling classes to ensure their domination over the society and the powerless. From that point of view, there are two dogmas that could be explained from the Church’s domination. First, the pope is the right hand of God, which is heaven, can be obtained when the pope wants us to go to heaven. There is no person able to oppose the pope or they will be cursed by God. Thus they also gain a political power which is capitalized by their letters of the penance, “… the special powers invested in certain commissions of the Holy Office …” (7. 27-28). Second, society means that all activities were led into a religious life. It means that activities were done to protect the religion itself. As depicted in the drama, after Galileo had become prisoner, he asks to Andrea about his theory (13. 114-116). Relentlessly, Andrea answered “Yes, on receiving the news of your recantation, they (scientist) shelved their treatise on science” (13. 120-121). Like the example set by scientists, they had to hailing to the regulation. They were also daring to scold, abandoned or even hurt anyone who opposed the Church apparatus because they have been ‘interpellated’ with a dogma. 3.3. Galileo Galilei’s resistances The writer divided Galileo’s resistant in three ways: resistance of scientific evidence, resistance against the dogma of Church, and resistance against the education of Church (bourgeoisie) with his lesson. First, science must be academically and logically accepted by society. It is about scientific evidence which appears in some scenes that Galileo explains it to the society. His scientist friends and the Monk were the example, who gave impressions related with Galileo’s ideas about Heliocentric (3. 150-156). For sure, this method would give Galileo some support because his thinking is correct and rational. That attitude against the Church was made some people feel hesitate toward the teachings of the Church. Galileo intended to evoke the truth that scientists were very affected by the scientific ideology. Second, by using analogy that gives more understanding about the religion. Galileo tried to oppose the dogma in order to give an advice about the truth. ”In his blindness man is liable to misread not only the sky but also the Bible” (6. 130-131). He told The Cardinals and other followers of the ancient faith to imagine about the development of science and the misperception. Galileo’s struggle against the dogma shows that he might be more religious than the Cardinal because people tend to believe about reason rather than a faith (11. 64). The church was afraid of the consequences of Galileo’s truth, as if “fear rules not only those who are ruled, but also the rulers too” (11. 65-66).
12 The Resistance of Galileo Galilei against The Church’s Domination in Bertolt Brecht’s The Life of Galileo Third, in teachings Galileo told some people in order to spread his scientific ideology. Galileo gave Andrea about his understanding on the bourgeois interest which was referred to the Church institution. Scientist did not need those things. Galileo’s lesson gave an overview that "science must be humanity, humanity created by religion, and religion should understand about science". In addition Galileo’s struggle was not only represents how to gain a justice, but also give a moral message that every person has the proportions of power (12. 134-140). Equality doesn’t meant justice, it shows that everyone have their own responsibility according to their power. Since Galileo's success to ‘interpellate’ his student, Andrea’s struggle can be proved in the some scene. When it came to the news about the Holy Father and he is on his deathbed, with cheerful Andrea singing “The Bible proves the earth stands still, The Pope, he swears with tears … He takes it by the ears … And yet-and yet it moves” (8. 185-196). Yet, in the scene 12 line 58, when he supported Galileo’s idea, he said “Listen all of you, they are murdering the truth” to the Church. This action is also the ideology that manifested the point of view of those who ensnared in the bourgeoisie’s ideological domination (Ranciere 72). According to Andrea, Galileo was the bourgeois of science. It means that Galileo’s ideology was different with the dogma (vast of majority) that refused the truth from scientific evidence. Furthermore, Galileo gave a glimpse of scientific ideology which is represented by the social Revolution (8. 290-292) and the imaginary of the real world. 3.4. The scientific ideology as a counter to the domination As a scientist, Galileo is also a teacher, a philosopher, and a socialist regarding to his scientific ideology that represents in the drama. In this drama, people lived in the illusion of religion that the teaching of the Church was become the fundamental of live. By using ISA and RSA, the Church successfully dominated the society for long ago. However, Galileo gave a clue about her struggle to opposite the Church’s domination even so he was not realized that his idea successfully spread in Europe. It happened because he always taught the truth of the science to anyone especially to Andrea, even though he was in the jeopardy. Thus, the seed of rebel that was represented by Andrea grew up and become an action of rebellion. In each of the rebellion, definitely there was an overthrow to the domination. It happens because basically rebellion occurs based on the attitude to dominate each other. In this drama, there are context that determined by Galileo’s dream to become a big mathematician which have a big influence in society (4. 106-107), against the Church’s dogma which has big influence to the society. Those two ideas have their own power to take over each other. While power is associated with authority, the Ideology would become an instrument of perpetual friction between development of science and politics.
Galileo was not only search for the truth behind his struggle, but also it conveyed the impression of a certain idea that would bring to the representation of the resistance to gain a justice. As time goes on, the ideological and repressive state apparatus that was stated by the Church was the form of domination continued as an abuse of authority. In The Life of Galileo, The scientists as the intellectuals being, allied and united in their class interests and supported by the Church could in general only offer them servile and derisory employment. By hailing their ruler, scientists who ‘interpellated’ with a dogma tend to ignore the truth even if they know it (4. 60-61). However, there are some solutions that give some alternative
13 Allusion Volume 06 No 01 (February 2017) | Gondo Handianto; Rina Saraswati ways to opposite those conditions that represents in this drama. According to Karl Marx in “Communist Manifesto”, he stated that capitalism could become a chaotic development of the productive forces, because they incapable to controlled the forces that it has unleashed the propagation and intensification of crises (Marx, 28). Those circumstances give any gap that could be resisted in order to gain a justice for proletariats. From Galileo’s perspective, it could be provide an education as a basic knowledge about Socialism for humanity.
From the picture above, the writer attempts to analyze the rationalism between Galileo’s evidence against the Church’s evidence about science. Since every people who had religion in the drama believe that the earth is the centre of the universe according to the Bible, they tend to refuse Galileo’s rational because his theory is not considered as science (5. 40-43). In other words, they feel that the sun move around the earth (Geocentric). Indeed, by understanding that science is knowledge to maintain a source, it is like science that represents the fundamental source (base) against the Dogma that represents by the superstructure. The writer overlook science is a base, because science not only a method to maintain base in order to gain a domination. It is also use to uncovering the ideological system (Thomas 120). On the other hand, the superstructure which was represented by a Dogma, and Galileo tried to oppose it with his scientific ideology. It was because without base, the superstructure could not be acquired. Why does the Church need to dominate science? From this question, the writer attempts to explain about the cause-effect, about the give-receive logic. In the capitalist activity, to secure their domination toward their labour, they give wage in order to make their labour come back again to their production. It is like the Church give follower to the new king to get throne, whereas the new king gives the Church military force in order to secure their domination. It is like the Church give Galileo letter of penance to Galileo, whereas Galileo renounce his teaching about Heliocentric (12. 96). In fact, many religious institutions need to spread their lesson in order to gain many followers. “This man is the greatest physics of our time … he is the light of Italy …” (11. 42-43). The Church and the King needed to secured and spread their domination with a science (2. 47-49); it is like a jargon about “Gold, Glory, and Gospel”. Indeed, in that era, sea voyage and expanding territorial is the main activity in order to acquire domination with find a new land, which Galileo’s telescope is the main way to acquire those objectives.
14 The Resistance of Galileo Galilei against The Church’s Domination in Bertolt Brecht’s The Life of Galileo Moreover, science cannot be separated from students, scholars, and any educational institutions which is they acquire knowledge to follow the bourgeois interest. Althusser believed that the student movement could be touched off the general strike and assumed that student movement was more important than the workers' movement (The Future Lasts Forever xiii). On the one hand, without any scientist, the ruler cannot maintain their domination of production. Indeed, the ruler does not want this condition happen and they make ideological and repressive apparatus. On the other hands, the writer expected without revolutionary theory there can be no revolutionary practice and that movement would be nothing. Yet, Galileo teach Andrea who becomes Galileo’s pupil (13. 137) about those practices based on Galileo’s struggle against the Church. Galileo realized that in future, Andrea would be a teacher which is related with a higher education (13. 314-315). According to Althusser that the higher education could be made a revolution movement and Science could become the slogan of the ideological revolution (qtd. in Rancière 154). Moreover, Galileo said, “Truth is the son of time, not of Authority …” (scene 4, 86-87). That words had deep meanings and might represents Galileo’s dream in order to spread about the truth. “… I (Galileo) gave Redhead (Andrea) his first lesson; when he held out his hand, I had to remind myself he is teaching now …” (13. 313-315). Thus, a history had stolen the right of youth with the oppressed circumstance. In that condition as such students like Andrea had imprinted the education of struggle (Althusser 12). As happened to Andrea when he accompanied Galileo in Florence, he said to the bourgeois that, “they are wicked” (68. 76). The rejection of Galileo’s theory was surprised Andrea just as he began to understand about the world, and turned him to understand about the existence of classes, of Galileo’s struggles and Galileo’s aims. From this evidence, it forced Andrea to draw the only possible conclusion, Revolution. 4. Conclusion This study revealed that Galileo’s resistance in Bertolt Brecht’s The Life of Galileo was the impact of the Church domination, the perpetual friction between scientific ideology, and also the Dogma which prevented Galileo from spreading the truth. All of them show how ‘interpellation’ which was the religious ideology makes people’s life in the illusion. Based on the analysis, this drama gives more attention to the representation of two sides of science, the Church’s science and Galileo’s science. Galileo’s science represented in the drama is always burdened by Heliocentric perspective which is considered as heretic in society. On the other hand, the Church’s science that is Geocentric is very dominant. At first, they do not to worry about Galileo’s science because they have dogma, which is dominated in the society and secured the Church domination. However, as time goes on the Church is afraid of the consequences about Heliocentricism, as if “fear rules not only those who are ruled, but also the rulers too” (11. 65-66). The writer finds that the drama does not give many portions that portray the structure of base and superstructure. It seems like Bertolt Brecht gave certain emphasis on portrayal of the science and humanity. The writer suggests that Bertolt Brecht focused on the science and humanity so that people can realize how great this science affects many people’s life. From those points of view, it can be concluded that Galileo’s science has no boundary, science is special. Indeed, Galileo’s scientific ideologies have an important place in the resistance against domination. It was directly govern the people’s life in the development of humanity. Furthermore, Bertolt Brecht’s The Life of Galileo portrays that science and art have played a significant role in human history, so it has an important role if we want to learn how to live together peacefully in an increasingly mutually-dependent world. 5. Works cited Adamo, Arthur D. "Science Without Bounds: A Synthesis of Science, Religion and Mysticism by Arthur D'Adamo." Science Without Bounds: A Synthesis of Science, Religion and Mysticism ,Arthur D'Adamo, 9781414054728. Http://www.AdamFord.com/swb. Web. 17 Dec. 2015.
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