the psychologist vol 29 no 9 september 2016 www.thepsychologist.org.uk
Experiencing the ‘surveillance society’ Darren Ellis, Dave Harper and Ian Tucker
letters 658 the social psychology of cybersecurity 686 news 668 untying the hardest knots 690 careers 710 interview: Judith Rich Harris 696 looking back 730 new voices: who cares for the carers? 698 Contact The British Psychological Society the psychologist... St Andrews House 48 Princess Road East ...features Leicester LE1 7DR 0116 254 9568 [email protected] www.bps.org.uk
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the issue ...debates With barely a day passing between tragic terrorist atrocities, and the letters 658 blood-saturated media coverage police armed response; Black Lives Matter; that flows from them, it’s easy to Jerome Bruner, 1915-2016; President’s Letter; form the impression that we live and more in very insecure times. With this month’s loose theme of ‘security and policing’, you will encounter ...digests several pieces that consider how the brain deals with blinks; expert schmoozers; OCD; and more, in the countermeasures, and whether latest from our Research Digest (also available as blog, email, app, and more) 676 they genuinely make us feel safer. Our cover feature (p.682) looks at surveillance, and argues that ...meets psychologists have been slow to news 674 cast their own watchful eyes over 5 minutes with Marc Chevreau on encouraging wellbeing and resilience the implications of increased levels. in children A relative lack of psychological inquiry is also a theme of Peter interview 696 Squire’s consideration of police we hear from Judith Rich Harris about her extraordinary fightback against armed response (p.658). Other entrenched views of child development articles look at those putting psychological theory and research careers 710 to practice in areas such as we meet Peter Hobson, Emeritus Professor of Developmental cybersecurity and conflict resolution. Psychopathology at University College London; Thomas Hoare describes Often when we publish such his voluntary work in Nigeria; and Hope Christie offers a practical guide to a collection, I receive emails saying the final undergraduate year ‘I work in this area, I wish you had one on one 732 asked me’. Well, unlike the UK’s with clinical psychologist, trainer and author Lucy Johnstone CCTV system, I can’t possibly have eyes everywhere… please don’t wait to be asked, get in touch now! ...reviews Dr Jon Sutton Managing Editor @psychmag Notes on Blindness; Dr Broks’ Casebook; ‘Wounded’ at the Science Museum; The Spoils; and books 718
718 ...looks back Phantom suffering? 730 Joanna Bourke looks into physical and emotional wounding after the First World War
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In July, five Dallas police officers were shot dead by a black ‘black’ humour, and residual elements of sexism and racism. activist angered by the grossly disproportionate death toll of When these traits are factored into tactics and use of force, African American men following police encounters. More than the evidence suggests that, just as police deploy legal powers ever we need calm heads, clear thinking, effective (such as vehicle checks, stop and frisk), they may also use non- communication, the sensitive application of training principles, legal powers such as ‘DWB’ or ‘driving while black’, a form of minimum use of force, and public accountability. Unfortunately, racial profiling relating to US vehicle checks; the ‘attitude test’, when split-second decision-making is called for in a fast-moving a judgement reached by British police officers concerning and potentially dangerous situation, these ideals may be hard to whether a suspect was suitably compliant and deferential, where come by – especially when overlaid by fear, uncertainty, failing the test could result in an arrest for ‘obstruction’; and the suspicion and, yes, the baggage of racist working assumptions ‘Ways and Means Act’, a non-existent piece of legislation cited sometimes conflated with an idea of ‘racial profiling’. by UK officers to legitimise their actions vis-à-vis some The issues raised resonate in recent British debates about unsuspecting petty offenders. police use, and misuse, of force. British police firearms Another central issue is that officers often deploy the instructors I’ve interviewed have referred to the need for officers equipment they have to achieve the purposes they seek. Other to develop ‘muscle trained’ reactions. Facing immediate threats, issues enter the frame of reference, especially, for instance, their training routines should kick in and they, almost officer safety, but the message is generally that police will deploy instinctively, do the right thing – legally, procedurally, the equipment they are given. Use of CS sprays increased mechanically, effectively – to ‘neutralise’ (interesting word, that) dramatically following their introduction, arrestees sometimes any threat. being given a little spray once handcuffed (and contrary to Yet, even as the Dallas police deployed a weaponised regulations) as a de facto field punishment for non-compliance robot against the sniper, police officers are not robots. Instead during the arrest; Taser use, likewise increased 45 per cent cultivating professionalism and ethical integrity is seen to be the during 2011, when they were deployed to more UK police key. A lot hangs on that phrase ‘almost instinctively’. Whereas forces (see tinyurl.com/zhjz5dp). And the same goes for guns. those of a psychological orientation might want to unravel the One of the most dramatic demonstrations of cultural distinct ‘learned’, ‘trained’, ‘perceived’, ‘co-produced’ and differences in policing dictated by whether the police force in ‘situationally determined’ factors – which, vying with adrenaline- question was routinely armed is demonstrated in two articles rushed, fight-or-flight responses, influence police action and (Hendy, 2014; Knutsson & Strype, 2003) exploring differences decisions – sociologists like me have tended to look elsewhere. between the Norwegian and Swedish police (the latter routinely The notion of ‘police culture’ looms large in sociological armed, the former, not so). Evidence showed that the Swedish studies of policing, invoked to explain the non-correspondence police routinely approached crime incidents with guns drawn, between policing practice and policing theory (law, training, challenged and confronted suspects with drawn weapons and, ethics, professionalism, etc.). This issue has arisen in many perhaps as a result, fired weapons five to six times more Independent Police Complaints Commission investigations. frequently. The message was pretty clear; weapons exerted The IPCC operates according to what it calls a ‘learning from a powerful influence upon officers, upon how police officers mistakes’ philosophy, but it sometimes appears as if the causes approached suspects, how they managed incidents and, of the original ‘mistake’ are insufficiently well understood. The ultimately how they ‘performed’ their roles as police officers. argument goes beyond relatively crude contrasts between so- Beyond these stark differences in approach, there is a wide called ‘rotten apples’ and ‘rotten orchards’ and picks up on the range of psychological research (both experimental and ways in which organisational routines, institutional practices, situational) that Peter Kennison and I summarise in our book customs and procedures are shaped by certain non-official values Shooting to Kill? (2010, Wiley-Blackwell, pp.90–91). This adds and traits such as ‘group loyalty’ (the infamous ‘thin blue line’), another layer of findings to the mix: police officers briefed about an action-oriented sense of mission, masculinity, suspicion the ‘dangerousness’ of the suspect being sought, were more (accompanied by often derogatory stereotypes of major ‘client’ likely to shoot; officers who had to race to get to the scene groups (youth, street populations, ethnic minority groups), (perhaps already adrenaline charged) were more likely to shoot;
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Black lives matter Do the lives of our children that is becoming all too matter? frequent – the kind of officers able to contain a suspect (for instance, in a building) Do the lives of our response that suggests were less likely to shoot; officers who had drunk large amounts brothers matter? a black man or black woman of coffee were rather more likely to shoot, and officers Do the lives of our sisters is threatening or dangerous. witnessing a weapon were more likely to shoot. White officers matter? And subsequently, a need to were also more likely to shoot black suspects; officers who What about the lives of react based on a fear of this heard gunfire were more likely to open fire themselves our husbands, fathers, wives danger. This is not a new (‘contagious gunfire’). and mothers? reaction. The difference now, Not all of these findings lend themselves to easy policy Most people would is the magnification of these responses, though they do underpin the idea that violent probably answer yes to these events through the world stage policing responses are the product of many potential questions. How do we then of social media platforms. influences, contexts and narratives, and not just street-level explain the lives lost in There will be people out encounters. Eradicating unnecessary seemingly there (psychologists and non- violence from policing encounters normal psychologists) thinking why must be as far-reaching. There is moments like black people? And we ask why enormous scope for further walking down not black people? As a psychological inquiry here. the street in profession, we know what the All of which may bring us back a hoodie, invalidation of an experience to Police and African American selling CDs can do to an individual, a confrontations in the USA in the on a street, group or a community. Our wake of the #BlackLivesMatter or driving to work does not begin and end protests. While most US police a new job? in the therapy room. As officers will work their entire careers Trayvon psychologists, we have a duty without firing their weapons, gun- Martin. Alton to be a part of the narrative, to driven street encounters have Sterling. Sandra openly advocate for our clients become increasingly fraught. They Bland. Mzee and to adopt a stance that are overlaid by a climate of fear and Charles Kinsey – shot Mohammed. Sarah strengthens the narratives of mutual mistrust, allegations of racism Reed. Jermaine individuals who have been and alleged impunity when sensitive triggers are too easily Baker. Since 1990 156 BME disenfranchised. pulled and few legal consequences follow. Discussing the deaths in police custody in the Black lives matter because, earlier ‘Jim Crow’ era when justice and race relations fell UK. Their lives mattered, but for far too long, black lives markedly out of step with US law and the Constitution, US tragically they are no longer have been ignored and historian Kevin Boyle writes of how racist violence was part of here. It is not a coincidence minimised. This statement a way of life in the South: ‘whites learned to have hair-trigger that on both sides of the does not take away from the tempers’ to keep blacks in their supposed place. A scenario, Atlantic, perhaps more significance of other lives. surely, to be avoided, but under ‘concealed-carry’ and so-called frequently in the US, a number Instead, it sheds light on issues Castle-Doctrine laws, many states have delegated the right to of young black men and that many still find too kill even to private citizens. At least police officers are trained women have suffered at the uncomfortable and difficult to and, as noted already, it is in training, careful briefing, more hands of the authorities and talk about. We cannot afford effective communication, incident de-escalation management, paid a price with their lives. to be uncomfortable and do and community centred and accountable policing that solutions As counselling nothing – not when a black will need to be found. After all, the so called ‘fleeing felon’ laws psychologists we stand up for boy can get killed walking to which, in the US South, had seen a huge disproportion in the those we engage with who are a store to buy skittles. numbers of black men shot in the back while apparently fleeing impacted by these very sad How can we all contribute the police, were gradually abolished in the late 1960s and 70s, incidents. The truth be told, to Black Lives Matter? By and police departments were required to bring the practices of these young men and women educating our peers; having their officers back within the law. look like us. Our privileges as open dialogues around race, Peter Squires professionals do not by any racism and discrimination; Professor of Criminology and Public Policy, University of Brighton stretch of imagination protect recognising privilege and us against these occurrences. exploiting it in service to References One only has to look to the others; speaking up and Hendy, R. (2014). Routinely armed and unarmed police. Policing, 8(2), 183–192. experience of Charles Kinsey, contributing our knowledge; Knutsson, J. & Strype, J. (2003). Police use of firearms in Norway and Sweden – the an African American by standing alongside significance of gun availability. Policing and Society, 13(4), 429–439. behavioural therapist who individuals who march in the was shot, even after he name of justice and lives lost; Editor’s note: I would like to feature more on this topic in a later demonstrated he was and by pushing for change and edition. I know there is research out there – see the excellent unarmed. He was doing his accountability. summaries by BuzzFeed journalist Peter Aldhous job, endeavouring to calm his Dr Yetunde Ade-Serrano (tinyurl.com/zu8ppqf and tinyurl.com/zp3zwf4) – so I would be autistic client. Like many CPsychol, AFBPsS very grateful if any psychologists researching police armed others before him, the colour Dr Ohemaa Nkansa-Dwamena response could get in touch with me on [email protected]. of his skin prompted a CPsychol, AFBPsS response from police officers London
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NOTICEBOARD Adult autism – hidden I would like to highlight to psychologists a website I have in forensic settings developed to provide emotional support to parents of disabled children (www.affinityhub.uk). In DSM-5 autism spectrum disorder (ASD) Even if forensic healthcare professionals are Parents of children with is defined by persistent deficits in social alerted to a potential case, diagnosis generally special needs sometimes feel communication, interaction and imagination, requires detailed neurodevelopmental history to like their life is very different associated with restricted, repetitive patterns of inform NICE-recommended clinical assessment. from other families and can behaviour, interests and activities and potential This detail is often difficult to obtain for become isolated. The website sensory difficulties. In the UK, NICE Quality forensic populations. Additionally, instruments aims to reduce isolation by Standards target a three months waiting time are often lengthy and costly, limiting their use including quotes from other between assessment referral and first in these financially austere times. Shorter parents to remind people that appointment. However, on average, adults wait (cheaper) screening tools have been trialled to they are not alone. It outlines two years. Termed the ‘diagnosis crisis’, this has overcome these issues regarding other mental many of the complex emotions been experienced by many within the health disorders; however, despite preliminary parents may feel in relation to community. studies, no such instruments are employed their child’s disability, including England’s community adult ASD prevalence systematically within forensic services regarding anger and denial, so as to is estimated at 0.98 per cent (Brugha et al., ASD. Whilst general mental health awareness normalise these feelings. The 2011) compared to 2.3 per cent within secure has had a recent focus for forensic staff, there site also lists organisations that psychiatric settings (Scragg & Shah, 1994), appears to be need for specialist ASD awareness provide emotional support as suggesting ASD is potentially going unrecognised training and clarity regarding the pathway for well as private practitioners who elsewhere within forensic settings, which may screening, assessment and referral. have experience of supporting be due to a number of factors. ASDs may be Despite governmental publications parents in a similar situation. masked – relatively rule-adherent behaviour promoting appropriate assessment and support Any practitioners who have creating minimal management issues; missed – for those with ASD, more needs to be done relevant experience and would poor staff understanding of ASD presentations regarding forensic populations. Although the like to be included on the site, resulting from inadequate training; or overlooked update Think Autism (tinyurl.com/z9c3x9w) please email me. – even if suspected, from lack of awareness of contains a chapter focusing upon ASDs within Jo Griffin CPsychol, AFBPsS the benefits associated with referral to specialist the criminal justice system (a development from [email protected] services (and even the process), or owing to the past lack of focus) overall, only five out of unavailability of resources. Recent research has 33 action points focus upon this population. I am seeking Excel files of suggested individuals with ASD within prison Accurate recognition is a starting point to Ravens APM from 2005 or later, often have more traumatic experiences because understanding potential links with offending devoid of identifiers except for their additional needs are not recognised and behaviour, vulnerability to victimisation, and age and gender. This is with the subsequently met (see hope of showing more light on tinyurl.com/ho4d8ls). T the Flynn effect. Two of my Within forensic settings IM S papers, identified an anti-Flynn it may seem if a diagnosis is ANDERS effect in Piagetian tests of reached, a person’s pathway a drastic reduction of the may not be altered; so ‘What’s proportion showing Piaget’s the point?’ (a question heard formal thinking, coupled with a asked in clinical practice). reduction in those at lower levels However, receiving a diagnosis of concrete thinking: both in can help provide explanation relation to 1976. There was also for difficulties experienced, as some evidence suggesting these well as contributing towards changes were post 1995 only. the formulation of risk issues, I wish to see if the same effect and reasons they have come to shows in psychometric tests (i.e. forensic services’ attention. On that the score range has become the basis that understanding squeezed between the middle risk is the key to reduction and and upper-middle score range). management, and the fact that Could anyone please supply? forensic patients deserve the The ages covered should be same levels of care as other between 11/12 and 15. Also I non-forensic individuals, there would also like to get APM data is a clear ‘point’ to assessment limited to the years 1992 to 1997. in forensic settings. Despite Michael Shayer this, resources for assessment Emeritus Professor, King’s are limited. This article calls for College, London more attention and investment [email protected] to move towards this sub- population of offenders.
660 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 letters M ARK P INDER / REPORTDIGITAL . CO . subsequently the ability to provide effective UK support and treatment. However, services are limited. There needs to be increased awareness, specialised support and interventions in place; in forensic settings and the community in general. However, without accurate identification and recognition, support that is available (charities, prison champions, specialist forensic teams) may be inaccessible. Appropriate identification is the first (and vital) step. Lack of recognition limits opportunity for: accurate offence analysis and subsequent risk- management plan development; awareness regarding increased vulnerability (bullying/exploitation) or heightened risk of psychiatric comorbidity; and mismanagement More complex than of potentially challenging behaviour as a result of social and communication skill deficits. Clearly all of these issues are problematic scapegoating in themselves and costly; inadequate risk management and subsequent reoffending In his letter entitled last few years north of SNP’s stance as being costs more than assessment and support, ‘Brexit – how do we go the border, and bears fundamentally anti- both financially and regarding public safety. forward?’ (August 2016) little relationship to the English is one of the The government’s commitment to support Dr John McGowan notes outward-looking SNP. reasons the SNP have individuals with ASD to lead ‘fulfilling and that it is ‘tempting to By engaging with been running rings rewarding lives’ should not exclude the generalise’, then asserts issues of inequality and around the incarcerated. The hidden population within that the Scottish public health, for Conservatives and forensic services deserve our attention; for National Party’s appeal example, the SNP has Labour here. There their care, and for the safety of potential future to the voters of Scotland developed a very broad seems no lack of victims. In summary, we suggest accurate is based on scapegoating constituency, and one ‘considering greater identification could facilitate effective ‘Sassenachs’. I suggest that reaches far beyond complexity’ in the assessment and management of challenging that this is a the political gains that current Scottish political presentations, the risk of developing additional fundamentally ‘Sassenach scapegoating’ situation, in my view at mental health issues, specialist support and misguided would have made least. service needs, and risk of future offending. In understanding of the possible. The consistent Ewen McLachlan order to provide intervention, focus needs to political situation of the misconception of the Edinburgh be placed on assessment within forensic settings, we call for greater investment specifically in this area. ASD should not be invisible within forensic services, and we hope to promote debate in this area. Publishing and self-publishing Sarah Ashworth Forensic Psychologist in Training I sympathise with Richard Hallam electronic submission system and University of Nottingham (Letter, ‘Rewards of academic life’, the royalties are high. Richard might Dr Ruth J. Tully August 2016). I am fortunate in having experiment by self-publishing the Centre for Family and Forensic Psychology a very good publisher for my textbook, material as an e-book to see if it makes University of Nottingham but some publishers do appear to prey more than £560.00. My own on the good will and aspirations of experiences of self-publishing e-books References academics by offering very low returns are that it costs practically nothing, Brugha, T., McManus, S., Bankart, J. et al. (2011). Epidemiology (‘Oh, but it will be good for your is tremendous fun, but sales are poor of autism spectrum disorders in adults in the community in career, though…’). Perhaps the low fee without the benefits of professional England. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68, 459–466. reflects the publisher’s view of the sales marketing and other services provided Scragg P. & Shah, A. (1994). Prevalence of Asperger’s potential of the book? Self-publishing by good publishers. syndrome in a secure hospital. British Journal of Psychiatry, e-books (on Amazon Kindle, for Dr Robert Bridger 165, 679–682. example) is as easy nowadays as Institute of Naval Medicine submitting a paper through a journal’s Gosport, Hampshire
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‘Taking a stand’ debate continues …Tho’ much is taken, much abides; were undoubtedly negative (‘New Society learned academy, are and tho’ President stirs debate’, June 2016), giving helpless in fighting the We are not now that strength which in the impression such that debate itself is injustices we see on a old days negative. I would like to pose the question national and societal level. Moved earth and heaven, that which of why debate is so negative – surely such We are not. As a newly we are, we are; debates are to hear all sides of the story qualified psychologist, One equal temper of heroic hearts, with the aim of move forward with I urge my fellow members Made weak by time and fate, but changes to the status quo. Changes may to pull together, rather than strong in will not suit everyone, but when reform is stand apart, whilst also To strive, to seek, to find, and not to essential, we, the Society members, may remembering there have yield. be required to endure them despite the not been many great things – from Alfred Lord Tennyson’s changes being at first seemingly painful. which at first were not poem ‘Ulysses’ (1842) Having studied under Professor initially thought to be un- Kinderman and his colleagues at the understandable. In recent issues of this publication, I have University of Liverpool for the last four So, esteemed found myself ever more astonished at the years, I am shocked that members of this colleagues, let us strive for growing prominence of in-fighting Society would be so quick to discredit our a brighter future together, apparently displayed through these letters; new President’s motives for change. It is emulating Psyche with her and therefore the final stanza of without any doubt that he, like many of lamp (in our emblem), Tennyson’s ‘Ulysses’ seemed the most his colleagues, have the interests of people but finally, let us not yield appropriate way to open my own. and society at the forefront of their work, before we have first I am of the opinion that this and the centre of their hearts and minds. explored. publication and the first wave of It appears from the pessimism Sergio A. Silverio responses to the installation of Professor expressed over the past months that we, MPsycholSci (Hons) Peter Kinderman as the Society’s President as psychologists and members of this University of Liverpool
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662 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 letters
styles which are the same or are the ‘right’ way of doing it. Decades ago parents were encouraged to keep physical and emotional displays of affection to a minimum; nowadays the opposite is recommended. Both ways present their own sets of flaws and benefits that are dependent on how each style is implemented. But regardless of which one psychologists believe is the ‘right way’, people are always going to raise their children the way they see fit, whether their way is the accepted version of the times or not. This is what I was arguing in the June edition; the views of the modern day are never going to last for any reasonable stretch into the future, look at how much the development of humanity has changed just over the recent decades. At one time women weren’t considered intelligent enough in this country to be trusted with politics and business, and this was a point of view shared by most of the psychologists of the day; but this didn’t stop the view from eventually being rendered outdated and offensive. By whose definition will UK society be made ‘fair’ and ‘equal’? In all likelihood these intentions (however well meant) will reflect the policy maker’s own beliefs of fair and unfair, equal and unequal rather than what is actually ‘good’ for society. What will psychologists say to those who come from different backgrounds, whose upbringing and In a previous letter (June 2016) I argued that both the subjective morals don’t coincide with the ‘revolutionaries’? Is it wrong for nature of psychology and cultural differences made it difficult to Christian families to send their children to all-Christian schools? arrive at a moral standpoint over which we can all agree. Sarah Who will decide and then implement that point of view on the Rose and Isabel Clarke (Letters, August 2016) both took me to whole of society? task, saying that fairness and equality should always be striven Psychology has been a part of shaping societal development for and criticising me for seeming to argue for the inability of for years; both for the best and for the worst. For those who psychology to support any position. would argue against this, I challenge you to look through the The definitions of ‘fairness’ and ‘equality’ are (as everything history of psychology and say that there has never been an else) subject to the times and constantly change. It is unrealistic instance where either an individual or a popular psychological to believe that one definition will be universally accepted and view has caused disruption and damage. Perhaps the hardest remain constant throughout history. The course of human thing for psychology is not how can we find the answers, but development is riddled with examples of policies and views that rather, can we accept that we will never really know them. were popular at one time and then rejected in favour of another, All I ask is that psychologists consider this before they make sometimes for the better and sometimes for the worse. Again, it’s decisions that have the potential to affect the lives of others. all a matter of perception. Aurora Dunn Despite many psychologists’ efforts to identify and encourage Luton the ‘correct’ way of parenting, there will never be two parenting obituary Jerome Bruner (1915–2016)
The American psychologist and educationist Jerome Bruner died first work in perception, he found that children’s judgements in New York on 5 June aged 100. His innovative work constantly of the size of coins and coin-like disks varied; poorer children challenged orthodoxies. He enjoyed controversy, both academic overestimated the size of the coins. This highlighted values and and in education politics. His elegant writing reached wide interpretation in contrast to the then-dominant behaviourist audiences. His lectures were inspiring and, as a colleague focus on passive conditioned learning. By the mid-1950s described, ‘darted all over the place, one topic suggested another psychology was becoming influenced by a computer metaphor and so on through a thrilling zig-zag’. of mind; the ‘cognitive revolution’, and Jerry’s book A Study of A theme that Jerry developed in all his work was that we Thinking (1956), with Jacqueline Goodnow and George Austin, actively interpret and organise our world rather than passively was seen as a major impetus. With George Miller in 1960 Jerry reacting to it. He attributed this to the experience of being born founded the Harvard Center for Cognitive Studies, a beacon for blind and gaining his sight after surgery at the age of two. In his active information processing. Jerry described intelligence as
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‘going beyond the information given’, ‘coding systems that components, withdrew federal funding. Thirty years later Jerry permit one to go beyond the data to new and possibly fruitful became closely associated with another pioneering early predictions’. childhood educational programme, in Jerry’s move to studying young children and Reggio Emilia in Italy. how language develops led him into education. Jerry sailed his boat across the In The Process of Education (1960) he rather Atlantic to take up a chair in psychology startlingly claimed that ‘any subject can be at Oxford University (1972–1980). He taught effectively in some intellectually honest had become disillusioned with how form to any child providing attention is paid to cognitive psychology ignored the the psychological development of the child’. contexts in which humans live and Jerry saw development, and education, as a function. He increasingly sought the ‘spiral’: a concept is first encountered concretely, larger scope of what it means to be but again later with more complexity and depth; human, how humans had got that way, teachers must be in tune with the child’s and how they could become more so. understanding. He introduced the idea of In a 1976 public lecture, ‘Psychology ‘scaffolding’: responding to children’s current and the Image of Man’, Jerry argued conceptual positions and facilitating their next for recognising the importance of steps. intentionality in human thought and Jerry was closely associated with Head Start, action. His scepticism provoked a major US initiative to give underprivileged opposition among psychology children an early educational grounding. In the department members who saw it as an early 1970s he also introduced another attack on experimental psychology. innovation; the extraordinary spiral curriculum- Nonetheless, Jerry loved his time at the newly based school initiative Man: A Course of Study. This exposed founded Wolfson College under the presidency of Isaiah Berlin. secondary-school children to exploring psychology, He was deeply moved when in 2007 the Oxford Educational anthropology, sociology and linguistics, and even transforming Studies department named its building after him. key social science concepts. However, conservative forces in the Back in the US, at the New School for Social Research, and government, objecting both to its international and evolutionary later New York University, Jerry increasingly became engaged
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664 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 letters
with understanding the role of culture, and the importance of narrative, not just problem-solving, in human functioning. Culture makes the strange familiar, and the familiar strange, each PRESIDENT’S LETTER. contributing to ‘what we can do with what we know, how we are enabled to frame possibilities beyond the conventions of the present, to forge possible worlds’. The annual conference season is under way, and so I have been He foregrounded narrative and storytelling as providing flying the flag for British psychology. Our mission is ‘to promote the ‘recipes for structuring experience’. Narratives provide advancement and diffusion of a knowledge of psychology pure and explanations that make sense of cause and effect, justification of applied’, and members of the British Psychological Society are values, and transmit cultural ideas. By juxtaposing unusual ideas, experts in things that really matter to people: relationships, education values or outcomes they generate critical and novel insights – and learning, mental health, health, politics, sport, work and and questions. This work has been very influential in critical and organisational structures, prejudice and intercultural understanding, discursive psychology. designing and working with emerging technologies, and – particularly Jerry gained degrees from Duke University and Harvard. relevant given this month’s focus in The Psychologist – crime, policing, During the Second World War he worked in the intelligence surveillance and paranoia. As I’ve said before, our contribution is services on propaganda and popular attitudes. His life’s work guided by our science, our professional training and our values. drew on the social sciences, the humanities and natural science, We clearly have a lot to offer. Our international colleagues see UK and brought together insights, or even throwaway remarks, made psychology as world leading, especially in fields that require critical by all manner of people. To the end of his life he was an active or idiosyncratic (or even iconoclastic) thinking. Major worldwide writer, and a lucid and enthusiastic conversationalist. He was a trends in psychology have leading thinkers from UK universities and brilliant inspiration to 20th-century thought. our admired health and social care system. But, especially in the light Jerry Bruner’s marriages to Katherine Frost and Blanche Marshall of the Brexit vote, we need to be continually mindful of our position in McLane ended in divorce. His third wife, Carol Fleischer major international discussions. Our international profile is good but Feldman, died in 2006. He is survived by his children from his it is not guaranteed. We need to be nimble and present to maintain first marriage, Whitley and Jane, and his partner, Eleanor Fox. our position in international debate. As individual academics and Helen Haste practitioners, we have a responsibility to speak with colleagues across the world. As President of the BPS, I have a particular Emeritus Professor of Psychology responsibility to ensure that our links with the international scientific University of Bath and professional communities are maintained. In the complex and challenging areas of clinical and forensic psychology, and especially where they overlap, we must also be mindful of our obligations to protect both the reputation of the profession and those members of the public who use our services. And we have seen several expressions of concern recently, including I across I down worries over people who appear to me to be using carefully chosen pseudo-professional titles that are, by implication, claiming 1 Material source of comfort (8,7) 1 Pavlovian response of one qualifications or professional status that they do not possess. 9 Unauthorised disclosure causing during deliverance (10) This means that we as individuals, the British Psychological Society, a loss in liquid assets (7) 2 Head case to study outside the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) and the media all 10 Grant permission to break Northern Ireland university (7) have a responsibility to act. Those of us who are legitimately qualified silence (7) 3 Rump cooked rare (4) and experienced professionals who provide a service to the public but 11 Hide the true nature of bridal 4 Feature-integration theorist feel it is acceptable not to be registered because they don’t use a cover (4) occupying centre is manager (8) protected title should consider this as a call to action to reflect on their 12 Employer is one needing fix (4) 5 Where bats are said to occupy own accountability. The Society is improving its professional practice 13 Very small house in central could be left to sizzle (6) guidelines and could use them in collaboration with HCPC to outline London location (4) 6 Critical when getting caught in a more clearly the standards of professional behaviour that we value. 16 Tone down a painter's medium criminal court, say (10) The government is beginning the process of consultation to (7) 7 Sorts day out with stylish family consider major reforms that would unify the regulatory councils. 17 Extra serving to young dog (3-2) connection (7) We should engage closely in the imminent consultation, and press 19 When disorder first starts in 8 Cup matches needing replays? (4) for both a more intelligent approach to the regulation of our filming area (5) 14 Cheats involved with site showing profession and sister professions, as well as for a closure of the 21 Navarin cooked to a principles of good taste (10) ‘implied competence’ loophole, if necessary. It’s possible that we transcendent state (7) 15 It seems that mum or dad could also need more explicit legislation to clarify the language and allow 24 Medical treatment requiring take part in organised play (10) prosecution more easily. This could also bring professions such as painstaking attention (4) 18 Hasty reaction to joint given psychotherapy and cognitive behavioural therapists under the 25 Bureaucrats concealed waste (4) marinade (4-4) regulatory remit. It would be timely to look to improving investigatory 26 Psychiatrist's patient to inspect 20 Power at mains switch (7) processes, and to look at a more mature joint? (4) 22 It makes a man keen on money relationship between the BPS (which has 29 Possibly rising after nothing and a woman on food (7) a duty to promote the profession) and HCPC starts (7) 23 Mule is delivered oat mixture (6) (with a more specific remit to protect the public) 30 Self-centred person is to get 27 Theatrical awards with name as they work together in the public interest. corrected (7) removed for objects used in play 31 Strikes credit before my code is (4) Peter Kinderman is President of the British worked out – that's funny (9,6) 28 Party girl in martial arts training Psychological Society. Contact him at hall (4) [email protected] or follow on Twitter: @peterkinderman.
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Karl Schweizer / Christine DiStefano (Eds.) Yael Benyamini / Marie Johnston / Principles and Methods Evangelos C. Karademas (Eds.) of Test Construction Assessment in Standards and Recent Advances Health Psychology
(Series: Psychological Assessment – (Series: Psychological Assessment – Science and Practice - Volume 3) Science and Practice - Volume 2) 2016, vi + 336 pp. 2016, vi + 346 pp. £ 39.00 / € 49.95 £ 39.00 / € 49.95 ISBN 978-0-88937-449-2 ISBN 978-0-88937-452-2 Also available as eBook Also available as eBook
The past 10-20 years have seen substantial advances in the methods This book presents and discusses the best and most appropriate used to develop and administer tests. This latest volume in the series assessment methods and instruments for all specific areas that are Pssyychological Assessment – Science and Practice describes the current central for health psychologists. A unique feature of this book, which state-of-the-art in test development and construction. The first section brings together leading authorities on health psychology assessment, of this volume explains the benefits of considering the underlying theory is its emphasis on the bidirectional link between theory and practice. when designing tests, such as factor analysis and item response theory. It is addressed to masters and doctoral students in health psychology, The second section looks at item format and test presentation. The to all those who teach health psychology, researchers from other third discusses model testing and selection, while the fourth goes into disciplines, including clinical psychology, health promotion, and public statistical methods that can find group-specific bias. The final section health, as w ell as to health policy makers and other healthcare discusses topics of special relevance such as multi-trait multi-state practitioners. analyses and development of screening instruments.
Mitch Earleywine Pearl B. Werfel / Ron E. Franco Durán / Substance Use Linda J. Trettin Problems Multiple Sclerosis
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The literature on diagnosis and treatment of drug and substance abuse This innovative book will help both mental health and medical profes- is filled with successful, empirically based approaches, but also with sionals empower patients or clients to live well with multiple sclerosis controversy and hearsay. Health professionals in a range of settings (MS). It is a practical, evidence-based, culturally relevant guide to the are bound to meet clients with troubles related to drugs – and this text most effective current medical, psychological, and neuropsychological helps them separate the myths from the facts. It provides trainees and diagnostic methods and interventions. The book describes a biopsy- professionals with a handy, concise guide for helping problem drug chosocial, multidisciplinary, and integrative approach to treatment and users build enjoyable, multifaceted lives using approaches based on provides information on psychological, mind-body, and complementary decades of research. Readers will improve their intuitions and clinical interventions for symptom management and to increase quality of life. skills by adding an overarching understanding of drug use and the Both seasoned practitioners and students will find this volume useful development of problems that translates into appropriate techniques in helping clients cope with this complex, unpredictable, and chronic for encouraging clients to change behavior themselves. This highly neurological disorder. readable text explains not only what to do, but when and how to do it.
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Pain – the backdrop of our lives
A truly unique conference, which set out to explore alternative she discovered pain’s incommunicability was as frustrating for ways of communicating, sharing and assessing suffering, was clinicians as it was for patients. Its invisibility and subjectivity held at University College London. Encountering Pain emerged make it a difficult thing to capture using objective measures, after a three-year interdisciplinary project at UCL called ‘Pain: she added. Speaking the Threshold’ which assessed the value of images and In an earlier project, Perceptions of Pain, Padfield image-making processes to the management of chronic pain. collaborated with Pither, where she co-created with patients Ella Rhodes was there for the first day of the conference, photos that represented their unique experiences of pain. In which truly put clinicians, patients and academics on the same 2004 they carried out a feasibility study to see if these images level and opened up fascinating discussions. Pain: Speaking the could benefit other patients, and the feedback received Threshold drew on a previous project Face 2 Face, a encouraged her to look further into the role of images in collaboration between artist Deborah Padfield and facial pain patient–clinician communication. consultant Professor Joanna Zakrzewska and patients and staff This developed during the subsequent collaboration with from University College London Hospitals (UCLH). It focused Zakrzewska, Face 2 Face, which additionally explored patient mainly on facial pain but also explored the impact of visual experiences of facial pain. This kind of pain presents another images on medical dialogue in more detail. problem. ‘Our faces’, Padfield said, ‘are often the canvases we During Face 2 Face, sufferers worked with Deborah Padfield use to express pain, but when the face itself is in constant pain to co-create images of pain, which were subsequently piloted by these feelings become harder to express in a way which others other patients in NHS clinics. The conference was a chance to can read.’ One of the strands of this project involved workshops share the results with patients and clinicians involved in the for clinicians and patients to attend together at both UCLH and study, to hear the testimonies firsthand of those who co-created the National Portrait Gallery to encourage them to share their the photo cards, based on their experience of pain, and to bring experiences outside a clinical context. together high-profile medical professionals, psychologists, Padfield worked with facial pain patients to co-create pain a linguist, historian and neurobiologists to speak about pain photos. A group of these were integrated with a selection of and the projects alongside poetry, dance and performances. those from Perceptions of Pain, compiled into a pack of 54 Professor Zakrzewska (UCLH), a doctor with a specialism laminated cards and tested out in real consultations, which in facial pain, explained that pain could often be difficult to were filmed. Ten different healthcare professionals from the express using language alone, and with 14 million people in pain management teams at UCLH offered to have their the UK suffering from chronic pain it was an important area consultations filmed. The clinicians saw two patients each to address. The photo cards created during Face 2 Face feature without images and two new patients with images, both groups visual metaphors, such as an electrical wire sparking or a leg under the same conditions. The filmed consultations and post- with a heavy weight tied to it, giving patients a new way to consultation questionnaires made up a unique body of material explain their pain to medical professionals. Zakrzewska that was analysed during the recent Pain: Speaking the explained that the images encourage the exploration of different Threshold project by experts from different disciplines. aspects of pain between patients and the person listening to Professor Elena Semino, Head of Linguistics at Lancaster their story. University, analysed these consultations and compared those in Padfield said she was initially encouraged to use art to which the photos were used and those where they weren’t. She express her own pain by her GP and subsequently wanted to assessed the kinds of language used in the consultations and assess whether this approach could be helpful to other patients. whether the photos changed the amount of speech used by She said, after meeting pain specialists, and in particular talking doctors compared to patients. She found that patients spoke to her own pain specialist, Dr Charles Pither, then Medical much more than clinicians in consultations where the photos Director of Input Pain Management Unit, St Thomas’ Hospital, were used. In these consultations patients also described their
668 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 D EBORAH P DIL WITH ADFIELD news A LISON was a ‘fundamental psychological experience’, adding: ‘You G
ENFO H EISFACE SERIES THE FROM LENN were born in pain, likely you’ll die in pain, significant episodes of your life can be in the context of pain. Pain is the backdrop of our lives, but although it’s ever-present and we live in a form of collective denial. We try to pretend it doesn’t exist.’ He said that many psychologists see the body simply as a taxi for the mind, and in trying to apply psychology to pain many see it through the lens of abnormal psychology. However, 2 FACE Eccleston said, this does not always ‘fit’ with a person’s , 2008 – 2013, D experience, as those suffering with chronic pain are usually not psychologically disordered in any way. Eccleston described himself as a ‘normal’ psychologist, interested in the everyday and usual. He asked whether there IGITAL was another way to look at pain aside from thinking about
A mental states or observed behaviour, he said potentially it sits RCHIVAL where it can’t be pinned down – between mind and action. Although individual experiences shouldn’t be trivialised, P RINT Eccleston added, the only time pain can be seen as abnormal is
© D when it doesn’t go away. He said what had fascinated him most
EBORAH about patients was that they were successful in many aspects of life but somehow pain would disassemble them. He added: P
ADFIELD ‘The only way we’ll understand the experience they have of pain is to apply normal not abnormal psychology.’ He asked how we could build a non-judgemental, enabling psychology around pain. Eccleston said that much psychology pain in metaphorical terms. Patients using the photos spoke suggests that chronic-pain patients are fear-avoidant, but he frequently about their sense of self being worn down due to added: ‘Most of the people I have met have courageous pain and also disclosed emotional narratives and suicidal engagement, they’re not passive at all. I am not denying their feelings. Semino said the photos seemed to encourage people to suffering, but people are actively fighting for a way out or a speak in similes, and from that point more information emerged. solution.’ Semino concluded that the use of photos allowed a patient We should put the body back into psychology, he to speak about pain differently as well as increasing references concluded, and encourage people to have liberating narratives, to thoughts and feelings, as well as making it more likely for and provide treatments that allow them to restructure their patients to make personal disclosures, such as suicidal thoughts. own experiences. He said: ‘We can have a positive psychology Clinical Health Psychologist Dr Amanda C de C Williams that allows us to recognise what pain is about – being active, (UCL) steered the audience through an analysis of the non- engaged and searching.’ verbal interactions in the filmed consultations. She said pain was The second day saw talks from Professor Joanna Bourke, an area of particular interest due to the subjective nature of our Dr Preeti Doshi, Professor Maria Fitzgerald, and more. For a experience of it; people bring their own individuality and social special issue on pain, find our June 2011 issue in our archive role to pain whether as a patient or observer. She found little at www.thepsychologist.bps.org.uk. difference between the general ratings, by both clinicians and patients, about the quality of the consultations as whole; overall these were uniformly quite high. It did emerge, however, that FUND TO EFFECT SOCIAL CHANGE the images seemed to impact on the non-verbal behaviour and The Cabinet Office has launched and healthy lives. Applications in particular more on clinician than patient behaviour. an £80 million fund to support for proposals focused on Williams took a sample of one minute out of every five Social Impact Bonds (SIB) to children’s services and tackling minutes of each consultation, which were rated by two help transform people's lives. drug and alcohol dependency are observers for behaviours around rapport, affiliation, dominance The Life Chances Fund, open until 30 September, to be and submission. They saw that patients showed roughly the launched in July by Minister for followed by the other themes same level of affiliation whether using images or not, while Civil Society Rob Wilson, will over the next 12 months. clinicians showed more positive affiliation when using the tackle entrenched social issues, The Cabinet Office has also images. It appeared patient and clinician behaviour was more improving people’s life chances partnered with Blavatnik School attuned in the with-image condition. by looking at local solutions for of Government at Oxford After a beautiful dance performance by Anusha local problems to bring better University to launch the Subramanyam, based on the patient experiences used in the life chances to individuals. The Government Outcomes Lab (GO project, came a fascinating keynote by Professor Rita Charon fund will also support a new Lab), to establish an independent (founder and Executive Director of the Program in Narrative academic centre to understand centre of academic excellence Medicine at Columbia and Professor of Medicine at CUMC, and measure new approaches for the commissioning of public New York) on narrative medicine and the talk of pain. Charon for the public sector to services. The GO Lab will deepen coined the term ‘narrative medicine’ pioneering a new field. commission services. understanding of outcomes- Facial-pain sufferers Liz Aldous and Ann Eastman also shared The fund is structured based commissioning, including their moving experiences of being involved with the Face 2 Face around six key themes: drug and social impact bonds, by project and creating images of their own pain, which have since alcohol dependency; children’s researching new ways for the been used by other patients. services; early years; young public sector to commission Professor Christopher Eccleston (University of Bath) opened people; older people’s services; services. his keynote speech on embodied experiences by suggesting pain
read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk 669 news The past, present and future of cognitive neuroscience
Tess Brown reports from UCL’s Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience 20th Anniversary Conference, 'Mind the Brain'
A sold-out crowd of over 300 attendees, Neuroscience, spoke on the history of whereby teachers could utilise brain-state made up of academics, students and the the ICN, from its foundation in 1996 to detectors, such as a portable EEG like general public, made their way into UCL’s its current research. His talk humbled EMOTIV, to analyse when students are at Jeffery Hall to be a part of ‘Mind the attendees by allowing them to have their optimal brain states. Then, teaching Brain’. This conference aimed to celebrate a perspective on how far the field of can take place in order to maximise 20 years of groundbreaking research at the cognitive neuroscience has come in efficiency. Otten dazzled the audience Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience the past 20 years, and how much of by featuring a demonstration of how the (ICN), but also to bring the future of an integral role the ICN has had in that EMOTIV technology works, and just how cognitive neuroscience to the public by development, and will continue to have easy it is to implement in an everyday featuring short (15-minute), engaging into the future. learning environment. and accessible talks by all 12 speakers Block 1 continued with talks from Robinson and Foulkes wrapped up and four panelists. prominent researchers at the ICN, Leun the first block of speakers by discussing Host of the conference, Steve Cross, Otten, Oliver Robinson and Lucy Foulkes. the importance of understanding the kicked off the day with lighthearted All three are highly focused on how their underlying causes of psychiatric disorders humour, which relieved the nerves of research can impact the future of cognitive instead of simply treating symptoms. the speakers while exciting the packed neuroscience. For example, Leun Otten Robinson focused on anxiety, while crowed for the first block of talks. Cross spoke on the importance of brain states Foulkes spoke about disorders of social welcomed the first speaker to deliver the when forming new memories. She used reward, specifically, psychopathy. keynote address, Tim Shallice. Shallice, her research to suggest a future in The second block of speakers widened the founder of the Institute of Cognitive optimising learning and education, the scope, by extending beyond research done at the ICN. Cognitive neuroscience research is prominent all over UCL’s campus. In Block 2, Robb Rutledge spoke about his work on happiness. Rutledge said: ‘Happiness does not depend on what you have in your life, rather, you are happy when things are going better than you expected.’ To illustrate, silver medallists tend to feel less happy than bronze medallists, because the silvers were so close to winner, whereas the third-place winners are just happy to be on the podium! Therefore, Rutledge concluded, happiness and reward are not one in the same. Other speakers in the second block were Valerie Curran (pictured), who discussed on the medicinal uses for cannabis, Camilla Nord and Sarah White. Nord explained the anomaly of antidepressants. Her answer to explain why antidepressants take at least four to eight weeks to change mood is rooted in the idea that antidepressants change negative biases first, as a bottom-up approach. After many negative biases are changed, improvements in mood follow. On the other hand, White gave the audience an insight into autism, and how a novel, augmented- reality, pretend-play game can work as a treatment for autistic spectrum Valerie Curran speaking at ‘Mind the Brain’ disorder children.
670 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 news
The third and final block of individual with the audience and twittersphere as foreseeing bridges being built between speakers started out with Katerina well. All audience members were engaged different neuroscience fields, and how Fotopoulou who spoke on the social in a dialogue on topics ranging from an all-encompassing view will help aspects of subjective experience. For neurobunk, ethics, happiness, and Brexit. understand those with disorders of the example, when a child falls in the park, The unique perspectives of the panellists brain. She used the example of fatigue, that child often tends to look around for allowed the audience to gain a holistic which is not well studied in the field of its parent before it starts to cry. Why is understanding of the future of cognitive neuroscience, despite the fact this? Fotopoulou explained that having neuroscience. that fatigue is a major symptom in a lot social confirmation of pain gives this child At the beginning of the panel of neurological problems. Interestingly, the ‘green light’ to start crying. In a way, discussion, each panellist gave a five- fatigue falls in neither the sensorimotor Fotopoulou said, this is because there is minute synopsis of his or her thoughts camp nor the cognitive camp. It acts as an innate biological need for social on the future of cognitive neuroscience. a crossroads for body-brain-mind research. interaction. This research sheds light on Martin Eimer started by saying, ‘One thing Kuppuswamy concluded by saying, ‘My the difference between subjectivity and that has changed is the way we talk about hope is that cognitive neuroscience will individuality of experience, whereas pain our mind, mental states and brain states.’ help people with conditions, and we can is often thought of individualistic, He observed that there is now an effortless learn more about the brain when studying however, this talk provided evidence as and natural talk about brain states and pathology.’ to why it is indeed a social experience. functions when interpreting mental states. Lastly, Geraint Rees took the podium Steve DiCosta, Jo Hale and Bahador The way neuroscience has infiltrated to discuss the future of cognitive Bahrami followed with talks on how everyday language and thought has neuroscience. Rees believes the following sensory cues give a sense of agency, how impacted the fields of economics, law three points to be true, ‘First, the future is avatars can help form the future of social and theology, showing how the brain has not about me, it is about you. Second, the mimicry, and the neuroscience of become a mainstay in how we think about future is a lot more like the past than you persuading others, respectively. ourselves. think. And third, cognitive neuroscience is To conclude the day of talks, a panel Next, Nima Khalighinejad suggested about understanding what people do, in discussion featuring Martin Eimer, Nima that the future of cognitive neuroscience reference to the brain.’ By saying this, Rees Khalighinejad, Anna Kuppuswamy and depends on a shift from encoding to made the future of cognitive neuroscience Geraint Rees looked to answer questions decoding. In the years to come, a field that is no longer controlled by a on the future of cognitive neuroscience Khalighinejad believes the field of small, academic elite, but one that both from the audience and from the live cognitive neuroscience will help us gain everyone is responsible for. Twitter feed. The questions led to an a richer understanding of who we are as enlightening conversation, not just with humans. I Tess Brown is a Cognitive Neuroscience the panellists amongst themselves, but Anna Kuppuswamy followed by Candidate at University College London Presidents’ Award An expert on the psychology instance, that companies who diverse as the rise of terrorism, ‘Receiving this award is a great of political crisis is to receive appointed a woman to their the allure of Donald Trump, honour, and I feel humbled to this year’s Presidents’ Award board had experienced and Leicester City FC’s success receive it. But it is largely an for Distinguished consistently poorer (www.thepsychologist.org.uk/ acknowledgement of the Contributions to Psychological performance in the five leicesters-lesson-leadership). power of great teamwork and Knowledge from the British months preceding the Society President Professor a testament to the range of Psychological Society. appointment than those who Peter Kinderman said: fantastic collaborators that The winner is Alexander appointed only men. ‘Psychology is a fascinating I have worked with over the Haslam, Professor Professor Haslam and broad discipline, and last 25 years. Their support of Psychology at is also known for his Professor Haslam’s research is has made it possible to tilt at the University of work with Professor at the cutting edge of some of some very big windmills, and Exeter and Steve Reicher our most fascinating subjects – it has ensured that the research Professor of reinterrogating issues the psychological processes process has always been a lot Psychology and raised by the operating in groups, political of fun. However, I am also Australian Stanford Prison change, and in the sometimes conscious of the fact that we Laureate Fellow in Experiment – this banal psychology of evil. His still have a lot more work to the School of was the basis for the work is important – and very do – and this award provides Psychology at the groundbreaking BBC timely. Given our current great motivation to get on University of documentary The turbulent political context, with it.’ Queensland . Experiment (see I can think of few occasions I Professor Haslam has been a Working with Professor www.bbcprisonstudy.org). when a study of the regular in our pages over the Michelle Ryan at Exeter, The pair also collaborated consequences of prejudice, years – search our archive at Professor Haslam developed on the award-winning 2011 groupthink, the psychology www.thepsychologist.org.uk the concept of the ‘glass cliff’ – book The New Psychology of crisis and the role of female for his contributions. In the tendency for women to be of Leadership, which has leaders is more relevant.’ particular, you will find his promoted to high-level jobs at provided the framework for a Commenting on the 2011 interview ‘Free from the times of crisis. They found, for new analysis of phenomena as award, Professor Haslam said: shackles’.
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LIFETIME ACHIEVEMENT Celebrating A ‘TOUR DE FORCE’ impact A passionate campaigner for social justice is the 2016 recipient of the British Psychological Society’s Research The winners of the annual for people who set fires. This Board Lifetime Achievement Award. Economic and Social Research treatment uses a CBT approach During her successful career Professor Celia Kitzinger Council (ESRC) Celebrating with psychotherapeutic elements (University of York) has made several significant contributions Impact Prize have been and looks at the psychological to psychology. Her lengthy campaign to found the BPS announced and include characteristics or risk factors for Lesbian and Gay Psychology Section (now Psychology of psychologist Theresa Gannon, firesetting as mentioned above. Sexualities Section) laid the foundation within British (University of Kent). She and her She explained: ‘The psychology for the development and legitimation of the field. team were awarded a prize of programme looks at intimacy in The publication of her award-winning book The Social £10,000, for research on relationships and communication Construction of Lesbianism (1987) inspired researchers to deliberate firesetters and a style, because the research engage in sexualities research and is highly cited in resulting treatment programme, suggests people who misuse fire psychology and social science journals. in the Outstanding Impact on aren’t very good at Another key contribution is to the field of language and Society category. communicating their needs or social interaction, in which Professor Kitzinger has conducted Professor Gannon spoke to getting them met in a prosocial research on how social worlds are produced and sustained in The Psychologist about this work way. It also looks at thinking everyday interaction. Professor Kitzinger’s article ‘Doing and the impact she hopes it will styles and self-regulation feminist conversation analysis’ has been heavily cited and has have in many other countries. She problems. The most pertinent part had a profound influence in shaping research on gender and and her research team examined of the programme is that we teach language. Her work in this area underpinned a research trend whether deliberate firesetters in people to reflect back on how within the psychology of sexualities focusing on the mundane hospitals and prisons had any their firesetting happened, dissect production of heteronormativity and heterosexism. She also distinctive characteristics it and build an events-chain of contributes to ‘pure’ conversation analysis and her article compared with people who had how it happened and then (jointly with her wife Sue Wilkinson) ‘Surprise as an never set fires – also in prisons develop a risk-management plan interactional achievement’ won the 2008 BPS Qualitative and hospitals – to assess whether so if anything similar came up in Methods in Psychology Section Outstanding Research Award. they required specialist treatment. the future they would know how More recently (jointly with her sister Professor Jenny She said prior to this work it to handle those situations.’ Kitzinger), Professor Kitzinger has focused her research on was assumed firesetters were the Gannon said she and her catastrophic brain injury, end-of-life same as other offenders with no colleagues will use the money decision-making and advance decisions to particularly different psychological from the ESRC award to translate refuse treatment (see her article with Sue characteristics. However she and the treatment manual into other Wilkinson in our December 2015 edition). her team, comprising Dr Caoilte languages and teach practitioners This includes an online multimedia Ó Ciardh, Dr Emma Alleyne, Dr in other countries how to use it. resource for family members of people Magali Barnoux and Dr Nichola She has already travelled to in prolonged vegetative and minimally Tyler, found that, indeed, they are America to teach practitioners conscious states, which won first prize from a special population who require how to use this treatment the British Medical Association for Patient a tailored therapeutic approach. programme and will take the same Information on Ethical Issues – and also This group, Gannon added, training to Australia and Belgium. first prize in the ESRC Celebrating Impact appear to have a much higher She added: ‘We’re also going to Awards (2015). interest in very serious fires such use the impact prize money to Along with her numerous research interests as house fires or hotel fires. They perhaps develop online training Professor Kitzinger continues to teach and inspire also seem to identify much more that can be distributed more undergraduate and postgraduate students, as well as health with fire, for example saying widely and we’re hoping to and social care professionals working in mental capacity and things like ‘I’d be no one without translate it into other languages end-of-life care. She believes in the importance of mentoring fire’. She added: ‘They also appear such as Chinese and Japanese.’ postgraduate students and early-career researchers and to normalise the misuse of fire Dr Alan Gillespie CBE, Chair continues to provide opportunities for scholar-activists and think it’s quite usual to have of the ESRC said: ‘The ESRC wanting to create a more just world. fire accidents in the home. They focuses on supporting the highest- Daryl O’Connor, Chair of the Society’s Research Board ruminate more about perceived quality independent research with said: ‘Celia’s contribution to British psychology, and wrongs committed against them, the power to aid growth, promote psychology internationally, has been extraordinary over a long are provoked more easily and innovation and shape society. By and sustained period of time. She has been a tour de force have much lower self-esteem than encouraging and supporting in terms of her research, and her campaigning has inspired other offenders.’ ESRC-funded researchers to a generation. She has changed aspects of the British From that work, and a review maximise the impact of their Psychological Society for the better. Without Celia we might of the existing literature, Gannon work, we ensure that their never have had the Psychology of Sexualities Section and the and her team developed the first research has a significant impact many other excellent developments in qualitative methods, comprehensive theory of how across all policy areas and helps sexualities research and, more recently, in family decision- adult deliberate firesetting evolves make a genuine difference at the making about patients with traumatic brain injuries.’ and developed a pilot manual local, national and international including a treatment programme level.’ ER
672 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 news Four psychologists elected to the British Academy Perhaps the UK’s funniest psychologist, Professor Sophie Scott, as technology, health and quality of life. She added: ‘This is a was among four academics in the field to be elected to the British natural progression from my load theory, which I’ve worked on Academy this year. The national body for the humanities and over the years, and in the future I hope to drive the important social sciences recognised psychologists working in a vast array impact this scientific knowledge has for other areas. But at the of areas along with 62 new Fellows. same time I’d like to think I can be creative and inventive and Scott, Deputy Director of the Institute of Cognitive can’t predict what other future directions I might start on!’ Neuroscience (UCL), well-known for her research and Peter Cooper has worked in a number of areas in the general subsequent TED talk on laughter, said she was genuinely field of psychopathology, including eating surprised to be nominated as disorders, anxiety and depression. A major a Fellow. She told us: ‘I’m very focus has been the impact of adversity on interested to explore the child development, especially maternal networking possibilities the psychopathology, where he has been Academy will open up, science concerned to develop and evaluate is always a collaborative process. interventions to disrupt intergenerational I was elected into the Academy of transmission of disturbance. Medical Sciences a few years ago In recent years he has been working in and it’s an interesting process that Africa where he and his colleague, Lynne opens up lots of conversations.’ Murray, have developed a promising She said throughout her intervention for improving child cognitive and career she has seen those in socio-emotional development. Professor Cooper said: ‘While I am the discipline progressing truly delighted by this award, anyone who knows me knows that from fellowships in the British all the work I have ever done has been a collective effort which, Academy and on to fellowships in a just world, would carry collective reward.’ in the Royal Society, including Professor Martin Eimer, Director of the Brain and Behaviour Uta Frith. She added: ‘It sends an Lab at the Department for Psychological Sciences at Birkbeck, important signal that people care about investigates the cognitive and neural mechanisms of the area you’re working in and that you’re part of a bigger visual attention and working memory, and studies face endeavour. It’s exciting to be part of that process.’ perception and recognition and their impairment in Many of these academics, Scott said, had helped her prosopagnosia. He was also responsible for organising throughout her own academic career: ‘I’ve benefited from people the last three research assessment exercises, RAE and who have been part of these associations, some really use it as REF, for the department and has also served on leverage to encourage and help other people. Climbing that Birkbeck’s steering groups for the RAE 2008 and REF ladder of progress in academia can be very difficult, and you’ll 2014. hear descriptions of it that can make it feel like people are He said: ‘This is a great honour not just for myself, stepping on your fingers. But there are people on higher rungs but also another acknowledgement of the research who are looking to give young academics a lift up.’ excellence of the Department of Psychological In the future, Scott said, she hopes to continue her work Sciences at Birkbeck, which was ranked among the combining two key areas of neuroscience. She added: ‘I’m really top five UK Psychology and Neuroscience departments in the interested in how we can better understand the way REF. My team and I could not have conducted our work without communication systems fit within social neuroscience and the fantastic research infrastructure provided by the department interactions, because speech and language are our main way of and the college, and without the help and support of our interacting socially, but if you look at social neuroscience excellent colleagues.’ ER journals you won’t see much about it, the two things are kept quite separate. I’ve been trying to do this for a few years now, but I think we’re getting better,’ Professor Nilli Lavie (UCL Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience), who developed the perceptual load theory and continues to study the brain’s capacity and the role of attention in information processing, said she was delighted and honoured to be elected as a Fellow. She added: ‘I’m looking forward to the opportunities this fellowship will give me to communicate, interact, and network with other public intellectuals and have the chance to influence policy.' Lavie said she hopes to continue to highlight the implications of human brain capacity limits to a wide array of areas, such
read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk 673 news On the front line of boardroom change FTSE 100 companies, particularly at Her PhD focused on the leadership the selection and board appointment executive and governance level, are identities of black and Asian men and process.’ The whole report should be notoriously white, male domains. But women in senior management positions. released later this year. psychologists have become an integral As a result her former PhD supervisor Psychology has been central to such part of actively challenging this status Susan Vinnicombe, Director of the research, Atewologun notes, and to the quo, working at senior government levels. International Centre for Women Leaders, potential strategies that will eventually be Two psychologists in particular have recommended her to be part of the used to encourage chairpersons to been involved with shaping the ways government review and Atewologun is diversify their boards. ‘There’s really FTSE governance boards can become now Research Lead on it. significant and untapped potential in more diverse, in both ethnicity and Atewologun’s research has developed psychology. If we look at board-level gender. Dr Doyin Atewologun (Queen an index of black and minority ethnic dynamics, or any dynamic between Mary, University of London) has been people on FTSE 100 boards and compared groups, psychology has so much to say involved with the Parker Review, which is this with gender trends for boards. She around decision-making, biases and exploring ethnic diversity on boards and told The Psychologist: ‘I’m now looking for assumptions. It can contribute so much to gathering information on where some of a way to capture the lived experience of sense-making around data and the country’s largest companies stand on directors, whether this be their career communication, and how we deal with diversity. journeys or their specific experiences of perceived differences, social and cognitive. 5 minutes with… Marc Chevreau An educational psychologist from someone on a support team, to get a wide range of perspectives, Blackpool is part of a team leading but the work will be led by the head teacher. They will start their a strand of a £10 million programme resilience conversation facilitated by me and by the eight or to help encourage resilience and ninth week may have 10 or so areas of development and we wellbeing in young people. The Big prioritise them and develop an action plan based on those. One Lottery Fund programme, HeadStart, of my roles is to make sure we have good outcome measures to is going into its third phase following see how well they’re progressing and what difference it has made trials and piloting studies; local to interactions and relationships in the school. authorities in Cornwall, Hull, Kent Newham and Wolverhampton have also been funded for this third phase. How will these goals be filtered through to the children? Specialist Senior Educational Psychologist and BPS member It depends on what schools choose, but for example, if a school Marc Chevreau spoke to Ella Rhodes about his part of the were concerned about e-safety they might go out and talk to innovative programme, which aims to help 10- to 16-year-olds children about how concerned they are about this or might do in the area. It encompasses 17 strands including assistance for a survey in school. If they set that as a priority they could put in looked-after and vulnerable children. a programme of e-safety for the school and monitor it through Chevreau has been involved with Headstart, on a secondment children in the school to see if it’s made a difference to their from his work with Blackpool Council, since 2014 and has been social media lives. piloting and developing materials to be used in a whole-school approach. This sounds like a unique programme. We’ve been using resilience, and the academic resilience Can you tell me about your involvement with HeadStart? materials piloted by the University of Brighton through its Social The programme I’ve been working on is about the universal Enterprise Boingboing. They have a programme called Academic building of resilience, we have a whole-school programme and Resilience, which includes surveying staff and looking at the aim of the programme is to work with schools and individual priorities, but in a different way to the resilience conversation. teachers to build an understanding of how the resilience model This is really a typical school improvement programme and we’ve works. The core of this is something called a ‘resilience used that model and applied it to resilient interactions in school. conversation’, and that involves facilitating a school working party, that would have a range of different perspectives on what What’s the experience been like for you? life in school is like, and that working party would work through It’s been really exciting. We’ve just come out of the end of phase a series of statements that we’ve pulled together out of the 2 and it’s a unique experience to have the chance to go really, research on school resilience so it becomes a self-audit tool. really deep into the area of resilience. Developing materials and models is something I wouldn’t normally be able to do to this How will this work in practice? extent, for example the resilience conversation is in its seventh I’m contacting schools to create these working parties with them, incarnation! It’s always been an aspiration of educational and they’re booking in a term’s-worth of fortnightly meetings of psychology to do as much whole-school work as they can, and this working party. The school will decide who will be involved. what’s been special about this is the chance to spend so much You might have a Key Stage 1 and 2 teacher, a teaching assistant, time on it.
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In many ways it’s more of a psychological issue than anything else,’ she said. Psychology has also given us evidence that diverse boards can be much better boards, Atewologun added: ‘Quite a lot of research says that greater diversity, managed and harnessed effectively, results in better-quality decision-making and enhanced innovation.’ Dr Ruth Sealy (City University London) has worked for many years examining and encouraging gender diversity on FTSE boards. Most recently she has been involved with the Davies Review, and subsequent Davies Report, which set a target in 2011 to have 25 per cent female board membership by 2015, as well as giving 10 recommendations of how boards could affect this change. During this review Sealy examined various aspects of gender diversity on boards, including the appointment process ‘…unless you consciously manage diversity, it will not happen’ and code of governance. She also worked with the media to encourage a change in men and women across all levels of the warrant a psychosocial audit, rather discourse around women in these company in their annual reports. They like the finance audit already required. positions: ‘They changed the language also have to have a diversity policy, stating She said: ‘The first encompasses they used from “Why do we need to do what they as a company are doing to psychosocial processes that impact this?” to “How do we do this?”,’ she said. increase diversity year–on- year and report information-processing, for example Last year the 25 per cent voluntary progress; As Sealy said: ‘It’s not so much a confirmatory cognitive bias which goes government target for boards was nudge, as a huge shove.’ unattended and unmanaged. This can exceeded hitting 26 per cent, as an The recent British Psychological happen throughout the organisation aggregate across the FTSE 100 companies, Society response to the non-financial skewing what gets reported upwards and with a range in female board membership reporting consultation this year made also skewing what the board focuses on.’ of between 10 and 50 per cent in similar representations to the UK The second, she added, are factors that individual companies. The next target is government for both gender and ethnicity. impact negatively on employees to increase this to 33 per cent by 2020 in Meanwhile the BPS Board themselves, for example through clues line with an EU Directive, and despite Effectiveness Working Group, chaired and signals, such as lack of transparency Brexit this target will still stand for the by Professor Ros Searle (Coventry in board recruitment, overpayment of Hampton Alexander Review to tackle this. University) and Michael Webster, has senior people and in the failure to manage However, it is clear that after the been actively addressing the psychology workplace culture, distress and distrust. closing of the Davies Review in October of governance, decision-making and board Psychologists are already having an 2015 progress on the numbers of women effectiveness. The group is currently impact in this area, identifying barriers on boards has stalled. Sealy said: ‘We developing a report. Searle told The to board diversity and generating change made progress because numerous Psychologist: ‘Trust is critical to through long-term monitoring, but stakeholder groups were engaged in the governance, but our work shows psychological expertise has far more to change process. Our latest Female FTSE organisational control and external offer in diagnosing and addressing the Report (http://tinyurl.com/jtezukh) reveals regulation can support trust, but are only relevant individual and group dynamics that if you take your foot off the pedal part of the solution. We see trust and that generate risk. ‘While lawyers such things slow down, the forces of inertia are active distrust as an increasing problem as Chilcott can identify evidence of great. Unless you consciously and for complex organisations to manage due groupthink, it is psychologists such as proactively manage increasing diversity, it to the scrutiny given to the symbolic Professor Jo Silvester (Cass Business will not happen.’ Sealy said she sees her actions of high-profile people.’ School) that have shown how we actively role as quashing the myths in this area. Dr Joanna Wilde (Aston Business change composition and competence in Psychology has had a direct impact School), a senior evidence-based government. Far more is now required to in the world of FTSE 100 board gender organisational psychologist practitioner enhance the psychosocial dynamics of top diversity and one of the biggest practical and also a member of the working group, teams in organisations,’ Wilde said. ER changes, which Sealy has been involved said she hoped psychology could firmly I Psychologists who wish to contribute with, is companies having more position itself within this area to point out relevant material or evidence for the transparency about their governance. and examine psychosocial risks to board report should contact Professor Searle The Financial Reporting Council, thanks effectiveness. The new report will aim to ([email protected]) with to evidence Sealy gained in Australia, now explore these in more depth, and Wilde their suggestions. The deadline for these asks members to include the percentage of pointed to two clusters of these risks that submissions is Friday 30 September.
read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk 675 Psychologists still don’t know how the brain deals with blinks DIGEST
If you were sitting in a dark room and the lights flickered off researchers found no evidence that the students overestimated every few seconds, you’d definitely notice. Yet when your blinks the duration of ‘A’s that appeared during blinks. make the world go momentarily dark – and bear in mind most Another experiment involved students making a voluntary of us perform around 12 to 15 of these every minute – you are blink while a letter ‘A’ was already onscreen and making a mostly oblivious. It certainly doesn’t feel like someone is flicking judgement of how long the ‘A’ was visible, and also making the lights on and off. How can this be? judgements about the duration of other ‘A’s that were onscreen A new study in Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human during non-blink periods. If perceptual ‘filling in’ occurs during Perception and Performance has tested two possibilities – one is blinks, then the students should have judged the time onscreen that after each blink your brain ‘backdates’ the visual world by of an 'A' of a given duration as the same whether they blinked the duration of the blink (just as it does for saccadic eye during its appearance or not. But this isn't what the researchers movements, giving rise to the stopped clock illusion); the other found – rather, the students consistently underestimated the is that it ‘fills in’ the blanks created by blinks using a kind of duration of ‘A’s if they blinked during their appearance. perceptual memory of the visual scene. Neither explanation was We do know from past research that the brain to some extent supported by the findings, which means that the illusion of visual shuts down visual processing during blinks – a study from the continuity that we experience through our blinks remains a 1980s shone a light up through people's mouths and found their mystery. ability to detect changes in its brightness was reduced during One experiment involved students making several blinks, even though the blinks obviously didn't impede the light judgements about how long a letter ‘A’ was presented on a source. But what the new research shows is that it is still unclear computer screen (the actual durations were between 200ms and how the brain weaves the loss of visual input during blinks into 1600ms; 1000ms equals 1 second). Sometimes the ‘A’ appeared a seamless perceptual experience. at the beginning or end of a voluntary eye blink, other times it Summing up, the University of Illinois researchers David appeared during a period when the participant did not blink. If we Irwin and Maria Robinson said the brain seems to ignore the backdate visual events that occur during blinks, then the ‘A’s that perceptual consequences of blinks, but they're not sure how this appeared at the beginning or end of a blink should have been is done. ‘Having ruled out the temporal antedating and backdated to the onset of the blink, giving the illusion that they'd perceptual maintenance hypotheses,’ they said, ‘the question still been presented longer than they actually had, as compared with remains: Why does the visual world appear continuous across ‘A’s that appeared when there was no blink. In fact, the eye blinks?’ CJ
In Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance
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Even a four-year-old can tell when you’re contradicting yourself (and now they won’t trust you) In Child Development
‘Yes, Victoria, eating chocolate is unhealthy, logically inconsistent but not when I eat it’ – you might wonder utterances in a just how long you can get away this kind of conversation, but not when contradictory logic with your kids. If you’d attributed to a book, this asked Jean Piaget, one of the founding suggests there’s something fathers of child psychology, he would more engaging or probably have told you that you’ll be fine motivating about listening until they’re at least eight. After all, he had to an actual conversational observed that children younger than this age exchange that improves often describe things in contradictory ways, their performance. ‘Put such as saying that a candle sinks because another way,’ the it’s round, but that a ball floats because it's researchers said, ‘the round. testimonial context may Recent research has largely backed serve to prompt an up Piaget’s view, but in a new study in epistemically vigilant Child Development, psychologists have not three-year-olds, correctly identified the stance, and as a result children may shown that children’s recognition of logical women who did not make sense because evaluate arguments and claims more inconsistency starts much earlier – around they were making contradictory statements. carefully than they would otherwise.’ four years of age – when they are exposed to This also affected the way the five-year-old Alternatively, perhaps they are just extra it in a conversational context. This makes children perceived the trustworthiness of trusting of books – this would certainly sense, say Sabine Doebel and her these women. For instance, in a later part of chime with earlier research. colleagues, because reasoning probably the experiment, these children said they'd Another aspect to this second evolved as a way to evaluate what we’re told rather ask the logically consistent woman experiment was that the children also by others – an especially important skill for about the meaning of a new word, rather completed tests of their memory children. than ask the woman who'd contradicted performance and executive control (they had A first experiment with 74 children aged herself. to remember strings of numbers or recite three to five involved them watching video Another experiment with more four- and them backwards), and those who scored clips of one woman asking two others a five-year-olds replicated these findings in higher on these tests tended to do better at series of basic questions, like ‘Can you tell the same conversational context, but found detecting logical inconsistency. me about the ball you saw today?’. One that only the five-year-olds were unable to A final note – although based on their woman answered all the questions in a detect logical inconsistencies when they average performance four-year-olds were contradictory way (‘Today I saw a ball that were attributed to books, rather than to able to identify the women who were being was the biggest ball ever and it was the people in conversation (to do this, the contradictory, not all the children at this age smallest ball ever’) whereas the other researcher presented the children with two were able to do so, and even among five- woman answered the questions in a logically books and, to take one example, told them year-olds there was plenty of room for consistent way (‘Today I saw a ball that was that one book said someone saw a ball that improvement in their performance. So if the biggest ball ever and it was the softest was the biggest and the smallest ever, you’re lucky, you might just get away a little ball ever’). After each clip the children were whereas the other book described someone longer with convincing your five-year-old asked to say which woman did not make seeing a ball that was the biggest and the that chocolate is bad for them but good for sense. softest). you, especially if you tell them that's what Four-year-olds and five-year-olds, but Because the four-year-olds could detect a book says. CJ
How expert schmoozers trick themselves into liking their target
In Academy of Management Journal
Big-wigs have much to gain of Management Journal finds that whom had at least one Westphal and Guy Shani from ingratiating themselves company directors get around scheduled meeting with another suspected that the key to with even bigger ones, because this problem by employing a director who had something successful ingratiation is to having an in with important clever psychological tactic – they wanted: a say in the board believe it. Detecting unnatural people sways decisions made in before meeting up with those membership at another behaviour comes fairly easily, the executive washroom, on the they plan on winning over, they company. The meetings especially if you know what to golf course, or over plates of think about them in such a way occurred during the six months look for, meaning pretenders are wagyu carpaccio. But that they come to like them running up to the board one feigned smile or wavering ingratiators face a problem: no- more, making any flattery or nominations meeting, so if the compliment away from being one likes a suck-up, and people ingratiation seem all the more participants played their cards dismissed as a brown-noser. at the top of the food chain have convincing. right, maybe they would get Acting is hard! plenty of practice in detecting Participants in the study appointed. When we really like and dismissing them. were directors at a range of So what’s the best way someone, on the other hand, A new article in the Academy large US companies, each of to play? Researchers James we don’t need to act, just let our
read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk 677 digest
feelings come through. a much older white male might going to be particularly participants were of what they Increasing one’s authentic liking choose to reflect on how they important – and in these cases, were doing. Did they deliberately for a person would therefore be both spent some years in the use of the tactic was even more trick themselves into liking the very helpful. Westphal and Shani same industry. The researchers likely to be rewarded with a other director, or was it a more predicted that one way to do this also surveyed the ingratiation nomination. These effects were automatic and instinctive would be for the participants to behaviours in the meeting itself: striking: those following this process? mentally emphasise to compliments and expressions of strategy to its fullest were Either way, these results themselves what they have in admiration, together with the nearly three times more likely aren’t only relevant for top dogs common with the director they amount of non-verbal to get a recommendation than trying to bound their way further wanted to influence. After all, affirmation like smiling or up the hierarchy. The study there is copious evidence laughter. provides another showing that we like more those The data showed that the demonstration that changing who resemble us, and that we more a participant had turned how we think about other are more likely to credit the their thoughts towards what people has an important role achievements of (and therefore they had in common with the in smoothing social respect) people like ourselves, other director, the more their interactions. Similar rather than putting their ingratiation behaviours paid off processes might help explain success down to external – they were more likely to get an why social contact between factors. invitation to join the board in the outgroups is sometimes found In the study, the 278 months that followed – to be helpful, and sometimes participants were surveyed at presumably because their not: are the different factions multiple time points prior to flattery was more convincing. those with an average amount looking for what they have in their crucial meeting(s) with the Furthermore, participants of regulation of their thoughts common, or what sets them other director, on how much were more likely to adjust their around the meeting. apart? This approach is about they thought about their thinking in this way when their The psychological strategy more than a cushy seat in the similarities, or about their counterpart was more dissimilar uncovered in this research was board room; it’s about how differences. For example, a to them – where intentionally certainly effective, but what we divided people can find a way black woman prior to meeting searching for common ground is don’t know is how aware the to sit down together. AF
Is OCD fuelled by a fear of the self?
In Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy
Most of us have unwanted obsession, no matter that their also to the importance the benefit from help realising their thoughts and images that pop fears have no basis in reality. participants attributed to these obsessive thoughts have no into our heads, and it's not a Gabriele Melli and his thoughts and the need they had basis in reality and are not a big deal. But for people with colleagues recruited 76 to control them. reflection of their ‘true self’. a diagnosis of obsessive- participants diagnosed with OCD While cautioning that their The findings also build on past compulsive disorder (OCD) who were about to embark on results are only preliminary – research that's shown, for these mental intrusions are psychotherapy at a private clinic the sample is relatively small, example, that people with OCD frequently distressing and in Italy. The researchers the measures depended on self- find intrusive thoughts more difficult to ignore. A new article interviewed the participants report, were correlational, and troubling when they seem to in Clinical Psychology and about their OCD-related there was no control group – contradict a valued aspect of Psychotherapy explores the symptoms, their anxiety and Melli and his colleagues believe their sense of self, and that possibility that the reason these depression, and their self- there could be important clinical people with OCD are more thoughts become so troubling to related fears. This last measure insights here. For instance, uncertain than healthy controls some people is that they play on featured items like ‘I fear some patients with OCD might about their self-concept. CJ their fears about the kind of perhaps being a violent, crazy person they might be. person’; ‘I am afraid of the The reasoning goes kind of person I could be’; and The material in this section is taken from something like this: If, for ‘I often doubt that I am a good the Society’s Research Digest blog at instance, you or I had a sudden person’ to which the www.bps.org.uk/digest, and is written by its mental of image of stabbing participants rated their editor Dr Christian Jarrett and contributor someone, we might find it agreement. Dr Alex Fradera. strange and unpleasant, but – Even after factoring out assuming we are mentally well the part played by anxiety, Subscribe to the fortnightly e-mail, friend, – the moment would quickly depression and a general follow and more via www.bps.org.uk/digest pass and be forgotten. In tendency for obsessive beliefs contrast, to someone with an (e.g. thinking that having a bad New: download our free app via your iOS or ongoing, nagging fear that they urge is as bad as carrying out Android store to keep up with the latest are dangerous and that they that urge), the researchers found psychology research every day, on the go! might one day harm somebody, that a greater fear of the self the unwanted image could fuel was independently associated their anxieties and end up with having more unacceptable becoming part of long-running and repugnant thoughts, and
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DIGEST DIGESTED
Full reports are available at www.bps.org.uk/digest
A qualitative analysis of the closing remarks made by Australian judges in domestic murder cases found they described husbands who kill their wives in far more forgiving and lenient terms than wives who kill their husbands. For example, the men are ‘stressed’ while the women are ‘wicked’. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law
Teenagers with autism demonstrated automatic facial mimicry just as much as their neurotypical peers. The study involved participants If you do everything you can to avoid plot spoile rs , performing one facial expression while trying to ignore someone else’s face performing another. The result undermines the idea that you’re probably a thinker autism is caused by ‘broken’ mirror neurons. Autism Research In Ps ycholo gy of Po pular Media Culture Is altruism a ‘costly signal’ showing that a person It’s a vexing First World Problem – how to avoid people giving away, would make a good mate? on Twitter or at the water cooler, the events of the latest Game of Previous research has Thrones episode before you've caught it. Psychologists are beginning supported this theory by to study this modern scourge, albeit in the context of written stories showing that altruism rather than TV shows, but so far their findings have been boosts the sex appeal of contradictory – one study suggested that spoiled stories were men and women. A new actually more enjoyable (possibly because they’re easier to process), study follows through on while a later investigation found the precise opposite. Now a this logic finding that research team led by Judith Rosenbaum has entered the fray with altruistic people also have a study in Psychology of Popular Media Culture that suggests one more sex. British Journal of reason for the contradictory results is that the effects of spoilers Psychology depend on how much a person likes to engage their brain, and how much they enjoy emotional stimulation. It’s easy to mind wander while studying. One solution is to find In psychological jargon these traits are known as ‘need for material that is in your learning sweet spot – not completely cognition’ and ‘need for affect’, respectively. The former is measured mastered, but not overwhelmingly difficult. Researchers found through disagreement with statements like ‘I only think as hard as that people mind-wandered less when they were learning material I have to’ and the latter via agreement with statements such as that fitted this description, and as a result they actually learned ‘Emotions help people get along in life’. better. Memory and Cognition The researchers first presented over 350 students, mostly African Americans at a university in Southeastern USA, with several After being reminded previews of classic short stories, some of which contained plot of our own mortality, spoilers and some that didn’t, and then asked them to say which most of us engage in of the stories they’d like to read. The students also completed psychological defence measures of their need for cognition and affect, and the critical mechanisms – thinking finding was that those who scored low on ‘need for cognition’ tended in ways to boost our to say they would prefer to read the full versions of stories that were self-esteem and about previewed with plot spoilers. ‘When choosing between stories, low things that have need for cognition individuals appear to have found spoiled stories meaning to us. However, as potentially more comprehensible and more in keeping with their when heavy metal fans preferred level of cognitive processing’, the researchers said. listen to songs like Next, the students read some classic short stories (such as Angel of Death, they Two Were Left and Death of a Clerk) in full, some of which had been don’t need to do this, ‘spoiled’ by a preview, and some not, and then rated their enjoyment presumably because the of the stories. This time, ‘need for cognition’ was unrelated to songs serve the same enjoyment, but ‘need for affect’ was, in that people with a greater purpose as the defence desire for emotional stimulation got more pleasure from unspoiled mechanisms. stories, as did the students who read fiction more frequently. Psychology of Popular One positive way to look at these findings is that encountering Media Culture a spoiler may not ruin your enjoyment as much as you think it will (if you’re a deep thinker), but probably will be a downer if you're the Facial expressions of intense joy and pain are indistinguishable. kind of person who likes emotional surprises. Alternatively, perhaps Researchers presented students with stills of joyful faces taken from this study is just too far removed from reality to offer much insight – returning soldiers as they surprised their relatives with a visit home, after all, as the researchers acknowledge, they didn't look at TV and with the anguished faces of people as they witnessed terrorist shows or movies (where plot spoilers are arguably more common), atrocities. Ignorant of the context, the students rated the faces as nor did they consider important variables such as genre (spoilers similarly negative in emotion. Emotion are presumably much more of an issue for horror and suspense) or story/show length. CJ
read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk 679 Crisis, Disaster and Trauma Psychology Section Conference & AGM Working with Refugees - what we need to know Friday 9 September 2016 at Ambassadors Hotel, Bloomsbury, London
Working with refugees and asylum seeking people requires present current views on the psychology of working with the usual expertise of an applied psychologist but also an refugees. understanding of a wide range of additional factors. These The event will be particularly interesting to practitioners include working with an interpreter, developing culturally engaged in working with asylum seeking people and refugees, relevant practice, the legal context, an appreciation of the both those new to the field and those with more experience, potential impact of multiple traumatic experiences on refugees including clinical, counselling, educational and social but coupled with an awareness and recognition of resilience. psychologists and those with an academic interest in this area. This conference brings together a group of internationally Registration for this event is now open, fees can be found recognized psychologists who have worked for many years on the event booking form. with asylum seeking and refugee children, unaccompanied To register please go to: www.bps.org.uk/cdt2016 minors, families and other adults. There will not only be a or www.kc-jones.co.uk/cdt2016 focus on therapy but also on the legal context and the Any queries please contact the events hotline integration of refugees into the world of work. Speakers will on 01332 224506
680 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 Diploma in Cognitive Behavioural Hypnotherapy
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read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk 681 in large databases and then analysed and offered as a saleable commodity. The second relates to the ways in which
ARTICLE Experiencing the people increasingly use social media as a way of sharing information about themselves, thereby allowing for peer-to- ‘surveillance society’ peer surveillance. It is clear that we are living in an Darren Ellis, Dave Harper and Ian Tucker ask whether psychology has been slow increasingly technologically sophisticated to cast a watchful eye over its implications society, as electronic devices of various sorts have become inextricably embedded in our lives. Internet and mobile phone use has exploded since the 1990s, and he images that circulated following identified the development of two forms social networking sites such as Facebook the November 2015 Paris attacks of ‘dataveillance’ (Clarke, 1998). The first and Twitter have seen massive growth. Tand the August 2011 UK relates to the ways in which personal It is perhaps not surprising, then, that disturbances have reminded us of the information is gathered through researchers and media commentators ubiquity of surveillance. In the UK we information technologies by governments have been arguing for some time that we may be aware of the CCTV owned by and commercial organisations, collected are living in a ‘surveillance society’ (e.g. local councils and shops; the Ball et al., 2006; Lyon, 2007). helicopter-borne cameras of the police What is a surprise, though, is and news crews; and mobile phone that psychological research cameras used by the public. Britain has not focused in detail on has become well-known the variety of forms of digital internationally for its use of CCTV, surveillance. Consequently, and even conservative estimates we know relatively little about suggest there are approximately 1.8 how ordinary people million CCTV cameras in the country experience surveillance. Social (Gerrard & Thompson, 2011). In psychologists Alex Haslam London, Freedom of Information Act and Steve Reicher note that requests have revealed that there are one of the offshoot findings at least 25,000 cameras. However, of the Stanford Prison CCTV and other cameras are not the Experiment, that they only forms of surveillance. Since the partially replicated for a BBC revelations in 2013 by Edward documentary, was the Snowden (Greenwald, 2014) and the importance of surveillance. ensuing public debate, we are more They state that ‘psychology aware of the capabilities both of needs to devote far more intelligence agencies like the NSA and effort to developing a science GCHQ and of companies like Apple, of surveillance’ (2002, p.13). Google and Microsoft. Where such research has With the rise of information been conducted, it has technologies in society, a new breed of generally used survey-based surveillance has emerged. In addition methods to garner general to the embodied surveillance of attitudes towards surveillance CCTV cameras, we have the (Dinev et al., 2008; Joinson et surveillance of information – what al., 2006), although there are Roger Clarke (1988) has called some notable exceptions. For ‘dataveillance’ – harvested through Since the revelations in 2013 by Edward Snowden, we example, Levine (2000) argues people’s use of information are more aware of the capabilities both of intelligence that there is a lack technologies. agencies like the NSA and GCHQ and of companies like psychological work in this area Increasingly, researchers have Apple, Google and Microsoft and puts forward the SIDE
Albrechtslund, A. (2008). Online social Society, 2(2), 77–81. productivity and quality of Ellis, D., Harper, D. & Tucker, I.M. (2013). networking as participatory Ball, K. (2010). Workplace surveillance: performance. Journal of Experimental The affective atmospheres of surveillance. First Monday, 13(3). An overview. Labor History, 51(1), Psychology: Applied, 4, 211–227 surveillance. Theory & Psychology, http://firstmonday.org/article/view/21 87–106. Clarke, R. (1988). Information technology 23(6), 840–855.
references 42/1949 Ball, K., Lyon, D., Murakami Wood, D. et and dataveillance. Communication of Foucault, M. (1979). Discipline and punish: Amick, B.C. & Smith. M.J. (1992). Stress, al. (2006). A report on the Surveillance the ACM, 31(5), 498–512. The birth of the prison. London: Allen computer-based work monitoring Society. Wilmslow: Office of the Dinev, T., Hart, P. & Mullen, M.R. (2008). Lane. and measurement systems. Applied Information Commissioner/ Internet privacy concerns and beliefs Gerrard, G. & Thompson, R. (2011, Ergonomics 23, 6–16. Surveillance Studies Network. about government surveillance. Winter). Two million cameras in the Anderson, B. (2009). Affective Brewer, N. & Ridgeway, T. (1998). Effects Journal of Strategic Information UK. CCTV Image, Issue 42, pp.10–12. atmospheres. Emotion, Space and of supervisory monitoring on Systems, 17, 214–233. Greenwald, G. (2014). No place to hide:
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model (the social identity model of designed so that residents deindividuating effects: Reicher et al., never knew when they were 1995) to facilitate insights into CCTV being observed, and so had to Meet the authors use and its effects. He states that ‘the regulate themselves. However, transformation of public space through over time, as more and more ‘Our interest in surveillance emerged through broader constant visual surveillance’ has people have willingly given work focused on the social psychological implications of ‘psychological implications’ (Levine, information about themselves increasing technologisation of everyday life. Data continue 2000, p.164). More recently, O’Donnell online and to companies like to be produced at an exponential rate, affecting all parts et al. (2010a, 2010b) have empirically Google, it is clear that not only of life. Psychology needs to analyse the impacts of this on investigated the role of identity in is a wider range of actors agency, power, identity and privacy.’ perceptions of surveillance, finding that involved, but also our surveillance is understood as more relationship with surveillance For more detail on the work of this group see: acceptable when it derives from a group technologies is a nuanced one. https://coresearch.wordpress.com/tag/surveillance or a leader with whom one shares an Following the work of Gilles identity. The same group challenged the Deleuze and Félix Guattari, common conception that people work Haggerty and Ericson (2000) Darren Ellis more productively when monitored . have conceptualised is Senior Lecturer in Psychosocial Although high surveillance led to higher surveillance as an ‘assemblage’ Studies at the University of East productivity on a task, the actual quality – in other words, a complex London of the work suffered (O’Donnell et al., web of heterogeneous but 2013) (see box, p.684). interconnected elements, including people, technologies, institutions, and so on (see Theorising surveillance also Harper et al., 2014). Dave Harper In contrast to the relative silence within Surveillance is not seen as is Programme Director and psychology, the interdisciplinary field of a stable entity but rather Reader in Clinical Psychology surveillance studies has grown apace over as multiple, relational and at the University of East London the last 20 years, drawing on sociology, shifting over time. media studies, computer science, security However, although people studies, criminology and the hacking are part of this assemblage, community (Lyon, 2007). Early in the much of the surveillance history of surveillance studies the studies literature focuses on Ian Tucker dominant theoretical approach drew the technology of surveillance is Reader in Psychology at the heavily on Foucault’s (1979) conceptual and on the surveillers rather University of East London examination of the ‘panopticon’, Jeremy than the surveilled. One of the [email protected] Bentham’s design for a building enabling ways that psychologists can maximum surveillance (a design contribute to this area is a apparently influencing the designs of concern with how ordinary many public buildings, especially people experience surveillance. prisons). Here, surveillance of the person How do they orient to, was intimately connected with issues of construct and respond to visual Dataveillance power. Some combined this notion with surveillance and the widespread On social networking sites such as popular notions of totalitarian state collection of personal information? Facebook, people disclose all kinds of surveillance following George Orwell’s How has the technological revolution – personal data – photos of themselves, 1984 (which itself owed a lot to Yevgeny and its embedded surveillance friends and family, updates on their Zamyatin’s We, published in 1921 and capabilities – affected the way we view location, information about their which Orwell had reviewed for Tribune in ourselves and the society in which we behaviour and activity. All this data is 1946). live? The August 2011 disturbances, potentially visible to others; whilst people This approach led some to focus on for example, showed that many of those may be aware of privacy issues in terms surveillance as inherently repressive, captured in images were ‘surveillance- of what other Facebook users can see of although Foucault’s point was actually aware’ and had their faces covered or their data, they are often not so aware more subtle – the panopticon was obscured in some way. of how Facebook itself collects and stores
Edward Snowden, the NSA and the US Toronto. changing nature of urban space. Reicher (Eds.) SIDE issues centre- surveillance state. New York: Harper, D.J., Ellis, D. & Tucker, I. (2014). Progress in Human Geography, 24(2), stage: Recent developments in studies Metropolitan Books. Surveillance. In T. Teo (Ed.) 243–265. of de-individuation in groups. Haggerty, K.D. & Ericson, R.V. (2000). The Encyclopedia of critical psychology, Larson, J.R. & Callahan, C. (1990). Amsterdam: Royal Netherlands surveillant assemblage, British (pp.1887–1892). New York: Springer. Performance monitoring: How it Academy of Arts and Sciences. Journal of Sociology, 51, 605–622. Joinson, A.N., Paine, C., Buchanan, T. & affects work productivity. Journal of Lyon, D. (2007). Surveillance studies: An Harper, D. (2011, May). Paranoia and Reips, U.D. (2006). Watching me, Applied Psychology, 75, 530–538. overview. Cambridge: Polity Press. public responses to cyber-surveillance. watching you. Journal of Information Levine, R.M. (2000). SIDE and closed Lyons, A.C., Goodwin, I., Griffin, C. & Paper presented at Cyber- Science, 32, 334–343. circuit television (CCTV): Exploring McCreanor, T. (2015). Social Surveillance in Everyday Life: An Koskela, H. (2000). ‘The gaze without the surveillance in public space. In T. networking and young adults’ International Workshop, University of eyes’: Video-surveillance and the Postmes, R. Spears, M. Lea & S. drinking practices. Health Psychology,
read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk 683 surveillance
information about its users, with the People risk becoming commodified, inadvertent recording of then Prime aim of using it to attract advertising. An through their personal information. In Minister Gordon Brown in the 2010 UK online search engine like Google operates social psychological terms, we could say general election ‘Bigotgate’ episode). on a model of collecting the searches of that with the incessant rise in the Surveillance is no longer conducted solely people and collating them into mass prominence of information technologies in an Orwellian manner, where the databases, which it can use to attract in everyday life, people are increasingly citizens of the state fall under the advertisers. This model’s success means defined by information as well as biology. powerful gaze of the ruling elites. Rather Google is now worth over $500 billion – It is also notable that much of this it is becoming more complex and fluid, as internet security commentator Bruce dataveillance takes place in ‘private’ operating at many levels, subject to Schneier puts it, ‘surveillance is the spaces (e.g. the home). The spread of control and initiation by many different business model of the internet’ (2015, surveillance across public and private actors, from large organisations and p.49). An exchange takes place: people space presents the potential for people’s government departments to people are able to use dataveillance technologies, sense of self and identity to be shaped tracking themselves and others through but they have to disclose personal by surveillance. People can also engage social media. information (which can be recorded, in ‘participatory surveillance’ stored and used). (Albrechtslund, 2008) through watching This exchange presents new each other (e.g. via social media). Towards a psychology challenges to notions of privacy and Moreover, media technologies are of surveillance identity. Our thoughts, feelings and facilitating ‘bottom-up’ surveillance, Psychological research has recently desires – as represented in our search which Mathiesen (1997) terms come to focus on people’s knowledge and histories – are now recorded in the ‘synopticism’. Here the powerful too experience of surveillance. Some distinct databases of huge technology companies. are subject to surveillance (as with the themes have emerged that capture some of the complexity and variability of our understanding and engagement with surveillance technologies. Three dominant constructions Surveillance in the workplace appear to be culturally available in public discourse about surveillance (Harper, Surveillance in the workplace has risen significantly in recent times, catalysed by an increase 2011; and see tinyurl.com/zjbs53v): in the role of electronic media (email, social media). Psychological research has featured as a narrative of suspicion (that we are part of a range of studies into the impact of surveillance in occupational settings (see Ball, all now paranoid because of the rise in 2010, for a useful summary). CCTV); a narrative of indifference, or Research undertaken prior to large-scale use of the new forms of digital media has more pejoratively, complacency (e.g. that focused on issues such as task design and supervisory style, finding for example that we are ‘sleepwalking into a surveillance workplace monitoring that was regular and intermittent was reported as less stressful than society’); and, finally, a narrative involving constant surveillance (Larson & Callahan, 1990). Also, being monitored as part of a group, the balancing or trading of competing rather than individually, is seen as less stressful (Brewer & Ridgeway, 1998). This has led to imperatives (privacy, security, guidance stating that workplace surveillance practices need to be supplemented by feedback convenience, etc.). Our analysis of and coaching, so that employees understand what monitoring processes exist and how to interviews with 31 people from London respond to them (Amick & Smith, 1992). and the South East suggested that the Recent psychological studies have addressed issues of compliance with, and resistance suspicious and indifferent constructions to, workplace monitoring and surveillance technologies, such as computer activity including were deployed throughout the interviews email, websites visited, keystrokes, and even screen shot capture (Spitzmuller & Stanton, but the ‘balancing’ construction less so, at 2006). Research has focused on behavioural intention, which has been found to be shaped least explicitly. However, what was by organisational factors (commitment and identification) as well as attitudes (Spitzmuller interesting was that different formulations & Stanton, 2006). Such work has relied primarily on attitude and survey data. were drawn upon at different times, partly The importance of addressing the psychological impact of workplace surveillance was because of the different contexts of shown recently by the European Court of Human Rights January 2016 ruling in the Bărbulescu surveillance and partly because of the v. Romania case that personal use of the internet at the workplace is not necessarily protected interactional context of the interviews under Article 8 (the right to respect for private and family life) of the European Convention on themselves. It is this fluidity that Human Rights. quantitative surveys miss because they are oriented to identifying an ‘average’
34(4), 293–302. The role of shared identity in Understanding The Experiment. Spitzmuller, C. & Stanton, J.M. (2006). Mathiesen, T. (1997). The viewer society: perceptions of surveillance. European Social Psychology, 5, 7–17. Examining employee compliance Michel Foucault's 'Panopticon' Journal of Social Psychology, 40(1), Reicher, S.D., Spears, R. & Postmes, T. with organizational surveillance and revisited. Theoretical Criminology, 1(2), 135–147. (1995). A social identity model of monitoring. Journal of Occupational 215–233. O’Donnell, A.T., Ryan, M.K. & Jetten, J. deindividuation phenomena. and Organizational Psychology, 79, O'Donnell, A.T., Jetten, J. & Ryan, M.K. (2013). The hidden costs of European Review of Social Psychology, 245–272. (2010a). Watching over your own. surveillance for performance and 6(1), 161–198. Tonks, A.P. (2012). Photos on Facebook: An European Journal of Social Psychology, helping behaviour. Group Processes & Schneier, B. (2015). Data and Goliath: The exploratory study of their role in the 40(6), 1046–1061. Intergroup Relations, 16(2), 246–256. hidden battles to collect your data and social lives and drinking experiences of O'Donnell, A.T., Jetten, J. & Ryan, M.K. Reicher, S.D. & Haslam, A. (2002). Social control your world. New York: W.W. New Zealand university students. MSc (2010b). Who is watching over you? psychology science and surveillance: Norton. thesis presented at Massey
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Youth drinking cultures and social media
Making oneself visible to peers through social media brings many benefits for young adults in constructing their identities, but it also means exposing oneself to the commodifying practices of commercial organisations. Lyons et al. (2015) reported that young adults in New Zealand focus primarily on the ongoing social relations revolving round drinking practices, rather than the possibilities for commercial surveillance that their behaviour enables. Indeed the visibility that social media affords is key to the existence of networks of drinking culture, as the posting of photos and comments in between events maintains social relations. Moreover, ‘re-living’ drunk nights through posting photos or videos online is seen as a positive beneficial practice in its own right. However, the researchers also found that an awareness of the potential for surveillance in young people can emerge in relation to drinking cultures, with females, in particular, wary of being photographed in drunk states or with alcoholic drinks, for fear of such photos being posted on social media (primarily Facebook). As Tonks (2012) discovered, ‘these photos are no longer confined only to friends’ Facebook pages’ as commercial photographers like Snapstar Live www.facebook.com/SnapStarLive and https://vimeo.com/snapstarlive ‘photograph people out clubbing at different bars’ and upload the photos onto an external website where ‘Facebook users can tag themselves to connect the photos to their own profile’ (p.91).
attitude across situations. The quite and spaces). Thus the thoughts and need to regularly update their knowledge complex and ambivalent responses to feelings that emerge as a consequence (e.g. of new technological capabilities). surveillance we reported could not be of living in a highly surveilled society As a result, there is a need to study easily categorised as pro- or anti- can be equally complex and ambiguous; how these changes reshape people’s surveillance. Rather, people appeared for example, simultaneously producing everyday psychological experiences to construct their options for action as multiple forms of spatialised affects – (Tucker, 2013). limited, given the ubiquity of data- what Anderson (2009) has called ‘affective gathering when using the internet. atmospheres’ – such as affects related to Perhaps this partly explains why, apart security (notions of safety) and insecurity Discussion from the debate over ID cards, there has (invasions of privacy). Recent psychological research has been little political traction in the UK for These findings relate to cultural laid some of the groundwork for a rolling back of surveillance. geographical research in which understanding the complex and multiple A relationship between surveillance experiences of surveillance are framed relationships people have with and emotion has been identified as core as laden with ambiguity and ambivalence, surveillance technologies, but so many to everyday experiences of surveillance often appearing vague, imprecise and questions remain. A number of the studies (Ellis et al., 2013). The continued incoherent. These experiences are difficult cited in this article focused on London, expansion of the surveillance society for individuals to interpret and articulate a highly surveilled city. It would be worth leads to the development of new social (Koskela, 2000). Because of its looking at other UK urban and rural norms where the expectation that one overbearing normalisation, complexity areas. Cross-cultural studies, particularly is being surveilled becomes normalised. and clandestine character, individuals with cities in developing countries, would Surveillance is ever-present and yet see surveillance as a complex, normalised inform us about the psychological effects absent (unnoticed), material (embodied backdrop to everyday life. They may see it of the technologisation of developed through the CCTV camera) and yet as having minimal effect on them: ‘I have countries. ethereal (the CCTV operator is not done nothing wrong, nothing can be done Perhaps most importantly, we need visible), geographical (located in a about it, so why bother about it?’ (Ellis to investigate whether responses to visual particular time and space) yet trans- et al., 2013). surveillance (e.g. CCTV) correlate with geographical (transmitted to other times However, for some people there is responses towards forms of dataveillance. a sense of compulsion over surveillance The CCTV camera has become an iconic through digital technologies. They may signifier of the gaze of ‘others’, but how report feeling a pressure to use online will people respond to surveillance technologies in order to avoid feeling activity that is increasingly organised and University, Wellington, New Zealand. Tucker, I.M. (2013). Bodies and ‘left out’ of society, and potentially being enacted by complex software algorithms? surveillance: Simondon, information positioned as old-fashioned (Tucker et al., How might social media enable new and affect. Distinktion: Scandinavian 2012). One conclusion we reached was modes of subjectivity in relation to Journal of Social Theory, 14(1), 31–40. that, despite proactively engaging with performing oneself online? Surveillance, Tucker, I.M., Ellis, D. & Harper, D. (2012). a range of information technologies, in its many different configurations (see Transformative processes of agency: many people did not comprehend the boxes) is increasing throughout modern Information technologies and the extent of surveillance made possible by society; psychological researchers need to production of digitally mediated these technologies. This is even more engage in more interdisciplinary work to selves. Culture and Society: Journal of Social Research, 3(1), 9–24. the case given the rapid pace of address its influence on the shaping of technological change so that people individual and social life.
read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk 685 (Olson, 2012). Tools and software that can be used to aide an individual with limited technological knowledge to hack
ARTICLE The social psychology into systems are increasingly available on the internet; such individuals may be referred to as ‘script kiddies’. An example of cybersecurity of this would be the LOIC software shared amongst users of the internet John McAlaney, Helen Thackray and Jacqui Taylor consider motivations image board website 4chan. This open for hacking, and how the problem is best addressed source software can be used to participate in a distributed denial of service (DDoS) attack, which overloads a website and takes it offline. It has been used in a s with many offline relationships, nature of many cybersecurity attacks, number of group hacktivism campaigns, online interactions are often based research into the role of psychology in including one known as Project Aon trust, the sharing of information cybersecurity is still limited. Indeed, even Chanology, carried out by Anonymous, and a degree of interdependence. High research into social engineering is often in which the Church of Scientology was profile cybersecurity incidents, such as conducted from the discipline of targeted. Instructions on how to the Ashley Madison website hacking, computing rather than social psychology. download and use the software were demonstrate what happens when this The need for a social psychological disseminated to individuals who wished trust relationship is breached. approach is also suggested by the fact that to participate in the campaign, not all of Yet despite the common media large-scale cybersecurity incidents – whom had a good understanding of the depiction, such incidents may not be stemming from motivations as varied as software or the possible risks use of it the result of the archetypal hacker using financial gain and political/ideological entailed. Little wonder, then, that the technological means to get into a system. protest – are often instigated by groups, National Crime Agency has provided Instead, cybersecurity attacks are as opposed to individuals acting alone. advice on how to stop young people increasingly based primarily on social As such, these incidents can be engineering techniques – the use of regarded as the result of group psychological manipulation to trick actions and group processes, people into disclosing sensitive although applying traditional information or inappropriately granting concepts of group structures to the access to a secure system (Tetri & online world is problematic. For Vuorinen, 2013). example, Anonymous, one of the One example of social engineering more well-known hacktivist groups, that many of us will have encountered is not a cohesive group that works would be phishing e-mails, which attempt in cooperation, but an umbrella to fool the recipient into opening a link term for those who identify with the or attachment that will install malicious aims of a section. Both Lulzsec and software onto their computer. These Lizard Squad were distinct groups phishing e-mails draw upon many of that evolved from the loose principles of social psychology, consumer collective of Anonymous, each with psychology and behaviour change. They their own profile and characteristics. may, for example, use a fear appeal or Such groups are breaking down invoke a sense of scarcity or urgency if barriers to participation in the recipient does not act quickly. These cybercrime and hacktivism. In some scams may only be successful a fraction of instances, individuals appear to the time, but with the ability to send out have been coerced or manipulated tens of thousands of e-mails at once, at no into participating in online activities or zero cost to the sender, this can still be by members of these groups, a productive means of gaining access to without an accurate understanding individuals’ computers. of the consequence of their actions Despite the intrinsically psychological or the risk of criminalisation Anonymous targeted the Church of Scientology
Alberici, I.A., Milesi, P., Malfermo, P. et 34(3), 366–375. persuasion (pp.39–63). Mahwah, NJ: (pp.99–133). Cambridge: Cambridge al. (2012, December). Comparing Coleman, E.G. (2014). Hacker, hoaxer, Lawrence Erlbaum. University Press. social movements and political whistleblower, spy: The many faces of Fullwood, C. (2015). The role of Hinsz, V.B., Tindale, R.S. & Vollrath, D.A. parties’ activism: The psychosocial Anonymous. London/New York: Verso. personality in online self- (1997). The emerging
references predictors of collective action and the Darley, J.M. (1992). Social organization presentation. In A. Attrill (Ed.) conceptualization of groups as role of the internet. Contention, for the production of evil. Cyberpsychology (pp.9–28). Oxford: information processors. Psychological pp.3–4. Psychological Inquiry, 3(2), 199–218. Oxford University Press. Bulletin, 121(1), 43–64. Cialdini, R.B., Borden, R.J., Thorne, A. et Fuegen, K. & Brehm, J.W. (2004). The Hewstone, M. & Jaspars, J.M.F. (1982). Mason, K.L. (2008). Cyberbullying: A al. (1976). Basking in Reflected Glory intensity of affect and resistance to Intergroup relations and attribution preliminary assessment for school - 3 (Football) Field Studies. Journal of social influence. In E.S. Knowles & processes. In H. Tajfel (Ed.) Social personnel. Psychology in the Schools, Personality and Social Psychology, A.S. Linn (Eds.) Resistance and identity and intergroup relations 45(4), 323–348.
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from becoming involved in cybercrime cybersecurity, and how individuals extent that would seem to be particularly (tinyurl.com/jqrajq6). may be empowered to make informed intense. So there is a growing need to prevent decisions about their participation in and mitigate the impact of cybersecurity cybersecurity incidents. incidents, and this has been the focus of Hacktivism the majority of psychological research to The motivation behind a cyberattack date. But we also need understanding of For the lulz may also relate to political and ideological what motivates people to engage in cyber One motivation that is evident in motivations, which in some ways could crime (particularly in cases of hacktivism a number of cybersecurity incidents, be considered to be the antithesis of and online protest, where adversaries particularly those targeted at individuals, cyberattacks committed ‘for the lulz’. Yet place themselves at risk of prosecution for is personal enjoyment – ‘for the lulz’, to there is not necessarily a clear distinction no obvious financial gain). Other areas of use the language of some online groups between the different motivations that psychology and behaviour change take (Coleman, 2014). This type of may drive an individual or group to this double-barrelled approach: for cybersecurity incident is underresearched, participate in cyber adversarial acts. example, research and support services but could perhaps be informed by some Whilst Anonymous have been implicated have been developed to help those of the studies that have been conducted in cyberattacks against apparently random affected by heavy drinking, but efforts are on cyberbullying and trolling, which refer targets, they have also taken part in also made to understand why people to intentional, aggressive acts carried out actions such as providing internet access drink heavily and to educate them on the repeatedly over time using electronic to protestors in Tunisia during the 2011 possible consequences of doing so. There communication (Slonje & Smith, 2008). uprising, after the government attempted is the potential for similar approaches to In many cases it may be difficult to to block all internet traffic within the be used in relation to participation in differentiate a cyberbullying incident from country. Cybercrime, cyberterrorism and cybersecurity incidents. a cybersecurity incident. As would appear hacktivism may share many of the same In this article we discuss the to be the case with a number of outcomes, and groups may actively choose contributions that social psychological cybersecurity incidents, some cyberbullies to present themselves as hacktivists rather research and theory can make to identify their primary motivation to be than cybercriminals or cyberterrorists due simply that they find it funny (Slonje & to the greater social acceptance this will Smith, 2008). The influence of give them (Rogers, 2010). V INCENT anonymity, disinhibition and Nevertheless, there would appear to deindividuation may be of particular be cyberattacks that have a wider political D
IAMANTE importance in such incidents. The goal, particularly those attacks instigated perception of anonymity afforded by by groups. Alberici et al (2012) argue that online communications allows the motivations that drive people to individuals to take actions that would collective action include identification otherwise result in legal or social with a group involved in a conflict; a sanctions, although as noted earlier feeling that the situation of one’s own there may of course be a gap between an group is unfair; and a shared belief that individual’s understanding of how likely the group can bring about change. they are to be identified and the actual Underpinning this there is also often reality of this. Disinhibition, on the other a sense that core moral principles have hand, refers to the sense that actions been violated and must be defended and conducted online do not feel as real as reinstated. These motivations would seem those conducted offline. It has been to fit with the tendency of hacktivism argued that this can lead individuals to campaigns to be directed at organisations lose self-control (Mason, 2008). Finally, that are perceived to be suppressing the deindividuation may occur, in which freedom of information. individual lose their sense of self- This conflict between politically awareness when within a group (Reicher motivated social justice campaigns and et al., 1995; Taylor & MacDonald, 2002). committing cybersecurity attacks ‘for the Again this is an underresearched area, lulz’ may undermine some groups. In the but it would seem that some individuals case of Anonymous, it has been suggested become engaged with online groups to an that some of the splintering and in-
Olson, P. (2012). We are anonymous. New analysis. (pp.217–235). Berlin: 93(3), 431–446. Tetri, P. & Vuorinen, J. (2013). Dissecting York: Back Bay Books. Springer-Verlag. Smith, R.G., Cheung, R. & Yiu-Chang social engineering. Behaviour & Reicher, S.D., Spears, R. & Postmes, T. Slonje, R. & Smith, P.K. (2008). Lau, L. (2015). Cybercrime risks and Information Technology, 32(10), (1995). A social identity model of Cyberbullying: another main type of responses: Eastern and Western 1014–1023. deindividuation phenomena. bullying? Scandinavian Journal of perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave Wallach, M.A., Kogan, N. & Bem, D.J. European Review of Social Psychology, Psychology, 49(2), 147–154. Macmillan. (1962). Group influence on individual 6(1), 161–198. Smith, E.R., Seger, C.R. & Mackie, D.A. Taylor, J. & MacDonald, J. (2002). The risk-taking. Journal of Abnormal Rogers, M.K. (2010). The psyche of (2007). Can emotions be truly group effects of asynchronous computer- Psychology, 65(2), 75–86. cybercriminals: A psycho-social level? evidence regarding four mediated group interaction on group perspective. In G. Ghosh & E. Turrini conceptual criteria. Journal of processes. Social Science Computer (Eds.) Cybercrimes: A multidisciplinary Personality and Social Psychology, Review, 20(3), 260–274.
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fighting within the collective arose with from some members feeling that ideologically driven campaigns were not consistent with the type of anarchy and random actions by which the group had previously defined itself (Olson, 2012).
Impression management and social identity A characteristic of hacktivist groups and cyberattackers is the mystery around the identity of their members and the actual reach or capabilities of the group. This is of course necessary in some cases so that individuals can avoid being identified by law enforcement agencies, but many of these groups have become adept at brand management for the promotion of themselves and their cause. Anonymous have become particularly known for the Guy Fawkes mask, taken from a graphic novel on which the film V for Vendetta was based. This symbol has become coopted and replicated across many groups and used as a way of expressing discontent with the establishment. This type of sophisticated marketing and self-promotion is at odds with what could be considered the stereotype of a computer hacker. Some argue that such stereotypes of hackers as young, socially awkward males have become a substitute for actual research (Rogers, 2010). Individuals may be skilled socially when taking part in online communications, even if they are less so in offline situations, and these skills are valued within the groups. Online communication what Robert Cialdini and colleagues by groups. It is established in social does allow for a far greater degree of (1976) refer to as basking in reflected psychology that being a member of impression management than is the case glory. In order to help prevent future a group can alter individual behaviour offline, and it is easy to see why cybersecurity incidents, the media could and thought processes in a number of individuals who are less socially skilled take a more responsible approach to the fundamental ways. For example, offline may be drawn towards interacting reporting of cybercriminals, to avoid cognitive processes such as decision with others online (Fullwood, 2015). glamourising individuals and setting them making, planning, judging and problem Groups can also engage in forms up as role models (Rogers, 2010). solving may be undertaken at a group of collective impression management. There are also claims via social media level rather than an individual level It has been claimed, for example, that accounts such as Twitter that the hype (Hinsz et al., 1997). Similarly, emotions Anonymous engaged in impression surrounding multiple ‘ops’ (otherwise can spread throughout groups, even to management by overstating their known as operations, in which some form members who were not involved in the capabilities to journalists who of campaign is conducted) is a deliberate original event that prompted the emotion investigated some of the early attempt to undermine the achievements (E.R. Smith et al., 2007). This may be cybersecurity incidents instigated by and popularity of the hacktivist groups. particularly relevant to cybersecurity the group. This impression management It has been suggested that by creating incidents that are linked to online social may be a factor in drawing people many ops on social media, detractors protest and hacktivism, where there is towards them. The annual DEF CON of hacktivist groups dilute the power a sense of anger at a perceived injustice hacking convention, held every year in of numbers (which is a large part of the or suppression of freedom. It has also Las Vegas, is attended not only by those success of Anonymous) and then use been found that individuals will make who engage in hacking, but also by those the ‘failed ops’ as examples of how the riskier decisions when in groups than who identify with the excitement and hacktivist groups are declining and far when alone, even if the decision is made glamour that they perceive hacking to less influential than they once were. privately after the group discussion has have, despite having little or no personal taken place (Wallach et al., 1962). involvement in actual hacking activities. However, individuals are often unaware Their association with groups and Group processes of the influence that the group is having individuals who do engage in hacktivism As we have discussed, many cybersecurity on their behaviour (Darley, 1992). and cybercrime may be an example of incidents would appear to be orchestrated As predicted by intergroup attribution
688 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 cybersecurity research (Hewstone & Jaspars, 1982) the result in a reactance response, in success of group actions by hacktivism which an individual or group groups, such as Anonymous and other resent the perception that their cyber adversarial groups, could be choices are being removed from Meet the authors expected to strengthen individual them. In some cases the members’ beliefs that they are highly individual may adopt an attitude ‘As if often the case with the most interesting pieces skilled, and that any successes of directly contrary to that which of research, our involvement in this area came about opposing groups, such as law they feel is being pushed upon more through impromptu chats in the corridors of our enforcement, are more attributable to them, in a process known as institution than any formal planning. After talking with external circumstances and luck. This negative attitude change colleagues who are involved in cybersecurity we came may embolden the group to take further (Fuegen & Brehm, 2004). Given to realise that there was a substantial amount of actions against other organisations, that many hacktivism groups overlap between the cybersecurity challenges facing particularly if that group identity is define themselves on the basis of society and expertise we hold within psychology to reinforced by media reporting. It has been being anarchistic it would seem understand people and bring about change. commented that early news reports about especially likely that attempts to Cybersecurity incidents may seem very technological in Anonymous generally overstated both the bring about behaviour change in nature, but ultimately the hackers and the level of cohesiveness between group these groups would result in this organisations they target are people, with their own members and organisational structure of type of negative response. It is goals, influences and beliefs. There is a danger of the group, an observation that may have important to also understand the relying on lazy stereotypes of those involved in been a factor in the group becoming more role that being part of these cybersecurity, or taking the Hollywood portrayals of cohesive and organised (Olson, 2012). groups has for individuals. If we hackers and cybersecurity experts as fact. Our The cohesiveness of groups can also discourage them from research aims to explore the social psychological be affected by other incidents: for interacting with groups factors of this increasingly important societal issue, as example, there was shock when a high- associated with hacktivism and well as inputting into the discussion about where ranking member of Lulzsec was revealed cybercrime, then we may also be psychologists should place themselves in what can be to have been an informant for the FBI, asking them to abandon a controversial and morally complex topic.’ leading to the arrests of other prominent something that is an important group members. There have been notable basis of their social identity and changes to the group’s behaviours since, self-esteem. John McAlaney with increased dislike of what is termed An alternative approach is a Senior Lecturer in within the group as ‘leader-fags’, suspicion is to aim to empower young Psychology at Bournemouth of new or unknown members, and those people to make more informed University who are perceived to be looking for decisions about their [email protected] attention. participation in hacktivism and other online activities. By doing this no comment Empowering informed is being made to the young Helen Thackray decision making people about what they should is a PhD researcher at Hacktivism and cybercrime have the be doing; instead they are just Bournemouth University potential to create ethical conflicts for prompted to consider the factors [email protected] psychologists and other behaviour change that may be influencing their experts. Hacktivism campaigns vary in behaviour, and what the how much impact they have, but often consequences of participation include at least some degree of illegality. may be. This does of course What is seen as a form of social protest have parallels with other areas of Jacqui Taylor through hacktivism in one country may behaviour change, where there is is an Associate Professor in be viewed as a clear case of cybercrime in a move away from using scare Psychology at Bournemouth another (R.G. Smith et al., 2015). As tactics and ‘health terrorism’. University social engineering-based attacks become Educating young people [email protected] more common and hacktivism groups about a number of group make greater use of social media, it is processes and biases could help inevitable that psychologists will be them develop resilience against increasingly drawn into the sphere of being misled into participating cybersecurity. Conflicts will arise between in actions that could result in their groups; and take caution in accepting the the need to help individuals and criminalisation. Making them aware negative stereotypes as fact. Whilst there organisations protect themselves, and the that they may be misled could trigger will always be trolls and those who are rights of a population to protest against a reactance response, which could be only in it for the lulz, their motivations their governments. a protective factor by making them be may not be as straightforward as first Attempts to dissuade people more critical and sceptical of people they thought. There also appears to be a (especially young adults) from becoming encounter online. number of young people involved in involved in hacktivism and cybercrime by As the internet and digital hacktivism groups who are intelligent, instructing them they should not do so, technologies become increasingly skilled and passionate about social justice. seem destined to fail. As experienced pervasive in our lives, it is important that It is better to work with such individuals across a range of health and social psychologists gain a better understanding to explore ways of bringing about positive behaviours, such direct and blatant of hacktivism and cybercrime through change than to leave them to become attempts to change behaviour can easily engagement with people involved in such criminalised.
read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk 689 willingness to work towards the elusive dream of peace. ‘Much of the psychology of conflict in the past has been descriptive, and has shed a lot of light on
FEATURE the barriers to peace,’ says Halperin. ‘Our main contribution in recent years has been to show how to use psychology to Untying the hardest knots overcome these barriers.’ ‘Eran’s doing outstanding and Dan Jones delves into the work of Eran Halperin, in the field of conflict resolution innovative work,’ says Emile Bruneau, a social and cognitive neuroscientist at MIT who specialises in conflict. ‘And he’s doing work that few other people are.’ It’s not that social psychologists have ignored n the evening of 19 November 1977 profile of the world’s intractable conflicts. conflict, or haven’t tried to develop ways Egyptian President Anwar Sadat Persisting for decades, such conflicts have to reduce it through a variety of Omade history when his official plane proved resistant to traditional diplomacy, interventions based on diverse theoretical landed at Israel’s Ben-Gurion airport and mediation and negotiation. Other notable approaches. It’s just that few have been he became the first leader of an Arab cases include India and Pakistan’s 50-year validated in the field. When in 2012 nation to visit the Jewish state. After standoff over Kashmir, and Colombia’s conflict researcher Elizabeth Paluck meeting with Israel’s then Prime Minister, 50-year battle between the government published a review of psychological Menachim Begin, Sadat delivered a now- and the rebel group FARC. interventions for dealing with conflict, famous speech to the Knesset (Israel’s Attempting to untie the Gordian knot she found only a dozen or so that have parliament), where he spoke of a wall of the Arab–Israel conflict, with its been evaluated with well-controlled separating Israel and the Arab world: intertwined threads of history, politics and studies in the context of real-world This wall constitutes a psychological religion, might seem like a fool’s errand, conflicts. ‘There are interventions out barrier between us. A barrier of requiring hubris and chutzpah in equal there, but they’re not always tested and suspicion. A barrier of rejection. A measure. Yet that has not dissuaded evaluated using rigorous research barrier of fear of deception. A barrier psychologist Eran Halperin of the procedures,’ says Linda Tropp, a social of hallucinations around any action, Interdisciplinary psychologist and conflict deed or decision. A barrier of cautious Centre (IDC) expert at the University and erroneous interpretations of all Herzliya, on the “both pro- and anti-Israeli of Massachusetts Amherst. and every event or statement. It is outskirts of Tel- students perceived the ‘Eran is really at the this psychological barrier which Aviv, from trying coverage to be biased against forefront of doing this.’ I described in official statements as to find a way. ‘If the group they sided with” Part of the reason for representing 70 per cent of the whole psychology is the dearth of tried-and-tested problem. the problem, conflict interventions is that for then maybe psychology might also be the past few decades psychologists have Sadat’s visit has been hailed as a turning the solution’, says Halperin. been more focused on working out what point in Middle Eastern relations, but psychological processes fuel conflict, nearly 40 years later these barriers are still often in lab studies with undergraduates, in place, and possibly even more fortified A toolkit of interventions than trying to tackle the messy conflicts among some communities in this Over the past five years Halperin, in that people get swept up in. contested land. The years of 2000 and collaboration with a diverse group of Kurt Lewin, one of the founders of 2005 witnessed two Palestinian intifada, researchers, has been gathering the social psychology who had a keen interest or uprisings, that led to violent clashes evidence to show that this is more than in conflict, famously called for a 50/50 and further rounds of recrimination. The just a pipe dream. Together, they’ve split between what he called ‘exploratory’ Gaza war in the summer of 2014, in created a toolkit of psychological and ‘action’ research. ‘Right now the split which thousands of Palestinians died, and interventions that can change how people is maybe 90/10,’ says Bruneau. ‘Eran is a spate of stabbings of Israeli civilians by embroiled in conflicts think about each developing brand-new interventions, or Palestinians, ensured that the Arab–Israel other, in ways that promote more adapting interventions that have been conflict remained among the most high- conciliatory attitudes and greater used in other contexts, and trying to
Cohen-Chen, S., Crisp, R. & Halperin, E. Psychological and Personality Science, Halperin, E. & Gross, J.R. (2011). Emotion Science, 24, 106–111. (2015). Perceptions of changing world 5(1), 67–75. regulation in violent conflict: Halperin, E., Russell, A.G., Trzesniewski, induce hope and promote peace in Dweck, C. (2006). Mindset: The new Reappraisal, hope, and support for H.K. et al. (2011). Promoting the intractable conflicts. Personality and psychology of success. New York: humanitarian aid to the opponent in peace process by changing beliefs
references Social Psychology Bulletin, 41(4), Random House. wartime. Cognition & Emotion, 25, about group malleability. Science, 333, 498–512. Halperin, E., Crisp, R., Husnu, S. et al. 1228–1236. 1767. Cohen-Chen, S., Halperin, E., Crisp, R.J. (2012). Promoting intergroup contact Halperin, E., Porat, R., Tamir, M. & Gross, Hameiri, B., Porat, R., Bar-Tal, D. et al. & Gross, J.J. (2014). Hope in the by changing beliefs: Group J.J. (2013). Can emotion regulation (2014). Paradoxical thinking as a new Middle East: Malleability beliefs, malleability, intergroup anxiety and change political attitudes in avenue of intervention to promote hope, and the willingness to contact motivation. Emotion, 12(6), intractable conflicts? From the peace. Proceedings of the National compromise for peace. Social 1192–1195. laboratory to the field. Psychological Academy of Sciences, 111,
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Ross. ‘We can’t not believe that the way we see things is the way they are. If I say “The car looks blue to me but I’m sure it’s really green” then I really believe the car is, in fact, green.’ One consequence of naive realism is that we often make negative inferences about people who make different choices to our own, as it seems that they must be either acting irrationally, given the objective pros and cons of the decision in question, or simply do not have an accurate picture of reality, like we do, and therefore choose differently. More generally, when people disagree with us, especially on some contentious issue, we think they must be biased. ‘If I think the world’s black and you think it’s white, and someone comes along and say it’s grey and complicated, we both think that person is biased or unfair to our side,’ says Ross. Naive realism fuels polarisation in enduring conflicts and creates apply them to real intergroup conflict. situation. The only way to cope is to a clear psychological barrier to seeing And that’s very exciting.’ believe in such black-and-white stories. things from the other’s side. So a few years Halperin, who grew up in the context People will not sacrifice their lives if they ago Halperin, working with Meytal Nasie, of Israel’s violent conflict, began his path have doubts about the righteousness of Daniel Bar-Tal and Ruthie Pliskin of Tel- towards psychological interventions their roles.’ Aviv University, and Eman Nahhas of the working with his PhD supervisor Daniel As a post-doc, Halperin moved to Arab College for Education in Israel, set Bar-Tal, now emeritus professor at Tel- Stanford University to work with out to see whether the insidious effects of Aviv University, on what they called the influential social psychologist Lee Ross, naive realism could be countered. The socio-psychological barriers to peace. Bar- who had also been studying the cognitive intervention was inspired by research Tal had spent the previous decades biases that fan the flames of conflict. In suggesting that making people aware of characterising the cognitive and the 1980s Ross, working with Stanford their psychological biases can help them emotional basis of these barriers, and how colleagues Robert Vallone and Mark overcome their effects. To this end, the they jointly help sustain an ‘ethos of Lepper, had described what they called team recruited Jewish Israelis and Israeli conflict’ that keeps all sides locked into the ‘hostile media effect’. Palestinians and gave them a description cycles of distrust, violence, hatred and In one study pro-Israeli and pro- of naive realism, along with its dire despair. Palestinian students on Stanford campus consequences for people locked in ‘People living in societies caught up in watched the same news coverage of the a conflict – in this case referring to long-term conflicts have to develop some 1982 massacre by a Christian Lebanese a married couple rather than specifically kind of psychological shield that enables militia of between 800 and 3500 civilian relating it to the Israel–Palestine conflict. them to cope with the challenges of the refugees, mostly Palestinians and Participants then read about Israeli and conflicts, and to live a normal life in Lebanese Shiites, in the Shabra Palestinian views on three historical abnormal times,’ says Halperin. ‘They neighbourhood of Beirut and the nearby events – the 1948 War, the 2000 Camp develop narratives that provide a Shatila refugee camp – an atrocity that David Peace Summit, and the 2008–2009 coherent, one-sided story of their many people claimed the Israel Defence Gaza War – and were then asked a series Forces had allowed to unfold before their of questions that gauged how open they eyes. The students were then asked about were to the other side’s view of things. the news reports they had seen. Even Compared with control groups, though all students had watched exactly those who went through the naive realism 10996–11001. Wohl, M., Cohen-Chen, S., Halperin, E. et al. the same footage, both pro- and anti- manipulation showed greater openness (2015). Belief in the malleability of Israeli students perceived the coverage to the other side’s narrative. But not groups strengthens the tenuous link to be biased against the group they everyone was affected equally, just as the between a collective apology and sided with. researchers anticipated. Among Jewish intergroup forgiveness. Personality and The hostile media effect is just one Israelis, ‘doves’ on the political left – who Social Psychology Bulletin, 41, 714–725. manifestation of a broader bias Ross and are typically already open to the colleagues have called naive realism – the Palestinian narrative – showed little tendency to see our interpretation of change; conversely, the narrative-opening events as factually objective descriptions effect of the intervention was greatest for of reality. ‘Naive realism is inevitable,’ says more ‘hawkish’ individuals on the political
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right. Similarly, among Palestinians, those have acted in the past predicts how they’ll change, mindsets themselves are not most committed to an ethos of conflict behave in the future. Psychologist Carol set in stone. A growth mindset can be showed greater change in their openness Dweck of Stanford University calls this nurtured, for example, by presenting kids compared to their more peace-seeking belief a ‘fixed mindset’, which she with information about how the brain peers. contrasts with a ‘growth mindset’, the changes as we learn, and how our Crucially, this intervention, like belief that people can instead grow and intelligence and abilities are not fixed at others Halperin has developed, avoids change. birth but are malleable. So in recent years, mentioning the specifics of the Dweck describes these mindsets, Halperin has been working with Dweck Israeli–Palestinian conflict, or even which may not be explicitly articulated, to explore the role implicit theories about naming the opposing factions. As a result, as ‘implicit theories’ of personality, and for personality play in maintaining violent, it circumvents another key barrier to the past few decades she’s been studying intractable conflict. After all, in situations peace studied by Ross called reactive how they affect behaviour and motivation. in which both sides in a conflict can point devaluation – the tendency for people to In one particularly influential strand of to misdeeds carried out by the other, a react negatively to any proposal for peace research, Dweck has shown that children fixed mindset severely imperils the or compromise with the other side when with a fixed mindset are less likely to prospects of progress towards peace – it’s proposed by the enemy, or a third persevere with academic tasks when the why reach out to the other side, or offer party who may be suspected of bias. going gets tough, because they interpret concessions and compromises, if your ‘Most people, because of their ideology their temporary struggle as a sign that adversary will simply take advantage of and worldview, don’t want to hear about they don’t have what it takes to do well – this gesture and then carry on as before? peace-promoting interventions,’ says and if you can’t change this, why keep A series of studies reported by Halperin. ‘One of the biggest advantages trying? Children with a growth mindset, Halperin and Dweck in 2011 confirm that of our approach is that we bypass these on the other hand, often see difficult tasks this is exactly what happens when people obstacles, because we don’t talk about the as a welcome challenge and a chance to have a fixed mindset (Halperin et al., conflict but talk about other things that grow (Dweck, 2006). 2011). In the first study, a nationally indirectly influence their beliefs about the In reading Dweck’s work, Halperin representative sample of Israeli Jews were conflict.’ saw how a fixed mindset could drive interviewed by phone to assess whether conflict, in part by sustaining hatred on they had a fixed or malleable mindset both sides. ‘Hatred is the most regarding the ability of groups to change Plus ça change…? problematic emotional barrier in conflict,’ (without specifically mentioning The value of this approach has also says Halperin. ‘But what is the essence of Palestinians), by asking them how been demonstrated in a series of studies hatred? We suggest that hatred is strongly they agreed with statements like directed at shifting beliefs about the fundamentally based on seeing the other ‘As much as I hate to admit it, you can’t possibility that people can change their side as fixed and unchangeable.’ teach an old dog new tricks – groups can’t ways. Take the old saying ‘A leopard never The good news to have come out of really change their basic characteristics’ changes its spots’, which captures the Dweck’s earlier research is that whatever and ‘Groups that are characterised by widespread belief that the way people people might think about personality and violent tendencies will never change their ways’. In addition, the respondents were quizzed about their attitudes towards Palestinians and willingness to compromise for peace. Halperin and Dweck found that people of a more fixed mindset were more likely to agree with statements such as ‘All Palestinians are evil by nature’, ‘All that Palestinians really want is to annihilate Israel’, and ‘Palestinians should never be trusted’. They were also less willing to compromise for peace – for example, they showed less support for territorial concessions with Palestinians based on the 1967 borders and less endorsement of shared sovereignty over holy places in Jerusalem, or were less likely to advocate more active conciliatory initiatives by Israelis. Next, Halperin and Dweck set about seeing whether mindset could be influenced to foster attitude changes in peace-promoting ways. To find out, they recruited 76 Jewish-Israeli undergraduates, who were then told they would be performing a reading comprehension task, which was in fact an experimental manipulation, followed by some questions about Israeli society. For the reading comprehension task
692 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 conflict resolution the researchers had invented two versions into a decades-long, sometimes violent general beliefs. Others, however, target of an article that summarised studies on conflict – belief in the malleability of emotions more directly. Working with the behaviour of violent groups over time, group behaviour in general leads to lower Stanford’s James Gross, an expert on although without specifically mentioning levels of anxiety at the prospect of mixing emotion regulation, Halperin has been any of the parties in the Israeli–Palestinian with members of the other side, which looking at ways to dampen down the conflict. One version, read by those in the increases motivation to make that contact emotional reactions – grief, fear, anger, malleability condition, argued that the happen (Halperin et al., 2012). hatred – that fuel enmity and feed into behaviour of violent groups changes over Other studies suggest that it’s not even cyclical patterns of blame, revenge and time, and that their violence is often necessary to make people change their continued fighting. Halperin and Gross driven by extremist leaders and other beliefs about group behaviour to promote have largely focused on ‘cognitive contextual factors. The other, designed peace. Recently, Halperin, working with reappraisal’ as a means of preventing to foster a fixed mindset, claimed the Smadar Cohen-Chen of Northwestern negative emotions from arising in the opposite, that violent groups do not University, Illinois, and Richard Crisp of first place – or at least reducing their change, and pinned their aggressive Aston University in the UK, has shown magnitude. behaviour on the nature and culture that, among Israeli Jews, the more general ‘The basic assumption is that your of these groups. belief that the world is a dynamic, emotions are usually a reaction not to Participants in changeable place fosters an event itself, but how you evaluate both conditions then hope, and a greater that event,’ says Halperin. ‘In cognitive completed the survey “the more general enthusiasm for making reappraisal training, we ask people, after on Israeli society, belief that the world is peace-building concessions. they’ve already appraised a situation, to which was really cover a dynamic, changeable As in previous studies, the reappraise it by taking an external for asking questions place fosters hope” researchers induced beliefs perspective, like a scientist, or looking at that, as in the first about the fixedness or things from the perspective of the other study, tapped into changeability of the world side. This can get people to realise that attitudes towards Palestinians and by having participants read fictional their emotional reactions are driven by whether it was worth compromising summaries of research on social and specific appraisals of situations but that for peace. In line with previous results, political dynamism, without any mention there are other ways to appraise the priming Israeli Jews with a malleable of conflicts in general or the Israel- situation. It’s a practical and short-term mindset improved attitudes towards Palestine case in particular (Cohen-Chen skill that can be learned quickly.’ Palestinians, and also their motivation et al., 2015). Cognitive reappraisal has been shown to seek peaceful solutions through Other recent results suggest that to be effective as an emotion regulation compromises. mindsets may also be the key to creating tool in a range of settings, and Halperin These findings were echoed when something lacking but much needed in all and Gross have now extended this to the Halperin and Dweck ran the same study conflicts, especially deeply entrenched conflict arena. In an early study carried with Palestinian citizens of Israel, who ones: hope. People with a more malleable out during the Gaza War of 2008–2009, make up roughly 20 per cent of the mindset have more hope that peace is they found that among Jewish-Israelis the population, with a slight modification of possible, and inducing this mindset tendency to spontaneously engage in the wording: instead of talking about the fosters greater hope. What’s more, these cognitive reappraisal correlated with possibility of violent groups changing, this studies have shown that hope mediates support for providing humanitarian article focused on oppressive and racist the link between a malleable mindset assistance to Palestinian citizens in Gaza groups (though without explicitly and greater support for peace-building (Halperin & Gross, 2011). mentioning Israelis). Again, inducing concessions (Cohen-Chen et al., 2014). In further studies in which a malleable mindset promoted more Along with hope, forgiveness is also participants have either undergone positive attitudes towards Israeli Jews often in short supply when groups have reappraisal training or not, Halperin and greater willingness to compromise for been fighting and killing each other for and Gross have found that the training peace. Remarkably, the same findings were decades. Political leaders sometimes make increases political tolerance of Palestinian replicated among non-Israeli Palestinians, apologies on behalf of their collective citizens of Israel by Jewish-Israelis after many of whom were members of militant constituencies, but, as welcome as they they’ve read text criticising Palestinians. groups like Fatah and Hamas – sworn are, they frequently fail to lead to genuine As with previous interventions, the enemies of Israel with little stake in the forgiveness. Forgiving an enemy for their positive effect was largely seen among state’s future. past misdeeds implies that they’ve those to the right of the political ‘We’ve shown that changing changed their ways and won’t simply spectrum, as those on the left were already people’s beliefs dramatically affects their repeat what they’ve done in the past. And more tolerant (Halperin et al., 2013). willingness to make compromises,’ says in a recent study, Halperin and colleagues In a more real-world test of the Halperin. ‘We don’t have to tell Israelis or found that Israelis who view Palestinians cognitive reappraisal approach, Jewish- Palestinians that the other side is moral, as an immoral outgroup were more Israeli participants were recruited to but just convince them that each side receptive to an apology from Palestinian receive reappraisal training (or not) one can change. And we don’t even have to leadership after being induced into a more week before a controversial political event, mention specific groups, just suggest that malleable mindset (Wohl et al., 2015). the Palestinian bid to join the United groups in general can change.’ Nations in September 2011. A week later, In the past few years, Halperin and those who had undergone the training Dweck have expanded on these early Emotion regulation reported fewer negative emotions and results, and extended them to other Many of the interventions developed by more conciliatory attitudes towards conflict settings. In a similar study, they Halperin and colleagues indirectly change Palestinians – an effect that persisted showed that among Greek and Turkish the emotional attitudes of people locked in when they were surveyed again five Cypriots – two communities also locked conflict by first changing their more months later, and that was mediated by
read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk 693 conflict resolution
decreased levels of anger towards case for further military actions that Over the past year, Halperin and his Palestinians (Halperin et al., 2013). presents it as a good thing in itself – for colleagues have been focused on doing example, as a way to keep acting morally. rigorous field tests of these interventions, Working with an advertising agency, with larger and more diverse samples. The power of paradox Halperin and his team developed a series This work remains largely unpublished One of Halperin’s most novel and recent of short videos that presented paradoxical as yet, but Halperin says the results are interventions has an unusual backstory. messages. After carrying out pilot studies, promising. One study used the In 2009 singer-songwriter Leonard Cohen a video conveying the message ‘We need malleability mindset approach in a field announced plans to perform in Tel Aviv the conflict in order to have the strongest intervention delivered to more than 500 and soon became the target of criticism army in the world’ was selected for a Israelis and looked at the effect it had on amid calls to support a cultural boycott longitudinal study that recruited 161 their political views six months later. ‘We of Israel. Cohen resisted and went ahead Jewish Israelis (60 per cent right wing, consistently find beneficial effects, even with the show. But he decided to donate 20 per cent centrists, and 20 per cent left during times of ongoing violence,’ says the proceeds to peace efforts, including wing). Participants watched the video Halperin. the award-winning Parents Circle – every three or four days for a total of Families Forum (PCFF), set up in 1995 seven times in the month leading up to by businessman Yitzhak Frankenthal after the 2013 Israeli elections, at the end of Giving peace a chance his 19-year-old son Arik, a soldier in the which they answered questions about the There’s no doubt Halperin has had great Israeli army, was shot and killed by role of Palestinians in the conflict, and success in developing new and effective Hamas. their own willingness to compromise for interventions for intractable conflict. But PCFF brought together Israelis and peace. The day after the election they how can these be applied outside the Palestinians who had lost family members were asked who they voted for, and a year psychologist’s lab? ‘This is the million- in the conflict, and who through shared later completed a short survey on dollar question,’ says Halperin. grief reached mutual understanding of Israeli–Palestinian relations. Meanwhile, To try to provide some answers, in each other. With the new money a control group watched a short video 2012 Halperin set up an applied centre at Frankenthal set up The Arik Institute of promoting tourism in Israel. IDC in order to help disseminate these Reconciliation, Tolerance and Peace, with Repeated viewings of the paradoxical ideas. Halperin, like Frankenthal, is a firm a plan to find new ways to change the thinking video led participants to rate believer in the power of grassroots mindsets of Israelis and Palestinians Palestinians as bearing less responsibility movements to create social change. ‘My locked in a conflict mentality. He soon for continuing the conflict, which made feeling as an Israeli is that politicians and met with Halperin, and they began a them more willing to compromise for leaders will not promote peace unless the collaboration to develop a novel anti- peace. These attitudinal changes people put very serious pressure on conflict intervention. translated into political action: viewers of them,’ says Halperin. ‘It’s too risky, too Halperin and his academic colleagues the paradoxical message were more likely complicated, and the political costs are chose a technique called ‘paradoxical to vote for dovish parties while those in too high.’ thinking’ to unfreeze them from an ethos the control group tended to take the So Halperin and his team at the of conflict – and make them more open to hawkish options. applied centre have been working with a ways to end it. Instead of trying to change These effects were long-lasting. A year variety of NGOs, who spend their days people’s views by directly challenging later, those exposed to the paradoxical trying to change attitudes on the ground. them, paradoxical thinking gets people message were more willing to make The applied centre regularly runs to alter their current beliefs by exposing compromises on contentious issues at the workshops for Israeli and Palestinian them to absurd extensions of those heart of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, NGOs, where they learn about the latest beliefs. So someone on the hawkish end such as the evacuation of settlements in the psychological insights into conflict of the political spectrum who morally West Bank, demand for recognition of resolution. Afterwards, Halperin and backs their side’s military actions in Israel as a Jewish state, control over Arab colleagues meet with the NGOs every a conflict might become uncomfortable neighbourhoods in East Jerusalem, and the week or two and provide feedback on with their support if they encounter a division of Jerusalem (Hameiri et al., 2014). their projects that draw on the psychological research. ‘We’ve had an amazing reaction from NGOs, both Israeli and Palestinian,’ says Halperin. ‘They often feel very frustrated but feel that we’re bringing them something that they haven’t seen before. Right now we don’t have enough experts to meet and run workshops with all the organisations who are asking for our help.’ All of which gives Halperin even more drive to keep going. ‘For me, this is the real mission of social psychology – not just doing basic research, but actually trying to influence the world,’ he says. ‘It’s an amazing experience.’ See also our web resource ‘Can psychology find a path to peace?’ www.thepsychologist.org.uk/can-psychology-help-us-out-mess I Dan Jones is a freelance writer in Brighton. [email protected]
694 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 The British Psychological Society’s Annual Conference 3–5 May, Hilton Brighton Metropole
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From a series by Angela Farragher for the London Brain Project
London Brain Project is a not-for-profit initiative that aims to engage the public with brain sciences and mental health through the arts. It was created by Michelle Downes, Louise Croft and Georgia Pitts, researchers in developmental neuroscience at University College London, and Julia Vogl, an award-winning artist who specialises in social art. This image is from a wire and photography series produced by people with epilepsy and neuroscientists, and facilitated by Angela Farragher Photography, as part of ‘Beyond Seizures’ – an exhibition that aims to deconstruct the notion that epilepsy is defined by seizures alone. Beyond Seizures is part of a series of workshops and exhibitions that are run to empower patients and engage the public. London Brain Project engages through many different formats: interactive exhibitions and art-science workshops, theatre, film, music, sound art, and outreach talks. They are currently planning their next project, ‘Beyond Memories’, which will be about Alzheimer’s and dementia. Check out more about their workshops and projects at www.londonbrainproject.com.
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iv vol 29 no 9 september 2016 read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk 695 commands. They collect different kinds of information from the environment and process it in different ways. Friendships – ‘When life hands you like parent–child relationships – are in the purview of the relationship system, which collects data on specific individuals INTERVIEW a lemon, just bite in’ and makes fine distinctions among them. The socialisation system, in contrast, Judith Rich Harris takes Lance Workman through her extraordinary fightback doesn’t bother with individuals – it against entrenched views of child development computes means. It forms a prototype for each social category. The child is influenced by the norms of the social category she identifies with, even if she first become aware of you when In complex societies there are more never interacts personally with any of its II read The Nurture Assumption in categories, but age and gender were members. 1998. In it you proposed that a child’s probably enough for the small groups peer group has greater influence on of hunter-gatherers of our ancestors. The Nurture Assumption completely development than her parents. Can Once a child had identified with split the field. People either said it we begin by outlining this theory? a particular social category – let’s say, was a serious step forward in our Group socialisation theory was my female child – her next job would be to understanding of child development or attempt to solve a puzzle I had learn how to behave like the others in her they just weren’t having any of it. I’m in encountered while writing child category. A social category is an abstract the first camp – it changed my view of development textbooks for college concept, not necessarily an actual group child development. But why do you students. My textbooks endorsed the of children. My use of the term ‘peer think there was so much hostility? conventional view of child development – group’ turned out to be misleading. Part of the problem was the media that what makes children turn out the I should have said ‘social category’ or coverage, which was often headlined way they do is ‘nature’ (their genes) and perhaps ‘reference group’. ‘Do parents matter?’. Parents were ‘nurture’ (the way their parents bring understandably irked by the question. them up). But after a while it dawned on Why? (My answer, by the way, is: Of course me that there just wasn’t enough solid The problem with ‘peer group’ was that parents matter!) But the real opposition evidence to support that view, and there it made people think ‘friends’. Group to my work came from the academic was a growing pile of evidence against it. socialisation theory is not about the world – from professors of developmental The problem was not with the ‘nature’ influence of friends. Friendships are psychology. Some of these people had part – genes were having their expected relationships. Socialisation is not a spent their entire careers doing studies effect. But ‘nurture’ wasn’t working the product of relationships. designed to support the traditional view way it was supposed to. In studies that The expanded theory presented in my of child development. Then some provided some way of controlling for or second book, No Two Alike, explains why. troublemaker pops up – a complete eliminating the effects of heredity, the The theory is based on the idea, put forth nobody, with no PhD and no academic environment provided by parents had by evolutionary psychologists such as affiliation – and announces that the little or no effect on how the children Leda Cosmides and John Tooby, that the professors are wrong and their studies are turned out. human mind is modular, a collection of worthless. You wouldn’t expect them to And yet, genes accounted for only specialised devices which each evolved as greet me with open arms, would you? about 50 per cent of the variation in a solution to a specific problem or need. personality and social behaviour. The I proposed that there are three such You were particularly critical of their environment must be playing some role. devices involved in social development – correlational studies of development. But it wasn’t the home environment. So the relationship system, the socialisation I still see those worthless studies all the I proposed that the environment that has system and the status system. These time – they get a lot of publicity. I see lasting effects on personality and social systems work more or less independently; them as a shameful waste of time and behaviour is the one the child encounters sometimes they even issue contradictory research money. I see them as reminders outside the home. This makes sense if you that I failed in my goal of reforming the think about the purpose of childhood. methodology of developmental What do children have to accomplish psychology. while they’re growing up? They have The studies are worthless because to learn how to behave in a way that is the results they produce are ambiguous, acceptable to the other members of their so the researchers can interpret them society. How do they do this? Not by any way they please. Let’s say they find imitating their parents! Parents are adults, a correlation between how often a family and every society prescribes different eats dinner together and how well their behaviours for children and adults. teenager manages to stay out of trouble. A child who behaved like his or her Such results are presented as evidence parents (in any context other than that eating dinner with their parents has a game) would be seen as impertinent, ‘protective’ effects on teenagers. But the unruly or weird. So the first step in research method provides no way of becoming socialised must be to figure controlling for, or estimating, the effects out what sort of person you are. Are you of inherited genes on the teenagers’ a child or an adult? A male or a female? behaviour. (Conscientious parents tend
696 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 interview to have conscientious children.) No way for two reasons. First, the outcome is The Nurture Assumption was published of controlling for what I call ‘child-to- usually obvious. You don’t need fancy that I had done only half the job: I had parent effects.’ (Parents are more likely statistical tests to decide whether or not explained only how children get to enjoy eating dinner with well-behaved someone has a foreign accent. Second, socialised. Socialisation is a process that teenagers.) No way of controlling for the language and accent are among the very causes children to become more similar teenagers’ own willingness to show up at few social behaviours in which genetic in behaviour to their same-sex peers. dinnertime. (Teenagers are less likely to differences play no role at all. Whether And yet, despite being socialised, enjoy eating dinner with their parents if you speak Japanese or Swahili, whether children continue to differ from one they are doing things their parents don’t your accent is Oxbridge or Liverpudlian, another in personality and social approve of.) The researchers assume that, has nothing to do with heredity. But it behaviour. If anything, the differences even though these other factors might does have a great deal to do with social widen during childhood and adolescence. play a role, some of the correlation must context. The children of immigrants have I made some ineffectual efforts to deal be due to the beneficial effects of family the same accent as the other kids in the with that problem in The Nurture dinners. That is a logically indefensible neighbourhood, even if they use their Assumption, but I didn’t have a theory assumption, not supported by studies parents’ native language at home. Around to account for it till I wrote the second that do provide the necessary controls. the world, it is quite common for children book. The improved version of the theory to use one language at home and a presented in No Two Alike explains how I don’t think it’s an exaggeration to different one outside the home, or one children can, at the same time, become state that The Nurture Assumption language with Mummy and a different more similar to their peers in some ways pretty much made you famous almost one with Daddy. and more different in other ways. overnight. It’s not only a radical A central tenet of my theory is that alternative to traditional ideas, but social behaviours are tightly linked to There was a fair bit of replying to also a real ‘page-turner’. Was it your the context in which they were acquired. arguments put forward by critics of intention to write in that style? It’s a mistake – one that’s incorporated The Nurture Assumption. Was that one Actually, I started out by writing a into all the major theories of child of the aims? traditional article and publishing it in development – to assume that children It was. I was tired of journalists telling a traditional journal, the Psychological automatically generalise what they learn, me that my theory must be wrong Review. No one called it a page-turner. from one context or person to another: because some expert at some big In fact, though it did get some favourable Mummy is nice to them so they expect university had told them that there responses from people in other areas of everyone to be nice to them. But were plenty of studies that disproved it. psychology, it was completely ignored by discrimination, not generalisation, is I searched diligently for the studies they the audience I was hoping to reach – the default setting of the baby’s mind. cited. In some cases they were nowhere those professors of developmental Many of the behaviours that to be found; at any rate, they had never psychology. children acquire at home would be been published in a peer-reviewed So I decided to go over their heads, counterproductive elsewhere. Children journal. In other cases a study had been as it were, and take my message directly who dominate their younger siblings at published but the results didn’t do what to the general public. If you’re writing home would be making a mistake if they the experts claimed – they didn’t disprove a book on a complex topic and you want tried to treat their schoolmates the same my theory. In one case, a study they cited people to read it, you have to make it way, especially if they happen to be small actually did the opposite – it supported interesting. It also helps if you can give for their age. Fortunately, children don’t my theory! your readers an occasional laugh. My make that mistake. Firstborns are no model for how to write a book for the more likely than laterborns to try to That 1995 Psychological Review piece general public was Steven Pinker’s The dominate their peers. you mentioned won the George A. Language Instinct. Of course, some of the things children Miller award for an outstanding article learn at home are useful elsewhere. Those in general psychology. There was a Pinker of course went on to write who learn to speak the local language, or certain irony about that? several more books for the public – all to read, or to play a musical instrument, In 1960 I was a graduate student in the page turners, and in many cases game don’t have to acquire these skills all over Department of Psychology at Harvard. changers. I noticed that he dedicated again when they step outside. But they One day I got a letter saying that the The Blank Slate to ‘Don, Judy, Leda and don’t trot them out automatically. They Department had decided to kick me out John’. I would assume that three of are tentative at first, until they’re sure of their PhD programme. They doubted these are Don Symons, Leda Cosmides that the behaviour or skill they learned I would ever make a worthwhile and John Tooby. Would I be right in at home will also work in the new setting. contribution to psychology, the letter thinking you are the Judy? For a young child, it’s safer to said, due to my lack of ‘originality and Yes. Steve and I became e-mail friends discriminate than to generalise. The independence’. The letter was signed by after I sent him a copy of my Psych Review child’s mind is not short of storage space. the acting chairman of the Department, paper and some comments on The A child can store different rules of George A. Miller! Language Instinct. After we had exchanged behaviour for every setting, and different Sometimes, when life hands you a few e-mails, he asked, ‘Have you ever expectations for every individual he or a lemon, you should just bite in. Getting thought of writing a book?’ It wasn’t she encounters. kicked out of Harvard was a devastating exactly a new idea to me, but it was nice blow at the time, but in retrospect, it was to have the encouragement. Your goal in No Two Alike was to the best thing that Harvard ever did for I think Steve was particularly explain why individuals differ so much, me. It freed me from the influence of receptive to my arguments because he’s a even if they grew up in the same ‘experts’. It kept me from being psycholinguist. I often use examples from family, right? indoctrinated. Many years later, it enabled psycholinguistics in explaining my theory, Right. I realised a couple of years after me to write The Nurture Assumption.
read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk 697 integration with mental health services, and, therefore, the care of the service user, and is rarely psychosis-specific. Group interventions have been trialled in some psychosis services to address some of the psychological needs of caregivers; Who cares for the carers? groups provide opportunities for peer NEW VOICES support and the sharing of stories, Jane Smallwood with the latest in our series for budding writers together with the delivery of (see www.bps.org.uk/newvoices for more information) psychological strategies such as problem solving, goal setting and action planning, which can help to gradually rebalance caregivers’ views about blame, causation, roles and responsibilities. This in turn can ’m in my late 50’s and it is not are rarely provided with advice and improve their relationships with the what I expected to be happening information, often feel overwhelmed by people they care for (Chien & Norman, ‘Ito me at this point in my life. their caring duties and do not feel taken 2009). Unfortunately these interventions And I suffer huge guilt because as seriously by professionals (Albert & are typically delivered within time-limited the mum of course it is all my fault. Simpson, 2015; Askey et al., 2009). They research projects, which do not generalise I know it isn’t but anyway…’ are faced with needing to navigate the into routine, ongoing care. (Albert & Simpson, 2015, pp.6–7) complexities of mental health services, In Lambeth and Southwark in south often not helped by poorly implemented London we have been developing a new Psychosis is estimated to affect four in confidentiality and information-sharing support service for caregivers of service every thousand people in England alone policies (Kuipers, 2010). Caregivers also users with established psychosis within every year (Kirkbride et al., 2012). play a key role in alerting professionals community mental health teams. Over However, this figure does not account for to mental state changes in the person the last three years we have devised and the hundreds of spouses, parents, friends they care for, and instigating medication adapted our service protocols and and others whose lives are altered reviews and inpatient admissions, often pathways, based on NICE guidance, immeasurably when someone develops without their loved one’s knowledge, or emerging evidence (Roddy et al., 2014) a severe mental health difficulty. Whilst against their wishes, for which they may and feedback from caregivers. Local NICE this has always been the case, the move be blamed by the person they care for. implementation funding has supported towards community care over recent Kuipers (2010) argues that mental the appointment of one full-time decades, together with the increasing health services specialising in psychosis psychology graduate in each borough, scarcity of resources in mental health should be taking specific responsibility each covering four locality teams, each services, means that we now rely more for the wellbeing of caregivers, alongside of which holds a caseload of 200–250 than ever on service users’ families and service users. Guidance published by the service users with psychosis. There is friends to provide considerable amounts National Institute for Health and Care therefore a considerable workload and of unpaid care (Burns et al., 2012; Kuipers Excellence in 2014 recommends that one of the most challenging aspects is the et al., 2010), often without adequately psychosis teams should assess the needs management of a large number of clients. considering the impact of this on their of caregivers, jointly develop a care plan Supervision and governance by senior wellbeing or providing appropriate based on these needs, and provide clinical psychologists, and working as a support to enable them to feel confident information, support and an opportunity cohesive and supportive team, have been in their caregiving role(Albert & Simpson, for caregivers to be included in decision essential. 2015). making whenever possible (NICE, 2014). Clinicians are able to suggest Research into the impact of caregiving Whilst support for caregivers in other caregivers who may appreciate being on the families and close friends of areas, such as dementia (Brodaty et al., contacted, or caregivers can self-refer. individuals with psychosis has developed 2003; Thompson et al., 2007), is well Since September 2013 we have been over recent years. It is now well established, it remains relatively rare for offering caregivers an assessment of their established that caregivers are in need psychological support to be offered to needs, followed by brief psychological of practical and psychological support caregivers in psychosis services. Support interventions when appropriate. These (Kuipers, 2010; Roddy et al., 2014). offered by voluntary or charitable focus on key areas such as Despite this, caregivers report that they organisations, although valuable, lacks psychoeducation around psychosis,
Albert, R. & Simpson, A. (2015). Double professionals. Journal of Family International Journal of Social caregivers of people with psychotic deprivation: A phenomenological Therapy, 31(3), 310–331. Psychiatry, 59(7), 663–670. disorders. International Journal of study into the experience of being a Brodaty, H., Green, A. & Koschera, A. Chambers, M., Ryan, A. & Connor, S. Nursing Studies, 46(12), 1604–1623. carer during a mental health crisis. (2003). Meta-analysis of psychosocial (2001). Exploring the emotional Corrigan, P.W. & Miller, F.E. (2004).
references Journal of Advanced Nursing, 71(12), interventions for caregivers of people support needs and coping strategies Shame, blame, and contamination: A 2753–2762. with dementia. Journal of the of family carers. Journal of Psychiatric review of the impact of mental illness Askey, R., Holmshaw, J., Gamble, C. & American Geriatrics Society, 51(5), and Mental Health Nursing, 8(2), stigma on family members. Journal of Gray, R. (2009). What do carers of 657–664. 99–106. Mental Health, 13(6), 537–548. people with psychosis need from Burns, T., Catty, J., Harvey, K. et al. Chien, W-T. & Norman, I. (2009). The Hayes, L., Hawthorne, G., Farhall, J. et al. mental health services? Exploring the (2012). Continuity of care for carers of effectiveness and active ingredients of (2015). Quality of life and social views of carers, service users and people with severe mental illness. mutual support groups for family isolation among caregivers of adults
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treatment and management, improving These parental concerns have been police, the Mental Health Act and related communication, problem solving and highlighted in past literature (e.g. Askey legal processes while, until now, receiving crisis planning, in addition to signposting et al., 2009; Chambers et al., 2001) and little or no support with the distressing, to community services addressing reflect the significance of the frustrating and confusing nature of these financial and social issues. Psychological psychological impact of psychosis on experiences. Trauma survivors may also interventions also address caregivers’ own service users’ families. Furthermore, the feel shame, layered on top of the stigma mental health needs and key emotional understanding that caregivers have of the associated with having a family member issues that impact on the caregiving prognosis of psychosis has been shown to with a mental health diagnosis (see relationship, most commonly grief, be related to their affect (Kuipers et al., Corrigan and Miller, 2004), and we need loss and guilt, which may lead to over- 2007), indicating that offering balanced, to work hard to provide a safe, non- involvement and difficulty setting accessible information to caregivers may judgemental space for caregivers to tell boundaries. Concerns raised by caregivers be beneficial for their mental health. their stories. are always passed on, with caregivers’ Some caregivers we meet are greatly Other caregivers come to us wanting consent, to the relevant relieved to be offered something to be done. They do not clinical team. There is also their own support, necessarily consider themselves as J a support and information UDY attend well and really needing support, but may ask for more
group programme to H absorb information interventions for service users, want facilitate peer support. ARRISON shared with them. They explanations for why certain decisions
Working with /P tend to make changes have been made, or just want to express
caregivers is a humbling, HOTOFUSION in their communication dissatisfaction with services more challenging and often styles and the generally. A common question asked by frustrating experience. boundaries they set in some caregivers is ‘Why can’t they be The cognitive model of response to our advice, made to do it?’ – ‘it’ may be to take their caregiving in psychosis and offer support to medication, or attend psychological highlights the importance other caregivers in therapy or vocational activities. When it of caregivers’ appraisals of groups. They might becomes apparent that we, and indeed the and reactions to their role, remain in contact with care team, cannot do this, these caregivers which is something that the service and get in might disengage. has become apparent to me contact when further Caregivers usually accept our support in my clinical work. For help is needed. Others initially, although rates of disengagement example, if a caregiver may present to us in and non-attendance are high, perhaps due believes that they are the great distress, needing an to caregivers’ busy lives, their lack of one to blame for their loved one outlet for their grief and sadness. In line belief that things could get better or the developing psychosis, then they make it with past research we have found that low priority they give to their own needs their life’s work to protect them from any many of the caregivers we see experience (Hayes et al., 2015). This does not detract further harm, and experience guilt, loss clinically significant symptoms of anxiety, from the value of being offered support, and social isolation (Kuipers et al., 2010). depression and physical health problems even if it is not fully accepted. Although The largest group of caregivers we see (Hayes et al., 2015). Caregivers have we may not be able to change the is parents, sometimes of young adults but often been through the same traumatic situations that caregivers face, we can do often of middle-aged people who have experiences as service users that are our very best to apply our knowledge of struggled with their mental health for known to increase vulnerability to mental health, together with empathy, decades, and been unable to live fully psychosis, such as migration, validation and respect, to ensure that they independently. These caregivers may be discrimination and exposure to, or no longer feel alone in their struggle. ambivalent about the offer of support, experience of, abuse (e.g. Kirkbride et al., often reporting that it is ‘too little too late’ 2012). However, for caregivers, the focus after a lifetime of caring. Parents have also on the individual with psychosis has Jane Smallwood (née Allen) told us that they often imagine the life often prevented them from seeking help is at South London and that their child might have had, and for their own mental health needs, which Maudsley NHS Foundation mourn their lost opportunities. Others may have been compounded by the Trust say that they worry as they get older traumas associated with supporting [email protected] about who will be there when they are someone through episodes of psychosis. no longer able to care or when they die. These may include dealing with the
with schizophrenia: Policy and 2014/05/Final-report-v1.05-Jan- perceptions, affect and expressed Roddy, S., Onwumere, J. & Kuipers, E. outcomes. Community Mental Health 12.pdf emotion in people with psychosis and (2014). A pilot investigation of a brief, Journal, 51(5), 591–597. Kuipers, E. (2010). Time for a separate their carers. Social Psychiatry and needs-led caregiver focused Kirkbride, J., Errazuriz, A., Croudace, T. psychosis caregiver service? Journal Psychiatric Epidemiology, 42(4), intervention in psychosis. Journal of et al. (2012). Systematic review of the of Mental Health, 19(5), 401–404. 277–283. Family Therapy, 37(4), 529–545. incidence and prevalence of Kuipers, E., Onwumere, J. & Bebbington, National Institute for Health and Care Thompson, C.A., Spilsbury, K., Hall, J. et schizophrenia and other psychoses in P. (2010). Cognitive model of Excellence (2014). Psychosis and al. (2007). Systematic review of England. Conducted for the caregiving in psychosis. British schizophrenia in adults: Treatment and information and support interventions Department of Health Policy Journal of Psychiatry, 196(4), 259–265. management. NICE clinical guideline for caregivers of people with Research Programme. Retrieved Kuipers, E., Watson, P., Onwumere, J. et 178. Retrieved from www.nice.org.uk/ dementia. BMC Geriatrics, 7(1), 18. from www.psychiatry.cam.ac.uk/files/ al. (2007). Discrepant illness guidance/CG178
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702 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 2016 CPD Workshops Professional development opportunities from your learned Society
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Plymouth Spiritual listening with children and young people Professor Irvine Gersch Thursday 15 September 2016 …with The Psychologist Exeter and the Society’s Beliefs, meanings and free Research motivated behaviours Digest service for Professor Paul Salkovskis more psychological Wednesday 28 September 2016 news and analysis
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read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk 707 Division of Clinical Psychology Annual Conference 2017 ‘The future is now’ Hilton Liverpool 18-20 January 2017 What’s new? I Draft programme available to view online I Poster submission deadline 21 September I Save £30 by registering before 30 November I Limited Gala Dinner places available – book early to avoid disappointment I Confirmed Keynotes include: Nimisha Patel, University of East London Rachel Calam, University of Manchester Lisa Cameron, Clinical psychologist and forensic psychologist (DCP) I Invited Speaker confirmed: Joe Powell, All Wales People First “A fantastic high energy conference with up-to-the-minute research and information, shared by people leading their field. Excellent networking opportunities, an answer and idea for every question.“ DCP Annual Conference 2015. To keep up with the latest conference information visit www.bps.org.uk/dcp2017 Follow the conference on Twitter #dcpconf
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read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk 709 careers
and two Senior Fellowships. Then there seemed no way to sustain a commitment to both psychotherapy and developmental ‘I have been fortunate research. A very famous and influential
CAREERS child psychiatrist told me I would need to decide between my interest in serious in my professional life’ science and what he deemed to be a quasi-religious aberration, namely my Peter Hobson (Emeritus Professor of Developmental Psychopathology at University involvement with psychoanalysis. In the College London) reflects on a lifetime’s work in autism and child development event, I moved on to a specially created position at University College London that was linked with a clinical appointment as psychoanalytic set out wanting to study the mind young man, my induction into medicine psychotherapist in the Adult Department and to help people in mental distress. and surgery was an ordeal by fire. It was of the Tavistock Clinic. I I have been able to follow this path an experience I would not repeat, but At the time I embarked on research (although it is moot how much I’ve I am grateful that I became a physician in in autism, theoretical accounts of the helped people) on the basis of three the NHS when it was a happier institution disorder marginalised what Leo Kanner sometimes complementary, sometimes than now, and had the privilege to serve had described as autistic children’s potentially conflictual, trainings: as ill and sometimes dying people. biologically based impairments in a physician and then psychiatrist, affective contact with other people. as a developmental psychologist (with There appeared to be two reasons for this: a PhD in experimental psychology from Science and a ‘quasi-religious firstly, affective contact was not so easily the University of Cambridge), and as aberration’ measured as cognitive and linguistic a psychoanalyst trained in the British When I took up psychiatry at the abilities, and what could not be measured Psychoanalytical Society. Maudsley Hospital, which was much had questionable status; and secondly, For a less than practical, bookish more ‘me’, I picked up the threads of a many psychologists could not philosophically inclined research interest countenance the possibility that disorders from my undergraduate days that of interpersonal relations involving concerned the early growth of feeling could explain specific profiles of interpersonal understanding. The cognitive disability and ability. philosophical part came from forays into I felt I might challenge these philosophy of mind. I had been prejudices by designing experiments. impressed by arguments (from Strawson) Experiments can create a bridge between that the concept of ‘persons’, and not abstract developmental theorising and the ‘body’ or ‘mind’, is foundational for our nitty-gritty of children’s behaviour and understanding of mental life, and (from experience. One way to capture aspects of Wittgenstein) that our shared form of life social-affective events, for example, is to involving agreement in judgements demonstrate that independent raters can provides a background for individuals’ agree in their subjective (but not capacities to think and use language. idiosyncratic) judgements of These thoughts were in the back of interpersonal goings-on recorded on my mind when, about mid-way through videotape. Simplistically but with some my psychiatric training, it was suggested success, colleagues and I have used this I visit a school for children with autism. approach to measure limitations in I left the school that day convinced that affective contact and other aspects of the study of autism might reveal communication between children with something profound about the bases for autism and other people. Or again, if we personal relations, shared experience, and could predict what might seem tiny, even our knowledge of persons-with-minds. trivial, details of a child’s behaviour to At first I was supported in my emerge within the structure of a research by an MRC Training Fellowship controlled experiment, we had a means
Have you taken a look at our website, For other Society careers resources, see www.thepsychologist.bps.org.uk? www.bps.org.uk/careers.
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careers online careers personal pieces, including our ‘Careers’ sign up for suitable e-mail and RSS alerts. pages. Alternatively, just search ‘careers’ Recruiters can post online from just £750, with our improved site search. The archive is and at no extra cost when placing an ad in complete – back to 1988. print. For more information, see p.714.
710 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 careers to explore social-developmental truths others with chronic depression, unusual in presentation. Our hypothesis about autism and typical development. colleagues and I demonstrated the is that these children are at risk for Let me give one example. Imagine objectivity of clinicians’ judgements about developing this particular cluster of you have a coloured sticker placed on the presence of psychoanalytically defined clinical features for a period early in their your forefinger. A typically developing paranoid-schizoid and depressive position lives, because they are compromised in child of, say, three or four years sits functioning in videotaped excerpts of their engagement with other people’s opposite on a mat. You hold up your assessment consultations. Psychoanalytic attitudes towards a shared, visually finger, and say: ‘Where shall I put my procedures, and specifically the analysis specified world – and therefore, at a sticker?’ The child points to her own of the transference relation between disadvantage in coming to coordinate, shirt. You put the sticker on your own patient and analyst, yield insights into understand and move among different shirt, and the child smiles and nods. The how we tick, and with this, a basis for mental perspectives, a critical problem child has identified with your propensity conceptualising how development takes for sighted children with autism. to identify with her own actions. She has place. Perhaps it is no wonder that there The question arises: if autism is a anticipated you will understand her point is convergence between the heterogeneous developmental disorder, to her shirt as communicating that you psychoanalytic notion of ‘identifying with’ and not, as often supposed, a behavioural should put your sticker on your shirt. and ideas from elsewhere in print-out of constitutional brain How do children with autism respond? By developmental and social psychology, dysfunction (which is not to deny that failing to communicate where to place the notably those of Vygotsky and G.H. neurological disorder is often causative), sticker? No, our participants with autism Mead. And perhaps it is not so surprising then how come it is relatively coherent conveyed the message perfectly well. But that this concept from psychoanalysis as a syndrome? To seek an answer to this whereas the majority of matched control proves especially apt, and perhaps question, we would do well to trace the children without autism behaved like the necessary, to explain results from developmental implications of specific typically developing child I have controlled experiments involving children forms of limitation in very young described, most of those with autism with autism. children’s experience of self-other-world either pointed directly towards the tester’s One final methodological thought on relations. body, or they verbalised their instruction. developmental psychopathology. Freud I hope I have conveyed how much We had predicted this subtle but telling was among the first to recognise the value I respect, indeed relish, the methods of group difference on the basis of a of studying typical and atypical science. Having said this, it has been hypothesis about autism, namely that development alongside one another, to reflection on the nature of interpersonal affected individuals have a limited achieve new depths of vision. So, too, experience, enriched by psychoanalysis propensity to identify with the stance of there are insights to be gained from and philosophy, that has inspired my other people – where ‘identifying with’ studying ‘atypical atypicality’. Let me own attempts to apply such methods has cognitive, conative and affective return to autism. Suppose there are to address vital but elusive issues in aspects. A programme of studies on diverse developmental pathways to developmental psychopathology. It’s imitation, non-verbal and verbal autism, which is, after all, a constellation a journey that has led me to explore the communication, self-consciousness and of clinical features (a syndrome) that very origins of thinking, for example in empathy has reinforced our view of the happen to co-occur. With this idea in my book The Cradle of Thought. And if value of this hypothesis. mind, we have conducted studies of this piece is more intellectual/academic congenitally blind children, among whom than most of the ‘Careers’ profiles on the syndrome is prevalent and sometimes these pages… well, that’s just me! A convergence ‘Identifying with’ is a psychoanalytic concept. How could psychoanalysis, according to some psychologists the Jobs of the month on www.psychapp.co.uk very antithesis of science, yield such a powerful explanatory notion for accounts of mental development and Five Clinical Psychologists Forensic Psychologist/Lead for developmental psychopathology? The American Center for Sex Offender Treatment Psychoanalysis has its own form of Psychiatry and Neurology Turning Point coherent investigative procedure. True, psychoanalytic thinking is prone to over- Location - Overseas Location - South West extend its domain of application, just as Salary - Competitive Salary - Competitive more respectable scientific branches of Closing date - 30/08/2016 Closing date - 02/09/2016 psychology are prone to tunnel vision and reductionism. Yet psychoanalysis represents a disciplined approach to the Consultant Clinical Psychologists Head of Consulting and a study of intersubjective experience, and GCHQ Senior Consultant in my view, intersubjective (that is, Location - South West Great Place to Work® interpersonal) experience is an essential ingredient of our knowledge of what a Salary - Competitive Location - London mind is, and how minds work. Closing date - 07/10/2016 Salary - Competitive Package But surely, psychoanalytic research Closing date - 31/08/2016 is not worthy of the name, because it is irreducibly subjective? Not necessarily: in published research involving participants To view these jobs and more please visit www.psychapp.co.uk with borderline personality disorder and
seek and advertise at www.psychapp.co.uk 711 careers On a mission
Thomas Hoare on his voluntary work in Nigeria
’m a clinical psychologist from Swansea throughout the year. Within the team, remote villages and so the hospital is and completed my training with the every patient would have an assigned a completely alien environment. INHS in Wales. Earlier this year, I counsellor working with them I’d never come across noma before, returned from an 11-month mission with throughout their stay. I supervised these and it is quite shocking when first Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) at the counsellors in their activities, and trained encountered due to the extent of the Noma Children’s Hospital, in Sokoto, and coached them. disfigurement it causes. Patients suffer north-western Nigeria. It’s the only My work profound social and hospital in the world dedicated to noma, involved individual psychological effects. Many a rapidly progressive, polymicrobial, often and group children miss out on long gangrenous infection of the mouth or counselling sessions, “when you’re periods of schooling, and genitals. I led the psychosocial unit, joint parent–child somewhere for almost they’re stigmatised because of supporting patients and family members psychosocial a year, you do form an the way they look. They often during admission and helping them deal stimulation sessions, attachment with it” cover up or are hidden by with the consequences of stigmatisation. including music, parents to protect them from MSF’s project supports surgical, craft, toy-making, the hostile reactions of the nutritional, nursing and psychosocial colouring, dancing, community. care, and the recruitment of specialist etc., supporting children through painful I have a lot of very positive memories plastic and reconstructive surgeons, procedures (e.g. dressing changes) and from my time in the mission, especially anaesthetists and operating theatre familiarising them to the hospital around living and working with a nurses for two to three weeks at a time environment. Many of them are from fantastic team of diverse staff who are
A practical guide to the final undergraduate year
Hope Christie, a PhD student at the University of Bath, offers some tips
ince completing my psychology data. And on top of that you have to juggle an additional support mechanism. Someone Sundergraduate degree, the question work from other electives that you are or something that would reassure students I get asked most often by younger taking. that everything was going to be fine, and generations of students is: ‘Was the final So yes, your final year is a challenge, remind them of their capabilities to year hard?’ In my opinion, the final year but the important thing to remember is that successfully complete their final year. This isn’t hard, but it is perhaps more it is manageable. As my old supervisor used was something the students didn’t seem to challenging compared to previous years of to say to me: ‘How do you eat an elephant? be getting from their peers, and, despite your degree. Firstly, there is more pressure. Piece by piece.’ However, part of the reassurance from staff, it seemed to go in Passing all your assessments is a must if challenge of you final one ear and out the other. you want to graduate, and while in previous year is not being able However, when this years you had the ‘safety net’ of summer to see just how “Most importantly, the reassurance came from resits, there is nothing like that in your final manageable everything guide was to be student- someone who had recently year. That isn’t to say you should spend is when you are in the centred and student-led” been through what they every day following an assessment thick of it. That reason, were currently facing – as submission worrying if you’ve failed or not: amongst many others, both Karl and I had – the a key thing I constantly had to remind is why my colleague advice and support seemed to students of is that your lecturers do not Karl Johnson and I decided to write Don’t be taken on board and was usually helpful want you to fail! Secondly, there is a greater Panic: The Psych/Soc Student’s Guide to (or at least comforting). demand on your time in terms of work. Your Fourth Year. The aim of Don’t Panic was to make dissertation is probably going to be the After spending many months working a ‘nuts and bolts’ practical guide to what largest piece of work that you will have ever with final-year students talking through to expect from a final year of undergrad written; and while many students panic that problems that they were having – either studies as a psychology or sociology they could never write 10,000 words, those with something specific like SPSS, or more student. Most importantly, the guide words do add up pretty quickly! Also, you general questions that they had deemed was to be student-centred and student- have the added pressure of submitting ‘too stupid to bother their dissertation led. Combined with our thoughts and ethics, and collecting and analysing supervisors with’ – I began to see a need for ideas about what to include in the guide,
712 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 careers
very committed to family and friends and doing all the supporting patients to things you often take for granted, have a better quality of such as my favourite sports, going life. Furthermore, the cycling or to the cinema. I missed lots introduction of the of my favourite foods – a typical psychosocial unit by MSF dinner there would be meat such as has been praised by the goat, beef or chicken, some greens, rest of the team and the lots of plantain and yam. Delicious, surgeons attending the but I still missed my favourite food project, who have noticed from home from time to time! a considerable difference I’m going on another MSF mission in the emotional wellbeing to Ethiopia in the summer, which will of the children – they focus on supporting the mental health seem happier, less anxious of refugees from Eritrea and South and better-prepared for Sudan. But it will be fantastic to keep surgery. hearing about how the work is One adult patient had progressing at the noma project; when been in the hospital for a you’re somewhere for almost a year, considerable period of you do form an attachment with it, time as he needed so I’ll always be curious to know how it’s multiple surgeries. all going. Collaboratively we were able to think who is a patient in hospital awaiting I MSF is currently looking for Mental Health about giving him a role in the hospital, surgery. It’s just an example of the ways Specialists to join its register. For more creating a garden for him to manage. in which we sometimes try to think information on the recruitment criteria and The vegetables grown were used in the creatively about how to engage patients. the application process, please visit hospital kitchen, giving him a feeling of I missed a lot of things whilst I was www.msf.org.uk/job-profiles/mental-health- being part of a team, rather than someone away, including spending time with specialist
I engaged a cohort of psychology and resource for psychology students. that this is not the case for every sociology Honours students about their Various regional branches of the BPS student, but from my experience as a experiences of fourth year, which resulted in run annual undergraduate conferences, final-year undergrad my fellow peers Don’t Panic containing 17 sections structured conveniently around the time that you who did not design their own experiment to reflect the Honours year life-cycle. will be submitting your dissertation struggled during the writing-up stage, While Karl provided many insights projects. This provides you with a great because their experiment wasn’t their reflecting his sociology background, my opportunity to practice disseminating own and they had no vested interest in insights were more specific to psychology your research to an audience. The idea the outcome. However, I really enjoyed students. These included: sounds daunting, but I did it in my final (to an extent) the analysis and writing- I The age old quantitative vs. qualitative year and would strongly encourage up stages of my dissertation, because debate. I have overheard many student other students to do the same. It is a my project was an idea that I had come conversations about what type of fantastic supportive environment, where up with and that I had designed. research method to choose for their everyone is in the early stages of their dissertation project. For most, this research career, and I feel I’ve benefited These are just a few examples of the decision is made for you, but if you are in from it a lot. The BPS also runs many insights provided for final-year students the position to choose, do not be fooled local meetings: if one is taking place in the guide. Currently, it’s being piloted into thinking that a qualitative project close to you, I recommend going along. in Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh, will be easier, because you did not do You get to network with a lot of students distributed as a PDF with the students’ well with your statistics modules in and psychologists (at varying stages of module handbooks and descriptors. Karl previous years. That simply isn’t the their careers), and hear one or two and I are both optimistic that other case. In fact, now would be a good time interesting talks as well. departments/institutions may consider to give SPSS another try, because you I Designing your own experiment isn’t implementing similar materials with their have at your disposal a supervisor who necessarily a bad option. Yes, there is the own final-year students. If that’s you, our is most likely highly proficient in option to take an ‘off the shelf’ project main message is this: you can and will do statistics and may be able to provide you for your dissertation. Usually these are it, just take it piece by piece! with the assistance you were needing. ready-made experiments that lecturers Additionally, there are benefits to have created for students to use as If you are interested in finding out more qualitative projects, but don’t simply opt dissertation projects. They are easy to about Don’t Panic: The Psych/Soc Student’s for one because you think it will be get up and running and can save you Guide to Fourth Year, please feel free to get ‘easier’ than the other. some time, especially in the first few in touch with or me ([email protected]; I Get involved in all things BPS! The British months. However, writing up can @HChristie_psych) or my co-author Karl Psychological Society is a fantastic sometimes be a challenge. I must stress ([email protected]; @karlpjohnson).
seek and advertise at www.psychapp.co.uk 713 Advertising opportunities in 2016
CPL has been appointed by the British To discuss the opportunities for advertising Psychological Society and we are very and promotion in The Psychologist, excited to be your point of contact for all www.psychapp.co.uk and Research Digest, advertising. CPL is an award-winning please contact Matt Styrka on 01223 378005 or full service agency that was established email [email protected]. in 1996. Upcoming Display Appointment Publication In early 2016 we will be launching a new issues advert section date deadline deadline appointments website. It will be accessible on mobiles and desktops, with increased search October 31 August 7 September 22 September functionality, greater ease of use and navigation. November 28 September 5 October 20 October It will also have many more targeted options to allow you to promote your roles to members and other visitors to www.psychapp.co.uk. You will be happy to hear that all recruitment advertisers in the print edition of The Psychologist will continue to have their adverts included on the new appointments site.
Psychological Assistant Job Title: Psychological Assistant Employer: Adult and Child Psychological Assessment Service
Well qualifi ed graduate wanted to work with Chartered Psychologists in carrying out a range of Psycho-Legal assessments. The Adult and Child Psychological Assessment service (ACPAS) was founded in 2003 and This post will also provide opportuni es to become involved in: offers services in three areas: educational, medico-legal work (including family, criminal and administering di erent psychometric tests civil cases) and specialist areas of forensic assessment. delivering training to groups of professional and non-professionals ‘We find this is an ideal job for someone who has completed a psychology degree and research and developing informa on guides wants experience before further training,’ says Frank Furlong, Lead Psychologist at ACPAS. co-facilita ng support groups project work (O enders with ‘Previous assistants have sought other experience in parallel and this has led on, for instance, Learning Disabili es, Young O enders, Paren ng, Domes c to a job in the NHS prior to a clinical course. Other assistants go on to educational and Violence).
Training and support will be provided by forensic training. Chartered Psychologist. ‘We offer assessment in educational and forensic areas as well as expert witness services Ongoing training and con nuing professional development will be and training to teachers and social workers. The psychological assistant will work with me in encouraged. The post will ideally appeal to Psychology these areas, as well as getting involved in writing one of our booklets on a key topic each graduates in need of prac cal experience. month. Previous editions have covered Dyspraxia, Dyslexia, Self-Esteem, Anxiety, Autism, This post is 0.8 of a full me equivalent post and a racts a salary of £16000 Harmful Sexual Behaviour and Self-Harm, so we’d prefer someone with, say, a good 2:1 (pro-rata). It is ini ally for 8 months, although this may very likely be extended degree to take on this latter role. up to 1 year. ‘But the key is finding someone who is a team player: we work with a lot of psychological If interested in this posi on please email/ post your C.V. with a covering le e r t o : (put consultants as well as having four staff. He or she should be adaptable in their approach and Psychological Assistant in subject fi eld) good at creating rapport with clients. We’re based in Birmingham in the West Midlands but Adult & Child Psychological Assessment Service, 1 Farlands Grove, Great Barr, work nationally, so there’s plenty of opportunity to travel.’ Birmingham, B43 5PY. The company’s website (www.acpas.co.uk) gives a lot of good information.
714 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 Principal Outcomes Research Scientist
Roche are advertising a uniquely rare opportunity to join the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research team at either of oursites in; Welwyn Garden City (UK) and Basel (CH) This role will report directly into the Global Head of Patient-CenteredOutcomes Research for Neuroscience.
When joining the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research (PCOR) team, the patient (and caregiver’s) voice will be central to everything that you do. You will ensure that the patient is at the very heart of product development and have the opportunity to develop novel innovative endpoints that inform probability of technical success in drug development as well as help facilitate market access. The PCOR team provides strategic consultancy and scientific expertise to support clients in functions such as Clinical, Regulatory and Global Pricing and Market Access. The PCOR team is proactively involved in several external initiatives continuously striving to shift the status quo with a focus on patient engagement, measurement and novel endpoint development intended to inform treatment benefit (e.g. CPATH, NIH, ISOQOL etc). The team is a global multidisciplinary group of Psychologists, Health Service Researchers, Epidemiologists, Clinical Scientists and statisticians.
Your vast industry experience of PCOR will mean that you are well recognised in the field of Outcomes Research. You are someone who thinks out of the box and challenges the status quo. You should have previous mentoring and leadership skills and be able to develop and maintain relationships with key stakeholders internally and externally.
To apply please go to www.roche.com/careers and search for job ID #3232262306
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seek and advertise at www.psychapp.co.uk 715 Make a complex world yours
Consultant Clinical Psychologists
Exciting opportunities to apply your clinical skills within a different context Contractors required for two, three or four days per week To check the latest jobs please go to GCHQ is a stimulating environment situated in beautiful Cheltenham. www.psychapp.co.uk We are seeking experienced Consultant Clinical To discuss the opportunities for advertising and promotion Psychologists to apply clinical psychology expertise within in The Psychologist, www.psychapp.co.uk and Research Digest, please contact Matt Styrka on 01223 378 005 a national security context. or email [email protected].
The roles will include supporting the Personnel Security department in assessing staff for suitability to hold security clearance and assisting other departments in establishing ability to fulfil demanding roles. The primary focus is the Learning Disabilities Directorate, assessment of vulnerability, resilience and risk. Royal Cornhill Hospital, Aberdeen Clinical Psychologist (2 x Posts) Demand for clinical psychological assessment is Band 8A £40,428 - £48,514 per annum, Full-time 37.5 hours per week increasing across the organisation and fresh initiatives are Applications are invited from suitably qualified candidates for these newly being developed. created, permanent posts in a well established Department of Clinical Psychology for Adults with a Learning Disability. The Department is staffed by 6 You must be an experienced Clinical Psychologist who Clinical Psychologists (not including these vacancies), is based in Elmwood on the Royal Cornhill Hospital site and is responsible for the provision of specialist has worked at a consultant grade within the NHS or psychology services for adults with a learning disability across the whole of equivalent. Forensic expertise is highly desirable. Forensic Grampian. Psychologists who have developed substantial mental These posts will provide a highly specialist psychology service to adults health competencies across a variety of settings will also with a learning disability in Aberdeen City and to support the work of the be considered. You should have a breadth of experience multidisciplinary and multiagency teams with such cases. with adult populations and demonstrable competence The Department has close links with the University of Edinburgh/NHS (Scotland) Clinical Psychology Training Programme and provides core and specialist in training and consulting to non psychologistspsychologists about placements for trainees on this programme. The successful candidates will psychologicalpsychological issues.issues. be expected, following completion of the appropriate supervision course, to supervise such trainees on a regular basis. YouYou must be of British Nationality and the post will be Newly graduated Clinical Psychologists and those about to graduate this subject to security clearanceclearance.. year are encouraged to apply. Further information about this post may be obtained from Margaret Harlin, Please submit a cocoveringvering letter and CV to: PsyPsychologychology Consultant Clinical Psychologist, Professional Lead on 01224 557155 or e-mail:
ServicesServices ManagManager,er, B2j, GCHQGCHQ,, Hubble RRoad,oad, [email protected]. Cheltenham, GL51 0EX. To apply please visit www.nhsgrampian.org/jobs and search for Ref No PR14533. Closing date 7th September 2016. Closing date: 7 October 2016. Initial interviewsinterviews will be held w/c 24 October 2016.
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716 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 CHALLENGE YOURSELF. UNDERSTAND OTHERS. PROTECT US ALL.
Behavioural Scientists £34,367 - £44,064 depending on skills and experience London
seek and advertise at www.psychapp.co.uk 717 Bereaved Existential and poetic Understanding Grief Richard Gross REVIEWS The English poet Alexander Pope believed that our task as human beings was not to explain life, Death is the only certainty in life, the universe and everything, but to explore the microcosm that is the self. ‘Know then thyself, yet most of us feel unprepared presume not God to scan; The proper study of Mankind is Man.’ when the bell tolls. The thought Professor John Hull, whose loss of sight changed his life for ever, follows in this Delphic of death, of our loved ones and tradition. An academic theologian by profession, Hull records every detail of the experience of eventually our own, is so losing his sight and coming to terms with the fact that he is now a blind man. Unsurprisingly, given unsettling that most of us don’t his religious persuasion, Hull consciously or unconsciously adopts the position of those who dwell on it until the final hour. The believe that adjustment to sight loss can only be achieved by being reborn as a new person, rather death of our nearest and dearest than by acquiring alternative means of maintaining a continuity of personal identity. can reorient the compass of our From a psychological perspective, Hull employs phenomenology and introspection: methods lives in many ways. alien to modern psychologists. So that, rather than arriving at general truths applicable to a blind Here, Richard Gross provides population, he instead gives us a vivid portrayal of his a comprehensive overview of the own experiences and changing beliefs, initially through research literature on grief. As the his words in Touching the Rock (1990, Sheldon Press) experience and manifestation of and now through images, thanks to James Spinney and grief involves personal, social and Peter Middleton’s screenplay and visual interpretation cultural factors, he explores of the book. bereavement and the concomitant The film immerses the viewer in dark, out-of-focus emotions it unleashes through images and odd perspectives that disorient and draw myriad lenses. For a one’s experience as close to that of Hull as one could developmental view, Gross looks imagine. Sometimes the screen goes black; at other at stage theorists and explores the times it is simply pure white, and it caused this viewer links between adult grief and early to drift off into a private reverie on more than one attachment relationships. The occasion. As a consequence of this I missed some bits, book also discusses models of but the fact that it happened at all testifies to the grief and examines how familial, technical success of the film in addressing Hull’s social, religious and cultural Notes on Blindness contention that dreaming and waking are variations dynamics impact its expression. James Spinney & Peter of consciousness that remain a mystery. Gross explains how our unique Middleton (Writers and I was reminded of Kierkegaard’s concept of a kinship with the deceased could Directors) subjective truth when Hull describes how space, time, result in different experiences and objects and people become devoid of meaning and also examines gender differences reality as his visual memory fades. For a number of years Hull becomes withdrawn and fearful as and ‘disenfranchised’ forms of he strives to regain his personal identity through minute examination of his experiences. With the grief that do not necessarily have loss of visual information about objective reality, he finds that his very self becomes unmoored and societal sanction or support. A when he turns inwards for answers he initially finds nothing more than further confusion. final chapter is on the loss of pets Nonetheless, after years of struggle Hull eventually experiences his Damascene moment and, and our ubiquitous fear of death. as a result, he reframes the curse of blindness as the divine revelation that it is a gift, albeit an In a reasonably concise unwanted one. However, the film ends before showing us how he uses that gift, other than volume, the book lives up to its communicating his journey to us. name by trying to understand Lip-sync acted from Hull’s own audio tapes, the actors Dan Renton Skinner as John Hull, and grief in its entirety. Written in an Simone Kirby as his wife Marilyn, present as a highly plausible loving couple living in fear that their accessible style, it provides a marriage might not survive as John journeys into a private world into which Marilyn is unable to holistic sweep of past and recent accompany him. Sadly, John Hull died after only a few weeks into the filming, but the film ends with research. This book would be an a shot of Hull himself against an ocean vista that brings the world to him on waves of sound. asset to those who work with Hull’s struggles in coming to terms with his blindness are faithfully conveyed in the film, which, bereaved individuals, but it may together with its subtle soundtrack, takes the viewer into a dark and disturbing place. Yet in my have been enriched by some first- own experience of working with blind people, Hull’s journey is a highly individualistic one, and few person accounts, as a purely blind people whom I know well would easily identify with it. As a good American friend of mine who academic view cannot quite convey lost his sight in childhood once admitted to me, ‘Blindness is just a pain in the ass’. But then Hull the intensity of emotions that can was an intellectual and his response was more existential and poetic than pragmatic. engulf a bereaved individual. Even A virtual-reality event accompanies the film, and I was keen to experience the simulation of if we are extremely sensitive and sight loss. Although the experience was forceful, I was not convinced of its veridicality. It does, have excellent perspective-taking however, assist the listener in becoming more aware of the audible landscape and Hull’s recorded skills, being bereaved is very voice accompaniment adds an emotional tone to the experience. Why not take on board yourself different from how we might the world of this blind man and make of it what you will? imagine it to be.
I The film is playing throughout the UK and is available on demand. See www.notesonblindness.co.uk for I Routledge; 2016; Pb £24.99 information, including the virtual reality experience Reviewed by Aruna Reviewed by Dr Allan Dodds who is Former Director of The Blind Mobility Research Unit, University Sankaranarayanan, Director, of Nottingham PRAYATNA, a centre for children with learning difficulties in India
718 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 reviews
Apposite and appealing The App Generation: How Today’s Youth Navigate Identity, Intimacy, and Imagination in a Digital World Howard Gardner & Katie Davis
Most readers of this text, I expect, will are distinguished. App- mentality can lead to unwillingness to belong to the so-called ‘App Generation’. As dependent apps are used stretch beyond the functionality of the one who is well past it, I was curious to see when we (children and software and the packaged sources that what the authors had to say. Basically the adults) use their apps as ‘a starting point, come with google search’. However, in argument is set out in the preface to the endpoint and everything in between’. Such another chapter, the authors compare second edition (published in 2014) (not the apps are what we use to look up the children’s artwork and short stories first edition) where the authors have had weather, to find a restaurant, to search for produced today with that produced in the time to reflect on what they have achieved the answer to a question. Such apps imply 1960s. Here they find more complexity in the and what the critics have made of it. that everything can be answered artworks of today, not only in how they are The text weaves its way through three immediately and efficiently. Enabling apps painted but also in the techniques used to main issues: (a) the effects of technology on are used to develop new experiences and produce them but different changes are our modern lives – contrasting the areas of knowledge, meaningful reported for children’s fiction. Here there is experiences of an older person (Howard relationships and creative expression. a shift to more conventional texts, despite an Gardner), a younger one (assistant professor Gardner and Davis explore app- increase in less formal wording. Katie Davis), a much younger one (Katie’s dependence and app-enablement with As expected, any book by Howard sister, Molly, aged 16 at the time of writing respect to three areas of experience that Gardner and colleagues is a pleasure to and, occasionally, an even younger one – are particularly salient for young people: read. Many points are further expanded Oscar, Howard’s grandson, aged six; (b) the their sense of personal identity (Chapter 4), and discussed in end-of-chapter notes. nature of different kinds of apps – labelled the intimacy they experience in their Nonetheless, I have some criticisms. The app-dependent and app-enabling; and (c) the relationships (Chapter 5), and the ways arguments outlined in this text are based roles of apps in relationship to personal they express their imagination (Chapter 6). on data drawn from the authors’ studies of identity, intimacy and imagination. Apparently, the youth of today ‘take care to teachers and students with different-sized For a person like myself who, like present a socially desirable, packaged samples – mainly in New England and Howard Gardner, has lived through the polished self on line: many students ‘a smaller sample’ in Bermuda - together development of personal computers from identities are prematurely foreclosed with brief one-sentence summaries of other their origins in the 1970s, to the mobile because they don’t allow themselves space relevant publications. An appendix outlines phone and the all-encompassing apps of to explore alternatives’, but, intriguingly, the procedures and the sample sizes, but it today, it was good to reflect on both the communicate with their parents more. Apps provides no data. Thought-provoking? positive and the negative side of what has allow children to take shortcuts in how they Readable? Yes – in spades. But without the been achieved. Seen from the point of view carry out their interpersonal relationships; data it is hard to judge the validity of the of the four protagonists – Howard, Katie, these shortcuts make interacting with conclusions. Molly and Oscar – we get a picture of the others much quicker, easier and less risky. beginnings of the new technology, its mid- Today, apps that support art, music and I Yale University Press; 2015; Pb £8.99 point and its ubiquitous nature today. photography are readily available – but, Reviewed by James Hartley, Emeritus As noted above, two main kinds of apps according to these authors, ‘an app Professor of Psychology at Keele University
A holistic approach to sex offending Sex Offenders: A Criminal Career Approach Arjan Blackland & Patrick Lussier (Eds.)
Current literature takes a the developmental precursors with those of non-sexual offence non-sex offending and propose clinical approach to sex that a criminal career involves, crimes. Typographical theories refinements in risk assessment offending by exploring how to determine why and how such aimed at early prevention and and treatment in this area. This individual pathologies, childhood individuals partake in sex maturational theories are book offers new insights into trauma, cognitive distortions, offences. Longitudinal combined in order to sexual offending in an low victim empathy, deviant studies are used to build modify sex offenders’ accessible, informing and sexual preferences, poor a holistic view that criminal careers at engaging style and is highly attachment style and sexual challenges the differences certain ages and career relevant to students, regulation create a typology of used to separate the ways stages, in the pursuit of practitioners and researchers patterns linked to sexual in which sex and non-sex building guidance on in the fields of forensic and offending. This text, however, crimes are managed policy as to where criminological psychology alike. merges biopsychosocial and today. efforts should be criminological perspectives, The criminal career targeted and how current I Wiley-Blackwell; 2015; Pb £36.99 raising the debate that current approach aims to conceptualise interventions can be revised. Reviewed by Louise Mullins theories and methods of the development and offending The authors of this text who is an undergraduate research are outdated. It draws trajectory of each individual in request further research aimed psychology student and on evidence that considers the order to merge preventative specifically at understanding the voluntary worker on a sex individual offender’s etiology and strategies of sexual offending commonalities between sex and offender treatment programme
read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk 719 reviews
A comprehensible darkness? The Psychology of Radicalization and Terrorism Willem Koomen & Joop Van Der Pligt
Images of terrorism are present daily, with multifactorial model to describe importance of psychological the questions ‘What causes it?’ and ‘How the polarisation, radicalisation understanding. The role of can we prevent radicalisation?’. A complex, and terrorist violence pathway, context, beliefs and emotions emotive subject that challenges beliefs and and subsequent chapters in shaping behaviour is clear. feelings on individual and societal levels, examine each variable in detail. Counter-terrorism strategies where explanations are often simplistic, Organised using helpful chapter must be guided by our inaccurate and biased. For example, the sub-headings, results from a knowledge of individual, cultural, psychological literature shows there is no wide range of interesting social, political and economic evidence that terrorist acts can be explained studies are summarised to support their factors. by mental illness or by some form of model, with a reference list at the end. I would definitely recommend this book psychological deviance. Koomen and Van Whilst reviewing the book, broadcast to psychologists and related disciplines. I’d Der Plight’s book definitely provides us with and social media went into commentary also strongly suggest it should be on the explanations and answers. overload about radicalisation and terrorism bookshelves of policy makers, as well as Highlighting the difficulties and links to the Orlando shootings, the murder police and security specialists. inconsistencies describing ‘terrorism’, the of Jo Cox and the EU debate. I became authors use the Global Terrorism Database aware just how much the book’s content was I Routledge; 2016; Pb £31.99 definition: ‘the threatened or actual use of relevant and explaining this for me, Reviewed by Ged Bailes who is Lead illegal force and violence to attain a political, particularly chapters on stereotyping, Consultant Forensic Clinical Psychologist, economic, religious or social goal through threats and social identity. Secure & Criminal Justice Services, Norvic fear, coercion or intimidation’. They use a The book’s key message is the Clinic, Norwich
whilst struggling to find wrote an episode of Friends, his own artistic ideas and then The Spoils would be close narrative. Kalyan, on the other to what is produced: a portrayal hand, is a Nepalese immigrant of inner conflict, friendship and trying to make it in the financial control in a witty format. What world to better his life chances. makes this play stand out is that Their economic and class Ben is not a likeable character backgrounds could not be more and there are no explanations, different, yet their lives have or excuses, for why he behaves somehow come together in a the way he does towards others. peculiar friendship based on This is a welcome break from dependency and control. Ben the often over-dramatised, holds much of that control: saccharine parade of plays that they live in his flat, which his seek to tell an uplifting tale of father bought, and he allows the extraordinary and unusual. Kalyan to live rent-free as an Although focused on Ben, the act of good will towards his play delicately interweaves the ‘underprivileged’ friend. narratives of Kalyan (and others) However, Ben depends on the producing something that Woody Allen meets Friends emotional support that Kalyan addresses the normal, almost provides, despite being mundane, existential struggles The Spoils frustrated at his aspirations to of ‘everyday’ people. With these Trafalgar Studios, London (Scott Elliott, Director) make it in the Western world, insights, we can start to think which Ben himself rejects. about why so many of us feel so The billboard for The Spoils and Kunal Nayyar of The Big Kalyan consistently gains our unhappy within the wider proclaimed this as a dark new Bang Theory. sympathy as he seems to bear framework of race, class and comedy play that delves into the The fast-paced, quick-witted the brunt of Ben’s discontent economics. Ironically though, at everyday lives of an emotionally script is perfect at portraying and struggles in his own £65 a ticket this production was charged set of characters. the dysfunctional relationship attempts to ‘succeed’. Not to likely to have been inaccessible I jumped at the opportunity between the protagonist, Ben give too much away, the arrival for many, but it was nonetheless to see it, considering the (Eisenberg) and his flatmate, of Ben’s old high school crush entertaining and certainly worth saturation of musical Kalyan (Nayyar). Ben presents triggers a series of evolving (and a watch. razzmatazz elsewhere on the himself as an existential film- surreal) events… Ben can take West End. Nevertheless, this maker who is working on a ‘new these as an opportunity of self- I Reviewed by Anita Mehay who play also offered glitz, since it kind of art form that doesn’t yet reflection and change, or he can is a doctoral researcher and was written by and starred have a name’ (cue rolled-eyes). retreat further into his own health psychologist in training at the American actor Jesse Of course, in reality he spends emotional turmoil. Royal Holloway, University of Eisenberg of The Social Network, much of his time smoking weed, I imagine that if Woody Allen London
720 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 reviews
Memory in context Contextualizing Human Memory: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Understanding How Individuals and Groups Remember the Past Charles Stone & Lucas Bietti (Eds.)
Is there such a thing as context- anything and everything. This strong Vygotskian influence, but for its serious examination free memory? Can memory volume attempts to examine this book is concerned less with and indicates the kind of vital function in a social vacuum? just what this thing ‘context’ is. reviewing historical issues and insights such an endeavour can Whilst it may be simplistic to What does it turn out to be? more with the present and yield. claim that cognitive Lots of different things. future of interdisciplinary psychologists have traditionally Amongst other issues, the memory research. It highlights I Routledge; 2016; Hb £95.00 viewed memory as being chapters focus on: cultural and the scale of what context Reviewed by Andrew Hart who context-free, the role of context socio-historical contexts; social represents in memory research is a Lecturer at the University of has tended to be seen as little interactions; joint activities; but also provides a strong case Bradford linguistics; nonverbal communication; and even the An excellent introduction context of silence. This is not simply a Free Will and the Brain: Neuroscientific, miscellaneous collection of Philosophical and Legal Perspectives essays. The chapters are Walter Glannon (Ed.) organised in three main parts: cognitive and psychological perspectives on context; social A compilation of chapters from experts across a range of fields, Free and cultural perspectives; Will and the Brain provides an array of insights into defining free will, linguistic and philosophical determining its existence, implications and clinical relevance. perspectives (with emphasis on Glannon begins with an introductory chapter, in which he puts scaffolding). Although several across his own views and opinions of the existence of free will, different facets of context are primarily based on conclusions of the chapters that follow. This examined, the overall themes overall summary gives the reader an easy-to-digest and informative are coherent and there is a entrance into the quite complex and somewhat deeply philosophical common focus on the social later chapters. Glannon’s claims do often seem to be based greatly more than an additional factor. context of remembering. The on personal opinion, and the introduction feels relatively In Contextualizing Human volume’s emphasis in this biased against neuroscientific explanations of free will. Memory Stone and Bietti have regard serves to promote what The main body of the book consists of multiple drawn together a collection of one of the contributors (William chapters from different authors, each focused on work that asserts the central Hirst) refers to as ‘the social discussing free will from a different perspective. Specific role context plays in human turn’ in memory research. chapters discussing the implication of the notion of free memory. In drawing attention to the will in neurological, psychological and mental disorders Stone and Bietti recognise importance and ambiguity of are particularly insightful and thought-provoking. Such that ‘context’ can be an context, Stone and Bietti are real-world impacts provide an area of common interest unhelpfully vague and building on the work of figures to wide audiences from neuroscience, philosophy, amorphous concept: a term such as Frederic Bartlett and psychology and law. Clinical and pathological examples that can be invoked to describe Susan Engel. There is also a of possible deficits in free will, as well as the consequences of lack of free will in terms of the law, make for a compelling and real- world relevant read. Throughout many of the chapters, the authors focus heavily on the famous investigations of neuroscientist Libet into the existence Find more reviews on our website at of free will. It would have been refreshing to read about some of the www.thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/reviews – including our many more recent neuroscientific findings in this field, which editor on the movie adaptation of Roald Dahl’s The BFG. perhaps would have provided greater support to some of the biological arguments that are repeatedly criticised. This aspect
contribute Sample titles just in: again points towards a general bias against neuroscientific evidence Peak Anders Ericsson & Robert Pool throughout Free Will and the Brain. Evolving Insight Richard W. Byrne Free Will and the Brain is an interesting and thought-inducing Work and Sleep Julian Barling et al. (Eds.) read, relevant to readers from a wide range of backgrounds. The unique structure breaks down what would otherwise be a very dense For a full list of books available for review and and complex discussion of a deeply philosophical debate. Although information on reviewing for The Psychologist, see it only touches on the available biological literature, Glannon www.bps.org.uk/books provides an excellent introduction to the notion of free will from multiple perspectives. Remember, ‘Reviews’ covers more than books: for other opportunities, contact the editor I Cambridge University Press; 2015; Hb £65.00 [email protected] or follow on Twitter @psychmag Reviewed by Stacey A. Bedwell who is at Nottingham Trent University
read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk 721 reviews
Everywhere and nowhere Dr Broks’ Casebook BBC Radio 4
‘I had a patient, a very unusual case,’ says neuropsychologist Dr Paul Broks, as he introduces ‘Martin’, a man who fully believes he is dead. Dr Broks’ Casebook takes the listener on a psychological and philosophical hunt for ‘the self’, introducing each of the five episodes with an equally fascinating story of an individual whose sense of self is disrupted in some way. Martin, we are told, suffers from a condition known as Cotard’s syndrome. He says he doesn’t feel anything at all, his thoughts are not real and that his brain has rotted away – a real- life zombie if you like. Adam Zeman, Professor of Neurology at Exeter University, is brought in to explain what might be going on. One of his patients, Graham, has also been diagnosed with Cotard’s syndrome and is so convinced he is dead that he hangs out Halligan, Michael Gazzaniga – and together they explore the in graveyards. Further investigation with neuroimaging reveals that neurological, psychological and philosophical approaches to defining his brain is behaving like that of someone who is in a coma – he has and locating the sense of self. What role does the ego play? Where markedly less activity in the ‘default mode network’, a series of brain are the boundaries of the self? How does sense of self change circuits that allows us to reflect on the past, imagine the future, and through different stages of sleep and after brain injury? What can we experience the now. learn from phantom limbs? So, the producer asks, does this mean we’ve found the self? Dr Every episode is compelling, entertaining and informative in Broks explains that the answer is not that simple and over the next equal measure and while each of these questions is answered, Paul four episodes he introduces us to Natalie, a woman who has a Broks concludes that maybe we shouldn’t think of the self as a sudden onset of psychogenic amnesia and doesn’t know who she is unified entity and questions whether it even exists. So has he failed any more; Laura, who suffers from sleep paralysis and experiences in his quest? I don’t think so. Adam Zeman probably summarises it terrifying visitations at night; Joe, a man who experiences dramatic most accurately and succinctly when he says: ‘The self is ‘out-of-body experiences’ as a result of his epilepsy; and Jason, a represented countless times in the brain in a whole variety of young man with anarchic hand syndrome, a condition in which one different ways – it is everywhere and it is nowhere.’ hand seems to behave outside of conscious control, stubbing out cigarettes or fighting the other hand. I Listen on BBC iPlayer via www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b07hjcz5 Throughout the series, Dr Broks calls upon an impressive panel Reviewed by Dr Catherine Loveday who is at the University of of experts – Adam Zeman, Andrew Mayes, Chris French, Peter Westminster
Structuring a complex past Enlivening the Self: The First Year, Clinical Enrichment, and the Wandering Mind Joseph D. Lichtenberg, Frank M. Lachmann, & James L. Fosshage
Enlivening the Self is split into based. I am particularly concept without economising on three essays, charting the intrigued by a discussion of the necessary vignettes that processes that are involved in not only the personal sense never fail to bring an example to developing a psychological of autonomy that the life. In the same breath, this sense of self. The text is person develops, but also also encourages the reader to beautifully fleshed out with what the interaction and evaluate their own clinical work is evidently great experience processes in those early in this way; certainly for a from all three authors. experiences with the starting psychologist, this The process of self- environment around them structure provides one very experience is ‘about feeling that may be supportive or useful way of making sense of enlivened’, and the book begins be a hindrance. human complexity. specifically with the authors Of particular usefulness A deeply thought-provoking, detailing what they term are 12 was the manifestation into challenging, yet enjoyable book. qualities important in the early adult life, seen in the book creating a meaningful development of the self. It through descriptions of formulation. I Routledge; 2016; Pb £28.99 makes sense that the book enactments in the therapy As a counselling Reviewed by Candy Wong chronologically presents the space. The idea of therapy psychologist in training in the who is a Senior Mental Health material starting with early process as a reflection of the midst of developing a working Practitioner, Southern Health developments. The structure of person’s process in day-to-day knowledge of psychoanalytical NHS Foundation Trust, and chapter 1 lends itself to giving a life draws attention to the concepts, this book provides counselling psychologist in clear foundation on which importance of looking at the clear concise material to give an training, University of East subsequent case vignettes are person as a whole, a way of overall understanding of the London
722 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 reviews
Legacies of war Wounded: Conflict, Casualties and Care Science Museum
One hundred years after the beginning of the Battle of the Somme, physical injury there was a large emphasis on the psychological when the British army suffered over 57,000 casualties, a third of effects of war. Even by the end of 1918, 30,000 war pensions had them killed, on the first day, the Science Museum opened a already been awarded for ‘shell shock’. The figure continued to rise fascinating exhibition entitled ‘Wounded: Conflict, Casualties and Care’. thereafter. Representing the British Psychological Society at the preview For me, a highlight was a facsimile of the medical record of the evening, I found that the exhibition covers protection (through luck, document transferring the war poet, Lieutenant Wilfred Owen, for superstition, armour and equipment), first aid, life-saving equipment treatment at the Slateford Military Hospital at Craiglockhart in and rehabilitation, with many examples of talismans and charms, Edinburgh (now the home of the main building of Edinburgh Napier armour, gas masks, first aid kits, stretchers, anaesthetic and University). Following treatment at Craiglockhart, where he formed a surgical equipment, as well as many examples of early prosthetic close friendship with fellow officer, poet and author Siegfried legs and arms (officers’ and soldiers’ arms were, rather disturbingly, Sassoon, Owen returned to the front to his unit, the 2nd of different quality!), and, one of the most grisly exhibits, a case full Manchesters, where he was killed in action on 4 November 1918, of glass eyes… almost one week to the hour before the signing of the Armistice. The opening of the exhibition by Science Museum Director, Ian Many, like Sassoon, were comparatively lucky, in that they Blatchford, and Chair of Trustees, Dame Mary Archer, included an survived, intact, with their lives; many, many were treated with inspirational speech by Falklands War veteran, Simon Weston, who psychotherapy for ‘neurasthenia’, ‘shell shock’ and other ‘not yet spoke at length about the hidden wounds of war. He was diagnosed neurological’ disorders; some were ‘treated’, in fairly accompanied by the singing of three beautiful songs – with words by barbaric fashion using, for example, Lewis Yelland’s electrofaradism A.E. Housman set to music by the composer George Butterworth machine, also on display; but the 306 who were shot at dawn were who, as an officer in the Durham Light Infantry, was killed by a perhaps the unluckiest of all. German sniper during the Battle of the Somme in the early hours of Post-traumatic stress, as we now term it, lives on. Thousands 5 August 1916. The tenor Roderick Williams was accompanied by continue to suffer, and so the film and poetry by Combat Stress Iain Burnside. veterans that closes the exhibition was especially poignant. Some 20 million people were left disabled, disfigured or traumatised by their experiences in the First World War, and it was I The exhibition will run until 15 January 2018 (see these 20 million wounded that the exhibition had as its focus. http://sciencemuseum.org.uk/visitmuseum/Plan_your_visit/ The exhibition was produced in association with the charities exhibitions/wounded). See also this month’s ‘Looking back’ article. BLESMA (Limbless Veterans), Blind Veterans UK and Combat Stress Reviewed by Professor Jamie Hacker Hughes who is Vice President (The Veterans’ Mental Health Charity). Thus, in addition to a focus on of the British Psychological Society
read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk 723 EMDR Training Schedule Fully accredited EMDR trainings for Psychologists EMDR International Association (EMDRIA) and EMDR-Europe Association (EMDR-E) accredited trainings conducted by Alexandra (Sandi) Richman, Chartered Psychologist. Learn how to integrate this evidence-based therapy into your existing clinical skills. RICHMAN EMDR TRAINING offers the complete 7-day training in 3 parts: Part 1 (3 days), Part 2 (one day) and Part 3 (3 days). Attendee numbers are limited for each training. EMDR Part 1 Trainings 2016/17: London 2016: 21-23 September, 16-18 November, 7-9 December. 2017: 8-10 February, 15-17 March, 10-12 May Glasgow 2016: 9-11 November 2017: 24-26 May Leicester 2017: 5-7 April Other training levels throughout the year For more information contact: Linda Moore, Training Co-ordinator (t) 020 7372 3572 email: [email protected] www.emdr-training.com
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read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk 729 Nervousness, insomnia and impaired memory would plague him his entire life. Medical attention, however, initially focused on his phantom limb. The phenomenon was first described in 1551 by the great French military surgeon, Phantom suffering? Ambroise Paré. In Paré’s words, A most clear and manifest argument Joanna Bourke looks into physical and emotional wounding after the of this false and deceitfull [sic] sense LOOKING BACK LOOKING First World War appears after the amputation of the member; a long while after they will complain of the part which is cut away. Verily it is a thing wondrous strange and prodigious, and which he First World War did not end in health. (His files can be found in the will scarce be credited, unless by 1918. The suffering inflicted during National Archives WO 339/12060 such as have seen with their eyes, Tthe war continued for decades after (P1030322) and PIN 26/21799.) and heard with their ears the Patients the ceasefire. Millions of men returned This all changed on 12 August 1917 who have many months after the home with distressing psychological and when a bomb smashed his left leg into cutting away of the Leg, grievously physical wounds. Their lives were ruled fragments. His leg became infected with complained that they yet felt by pain, despair, and conflict with pension gas gangrene and was amputated three exceeding great pain of that leg so cut authorities and medical personnel. The times. Hopkinson was distraught. He was off. (Ambrose Paré, quoted in Thomas war-afflicted body-in-pain was a life to spend his life on crutches and never Johnson, The Workes of that Famous sentence. experienced prolonged periods of Chirurgion, Ambrose Parey [sic], I was reminded of this fact when employment again. London: Author, 1649) opening two bulky files in the National Hopkinson also suffered from shell Archives in Kew (London) a few months shock. While being evacuated to hospital, Most famously, though, post-amputation ago. It was the pensions file for Hopkinson ‘had to wait some hours under sensations were brought to public Lieutenant Francis attention during the American Civil War (‘Frank’) Hopkinson, who when neurologist Silas Weir Mitchell died on 17 December 1974 coined the term ‘phantom limb’ and went at the age of 85. He had on to provide the first modern clinical lived for over half a description of ‘these hallucinations… so century in severe pain as vivid so strange’. He observed that a result of having been Nearly every man who loses a limb wounded during the Third carried about with him a constant or Battle of Ypres on 12 inconstant phantom of the missing August 1917. Hopkinson member, a sensory ghost of that had undergone numerous much of himself, and sometimes a surgical operations, most inconvenient presence, faintly including having his left felt at times, but ready to be called leg amputated three times. up to his perception by a blow, a He had also been touch, or a change of wind. (Injuries hospitalised with shell of Nerves and Their Consequences, shock. From those 1872, p.348) terrifying months in 1917 and 1918 until his death in Hopkinson described the pain more 1974, Hopkinson endured evocatively: it felt as if ‘the foot was being profound physical and crushed but… at stump level only’ and mental anguish due to an ‘like electric shocks’ that made him ‘shout agonisingly tender stump Hopkinson’s life sheds light on the treatment of men out’. and phantom limb pain. wounded during the First World War During and immediately after the war, An exploration of Hopkinson’s anguish attracted sympathy. Hopkinson’s life sheds light But as the years passed, he had difficulty on the treatment of men wounded during Railway arches during Air Raid’. The persuading his doctors that his suffering the First World War. strain was too much: he ‘developed was ‘real’. It did not help that his ‘shell Who was Frank Hopkinson? He was confusion of thought with suspicions and shock’ had not been a direct consequence born in 1889. He was the second son of hostility’. On 1 October 1917, he was sent of combat but had begun when he was Canon Charles Girdlestone Hopkinson, for treatment to Palace Green Hospital in exposed to an air raid in England. This rector of Whitburn (in Sunderland), and London for shell-shocked officers. He was showed a lack of soldierly self-control and was educated at Marlborough. When war described as having an ‘anxious was interpreted as further evidence that was declared, this strapping, six-foot tall, expression… He is confused and he had a pre-existing mental weakness. young man who enjoyed riding horses suspicious of his surroundings, doubtful From the 1930s, medical reports eagerly joined the 11th Durham Battalion. as to dates and times. Afraid…’. It took increasingly reiterated the view that The recruitment officer judged him to be nearly five months for his doctors to Hopkinson was of a ‘marked neurasthenic ‘not particularly nervy’, with ‘normal’ report ‘Mental condition now clear’. type’ and exhibited a ‘hypochondriac type
730 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 looking back of personality – rather an “old womanish” He offered Hopkinson a radical treatment: according to a wide variety of personal type’. In the words of the Medical Board chordotomy (also spelt cordotomy). This factors’. Even when the pain was largely in January 1936, Hopkinson was a ‘man involved dividing the pain pathways in the result of emotional factors, physical of sensitive temperament, not a good the spinal cord, thus ‘interrupting the treatments might work. This was why type’, perhaps an allusion to his pathways of the painful impulses in order he was willing to endorse ‘old methods homosexuality. to abolish or modify their effects on the of treating pain with electricity’ since, At the very least, pension officials sensorium, either before they reach it or at the very least, it would provide concluded, Hopkinson’s psychoneurosis in the brain itself’ (Lambert Rogers, ‘a physiological distraction’ that might was ‘constitutional’ and therefore not ‘Refresher course for general practitioners: actually reduce suffering. Russell believed eligible for financial compensation. When The surgical relief of pain’, British Medical that ‘the successful therapist for Hopkinson complained about agonisingly Journal, 16 August 1952, p.383). Many intractable pain treats the problem like painful hands (after spending decades neurosurgeons believed it could reduce or a game in which he endeavours to using crutches, his hands looked like even eliminate intractable pain. outmanœuvre the tricks played by the ‘discoloured raw beef’), the Medical A particularly eloquent defence of C.N.S. [central nervous system] of his Officer concluded that the root cause of chordotomy was mounted by Murray A. patient’. He had no scruples in his disorder was Hopkinson’s ‘general Falconer, the director of Guy’s-Maudsley encouraging therapists to use ‘the nervous disposition’. For Neurosurgical Unit. deception of the poker player and the Hopkinson, it must have For Falconer, the confidence of the quack’. To those critics seemed like he was caught “their inability to solve his effectiveness of the who believed that he was ‘too optimistic’ in an impossible bind: his crises eventually led each treatment was itself about curing chronic pain, his response suffering either pre-existed of them to turn away” proof that phantom was simple: ‘I think it important to be the war or was limb pain was not over-confident in treating pain, so I make constitutional. It was as if ‘a psychological no apology’ (Proceedings of the Royal the war never happened. disturbance’. When it Society of Medicine, 52 (1959), The chief problem for Hopkinson was was suggested that performing a major pp.984–987). that he was confronting deeply embedded operation might itself be curative for Unfortunately, Hopkinson was too clinical beliefs about stump and phantom psychological reasons, Falconer was disillusioned and too disenchanted to pains. From the late-1930s onwards, it dismissive: ‘I find it difficult to believe’, he believe in any positive outcome. He died was widely assumed that these pains were scoffed, ‘that in my hands antero-lateral on 17 December 1974. neurotic in nature. At the hospital where chordotomy acted as a psycho-therapeutic Hopkinson’s war lasted 57 years. Hopkinson received most of his treatment procedure, when previous operative Although his symptoms changed – Queen Mary’s Hospital at Roehampton – procedures on the stump had failed to relatively little throughout his life, his R.D. Langdale Kelham concluded that the give relief’ (British Medical Journal, 7 sufferings cannot be summarised under typical phantom limb patient was February 1953, p.301). any single headings. His pain was acute, more often than not a person with When told of the operation’s chronic, physiological, psychological,and an unsatisfactory personality. It may distressing side-effects, including emotional; it gripped him within hospital be he is an anxious, introspective, weakened sphincter control, Hopkinson wards and when he was ‘sitting alone in dissatisfied, ineffective [sic] who, decided to try physical, or ‘peripheralist’, my Bedroom’. On the surface, Hopkinson becoming obsessed by his symptoms, forms of treatment for his phantom pains. should have been able to elicit sympathy: and brooding upon them and his In the 1930s and 1940s, therefore, he he was a white male who had been born disability, tends to dramatise their tried anodal galvanism or electricity into a privileged family and had served as degree, using undoubted treatment. In the 1950s, he opted for an officer in war. In fact, his class-status exaggerations in his description of percussion therapy, that is, thumping his was a further cause for agony: as one his sufferings. (Artificial Limbs in the painful stump with a mallet and wooden doctor reported, Rehabilitation of the Disabled, London: peg. In the words of the neurologist W. The officer is a man of sensitive HMSO, 1957, pp.131–139) Ritchie Russell, of the United Oxford temperament and a loss of his leg Hospitals, with percussion therapy a affects him more than one of coarser Kelham’s assessment dominated the field. patient would learn to ‘knock away his fibre. He… hates people looking at Only rarely did physicians suggest the phantom pain whenever it was him and sympathizing with him. opposite causality – in other words, that troublesome’ (British Medical Journal, chronic pain might lead to psychological 11 June 1949, pp.1024–1026.) Those physicians who witnessed his distress, rather than being caused by it. The failure of all these treatments led pain often attempted to sympathise and Hopkinson ended up being treated by both Russell and Leon Gillis, the author provide succour but their inability to physicians on both sides of a major divide of the highly influential 1954 book solve his crises eventually led each of in the treatment of chronic pain – in Amputations, to reconsider Hopkinson’s them to turn away – sometimes in shorthand, this was the difference case. Gillis believed that treatment needed despair; other times, in annoyance. The between those who focused on the brain’s to encompass ‘psychological as well as invisibility of his wound – his stump reaction to painful stimuli (‘centralists’ or physiological factors’ (p.339). He noted seemed to be ‘normal’ and the limb that cerebralists) and those who were that Hopkinson’s stump and phantom burned like fire did not exist – trumped peripheralists (the painful sensations pain worsened when he was upset or all scientific theorising. But his suffering originated from ‘excitation of nerve ends’ when he heard people singing hymns. was anything but ‘phantom’. in the scar or stump). Russell went even further. He argued Cerebral theorists placed their bets that it made ‘no sense saying that one on the efficacy of neurosurgery. In 1943 pain is functional and one organic’ I Joanna Bourke is Professor of History at Geoffrey Jefferson, the doyen of because ‘all pains are both physiologically Birkbeck, University of London neurosurgeons, examined Hopkinson. determined and functionally graded [email protected]
read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk 731 Cromby, Harper and Reavey’s relation to a particular bishop Psychology, Mental Health and who might have aroused his … with Lucy Johnstone Distress for a fuller picture. disapproval, or to the Church itself. But on matters of One thing that makes me principle he was absolutely ‘I knew I was in cross unshakeable, and got into
ONE ON Most media articles, TV/radio quite a bit of trouble as a programmes and campaigns result. He showed me that you the right place’ around mental health. It is rare shouldn’t be afraid to for any of these to avoid challenge orthodoxies. uncritical reproduction of the language and assumptions of One favourite book the ‘illness/disorder’ model. Emma by Jane Austen is as These ideas are so deeply near as you can get to the One thing that led towards careers assessment. I was imprinted in public perfect novel. What an acute a career in psychology advised that my strengths consciousness that many psychologist she was! Within Like many people who end were in writing and people – journalists are often psychology – I’d like to up in the helping professions, journalism, but was warned the worst – simply do not nominate Judith Herman’s I was a very confused and against doing anything in understand what you mean classic Trauma and Recovery unhappy child, adolescent and psychology-related fields. when you suggest that states (1992). It’s a powerful and young adult. Difficult as those As you can see, I ignored the of extreme distress may not deeply political book about the times were, they have given second piece of advice, but in be best understood as medical profound impact of trauma, me a passion for what I do. fact I’ve ended up doing a illnesses. But see below… and the denial of its existence For me, a psychology degree good deal of writing anyway. that operates at every level of was very much a means to an And despite having been One source of hope society. end. I can’t honestly say that determined not to follow my We are close to recognising I have used much of it in my parents into teaching, I also the traditional psychiatric subsequent career, especially do a lot of training. I can’t model of ‘mental illness’ not the material that usually think of any other career that for the failed paradigm appears under the rather would have offered so many that it is. Research has horrible heading ‘Abnormal opportunities. failed to identify Psychology’. I have learned far ‘biochemical imbalances’, more about how people tick One thing that psychology genetic flaws, or whatever from psychotherapy, could do better else is currently being philosophy, theology and My children both did A-level promoted as primary English literature. But once Psychology but banned me cause. The service I got that treasured place on from their revision because, user/survivor movement is a course, I knew I was in the as they rightly said, ‘If I put more vocal than ever. We right place, and I was lucky down those ideas, Mum, I’ll have indisputable evidence enough to work alongside fail.’ Some of the syllabus about the causal impact of some inspiring clinicians and seemed to be left over from social and relational supervisors. the 1950s, and there was adversities in all types of nothing at all about the mental health problems. And One weight on your mind One alternative career path service user/survivor DSM-5 was an embarrassing For a large part of the last four When I was 17, I had a movement, the growing body mess, attacked by the world’s years, I and a small group of of evidence on the impacts of most senior psychiatrists for professionals and trauma and adversity, and so lack of validity and dangerous survivor/campaigners have on. When I taught on the expansionism. We may be been involved in a Division of Lucy Johnstone is a Bristol Clinical Psychology ready, at last, to make the Clinical Psychology-funded clinical psychologist, Doctorate, we found there was much-needed move away from project to outline the trainer and author of a great deal of ‘unlearning’ to ‘What is wrong with you?’ to principles of a conceptual A Straight Talking be done – and that often ‘What has happened to you?’ alternative to psychiatric Introduction to applied to what the trainees I feel proud that the British diagnosis. It is by far the most Psychiatric Diagnosis had learned in university Psychological Society’s difficult work task that I have (2014, PCCS Books) modules too. I recommend Division of Clinical ever attempted, and there have Psychology has taken the been many moments of bold step of calling for ‘a exhaustion, confusion and conceptual system that is no doubt. I am nervous about Growing up with psychologists, and much more... longer based on a “disease” how it will be received, but I Contribute: reach 50,000 colleagues, with something to suit all. See model’. cautiously optimistic that we www.thepsychologist.org.uk/contribute or talk to the editor, Dr Jon have produced something Sutton, on [email protected], +44 116 252 9573 One inspiration useful, even if it is only the My late grandfather, Canon first step in a long journey. coming soon coming I Comment: email the editor, the Leicester office, or tweet @psychmag. I To advertise: Reach a large and professional audience at bargain Roy McKay. He was no rates: see details on inside front cover. respecter of persons, creeds or More answers online at institutions, whether in www.thepsychologist.org.uk
732 vol 29 no 9 september 2016 President Find out more online Professor Peter Kinderman President Elect at… www.bps.org.uk Nicola Gale Vice President Professor Jamie Hacker Hughes
Honorary General Secretary Dr Carole Allan
Honorary Treasurer Professor Ray Miller
Chair, Membership and Standards Board Dr Mark Forshaw
Chair, Education and Public Engagement Board Dr Carl Senior
Chair, Research Board Professor Daryl O’Connor
Chair, Professional Practice Board Dr Ian Gargan
The Society has offices in Belfast, Cardiff, Glasgow and London, as well as the main office in Leicester. All enquiries should be addressed SOCIETY NOTICES to the Leicester office (see inside front cover for address). Crisis, Disaster and Trauma Psychology Section Conference ‘Working with Refugees – What We Need to Know’ and AGM, London, 9 September 2016 See p.680 The British Psychological BPS Annual Conference, Brighton, 3–5 May 2017 See p.i (centre pages) Society BPS conferences and events See p.702 was founded in 1901, and incorporated by Royal Charter CPD workshops 2016 See p.703 in 1965. Its object is ‘to Psychology in the Pub (South West of England Branch), Plymouth (15 September 2016) promote the advancement and and Exeter (28 September 2016) See p.705 diffusion of a knowledge of ‘Stories of Psychology’: With Childhood in Mind, London, 6 October 2016, a joint History psychology pure and applied of Psychology Centre and History & Philosophy of Psychology Section event See p.706 and especially to promote the Wessex Branch 5th Annual Military Psychology Conference, Basingstoke, 2 November efficiency and usefulness of 2017 See p.707 Members of the Society by setting up a high standard of Division of Clinical Psychology Annual Conference, Liverpool, 18–20 January 2017 See p.708 professional education and knowledge’. Division of Neuropsychology Fifth Annual Conference, London, 17–18 November Extract from The Charter See p.729 APT: taking care of your professional development.
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