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Karst and Caves Karst & Caves Appendix I Karst And Caves Introduction The management of karst resources and the associated caves is new in Southeast Alaska; this appendix was written to provide more background on these resources. It also contains technical definitions and some specific “how to’s,” such as how to maintain records on caves, which are inappropriate in the Forest-wide Standards & Guidelines. The appendix contains three parts: Characterization of the Karst Landscape, Karst Resources, and Cave Resources Management. I-1 Karst & Caves Characterization of the Karst Landscape, Basis for an Ecologically-Based Management Strategy Introduction The Tongass National Forest contains the largest concentration of dissolution caves known in the State of Alaska. The Forest also contains world-class surface or epikarst features particularly in the alpine and sub-alpine zones (Aley et al., 1993). The caves and epikarst features result from chemical weathering of limestone and marble bedrock. The karst and cave features and associated resources are a recently discovered and recognized attribute of the lands within Southeast Alaska and have been found to be of national and international significance for a wide variety of reasons, including their intensity and diversity of development, the biological, mineralogical, cultural, and paleontological components, and recreational values (Aley et al., 1993). The Federal Cave Resources Protection Act (FCRPA) is the primary Federal law affecting caves. It requires protection of caves on Federal lands. A cave must possess one or more of the criteria outlined in 36 CFR Part 290.3(c) or (d) and be designated as significant as outlined in 36 CFR Part 290.3(e). The intent of FCRPA is to protect cave resources not karst resources; however, caves and their associated resources are an integral part of the karst landscape. Therefore, the karst landscapes should be managed as an ecological unit to protect cave resources (Baichtal, 1993e, 1995). Lands underlain by carbonate rocks in high rainfall zones of Southeast Alaska are usually karst landscapes. The karst landscapes result from the chemical weathering of the almost pure calcium carbonates, acidic peatlands adjacent to the karst lands, and highly fractured bedrock. Karst lands add a vertical, underground dimension to land use planning. Karst landscapes function differently than other ecosystems on the Forest. Subsurface drainage networks generally operate independently of, and with more complexity than, the surface drainage systems above (Aley and Aley, 1993; Huntoon, 1992a). The watershed characteristics of the surface may have little or no relationship to the subsurface karst drainage system. On karst lands, the many solution-widened fissures at the surface become injection points into a more complex subsurface drainage system. These fissures rapidly move water and sediment delivered from surface sources vertically downward into the underground lateral systems. Thus, sediment and water transported from roads and disturbed lands may emerge unexpectedly at one or more distant springs including across surface watershed boundaries. A large portion of a karst system's vulnerability to management disturbance is the system's openness. The degree to which the surface is connected to the karst system conduits at depth relates directly to the effect of any planned land use. A high density of solution and collapse features indicates the presence of well-developed underground systems. The presence of a single sinkhole demonstrates a direct surface/subsurface connection, even if the sinkhole intermittently retains water. Sediment transport mechanisms are different between karst and non-karst landforms. A particle of soil in non-karst lands is transported by gravity, landslides, and/or surface water flow, sometimes over great distances into a watercourse, to become sediment. Atop a karst landform, depending on the openness of the karst system, a soil particle only needs to be transported laterally a few inches or feet before it can be washed vertically through the surface or epikarst into the karst conduits at depth. Karst Management Goals This overview is intended to describe to the reader the current understanding of the function and biological significance of the karst landscapes in Southeast Alaska. It is these characteristics and our current understanding of the karst landscape on which the proposed karst management strategy is based. The proposed karst management strategy is designed to assess a karst resource's vulnerability or sensitivity to a I-2 Karst & Caves proposed land use. This strategy strives to maintain the natural karst processes and the productivity of the karst landscape, while providing for other appropriate land uses. The Karst Landscape In Southeast Alaska, the karst landscape can be characterized as an ecological unit found atop carbonate bedrock on which karst features have developed as the result of differential solution by acid groundwater. These acidic groundwaters are a direct product of abundant precipitation and rapid passage of groundwater through the organic-rich forest soil. Recharge areas may be on carbonate or adjacent non-carbonate substrate. A few of the characteristics of this ecological unit include: mature, well-developed spruce and hemlock forests along valley floors and lower slopes, increased productivity for plant and animal communities, extremely productive aquatic communities, well-developed subsurface drainage, and the underlying unique cave resources. The basic principals of karst development and cave formation are documented in Ford and Williams (1994); White (1988); and, White and White (1989). The rate and processes controlling the aerial extent of karst landscape and cave development along the north pacific coast under the cool, moist, heavily forested conditions are not fully understood. Extensive research is needed to fully understand and describe the characteristics of this ecosystem. The following description of the karst landscape discusses its geologic and hydrologic characteristics, biologic characteristics, and natural history. Geologic and Hydrogeologic Characteristics Karst landscape development in Southeast Alaska appears to be controlled by the purity of the calcium carbonate bedrock, the structure of the bedrock (i.e., faulting, fractures, and bedding), occurrence of igneous intrusions, tectonism, proximity of the carbonates to peatlands and other forest vegetation, the development of surface or epi-karst, glacial history, precipitation, and temperature. Karst existed on Prince of Wales Island long before the latest glacial advance. Recent phreatic passages into two pre-Latest Wisconsinan caves (approx. 30,000 ybp) have dissolved through Tertiary paleokarst breccias (Aley et al., 1993). Older passages have been plugged by debris from past glacial episodes. One small cave has yielded a marmot tooth which has been dated to greater than 44,500 years (Baichtal, personal communication). Most caves predate the most recent glaciation based upon the presence of glacial clays, glacial sediments, wood, Pleistocene vertebrate remains, and possibly even ancient ice. Similar features are being found during field reconnaissance on Kuiu and Chichagof Islands, and on the islands seaward of Prince of Wales Island. Such evidence clearly suggests that glaciation modified a pre-existing karst landscape, collapsing some passages and systems, gouging into others, and filling some with sediments. The epikarst, which is exceptionally well developed in higher elevations, has been removed in places at lower elevations by the most recent glaciation. Where low-elevation epikarst is present, primarily on the outer coast of islands seaward of Prince of Wales, vegetation has re-established itself and a forested epikarst developed. Where impermeable compacted glacial till and marine silts are deposited on the karst terrain ,and poorly drained lithologies adjacent to karst terrain, peatlands are commonly developed. Many of the glacial deposits overlying karst terrain have filled in and modified collapsed karst features. With the development of the forested epikarst and peatlands, and the entrance of associated acidic waters into underground tributaries, a system of enlarged vadose caves and vertical shafts has developed (Baichtal, 1993a). The rocks most susceptible to karst development are those which are greater than 70 percent calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Well developed karst and cave systems require that the bedrock be 90 percent calcium carbonate or better. Chemical analysis of 67 limestone and marble samples collected from the northern half of Prince of Wales and surrounding islands showed the range of calcium carbonate varied from 91.47 to 99.46 percent. The samples averaged 97.65 percent CaCO3 (Mass et al. 1992). These very pure carbonate rocks have had a long and tortured history. They originated as marine reef and lagoonal deposits near the equator during Silurian time, some 438 to 408 million years ago (Soja, 1990). These deposits were rafted atop spreading oceanic plates until they docked on the ancient shores of I-3 Karst & Caves Southeast Alaska. These rocks are part of what is now recognized as the Alexander terrane, one of five sub-continental blocks of rock which have combined to form the Ketchikan Area. The oblique collision of the Alexander terrane with North America resulted in the rocks being compressed from east to west and smeared northward along the coast. The Alexander terrane was spectacularly fractured and then
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