A Survey of a Decennium Than the United States

Home , Irish Free State

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR HAROLD L. ICKES : SECRETARY

OFFICE OF EDUCATION : J. W. STUDEBAKER

491 COMM ISSIONER

A SURVEY OF ADECENNIUM

1 OF EDUCApONIN COCNTRIES OTHER THAN THE UNITED STATES

BEINGCHAPTER VIIOFVOLUME IOFTiff] BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES : 1934-36

BULLETIN, 1937, No. 2 [ADVANCE PAGES] r.

BY JAMES F. ABEL

CHIEF, DIVISION OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION . OFFICE OFEDÚCATION

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON :1938

4111111111111 I For sale bytbeÌuperintendentof Documents, Washington, D. C.- - Price 15cents CONTENTS Page

FOREWORD______... MI. =1,. ..4440 0410 VII.

SECTION I. EUROPE ______.. __ 3' _ _ Marked changes in educationsystems_ i i. _e... MD 3

_ Education and revolution______410 _ 3

_ Carefully planned changes _ __ _ 4M, 3

Lesser changes _ _ dr

Nationalization of education _ .. _ 4

4M Om _ Public and private education__ gm 4M. 5 r National administration andsupport 4. 4.414. .. _ _ ..)

Unifying control of differenttypes of education _ m mi. 6

The unity schoolot unified school system______7

Extreme nationalization of education______8

Italy - _ 9

Soviet Union____11041.41 .m. m 9 Germany _ _ _ _ 10

Longer training formorepeople_ _ _. _ wm 12 _ Reduction of illiteracy_.. w ...... m.00 14

Adult education______15 England __ _ _ Ì 4. . 4W .M . 16 Belgium ______16

Other countries__ _ _ Ms_ _ MD m 4. M. .E. .. .. 1 7

Italy______..... ______17 s Union of Soviet Republics______, 17

41 Cermany ___ 4 _____ . 4.el. _ _ _ _ OMP _ _ _ 18 Spain ..... __ ...... ______18 Care of preschool children______' 19 . Physical education _. - . 19

Germany . _ _ D IMI. 21 FranceFrance______M0.04...... 11. QM_M 0. . . 22

Technical and vocation'al education..____ _ ...... o _ _ _ 24

France _ _ 25 Belgium _ _ 26

Estonia ______. _ 26

Bulgaria ______27

Irish Free Siate _ _. .0_ . . .0 27 SECTION II. ASIA . _ 30 Chem 30 Administration 31 Higher education 32 Secondary education 32 Elementary education , , 33 Statistics ... 33 Compulsory education______...... __ _ _4...... a.4.. 34 _ _ _ _ Reduction of illiteracy and adulkeducation . 0 4I 34 e Themasseducation movement ______35 The status of private education f. - 35

ILL IV CONTESTS 00 , SECnoN II, ASIAContinued. Page India 36 .. IN... . Decentralization of administration f 37 Compulsory education 38

Education of girls andwomen _ 38 , Other phases of education______..... 40 Iran * , ______40 Schools of different kinds andlevels_ _.. 40

Reduction of illiteracy______42

Sending students abroad______42 Turkey____, 42 .

Obligatory instruction______.. 4EW .. 43

_ _ Teacher training _ _ _ _ _ 43

Secondary education______. . M . aw 44

Technical education___ _ ...______....1. ,., 44

University instruction ______44 Statistics _ _ 45 SECTION III. AFRICA______46 Union of South Africa 46 Administration _ _.______4,.M 46 Technical education______47

Thepoorwhites of Southi*rica _ _ , _ _ _ __._.I M . .. M. 48 Native education__ _ _ 50 _ s Languages _ _ 51

Administration ______- 52 Statistics . 52 Egypt _ 53 Illiteracy and obligatory instruction _ 53 Primary schools _ ,.._ 54 . , Secondary education . 54 Technic* education _ 55 Higher education_ 55 Summary .. r-55 Colonial Africa______.... 56 .. The Intercolonial Congress______57

. The Advisory Committee__ _ _ _.., ______58 SECTION IV. AUSTRALIA__ _ _ _ . m. _ _ _ 60

Administration__... ____ 40 . _ _..-. .m 0... gm.. ..t.,.. 60 Statistics 60

Education by correspondence__ _ ._ 61 , School consolidation___ _ _ ... _ _ 62 Summary_ MP ..... 62 SECTION V. THE WESTERN HEMISPPIERE 64

Canada =1, 64 Administration 64 Statisticalsummary 64 Enrollment 65 School finance 65

Technical education - aNM am* gm. Alo MO MI 66 ..__: Vocational guidance OW a.Om .. MD .... 67 . ,...% --;....--: ..---. Departmental examinations,...... _ .... _ NM ./M1,=0 0. MD MD .''' -4 -.., _ .... .- 67 Reorganization of instruction 68 University admission 68 CONTENTS V J.

SECTIONV. THE WESTERN IIEMISPHERE-----euntillued. Page Latin America__ _ _ 6S

Nationalization of educat ion _ Reduction of illiteracy__ _ 70

The "activity school"._ 71 TeOnlical and%cational education **, 72 Education ofwomen_ 74-

Argentina__ _ _ _ 75 Conferenceonilliteracy__ _ _ 76 Survey of secondaryeducation__ 76 PO Statistics____

Brazil_ _ _ _ SO

Mexico. _ S3 SECTION VI. INTERNATIONAL CoNGREssESANDCoNFERENcES_ 88

Preschoolcareof thechild___ _ _ 0. 88 Public education__ __ 89 4118 Technical education__ _ 90 Commercial education_ 93 ct. Teachers' Associations_ . 94 Theneweducation___ _ 95

Adult education_ .Y . 96

a 4a

411

ihta FOREWORD ;14

Thepurposeof the Biennial Survey".o.f Education in the. United States isto present tothe people of this Nationapicturesas complete andaccurate aspossible, of themany typesof education they finance, administer, andmaintain.But this isolated picture is not enough. The worth, activity,andprogressofany systemof schools arerelativemattersandmusttie shown along with like phasesof othersystems toprovidesaneconceptions and sound bases for judg- ments. afforil slich bases for comparisons theOffice of Education has throughout its exiAencepublished in its annualreports,biennial surveys.bulletins, andpa4h1ets,aZTounts of education inother r countries.This chapter of the Biennial Survey for 1934-311is in

4 c ation of that policy.Itattempts4topointoutthe differing

Il d rections in which educationin other countries has been going in thePastdecade in the hope that from themwein the United States maybe better able to select the educational paths that will leadin thiscountry tothe strengthening and perpetuation of goodwaysof living. BESS GOODTKOONTZ

4 Assistant Commissioner of Education,

',Pr

.0.:4,

A cHAPTER VII , A SURVEY OF A DECENNIUMOif''EDUCATION IN 'NTRI ES OTHER THAN THE UNITED .,,11.1:1'E4

gor Asurveyofthe trendS Of education in otlubr_count vies for'theyears 1924 to 19.26, whichinchlidedto some extent1mi:4-warhappeningsto those (hues,wasprepared and published bythe Office of 11vcation in 1 The intention theti.wastoissue' similar account; regularly with each biennialburveyof education in the United States.Many .other dut ies andsomedifficulties intevenedto) preventcarrying(mt. the plan and itasnotuntil alumt. 1936 that thewayseemed clear topickupthe thread of tlub earlieraccountand againweave*into the fabric of educational documentation iii the United Statibasketch

of education movements abroad. , This study isanattempt_ todo that.It is presented in the hope thatatintervals corresimndingto the larger swings ofworld affairs, thestorymaybe continued in sucha way astopr9videaprogressive historicalvnunaryof etlwa-

Clout trends and events. . The decade here dealt withwas astirtingOne.In iis first 3years human life seenled everywhereontheasce.mitant.Intercourseamong nations,-manufactuf.ing. conunerce.tTade, exploration,research, and investigationweremoving Kapidly.tolevels not beT(we knoNtn in human experience. Thencalm;3-ealof &climbs()severe that by 1932 the only peoples notseriously ¿Lille ledwerethose few sofar removed fromparticipatioVn tile general life of the world that they had felt nothing of the precedingupsurge.In th6 last 4 yearsthe economic swing has agqin bklen upward. Coincident with these economic changesNylererevolutionspeace- ful andotOrwisebut important in eithercase. manychanges in forms of government, the application ofdifferent philosophies of life, andageneral questioning of the worth of much that had&ben heldtobe fundamental in all iruman relations.

. Organized education felt the impact of all these movements prob- ablymorethan iteverhas before because education hi recentyears has beenmorecloselyconnectMwith lifeout of the schools than it has forsomecenturies andwasconsequentlymoresusceptible of being influenced. To presentabroad view of/fhe larger effects of those impacts,orresistance to themastbe-casimayhave been, is the purpogeof this bulletin.'The immec.bge .re.sultsof the depression arenotlitre emphasized; tlwyarethe,.subject'otanearlier publi-

Abel,lamesF.Major trends ofeducation in other countries. ashington. C. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education,Bulletin 1928, No'. 134.. 2 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 -% cation.'Curtailed budgets, reduced salaries and personnel, smaller c'apital outlays for schools,areall important ofcourse,butiheyare notsosignificantaschanges in thepncept of history and how it is tobetáughttoyoungpeople, whether education istobe usedas a meansof making good human beingsor aparticulartype of thinker which those in control of the State desireatthe time,or whether the administration and direction of education istobe strondy centralized inasmallgroupof people whocanéasily have amistaken conception of what is best for the Natian.It is these ,vital questions which inoneformoranother have been,connected with organized education sinceits begihning, thataremainly considered in thefolloWingpages.

2 Abel, James F.The effectsZifthe economic depressi,e,su education in othercountries. Witshington, Ç. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Bulletin 1933, No. 14.

-le

e A

1.4 SECTION I. EUROPE

MARKED CHANGES IN EDUCATION SYSTEMS Twenty-one European countries changed their education systems niarkedly duringthe'decennium under review. Theywere:Albania . in 1933; Austria,- 1934; Belgium, 1931-312; Bulgaria, 1934; Czecho- slovakia,1930; Denmark, 1932 and later;England, beginning with 1926; Estonia, 1934; France, 1930;Germany, 1933; Hungary, 1934; Italy, beginning in 1923; Latvia, 1934; Norway, 1935; Poland, 1932; Portugal, 1935-36;Rumania, 1934; Scotland, 1929; Soviet Union, 1928 and later; Spain, 1931-32;Sweden, 1927; andYugoilavia,1929. Education andrevoluaon.--Insix of these countries the changes in educationwerecoincident with general revolutionary movements that resulted in settingup newnationalgovernmentswhich, shortly after coming intopower,redirected education policies. The Austrian constitution which went into forceonMay 1, 1934, declares Austria tobeafederalstatecorporatively ordered and education there took on someof the characteristics being given it by corporative states. Thecoupcretat of May 1934 in Bulgaria andtheattempttoestablish acbrporative state greatlyaffected education in that country.The National Socialist GermanWorkers' Party which took control of Germanyin 1933 is changing German education to suit itsown pur- ptses.An authoritarian governmentwasestablished hi Latvia in May of 1934and by July of thatyearhad passeda new.lawonpublic instruction.Its Estado Novoconstitution of March 1933 made Portu- gal alsoacorporative state and theeducation reforms of 1935-36are directly dueto. that. The second Spanishrepublicwasproclaimed .April 14, 1931; its governmentimmediately enteredupon anambitious programof' educational reform.The adoption of the first 5-year plan,arevolution in itself,by the Soviet Union in 1928wasthe signal for greatlyextended and intensive educationactivitymainly along the linesbegun when theUnionwasformed. About the time the seond 5-yearplanwasenteredupon,1932,-33, it became evident that quality ratherthan quantity in educationhadto beemphasized anddamedrasticchanies in policyweremade. Carefully plannedchanges.In contrast with thepronounced, sud- den swings in education.activitieswerethe long-planned, deliber- ately considered actionsprogressively made effective in othercoun:

111 Approiimately 1926 to 1935,Inclusive. 8 RIENNIAL sunvy 4 )1.* IMUcATIoN. 1934-36 tries.The Consultative Committee of the Board of Education of Encr land and Wales conducted inquiries for .2vear.-:before it rendered its finalreportin 19-26onThe EdtIegti°01/ of theAdtdesernt.sine 1926 education inEnglan'dis being steadily reconstructed along the lines sugwested in thereport.Thegovernmentof Czechoslovakia made chantres in the schools only after careful 'studyandconsiderable experimentation.Doingaaywith fees in the public secondary schools of Francewa4;carriedoutrather gradually.In Norwaya conimiion appointed in1 9'22 presentedareportin 19.27. The plan it proposedwasthe subject of much discussion andImtuntil Iarch 193-1wastin' project ofaI:INN- placed before the St oohing% attilfrom that projetalawaspassed in 193.).The Polish education law oflarcli 1 1, 19 3.2.wasthe product of extensive stuck. byaministerial issione4mipo:-ed Of specialists in the different fields of education. TheSN1e(1.111 law pl*VPlItedtothe Riksdag in February 1 9-.2.T

and passed Ihe f011Owing MayWaSbasedmt yearsof .studyand Public discussion.Plainly, the peoples ofmostof the Europeanna- tions prefer 6; make their education adaptations10Wiy and after.. mat tireconsiderat ion. LESSER CLIAVGES Thesevenother European countries. Finland. Greece. the Irish Free_State; Lithuania. Luxembourg% The Netherlands. and Switzer- land changed their school systemssome,ofcourse,but incom- paratively minorrespects.

NATIONALIZATION OF EDUCATION Overwhelmingly in the cliyection of nationalization of education werethe educationmovemTntsof thepastdecade.The spirit of intense nationalism that has beenrampantthroughout much of the world has naturally shown itself in culturalaswellaspolitical and economic'movements.Superficially the trend in education is indicated by the fact that in Italy in September 1929 the ministry of public instruction. became the ministry of national education; in France in June 1932 the ministry ofpulTabwinstructionand finearts waschangedtothe ministry of national education; in Belgium in December of 1932 the ministry of sciences and ofartsbecame the ministry of public instruction; in Portugal in1935 the ministry of publit instruction became the ministry of national education; and the Rumanian ministry pf public instruction and cultswaschanged in Novembef 1936toa-ministry of nationaledtication.A Federal ministry for science, education. and impular culture (Reichstninis- t,eri urnfür,Wissenschaft. Erziehung nnd Volkshildung)wascreated in GermanyonMay 1, 1934. and its fields of activity assigned by decree of the following May 11. FOREIGN cm-Yrit !Es

Ina*decennium that marks the centenariesof the foundingof several importantpublic-school systems,those people whobelievo that educationisapublic function andhaveearnestly andhonestly striven to makeitso,find their hopesbeing fulfilled andtheir efforts rewarded, for nationsin generalhave been rapidlytak.ing wider and closer controlof theircultural institutions. but notalways in the waythat advocatesof publiceducation desire. "'Odic awl privateeduration.Nationalization ofeducation has manyaspectsand m'anifestsitself in variousforms. . One ofthem is the swingfrom private topublic education.The economiccrisis forcedsomeof this. Manyprivate schoolsclosed because theyeould tiotfind themoneytokeel) theirdo(wsopenand thestudents went toswell-theincreasing numbersin publicinstitutions.Othersre- mainedopenonly byacceptinggrantsfrompublic funds andthe public regulation consequenttosuch grants.More of thechangewas due todrastic governnlentaction.To 11)33education inAlbania wasprovided mainlyby privateorganizationsmanyof whoseschools receivedsubsidies from governmentfunds. TheAlbanian authorities, feelingthat thisprevented thedevelopment ofanAlbanian nationalpublic-school system,changed cvrtainarticles of the constitution inApril of 1933and shortlyafterward passedalaw that had theeffect ofdoingawaywith all 'privateschools inAlbania. conduct schoolswasabro- The rightof, religiousbodies in Spain to , gated bythe Cortes in 1932and the governmentundertook toreplace the privateschools withymblic. Privateeducationcontinues andplays-animportant roleinmost Europeancountries butitis tieingbroulitmoreandmoreunder governmentregulation. Lawof May 20, 1933.in Denmarkprovides, amongother things,for nationalsupervision ofprivate primary schools undercertainconditions. Bylaw of July 12.1934,private schoolsmay carryonin Latviabut theirpurposes.and activities must be in accordwith thenationalprinciplesexpressed inpublic education.Private andreligious schools cameincreasinglyunder direct nationalauthority inLithuania. Thegradualsuppression ofprivate schook. begunin Norwayin 1920 isnowvirtuallyaccomplished. Privalfschools inYugoslavia mustsubmit tonational control. Throughout Europepublicasopposed to Privatedirection of education is beingstrengthened. Nationaladmini8trationvrid8u1)port.Anotherphase of thenationalization ofeducation isthe placingofmoreof the supportand administration ofschools in thehands ofnational officialsand leav ing less of itwith the localauthorities.Much of this hasixtengoin onin Europein the pastdecade. Someqf it alsowasdue to the depression. Localitiesfound themselvesuntil&toraise schoolmoneys by taxationand turned tothe. national treasuryfor help.National

a 6 BIENNIAL SURVEYOF EDUCATION,1934-36 budgets foreducationweregenerallycut, insome-countries heavily for 2to 4yearsin succession, andthe nationalgovernment in order tousethe depletedfundsto the best advantagehad eitherto take entire controlof the schoolsorstrictly supervisethe localofficials. By law ofJanuary22. 1931, the nationaltreasury of Belgiumtook overthe salariesof all thesecondary schoolpersonnel.In Bulgaria, decree laNPtofJuly13, 1934, tookawayfrom thecommunal school commissions thepower to select teachers; madethe commissions appointive insteadof elrtiveasthey hadbeen, andin otherways simplified andcentralizedtheadministrationof primary schools./ Danishmovesin thisdirectionincludelessening theinfluence ofthe rector of the church inthe local andprovincialschoolcommissions and bringingthe urbanschools directlyunderthe ministryof education whichapprovestheir plansandnamesthe teachers.In Estonia also, controlof theselection ofprimaryteacherswasplaced inthe education ministry.Even inSwitzerlandwherettadition andsenti- mentareagainst nationalcontrol ofeducation andthere isnofederal ministry ofeducation,the centralgovernment increasedits partici- pation in 'andcontrol ofcertaineducationmatters. Educationadministrationin theSoviet.Union, previouslyplaced in eachconstituentrepublic ofthe Union,came more andmoreunder Union control.A centralcommissariatof publicinstructionhas not been established,butat Moscow thecommissariatof theRussian Soviet Republictendstoassumefederalfunctions.Thegovernment is tifing theplace of thecommunistparty in unifyingeducation and theUniontreasury is bearinga. greater share ofeducationex- penditures. Unifying controlof differenttypes of education.Stillanother movein thenationalizationof educationlies inplacingschools of differenttypes within the purviewofoneministry.Foralong time the practice hasbeento assignto the ministryof publicinstruction only schoolsof generaleducation.Agricultural ucationwasdi- rected by theministry ofagriculture;technicalb theministry of labor;warand navalschools, bytheministry ofationaldefense, etc.The tendency in this decadehas beentoum.!asmuchas possible alltypes of education,except that fornationaldefense,tocor- relate themmoreclo4ly,aridto place themunderonecentraladmin- istration.Thus, inBelgiumwhen theministryof sciencesand of arts changed itsnamein1932to the ministryof publicinstruOion, anoffice oftechnical'educationwas setupwithinitto handletech- nicalank,vocational,andagriculturalandhorticulturaleducation. The ministriesof laborand ofagriculturenowhaveavoice inthese aspects of educationonly throughthe officeoftechnicaleducation. A similarattempt inBulgariafailpd butthecontroversy resulted 3 FOREIGN COUNTRIES 7 in the appointment ofaninterministerial commissiontoassure as faraspossible unity of instruction. The ministry of science, arts, and popular educat ion of Prussia by the crisis ordinance of October 29, 1932, tookovermostof the duties of the ministry of social welfare whichwasdisbanded; and further wasgiven control ofmanyschools ofcommerce,agriculture,veterinary studies, household ¡economics, and siniilar subjects, that hill formerly been under other Ministries.AgricOural schools in Po- landweretransferred, beginning July 1, 1932, from the ministry of agriculturetothe ministry of cults and public instruction. About thesametime the ministries ofcommerce,agriculture, and public works in Portugal relinquished to the ministry of public instruction control of technical education. The Soviet Union presentsanexceptiontothis trend particularly withrespect tohiglwr education.In July 1928, six technical insti- tutesand five tecnicaweretransferredtothe administration of the council of nationaleconomy,andtwoinstitutPstothedbmmissariat of transport.In July 193Qageneral lawwaspassed whichtrans- fers from the commissariats ofpublic instruction in' -the different republics the technical schools to the Uniotiindustrial commissariats, the agricultural schools tothe Union and the republics' commissariats of agriculture, and themedical institutes to the commissariats of health.Thismovehowever resulted in greater central controlof technical education for i*October 1933,afederal committee of higher technical educationwasCreatedtotake general direction and control of technicaleducation throughout theUnion. The unity 8choolorunifiedschool8y8tem.Theunityorunified school, differentlyunderstood and conceived in different countries, lends itself nicely to thenationalization of educat io)i."Differently understood and-conceivedin different countries"expressesthe situation becauseanaction towardabetter unified system consideredas a veryimpomrtantmovementin NorwayorSweden, for instance, where education glias longbeen wellorganized, would be inconsequentialor impossible in Rumania,for example, where in 1919 fourwidelyvary- ing types of educationorganization found themselves compelled to carry onundera commonnationalgovernment, orin Poland, Czecho- slovakia, andYugoslavia wheresimilar situations existed. A basicprinciple of the unityschool is equal educational opportunity foriqual intelligencewithout regard to the social,class,or economic status ofthe students.The nation undertakes toassuyefor the supernormalchild fromanycondition of lifeatrainingsuitedto his naturalcapacities, and to anyless gifted child educittion is to be meted outaccording to hisabilities and needs.Suchaconceptled

'1 in France tomaking much easierthe transfer of pupils from the gr. 6.1 8 BIENNIAL SURVEYOF EDUCATION,1(2::r-,-06 primaryto the secondary schoolclasses, and latertheprogressive abolition of feesin all publicsecondary schools.The implications of the principlearewide. Theycall foranint imateknowing of ever.y child in therealmontheonehand,comprehensiveknowledge in detail of theentire economicand socialaspects of thecountryon the other, andaneducationschemesocomplete andwell-roundM that itcanfit the individualadvantageously intothe natign'slife. Some Bulgarianauthorities claimthat theircountry has the only unified schoolsystem in Europe. The claimis basedon-the fact that allchildren, rich andpooralike,must attend the primaryschool and thatsecondary schoolsand universitiesareprcA-ided forall who 'arecapable ofgoing further.Norwegianauthoritiesalso claim for theircountr? unified schoolin thesensethat admissiontoa secondary schoolis possibleonly after7yearsof primaryinstruction. The1932 reform ofeducation in Polandis hailedasbringingabout. aunified schoolsystem.TheCzechoslovakianreforms of1930were considerablyin the directionof providingcloser connectionbetween primary andsecondary education. Law No.XI of 1934 inHungary didawaywith thethreeorfour types of secondary schoolsthen existingandsubstitutedone type in whichthe fourlower classeshavea commonprogram;in the four upperclasses pupilshaveachoiceaccordingto their aptitudes. a* Unifying secondaryschools inYugoslaviawasundertakenwithcon- siderablesuccessin 1929.Many secondaryschools inBelgiumhave recently beenenlarged and iiewschoolsestablishedfor bothboys and girlsto the end that theimbalance betweenprimaryand secondary instruction inthatcountry beovercome,andconsiderableeffort towarddemocratizingeducationwasmade inthe wa):ofremitting r,. secondary schoolfees andprovidingfunds forthe betterendowed LA' children ofpoor parents.The mainsteps towardaunity schoolsys- temin Spainunder thesecondrepublicwerein thedirectionof providingpublic prima67education forthemassesof thepeople. EXTREMENATIONALIZATIONOF EDUCATION A usualconcept of nationalizationaeducationpicturesthena- .tionalgovernment inpower atthe timeastakingcontrol ofall educa- 1. tion withinthe boundariesof itsterritory andusing theschoolsof alltypes and levelsto promote anaperpetuate its politicaland economic theoriesand practices.Freedom of teachirigceases.The state, not the individual,is ofparamount importance;making citi- zensof the kinddesired by thegovernment,not making goodhuman beings, is theultimatepurpose.Thisconcept arises fromthestrong impressions, bothantagonisticand favòrable,&seated bythe Gentile reforms of1923 in Italyand theirprogressin thesubsequentyears, Ft 'REIGNcOUNTRIES 9 the adaptation ofeducationto communism inthe SovietUnion, and themore recent control taken ofeducationbvthe NationalSwialist German Workers P'arty. lta/y.--Groodaccounis2 of thereform ofeducation inItalyare available; thestory need not be retoldhere.The adminitration, the organizationof instruction.and thespirit andideak ofeducation ereall changed.The lastof thesecommandsattentionasthe, extreme of nationalization.'flutywereexpressed by theprime isterasfollows:

The Governmentdemands thatthe schoolshould he Inspiredby theidpalk4 of Fageisinit demandsthat it shouldbenot merelynot hostile to Fmscism hut in no way out of sympathywith itor indifferent to it:and it demands that thehole schoolsystem inevery grade andevery phase of its teaching should educate Italianyouthto understand Fascism,tnrenew H14'111-4.1\esin Famcism andto livein the historicatmosplwre createdby theFascist revolution. sovietUnion.Thecommunistregime ofeducation inthe Soviet Union is alsofairly welldocumented3 in English.The administration, organizationof instruction,and thespirit ofthe teachinrere virtuallyreversed.Thestrong central controlheld by theministry of-publicinstructionduring theczaristregimewaspretiniablyset' aside andeach republicwasmaderesponsible foreducationwithin its borders.Still, considerablecentral directionwasmaintained by the communistparty.All theformertypes of schoolswerereplaced by others offeringa verydifferentkind ofinstruct organized differently andanimated byaspiritopposedto that whichprevailed in the,imperialistinstitutions.Few nationshaveundertaken's()origi- ital andcomprehensivea program of training forchildrenand adults alikeorborne it tdongsofar. Though theeffortsto make the schoolsa meansof spreading&and perpetuating communisnryere,vigorousand continuous,eventually

o t Codignola. E.The philosophyunderlying' theNationalsystom of educationIn Italy. In EducationalYearbook of the InterniptlomilInstitute ofTeacherseollego. ColumbiaUni- versity, 1929.NewYork. Bureau ofPublications.TeachefsCollege. 19:to. Latzari, Marino.Education in Italy.In Tlw Year Bookof Education1932.Lon'don, Evans BrothersLimited. 1032. Murraro, Howard R.New Ejuentionin Italy.New York,S. F. Vanni.Inc.. 1936.

: 525PP. 3 Handbook of the Soviet Union.New York,Anwrican-RusshanChamber ofCommerce, 1936.562pp. Hans. N.EducationinSov.iet Russia.In The Year Bookof Education1933.London, Evans Brothers Limited, 1933. Edueation In Soviet Russia 1931-34./n TheYear BookofEducation 1937,. London, Evans Brothers Limited,1935. . Lodge, Nucia I'.Higher education inSoviet Russiaand thenew student.In Educa- tional Yearbook of theInternational Institute ofTepehers College,Columbia University, 1934, New York, Bureau ofPublications. TeachersCollege, 1934. Pinkevitch, Albert P.- Thenew education in the SovietRepublic.New York, TheJohn Day Company, 1929.403pp. 62172*-38------2 EDUCATION, 1934-36 1.0 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF they hadtogivewaytothe claims ofbroader education.Traimrd leaders in industry andtradeweresorely neededsothe universities weregradually re-establishedasinstitutions of higherlearning and their research and teachingwork united.To obtain fit studentscom- petitive examinations had totake the place of classselection, and 'knowledge of politicalgrammarbecame less importantthan knowledge of the-sciences.Theprogramsof 1927 didawaywith thecom- plex teachingmethod basedonlabor, nature, and societyand brought back the regular studysubjects, literature,foreign languages, mathematics, science,etc:At thesametime the primary schools turned again to reading,writing, and arithmetictaught inanorganizedway byadefiniteprogram. The cultural 5-year plantakenupin 192tosomeextent stopped this return to standardforms of education.The economic 5-year plan called forthousands of skilledworkers, foremen, engineers, technicians,agriculturalists, electricians, miners, etc., tocarryitto completion.At thesametime further liquidation of illiteracy and the generalintroduction of compulsoryeducationwereundertaken. Most of thehigher grades of thegenerasecondary schoolswere changed intotechniCal and highertechnical institutes; theaccommo- dation in all kindsof schools had to be doubled andtrebled, and thousands ofnewteachers had to be employed. The drive for quantityproductionin education brought deterio- ration in qualityand about 1932 the governmentdeliberately slowed down the rateof growth, reestablishedthe complete secondary school of general education,andon4q1ay16, 1934, publisheda newstatute for primary andsecondary schoolsthat bringsthem well .into line with practicesin other countries.Later, directors and teachers in secondaryschoolsweregiven full authorityoverthe students,student uniformswereagain required, studentself-government is stricily limited to student activities,and comMunistic doctrine has%amuch less important placein the curriculum: Germany."National-socialist education is basedonthe principle of political education.Political education is neithera newform of instructionnor even newsubject matter to be taught; it should be envisagedasthe expression of all theefforts tendingtoplace education in the closest rapportwith t1ì6State and the people.It is tho State and the peoplewhich give toeverycultural institution andto everypedagogical action itssenseand its direction.* * * Na- ,tional-socialism,.based 'exclusively'onthe political conception of the world, should necessarily exertitself in the first place toMastermen, the reform ofinstitutions not presenting later any difficultyl It is nottherefore surprising thatthe reorganization of educationwas begun with the teachingcorpsand the youth," isanexpression of tilts

11 -

FOREIGNCOUNTRIES 11 underlyipg spirit ofand thefirstmovesin the redirectingof education ill Germany by theNational Socia1ist.Party.4 Thetypes of schools, theprogramsof studyin them, theinternal organization ofthe institutions,and other formalaspectswere not greatly changedin Germany.Sucharadical upsettingof all inst tutionsasoccurred in theSoviet Union,or eventhe Moredeliberate changes thatweremade in Italy,were notundertaken.The Nazi leadergobegan withthe teachersand broughtthem intoageneral National-sozialistischerLehrerbundsothat, theentire bodyof Ger- maneducators wouldbe in linewith the party'spolicies,.'111:_ext,the childrenwereorganized inthe Hitlerianyouth.Thencamethe changes in thespirit ofeducation.Theywerenota*breakwith history, with allthepast,asin the SovietUnion, butareturn to the past,arevival ofahistoricconcept, muchastheywerein Italy. The ministryof theinterior, thenthe leadingeducation ministry in Germany,laid down theprinciplethat-- .11 Thesupreme task of the school isthe education ofthe youth forthe service of theNation andthe State inaNational-Aocialisticspirit. AnY- thing that favorssuch educationshould heencouraged,anything that

endangers it shouldbe avoided and fougill . . Briefly, thatNational-socialisticspiritmeansthe r(;,tornof Germany tothe place inworld affairsthat it heldprevioiip.to the worldwar and isto be accoMplishedby 'racialpurity, the expulsionorsuboroli- nation of allnon-Aryan elementsin thepopulation,unification ofthe German Peopleunderoneleader withabsolute authority,strict disciplinein all walksof life,careful physicaltrainingas abasis for militarytraining, andreverencefor thenational heritageand the nationalheroes. To attainthese ends thedirector ofthe school isgiven fullaufbor- ityoverhis institution;hemaycontrol and -disciplinethe pupils aboutasheseesfit; he alone isheld iesponsiblefor theschool's functioning. Heredity andraceknowledge isasubject ofinstruc-eb tion is taught withspecialemphasisonNordic superiority; schooljourneys abroadareforbidden butjourneys withinGermany areencouraged;city childrenspenda yearin thecountry; graduates of secondaryscJrools whowould6nter universitiesmust first givea year to labor service; thenumber ofwomenuniversitystu- dents isreduced; andaFederal Ministryof Scie Education,and. 1111111111=11.

.1Annuaire international de l'éducationet de l'enseignement1 ti4.Gentte,Bureau International d'ÉducatIon,1934. Otherreferencesare: Kandel, LL.The making ofNazis.gfts EducationalYearbook ofthe International Institute ofTeachers College,Columbia University 1934.New York,Bureau ofPublica- tions, TeachersCollege, 1934. Educationin Nazi Germany,In Annals of ttheAmericanAcademy ofPolitical and SocialScience, November1935. dB.

.e itIENNIM, SURVEY OF EDUCATION,1934-36 12k Popular Cultureestablished May 1,1934,nowhasconti'ô1 of all :t1)('I't sof education in theReich. LoNGERTRMP;FOR MORE PEOPLE countriesprogITss,ivelyin- . Through(Hit thedecade the European crea.ied thtbnumber and percentageof People,youngand old, receiv- ingsomekind of formalinstrtictim.Thiswasbrought tibout by h erenforcement ofschool attendancelaws, increasingthe term of'Jt pulsory education,the remaining inschool of largenumbers ofyoung:Peoplewhoereunable to findempk)yment.sustained ef- fortstohiduce illiteracyin countrieswherethe illiteracy ratewas high1 provisir ofbetteropportunities fortechnical and vocational education, trainingof theunemployed. attempts to create abetter spirit of Nationalunity. and theuseofthe cinema andradio both in schoolrooms andin popular'instructionwithout. the schools. Obliratoryinstruction andthe reductionorprevention Ofillit- eracy arecomplementaryactivities. To beableto)enforce its compulsoryeducation laws.thegovernmentof Albania hasyearly added to the numberof primaryschools, arrangedinte rnat.4? (boar dingschools) forpoorchildren in themountaindistricts, andmademoreprovi- sion forthe education ofgirls.TheBelgianauthorities bettered tho enforcement ofcompifisoryschooling for childrenofparents-without fixed residence,and forphysically Andmentally infirmchildren. Bydecree of May 25,1934,the finalagefor Obligatoryiilstruclion inEAmiaWaSfixedatcompletionof theprimary-school curriculum, normally 14yearsofage.Children whoreach 14 in the first semester of theschoolyear mayleave at thedose_of thepreviousyear;those Who attain itdurinethe second semester mustcontinuetothe close of theyear.Formerly allchildren whohad ¿lotcompletedthe primarysdioolwere.bop-ipelied toattend to theageof 16. '11w changewasmade toavoid-difficulties withinMe schoolsand because manypal:ents needed the help oftheir childrenwhowere14orolder. InFinlattd obligatoryprimaryinstruction of 6 yearsPius 2years apost-Primary for.children not.continuing their studiesin_4431,v otherway wasin force in thecities by 1931.It is planned tobe fully effectivein ruraldistricts by 1937. &shoolattendance in Francewa4 madecompulsory for allchildren from 6 to111:yearsofagebyalaw signed bytbe PresidentAugust 9, 1936.The laborlawswerealsomodified makingit henceforthillegal for childrenunder theageof 14 tobe employedin commercial and industrialestablishmentsevenin thectpacity ofapprentices.In generalthis represents anadditionof 1yeartocompulsoryeducation in France.

a 4

. N;),E.1111)21 1 41. JILL 1:01:loOli.)S ;1111.1 %).711! Ill 1)11.1:11o,)7 1)1),11.1 1110.1J I-I ()I 64:I ...Ol%) 0.t1.1 bi sw,;(0 011) 1911! .11)(11114)1(10 Aso! ti()!Iumim (Imuip).)s) ).)V .4y,;(;¡ 0111 .1()J i( 11( 11.111111611M orlt: Litiox,) 11(().(j lump!: ;lapin( inolti.'ololtita sajuslIti `q!.\ ih)uti Hum.' 7:I ()) 1 `"1.1. .%,)11 ;'111-"MI-1(.")(PS ori: .tut

W. SI. .11:111(11 Ii.IL 1)(1Ig:411:01 A.411). ()) .9161 II! 1())S PM HO .01V 641 1.0;1 111' """P"III) III 1101)1)-\\S 1)4/:;111"111) %)111 `11:a*-9 As."1"`"th)la 1")11')S pint 111111 alp 01111)-1111J 11101(10.11111101 jo .1.14,111(11110.) 11(PM0111)0 -).)IIK

7.1-s1 ") 1r .11"*-2, ")11.)`' "" 411).4).te. 1")13'141 1)41.\\"1 "1 4"11"" 1"L) 110MSIIMI: (110Ij 1)111 OW) %Uhl) 01 tNi %IMP" 01111 ..10)1111(1() 1-W1J 11.1turp(0111: Jo 1:0.ks S.1 III st 471111)(1

()) s LIJ )!-N ) papIllaiXt) s,11:41;.s si: st: u.) ti aol ),(ol .o i Top ,.4.40.1.71(.1)1, sly Iruiptuit) 1)%1A101"4 s(i 0111 11(11%041).1(101) OILL i (Ist.1 0.).1.1 1111:1,; t) pulps omit:Imam; 1.)1: .11).1 .) (111.11)1Il1 ll110.',\11)(1 1/111: I 1 `4.114). j() 0.71! , . 11")41 " 1() j".11" "1 tio) ÙÌ:11"14 1 1 .1761 4)11.1 SII)011') ).tl \\()I1 7111. "I

.111)14)1,4 L (1111 lit .10(1(111 S)1)1%1.11 Jo 0111 A'.11:1(1)111)10 ,..si000ld.: 1.0 (Iv 1tiot111,[1:(101;.111)itt -001)1111Mo.) -11)110.),),I 1.low)11(11: 01 011) .q)iiH 1101011i) JO .7111.41u.t .)lit .71111.i:oriumps 1);11: 101.1m10.1 imp p. app.)0.)1:mittit 0) pinto.) Ilimplitio Lit ILl t.i 4410.ii: to 4)(ii ()111.1,4

I)) [MIMI; 1-01o11.11 (Mil SloOlidS oj 1110 0.711? Jo 91

° )1 JO 4)1() S.11)tiLlt)1.)1LII:1(.) ) 01( JO PII)StEld 11:11O111:01111.)- %)1111;10.1 111 ji .1 st sj1 pit:pqt().) I(o 1141104)11po t.)(Li13(I Ai.toji:.7111(1(1 Win Mji JO .10J 0111 it()1,41T0.1(1 11.11(1()111) stomps III: '110.111pl(e) JILL 0 1:0.1 sil Jo) lo A..1()111 :riltroips4 imp 11'.-1.1o(1 s01)1.1011011 0.11Sill) Ifloy1110.I11 ini

JAVII )011 )1). 11gh)(1 1)01101{1M 1 ',OVUM.) Ill )Ill()S IJI plof poor; ),1.710.[(1 St zi(u.aol oputu A'ilutoodso ().)u!s alp (11.10joit jo t ..(70; u!uds pm:* t)ti) tiottU Jo 31)1Aos oputu. apil:1.11:tut1.I -p: o) puo)Na oj 11B uttil)11(1.) jo) soimai À'autuistol uoljuimpa ..1(?111(11110,) 100113 aarly ata juo.m.hmazi Jo atj) puo.)ds iismuois -0.1(1 papof Li! It6i B IlUld doj 4110.1,) `1,j; 14:1 Mall slumps lit 4.: sou.q put: :41u!i)!Aoad soapy()) .1oj quoit) au, 1ozq)(1(1 Jo att.) histu!ut 'JO otiqud 1101).M.I3SIIi sum pasuaa.mit aoj Ti:6 pint alp rhuspoo,).)tls 1)(11: I1 sum wit 01 10-111otpl1 pafoad P4.1.1i.l.) 1[0(01(411)t) .tiviu Imusuotil Jo matt :olutmual suolpsod atam bpoluy.) .mou sztitippli(l olam epai.)a.it) Will MIMI stoops spouodo s, stupujo JO alp uopli jo iat.tos sowiliolan tutui,) Imp gi(j osopotil Jo 74i:61 loohlosa.ul suo!ill)psu! pootwittio glanol-auo Jo alp Iloap114.) -,)(1 uaami puu sauaS Jo t.,.).'du alp uo.-f, aiauitkatiloia lootIos as.mo.) sum 86 Jo j,p papuallu Sq plaaaad uostputla watt) lootps !alit puu alt) atto.i-1 bbasalloo aputu 4.1o1url!icio tit mail Joplin atu pu'oJds auaS-q livid pp( adult! uuto spattp-oaml jo alp uaapiti(.) Jo uu a.71u ptianw el! -sluditio,) g ilttp uop aoj alp g puu q:-11:61 (UV : s.n!agi 8g-2.)* t_ tr 400tipuuji Jo km) woos; Attl `vox tolisstili-uwpatuy Jogiumi,) jo '041.18111(1103 .91:61 Iowa

^ - . . 14 BIENNIAL SURVEY OFEDUcATION. 1934-36 Numberottittuttts Type of 8choot in7-12 1931-35 Preschool institutions . - Nlo 308, 000 6, 506, 000

Elementary, schOols (total) WM. 11, 356, 000 24;036, 004)

Primary (first to fourthyear).M =1, ;MM. onm. IIM Ole .11, .. ommo 9, 947, 000 18, 538, 000 Intepmediate and secondary (fifth to tenth your) 1,409,000 5, 498, OW

REDUCTIONOPILLITERACY Cimpaigns to,roduce illiteracyamongadults and adolescent youth werenotnecessaryand, ofcourse werenotundertaken in Norway, Sweden, Denmark,Germany, Netherlands, Belgium,England and Scotland, France, Switzerland,Luxembourg, Austri4, andHungary. . Illiteracy had long been of proportionssmall enough inthose countries torequire only that it bekept down andinsome cases-reduced by careful enforcement6f the compulsory education laws. The other European countrieswerenotin that position. Theillii- eracyratewashigh in Italy in 1923when the Gentile reformsin- cludedacampaign toeradicate'it.There has beennoc'essation in .that drive and by 1935 the governmentfelt that the "social malady"..,... illiteracywasdefinitely,overcome. The first 5-year planin the Soviet Union includedaproject for teacliihg 18,200,000 tes.Official reports placed literacy at 58.4 percentwhen the work ben,and at 90peiventin 1932. The follow-

ing isarecent stat ement ohe situation: . 6 Many of thesmaller nut in the country in prewar times had nowritten languages.What few. schools existed were conductedin the Russianlaiiguage.Thetovernmenthas aided the minornationalitiesto develop their national culture.Philologists hAve worked out alphabets foranumber of those nationalitieswhich previously had none.In the Russian Republic40newalphabets have..been introduced.By the end of 193.2out of 182 nationalities134 had theirownnational written language. Latinization of thenational-alphabets has nisi) been widely introduced; ,by the end of 1932 over70nfitionalities had adopted the Latin alphabet. Tbis hasplhyedalargearole in eradicatingilliteracy.Forexampie. amongth i sin 1926, prior to Latinization, there wereonly 2

% percent literates;in 193 there were 61perceiit.Corresponding figures for Uzbekistan and Tadzhikistan are:2 and 72 percent and 1.5abii52 percent. Similar progress has been ;wide amongthe Cossacks, Tataps, Kalmyks, Buryats and other minornationalities.Themoreculturedpeoples have achieved close to100 percent literacy and have not only elementary butsecondàryand higher educational institutions intheirownlanguages. o Elementary... schools are conductedih70 different languages in the Union of*Soviet Republics. It is expected that adult illiteracy will be Nirtually bliminated within a short thne, While the numberofpersonsattending "anti-illiteracy" courses is scheduled to show aconti ual decline, the number attending coursesfor semi-literates is expectedt4increase from6,*1,00001932to 9,000,000 in'1037.

e New York, Ametican-Russian Chamber of Commerce, Handbook of the Soviet Union. ) 1936. b "%a,

titio ; 7 FOREIGNCOUNTltfES 15 Growth ofliterary

e 1.. Literacy,population between8 and 50years 1928 1930 1932 (percent) 4 6 1fo 58. 4 67. 3 00, 0 Urban 78. 5 83. 9 97.0 Rural _ _ 48. 3 62. 1 88. 0 2.Attendanceat literacycourses (thousfinds)-: fr Courses forsemiliterates 6,A7O.26, 471. 0 Coursci forilliterates 1, 315. 06, 981. 87, 170. () The IrishFree. State,Albania; Czechoslovakia;Poland, Portugal, Rumania, and Spainmade specialefforts 46 teddceilliteracyamong their peoples. ADULT EDUCATION In tbepast 16 yeaes probablynoother phaseof-hiiman'training hasbeén'stimulatedmore,has spreadmorewidely, and takenon more differentaspects than adult eductition.The WorldWar, while in progress, gaveitastartling impetusby showing howrapidly adults canbe trainedto do thingsbts1which theyareunaccustomed;at its close millions ofmenbothtsoundand maimedwereturned back tocivilian lifeand largenumbers of them hadto be refitted for civilian pursuits.Psychologycameforwardtoproveby experiment that adultscanlearyaseasily andrapidlyas youngpeople.The intense tradeand industrialactivity from1926to 1930 required the employment ofmanytvho hadto be trained while in service.The depression broughtunemployment forMillionsandsomeprovision hadto be made tooccupytheir idle time;"Education for leisure" becameaslogan.The radio and thecinema .openedwonderful Rossi- bilities in the Ns;ay ofmassinstruction andnny attemptsgsuccgs'sfu1 lind unsuccessfulweremadetousethem.Thenewcentral governments of thenatioilscreatedorrecreated after theWorld War felt that they hadto weld together the diverseelements in theirpopula- tions and used various formsof adult educationto do it.Dictator governments had of necessityto reach their citizens in all walksof . life and theytoo setupvariou's progriunsfor instructingadults in the aims and policies ofthegovernment and'theschenes of living Ahat would make themeffective.Obligatory p4rt-timeschooling followinetheperiod of obligatory full-timeinstructionwasadopted in several countries. Libraries andmuseumsextendediheirservices andcaught and held the interest ofmorewople. Workers' organizationsundertook to tram their membevs.Associations suchasthe Young Men'sand Woung Women's ChristianAssociatiblis madestronger efforts to offer Oannedto'ursesandinstrationto adults.Theextent Ur which adults were-. invited and encouraged ickjoin in educationalgroup unflertakingswasremarkable. The significant featuresof themove- mentwerethat itgrewfrom and appealedtopeople of the lower

.14 iew

s , -t - 4

91 'IN'I'..1111 A:tk11.1 .40 IH eNIMI41-)3( -tEllt n /.., f S MOW 1)1 14/1:1(1 Id 6:` !nil: 1 .11l)1( 1111311 lilt j!-;1).1%) I':110, PM: Si lit MO iln.) 11 rot . pill: )' H rt. 0.)11()1.). IS )11 l I:.4)1 . 110)111V ) ( j i S11( )1: 11111 )11 11:0)111 )1 II( !...1:.k ilM 11:1 h) 1 PM: Pt.)1.1.11:0) 110 1 (

tb 1 li:A11( Pk) 1.11 112111011 II NI iel in 11()t 1! ply' pin! paror.Iii().)11.) 1 . I ¡NIUE 4.; *.N7 14.71011:r 'WU 11111( 1)1).%10.4).1 "11M.1.7f tutu; 0/11(11(1 /WU 6:;1 tiI 004111 111110.) F--1)1.1 011 )614 101» %WW1.) 6.11!If pin: 11111)1'-.111:111.109 11'0111)0 1101 ...1;. 11,1[1:1 .11).() 141 1 4)11 11:11 Ir.10)1 111,111111.10.1();1 pun SI 1101.10.1111 .1(1 .11 ,)ILL thlirItA st Jo %)0111 III 11 11.)111 11 *1 1 ittoly:.k. irot(1.1 1)4Y/111;10.)t).1 SI: 111: iiiit) ivt laird j() mil pa lint .111,b).:.: :1 Pori' II1(1.I.1 rind .)1 '-]Iiinj pin: st. ¡ot 0041.1 Jo ttufztiard Itild II:01 .0.)tti)!Ivit 11111)\4 ttotly..)npo ::i 11P 1)10 TOV1111:;;.1()-110\1 1)111: 1111 11()1 - .1ip: 101)1.11 1.3.)1: .11..1 111. 1)(11:17;111.1 1110.1,4 Mil 11101111(,:i14111.1-;.) Jo %lip 1.4.19 1! .[1.)1.1 1111i11: 1I()114):. lit ,'('),1 1111103111 mil .1011:1 1.\10:1;"); 11 JO .1.)111131(.)0111 IliSli! -ze)111 1)111: S.01(14),)(1 °S4);11)11().) 1 (11 11u111:111.10.1 111 ,(11°,1 Jo oto .:.1.11,10.kk u.)111):4 1 irtil,1 lioilvIo()A7 pur i 011 .1ts.loAlttu tiot,zuolx,) pur Irt.tomi

s.u1.) 6111111110,1()111 01 1 MI opu.) .10.1 ;1111110.kt) 11-11).) 1101.1111111 ...:10()11.)S lit I ..(10.; .) 41/1111,1 '1:-k 1`;.19 it Filli 111.)11-\\ ),)111))1'41:. 111)4 1(11111 papt.w.1(1 10,) u snom,),: .:::,)tu,q1(1 Ilni.otu()!; olow .qosoi.) pAlletuo.) gum alp 11101!:.S ut () am( .11111;.71.).t ioul[,) 1111'111 .ùt1tt1 'sotellutto.) %"1.1, p.tr(u Jo 11(111rottprd patt::! 1; .q)()(1 Jo sitoputnrf.),1 ao.j. 1! Ill . 1 IFF;(1 11011011.1k alp 1)(1().)s JO ():()tii sapid tit NI 1 pootti)o.t 1 Ittu.ar Ili 'R:61 °1 g tit 14)111) .10J. 1 `Ili ;1"1-"Hui i: ssiut)-` Pt"unstu 11U!sn(lx) otp.19.1. str.). .--1-1.:(q Rim doiRI po..out,),1 jr 1.4,4,1 01,1 sum uo otli tortt Ira ilimo.L71 JO ,41;)&utio.-) pur sossrp put: A10101(Inti).) pololso.1 °Ill ()I 11t.).).tod Ill ut s.totproi -soul:11:s otij, p.troi sl.todo.I mp Ito .pti* : . 't.T.Gr alotp odo. 1 IN 11:1.101111 !Nk),;SI:L.) ) I.Ù011%11(10.1(1 611110.11: pull -In: 1/1).1111:A ( li1IM ill: aottupttonr Jo ..(.00;sv,i (b)(.:1:1I 1:11.-j '.1 billlIpilL) ptill 1.I0IIS 1 St)S.I11,4).) 11 t4(.1t-".j. it 1 WV, .11.S.IJAIIIll 111xl) - pill(ll.lt) 1A(11 :.711111)1101 ARIL.; Intl! )t[i4 LI( UOISIII)1X0 ST/S11103 Itilm ItN't : VI II0I1UJUA SSOSIII101) r t(j-% : pIll: (1 PIONS).1 i:1 I gum )74 ( °S111011IIIS Ji g)11 SO.1101104) 111011Illia.1011 ..t t100[ IIIt..%% ao.krj la .ttu uotplItIsu! :1[1i s,):tr.1 mil Iltupttup; Jo 111,:.) (Ittisu)z Put: 10 1:,IJII0.11 1 lilla 0.Ill '1)1111 OIIIim It Oil).:SOS14.10(111'S SJi1l.19.)13 0 Jo tIS0I(j suopuzitil".I1.10 oi it.mq. it saActi :ittil.1.11 aoj )111pu 41I0illliMpt) .11 0.11)J.I0)11I 11Ak li II 1:,)1 1 .I0 ;400}) pRI lalp .1 10(1 11141)111(1 slillod JO 'MJIA s.1001[.)S-',///1i/j/W aoj S11411)11 0.(It- illtloildo Ill :IIIIII.tiat alp -moo ,j -saiThtit .6:ttt .10 .61.ttt Ion tIti(iuls() mall) su .att) aas .19 JI atil ui)ot .)1.1(111(I ltitt 4.4olit.tot( op 1,)..4 (In quint bstooti.)...; alp lulotta.) luatuttaa.to.j iquit.1.71 r ..ipt((ns siooti.)s Jo puouo.71 uouvimpa aoj 111)1: S)1 otu)3 u!tutm 'nu .i.tistuttu Jo J11(111(1 otu'i.uotottaisul sapIst.tuttt JO -ittat..afu aatll Put? Jo Joqui osju pp 1Inpu sio(th.)ii u! aptu a_vpaacolsat sptog swot:Zulu:4.10 esp apt40.1(1 stomps Pull sositloa .10j ItioptiodapuI Stoll II s4Itipn put: tit ultitr?mi suoRni!uu.J.1(),asay mt; Suutigti Itatup _,.qasop ptql" twAt ao Spau9stp JpsItiorhttut; o) aio -tpatiy ill .L11.; osIJ t. 5q2 spotps JatualiAt amil(I ao luapitadyiptit aiu.. uaA0 spun; moil mil

...... I.- et . I . e .; I t ..4:7"--' 1. FoREIGN cm-NI-Ions 17 . nationalt ithout recranitot new ¡lionsconnectionsor polt icala iat ions. .Ahit:her councilof populareducation(Conseilsui)l'srieur de Veducajionpopulaire)wascreated hyhtv of.1prii311,19211. Itis aconsultativebIldyattachedtothe ministryof publicinstructionto Sil!r!rest tO tIletr()vernment;my measuresitndtavconsider favorableto popplar t.iducation andtoas.sure abetteruseof -leisure.by workers. he spending ofanynational fundsappropriatedfor populareducation islargely determined0.1the adviceof the council. Other colIntrieR.The government\sof theScandinaviancountries. fif Holland, Czechoslovakia.Poland, andAustria subsidizeadult education but withoutattemptin,irtogive itapoliticalbias. anddurincr the decade madenos¡wcialmovesin that diriiction.Austriamayho anexception due.tothe polit icalevents in February and Julyof19:14. /ta/4'.-1hegml)rnments of Italy, the Unionof SovietIZTublics. andGermany took closvcontrol of theeducationalactivities of adults,eencloser probably thanthey did ofother formsof education.By royal,decreos of May1.1 ',125. and NovemberH.19.26. Opera Nazionale1)01)01;o-op)wasotra:lized inItaly..to promote Ow saneand profitableemployment of tholeisne hoursof vorkers by meansof institutionsdesignedtofurther thedevelopment of their physical. intellectual,and moralcapacities."Control ofDopolavoni is inan extraordinary commi..;sionunder thesupervision ofthe min- -istryof corporations.The organizationextends throuLrliont 14 Italy nnd works inaiderangeof fiohkSports andexcursionsare encouraged fortheir educationalvalue and-to train uthletes,monn- tai.neers.and skiers forusein futurewars.Artistic educationin- cludes folklore, thetheater and travelingtheaters. theradio. bands and schoolsof music, andthe cinema.Manycoursosin technical instruction and i»agricultureareofferad.Colonies andcamps on the seashoreand in tlie mountainsare1:rranged.Savings booksand facilities forpurchasing food andgoodsatreduced pricesare provided.Even schemes of insuranceand housepurchaseareworked outfor members. From 1,064 locals withamembership ofSO,.")S4 in1926. the or,rani_. zation v grew to17.S09 clubs with 1.775,Omembers in1 93e.-Dopo- lavoro is Continuingto grow not only in membershipbut in thevari- oiNforms of activities itundertakes. Union of Soviet Re/nth/Ms.Besidesthemovement to reduceillit- eracy (see page 14), the Sovio Union continued :tiulincreaseilits effortsto*developlitera.c;in t,ke broadersensethroughmore news- papers,libraries, clubs, readingrooms,motion picturesand theaters, the radio,museums,and wider publicationof books.The,political education branchof the educationsystem, setupshortly afterthe 6.14 18 BIENNIAL SURVEY -OFEDUCATION, 1934-36 revolution to train partyworkers continued to functionthroughout the decadeonthe three levelsQf schools of politicalgrammarfor the rank and file,Soviet party schools foragitator-propagandist, and communistuniversities for party leaders.Attendance atthem has been compulsoryfor membersothe party since 1924. Germany.Adulteducation in Germany from 1926 to1935re- quirednocampaigns againstilliterficy,noextensive founding ofnew schools,nospecial increase in thenumber ofnewspaperspuiAished, andnogreaterwidening of cultural agencies.The. Germansareand long have beenaliterate people with well-developededucational and cultural institutions. A surveyof German adulteducatiôn in I9297 showed that it wtts prriedonby religious andpoliticalgroupslike the Catholics, Protestailts, Socialists,and Nationalists;institutions; suchaslabor colleges, basedonel4mornisc conditions; central inst itutions which included people'shigh schools somewhat tothos( in Denmark, people's high-schoolhomes, and adult evening schools; andalarge number of publiclibraries.All this workwasgenerally favored by the national and state governmentsandwastosomeextent subsidized by them. With the establishment ofthe Nazi regime,adult education in nearlyeveryformwastakenoverby the national government.and directed toward Nazi idealsandpurposes.The D6utsche Arbeits- frontwascreated in 1933 to takecareof the recreation of allworkers. It is the German counterpartof the lean. Dopolavoro. S pain.Anunusual form of adulted-ucationwasbegun in Spain by virtue ofadecree of. May 29, H31.The Ministry of Public In- structioil and Fine Arts undertookathreefoldprogram.a popular 4111. instfuction especially for ruralems through travelingpedag7Agica1 missions madeupof trainedmenandwomenwhogofromcommu- nitytocommunity trying tocarry eventothemost remotesections of Spainsomeof the advantagesentqyed in the urban centers.The .general culturephase of theprogramconsists of the establishment of libraries,i)iganization of public lectures, conferences, motion pic- tures,musical performances,and displays of great works of art.On thepedagoOcal sidearevisits t/o rural and urban schoolsfollo)ved 4; by weeksorfortnights of conferencesand shortcoursesfor teachers n the neighborhood;practickl lessons given in the schools;excur- sions withteaçhers, and children;examination of the natural and social environment,and its possibleapplication in educating the children.The third phase iscitizenship instruction giventhrough public meetingsin which the principles ofdemocracyareexplained, the structureof the government is outlined,°an.d the citizens' rights

and dutiesaretaught. .

* International Handbookof Adult Education,London, World Association-_,. fgrAdult Education, 1929. ; 'Mt -

. FOREIGN COUNTRIES _ 19 CARE OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN If education extendedupward and outwardtoinclude millions of adults, it likewise moveddownwara withrespect toforecrroupings to carefor larger numbersofchihbvnunder the primaryschool admission time. A betterrealization ofhow important the first half dozenyears arein the developmentofahuman being made it clear thatanation's responsibilityfor its childrencannotlogically be potpolled arbitrarily untilthe sixthorseventhyearof their lives. Fillies ofwarand financialdifficulty forc-ed publicauthoritiesto undertaketemporary schemes of providingfor presehoql children and that widening naturallyledovitr into permanent undertakings. A review ofprogressin thenurseryschooland kindergarten fields is notnecessaryhere.The 1?eportof the CorWiltatiewCommitteeon Infant and Nursery Schools, publishedby His Majesty'sStationery ()lice,London, in1933, contains the results ofastudy made under the direction of the Board ofEducation of Englandand Wales.The findingsaretypical of attitudes inmost European countries.Nur- serySchool alid Parent Educationin Soviet leugsia, byVItaFedia- evsky and Patty Smith Hill, tellsthe.storyfor the Soviet:Union. Yotihy Children in European Countries, byIhtry Dabney Davis,is a surveyof the situation insevennations of Europe.

PHYSICAL E1111CATION Physical education also w.as changedand strengthenedby thewar and the economic depression.Usuallywars arefollowed bykeen interest in Physical training inpart because thetest of military - service showsahighpercent of physical disability and4tosome ex- lent because the loss of life impelsadesiretomaintait;the human wealth remaining atahigher level ofefficiency.The impetusgivea tophysical education by thewarcariedonthrough thedecade under consideration and interest in itsems- 'still to be mounting. Leaders of nationalist movements understandwell thevalue of massathletics,games,andsports in holding largegroupsof people together and teaching themto work fora commonaim. After the establishment ofanational. schoolsystem in Albania, (seepage5) phytical educationwasmuch stressed.Austria hasa »ationalsystem ofphysicaleducation with physicaltrainingcom- pulsory in elementary and secondaryschools.There isalsoa national recreationprogrampromoted by the. OsterreichischeSport- and Turn-front. Playfields,.skicourses,sport days, vacation houses, coursesin alpinism and swimming,and exchangesofgroupsof students with other countriesarecontihually, emphasized. The Belgian authorities began enforcingphysical trainingin the schools about 1921.The Swedishsystem is tised.In 1934ahigher

ra'' s

20 BIENNIAL SURVEY W.' EDUcATION:j934. -36 (bound of physical education andsports wascreatedtostudy the suhject fromits medical, pedagogical, andsport aTects,antito adviseon prt)gramsof instruction, teachertrainiiqiand inspection and control of physical education. A. Bulgarianlaw of 1932 made physical education 'compulsory in primary and secondary schoois and in 1935 theentii.e questionof physicaltrainingwasbeing studied.Bulgaria has,11)national scheme of recreationbut th(Vinizik" diert.)es),anold organization much like the sokols ofCzechoslovakia, continuestofunction. and illprolnibly be extremely active incaseofany seriousthreatto the country's independence. Physical culture plays.animpottantpartin the lives of the Czechoslovakians both vithin and.vithout the school system: The ministries of education and national culture, public health, and physical culture, national defense, foreignaffairs,commerce.and j'aildic works all give considerable attention and support to it.No official schoolprogramcarries less than 2 hoursaweek of physical training and the bodily developmentof the child is watchedoverfrom the time, heenterskindergarten. The sokol (falcon)movementfounded by Miroslav Tyr; in 1S62, is strongandsetsthe example for several similar organizations.In Yugoslavia also, Dr. rfyresystemof physical training is used in thie schools. andnofewer than2,52,, o Sokol units,apartfrom the schools, with 41 7,725 memberswet-lb existing in1934. The esuddishment of the Royal Hungarian College of Physicai EducationatBudapest in 1925totrainmen:Intlwomenteachers'of physical culture is butoneeventin the regular development of Physi- cal education in which the Hungariansas apeople have long been interested. An efficient nationalsystemof physical. trainingwas stbt upby Law LW of December 31, 1921,tobe within the control of flab ininistry of cults andeducatjoiland the ministry for home affairs, *mainlythe fornier, fornit's bildgetaspecific. "physical educii- tion"wasthen placed and has been continued.A national stmlium Was built, andanational board of physical educationwascreatedto adise the ministryOnplans of studies and the kinds of grountk. equipment, and buildingsnecessary.Allyoung men nototlierwi!ie participating insomeform of_..systematic physical educationInv attend gymnastics classes until flie end of Decembero_f theyear inA Ndlich they-complete tile hventy-firstyearof theirage.Much of thissortof instruction is carriedonby the "Levente" (juniormen-at- arms) associations which inmanyresp'ects resemblethe yunaks and sokols.

e Turnsienskl, Severin K.Education in Czechoslovakia.Wa9sington, U. S. Departnient of the Interior, Ottice of Education. Bulletin 1935,No. 11. 4t.

e FoREIGN COUNTRIES 21 Germany.During theeraof the republicsportanti physical wreation of all kinds developed broadly and rapidlyni(iermany. )neof the best known indicationsof this interestwasthe hikingor -Wandervogel-Bewegung" andmanysocietieswereformedtofur- ther it.It gainedaconsiderable foothold in other countries.Also therewas alarge growth in the number ofsportclubs and similar ze-sociationsaswellas anincrease of enrollment in those zdreally existing.The Germangovernments,Federal, State, and local, did muchtoencouragethemovement.Largeam(nintsofln(mey were raisedtobuild stadiums, swinuningpools, athletic fields. and schools for training physical instructo-rs. :111administrativesystem was set up not todirect. and control athletic andrecreational activities but to promotethem andtoprovide facilities forthem. The National -Socialistgovernmentemphasizes physij.alattain- mentsbecause it believes that throughaphysically tit tuition economic securityill be maintained and thecountrywill be trenirthenedas apolitical and militarypowerItis centralizing control ofall physical education and recreationactivities in the hawk of theReicli authorities whoarechanging thenatureof physical trainingand the idea motivating it.Physical cultureisnolongexa matterof fun and enjoyment; it isapatriotic dutyto improve the indivitlual anti through him, the nation. The creation of the Reichsministerium Wissenscha ft. Erzieh- ungund Volksbildung (seepage4)gavethe centralgovernment full authorityoverphysical educationin the elementary,secondary, and continuation schools justasitdidoverotiOr schoolwork. Formerly physical instruction in the elementaryschooiswas a sort. of side issue given by teachers of othersubjects NOlo hadtaken and passedaspecial examination in physicalinstruction.Courses in preparation for the examinationweregivenatthe- German Coile!re for Physical Culture (Deutsche HochschuleliiiLeibesiihungen)at Berlin-Charlottenburg and the PrussiAn Collegefor Physical Culture (Preussische Hochschulel fur litibesfibung(1n)at Berlin-Spandau and other institutions.Thetwocolleliesnamedwereclosed andadecree. wasissued requiringteaclu:rsto attend the newly crcated colleges for teacher training (Hochscluden fiir Lehrerbil(lung)wherecourses in physical instructionare tobe given all studentsas partof the regular currtulum. Physical training in the secondary schools hasbeen.raised inim- portance.The ReichsministerfiirWissenschaft stated inan execu- tive order of March1936 thatahigh record in physicaleducation subjectsmaymake goodadéficieucy inoneof the othersubjects. Thetestsa students'physical prowks given just beforegraduatimn areemphasized andafailure in themmayprevent graduation. 22 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION,1934-36 The institutes of physical culture inthe German universitieswere first started in 1923to be responsible for the physical development of alldiestudents.Theyareregular departments headed byaprofessor e10 usually with the rank of dean. Byaspecial order of December5. 1934, theirscope waswidenedand the requirtments for work in them mademorestrict.Every university student unless provedto be physically disabledmustattend prescribedcoursesin them for 3 semestersamountingtoabout100 clock-hours andpasstests of his abilityas anathletic performer in the thingstaught in thecourses. Students whoexpect to teachin secondary schools and wish also to qualifyassecondary school physical instructorsmustin addition attend inaninstitute of physical cultureaspecialcourse soextensiVe that it will requireanadditionalyearat the university and, having attended it, theymustgotoaspecialcamp(Priifonglager) where the:.areputthrough rigoroustests intheathleticwork in which they weretrained. Two suchcamps, oneforwomen atMarburg, the other formenatNe-ustrelitz in Mecklenburg, have been established. In Germany thereareabout 40,000sportclubs that before the Na- tional Socialist Partycameintopowerw:ereloosely organized in several associationsallof which-wereconnected with the Reich Council for Physical Culture (Reichsausschuss fiir Leibesiibungen though each conducted its affairs free ofanyoutside (lirection. To organize these associations and intorporate them inthe Nazimove- ment,the Government early in1933 created the office of Reich Sport Commissioner (Reichssportfiihrer).'The semipolitical clubs in which doctrines opposedtothose of thepartyweretaught,weredissolved aiidin 1935anorderwasissued which in effect didawaywithIe mostimportant Catholicsport asociation. Anewcentralorganiza- tion,theReich League .fprPhysicalCulture (Reichsbund Leibesübungen)wasestablished, the leadership principlewas ap- plied, and Ahe various organizationsevendownto theindividual clubs became subjecttathe direction of the central office.The Reich Sport Commissionerca4control the itctivities of allsport clubs. France.Thedeputycharged with presentingto the Chamber of Deputies in France the budget for physical educationin 1937out- lines in hisreport g the history of Physical training andexpresses thereasonswhy the French people shouldsupportit liberallysome- whatasfollows: Physical exercises tendto develop all tbe qualities ofman. Hereare thereasonswby the entire nation is interested intheir ivide extension:

*Barth4imy, M. Georges.Rapport faitnu nom de la CommigotiondesFinanees chargv. d'examiner le Project de Lotportant fixation du Budget (Untold de l'ExercIme 1937. (Education physiqueSportset Loisirs.)Paris, Imprimeriede la Cbambre des DEputés. 1936.

i. $ 4 FOREIGNCOUNTRIES 23 Strong individualsmakeup strong families. Sport for all, -bysafeguarding thehealth of theyoung, makes for better economiesin relief. Whetherrightlyor wrongly, a nation's prestige liestosome extent in thes.uccessesof its champions. Finally and especially,ourmilitary situation requiresit.Ourpop- ulation is decreasing;that of Germanyis incrPasing.At preontand what will it. bein the future?--we.aryforty millions of Frenchagainst sixty millions ofGermans.That is somethingto think about.But one must take into account anotherfactor.The German youth,better trained, isstronger than the Frenchyouth.It has been said.written, and repeated. Weproclaim it againand uttera cry of alarm. Previousto 1930 the central administrationof physical eddcation wascintwo branches of the Government:The Ministry ofWar which had its appropriationtocarefOr the physicaltraining ofmenbefore and after regimentation,Adphysical trniningin thearmy;and the Ministry ofiNationalEducation whichused itsappropriationto look after physical education inthe schools.Thesewereunited in1930 inanUnders-ecretariatof PhysicalEducation withabudget. of its own.The Under-secretariathastwo divisions:Military and civil.In 1931atechnical service(service technique)wasadded.to studyand report to the ministryonprojects for creafingstadiums, swimming pools, and fields forsports and gymnastics.Two advisorybodies function, the higher councilof physicaleducation (Conseilsupérieur dePEducation physique)with 150 membersandahigher committee of physical education(Comité sup6rieurdel'Educitt ion physique). The central officeof the Under-secretariathasastair of 31; the S. regional and local officesaremanned byatotal of841 military and civil employees,not including the HigherSchool of PhysicalEduca- tionat Joinvillp (Ecole sup6rieured'Education physiquede Join- ville). The school (meaningeducation in general)is notat all interested in physical education.That isa verity that it is banalto state, hut itisa verity that shouldbe proclaimed withoutceasing. In 1850 gymnasticswas_introducedas an elective in theprograms.In 1854 it becameobligatory in thelyct:-es.Now, by arrké ofJanuary 19, 1925, it is obligatory inall the schoolsand is giventwo hoursa week to girls aswellas to boys. Alsosome open-air gamesareproviiiedfor Thursday. Socomments M. Barthélemy,"and he pôintsout that lack of appropriations, abusesin sch.00lsports, unsuitable andevenharmful surroundings in whichphysical education4assesareconducted, lack of well-trainedteachers and ofinstitutions inwhichto train them, all militate againstgood physicaleducation inFrance. TheHigher Schoolat Joinville, founded in1852, and formany years I. engaged lo See noteon page 22.

s 24 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUcATIoN. 1034-30 in training militarymen,has gradually extended to include all physical education.Until 033 itwasin reality the only national French school of physical (ducat iop, though attheuniversitieshere were12 institutes and 3 centerswhich prepareq candidates fol. the certificatetoteach physical education in secondary schools.The NomiN1 School Of Physical Edu('ation(Ecole normaled'gducation pVAIne)wasfoumJed in October 1933witta2-year curriculum to ra teachers for secondary schools and inp-artas an answertoforeign adverse criticism that physical education in France is onlydisguised milita;.y.preparation.The Normal School takesovermostof the work of the Institute of Physical Education of the University of Paris.

. Sports and their relation to theproper useof leisurearealso being given consideration in France, but with less emphasis than inmany other countries. An under-secretariat of sports and leisure (Sous- Secretariat des Sports et Loisirs)wascreatedonAugust 13, 1936.It has butasmall staff and littlemoney. M.'Barth6lemyproposestochange the situation by achievinga bett.eradministrative organization, securingmorenational fundsto aid physical 'education, and arousing the French people toanunder- standing(7fale importatit par1,4hysical trainhig has inanyeduca- tion scheme.

%ND TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

Technical education,asclearly noted (seepages6 and 7),has been comingmoreandmorewithin the cantrol of the national ministries of educationexcept in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and is beingmoreclosely coordinated with general education. The °increasingintrest in vocational aml technical_ training stimulated vocational guidanceor"professio'nal orientation"asit ismore com-. monly, termed in Europe.Both fall within the concepts of the unity school system:(Seepage7). Technical training has been forceq into the foreground and is being considerMmorein relationtoits Place in the entire tbducationprogrambecauseotthe spirit ofna- . tionalism with its -corollary of economic self-sufficiency.Acting in thatpirit, governments hadtosurveythe naturalresourcesoftheir

couPriesanddetermine-asnearlyaspossiblp thequotas ofpersons- to be. trained for andused in themanydifferentactivifiesnecessary tonational welfare.In tueyearsof t epressi n, a pet órao

intellectuals"was a commonplaint ina nmberu countries.Eco- nomic forces and governmental action workekascorrectives of that situation by limiting the number of those who cpuld.undertake training for the learned professions, and by providing better facilities

andstronger programsfor preparation for technical pursitits. . NOI:111().4 sNDLI.N.11)..) (7

+31ii--sddavaid Sisal JO II:OlUtpaj 11091tipt) U1 St. 0.1111..1,Ii ji:11011th)o.k O,1111.1p1ffi1 uot I)ti luoiamo) tioisAlo.td ( s 0.litd putt- -1:71111:ri.14) I, 1 1101 .038 passamixo in.ìujo su .t()I[oj : at V saltio,) Pup lt10.1; (Hp SI [(imps 4 rd .10 I. t; sit) 1: 'art 41 Sf pU ttstladgf ttlatt) jf uU .10I1.1LId 04 41.1p Ittpi put: 1)1 ri IJ. SlI1 1:j mil OMOS WI! i (10111111J sit tp1.1.1.1d su .)1411SS4 114 i 011 1114).1.11M, ..1.)..1.11%) 1:11 t 'IA

04 'WV( Ill.) i:1(.) S,).)11 I I UIRI0 din MI al( .0:Ill 11.%Ill( 01 P.M": Pali'. 111 I/ IIII pl. 'Magi PUU Ill) OM I SI1UPASa 10!pii!-.11)1(11111.) SW)! I )1N1 1! I 111,1.1.111 SI 11()141:11.1 P JI Slil .111.0!i(I 1.)011J111! PEI 'WOW °I11)1119111: fl IM 1%).1 till ji) 010 111104 two jo oto aoquI 401.1imi ¡Au, am.tpu Sf J UJ.tP1 Jae' Sti tUithRIS 1Z1111;Zt.10 Sthq 1:. pkiri Ni).1Up JO -I).1d 1110PO I; I tie! t:01.) PIL101SSadi tlf U 1:).11).) tit t111111 JOt1 Jo t) ss)i .1:(1 (id r,If r. JO 1)0.11101) Jo ao(1uhn(11) '9;: zza . 1)111 so.)1114) Olt; 1:1111) lt.kt Ji 'mil 111111:.logvlio.) jo : .1 .ialmtpd slalt.mi)1 ()to% tIsputtj otp ulup U0 i MI II! i 1.1011,1 i pciu.im I1:.111111 saptimdu jo aq 111).1111pp stlupts.Old otim gijpo.i 0111 in.)!,4.011(1 .soptilijdu t; %mu 11JRIM 1uottio.)10 aomo satIsputij ilittp uo 0111 EMIL) t .11 loqui loNautut II! U Imiot2aa lions Svm SU O ppl.tu j! alin,s4)(1 ..11:111(1,1,1 -.111%11 potwoa.) 'sulfa.) Nu] 41)0.111) Ilamialopy 1 s 0) 1),11: I. Ir.)4 mil)! I 1.1,0 I! III! SO! U Jo UttlW(I )(I')(1 P41)14111! puts H ) I ) iiipojy) so.)ti J Il iunitij : I i` 1 oskt will osiu 4uall u s 11:pat1 ISM 0411n Jo SI)11IS put: )$ ij. .1%!0:10.1 41) illuotssajoael tioDuniapo su.tt palwati tit i1,11:41 III *silm. gaits sa.go Atom attt.ti.-.1t1J!r-A 1).)1,10(1aa st: .riiiii)4( tit 111.11)(10 1101 tit .m61 pamai.A.14)3111 1).10111 Imp 091-bsa, 46(11, milLid 1(fht(.),4 k.4.1.;x1:4), put: poitid aaotti 01:7,1:T.tiptu tit (utios tilaoj Jo eithitu.opitita .)(11 rItio.qs stiodttn. 01 tptIoeu it:01111pol .tiotiuotipa su 11,) si: so attal.) Olt .(1)4 ltiopuztlitat.10 110.1j1 mui JO tò 4.:17, -401;1 )1 "4 -3" tio thug) sto pazttiud sO.tat :s();11:is L1 )ti.1 01 j 1111U pOliji11:111) .11))1.1.0.11 plIOJaS S .10J sijuls Jo aamol slui.1110 [pus su saaa:.10.o Jo tsdolis Tim IS bpd!til 10j. Sp? j.0 JJ11.7111( .sitn.go l)ti(111(1 luottitioal 11(19I:mipa SI -1)1: pa.tals!tittu Sltitutu .(1 alp lutaup.i.).)s-aaptiA jo poitiii.).11 1101.0m1p:A it! Jill jo uttptilux I .110puimprd Sit Joy() 'stunt' sou dAtttl '.):;1.11:(1.) Jo autos JO atti aiJoA moods sad.il autos Jo alp sassup Jo stomps pin: sasatto.) pm; atoll) ipm0.1.71 ;(wig) qì popad aaputi mat.tad an; SB 10j. :smol navj, rIV3IXII3.1L-1 (INV 41.404 Si()OIL)S SHSII.10.) XI :PIANNII..1 1_ 1- Jaquins JO slumps pulxv, Jo loops .zo COSJIIOJ .10 gasITIOJ

PZ6i VI:61 St:61 ,

t. 4.11

iguougs Viootps JO tale put; -lapi.h) - ivuoioN 9 9 .1 99z wows Jo -21UPNLI.1-11.)01.) .. Ztit tutiouvN wows JO au/to sue pUS Q!.1)S1111)UT ..... ienolluN lumps Jo , LZ soitimaa or, _ puonux ititioisvajo.ki --slumps - ..... _ * " " 9 `1. /66 ['Jaipur(' -wows - 4- - - L11 ZOZ 'Ltd ISti pauolitiamins lualutpai gaSJII0J - . . uvZ !..:4 `7.91 9Sit 'frt61 , n supy p luawouSpliwen ua 'oatIu.1.4 et:01 I. C-9C--.ZLTZ9 4-

4 *lb .7r 26 -BIENNIALSURVEY OF EDUCATION,1934-36 The subventionedtechnicalcourses aregivenat centers arranged in theditter6t,Departments of France andaremainlyvocational courses tofityoungpeople fiir work inthe industriespeculiarto the locality.Courses in appliedarts, rural artisanry, and homeeco- nomicsareincluded. Growth has been rapid. In1925 the Parliament voted inthe budgetaquinquennial extenionof funds for technicaleducationand at thesametime createdaspecialtax, the apprenticeshiptaxf,awhich would compelindustrialists andmerchantsthe persoliswho would usethe traineesof technical schools----topay partof thecosts of the training.From 50 million francsin 1924', thebudget of theUnder- Secretariatofrreclmical Educationrose to79 millions in1925; 94 ill 1926; and by subsequent increasesto 215 in 1933.The-enrollmentof approximately250,000 in the schools in1934was morethan three times that of thenumber of\youngpeople takingtechnical training in France beforethewar. Estimatesarethat in France800,000yoùjigmenandwomenunder 18Tarsofageshould normallybe taking hcJmicaleducation. The government cannot provide forso manyin publicschools,soit ht. workedout whatseemsto be unusually successfulmethods of coor;br- ating with privateinitiative. Theapprenticeshiptax previously mentionedrimy be inpartorin whole withdrawnfor those indus- trialists and merchantswho helpto maintain privatetechnical schools.The UndeT-Secretariat-may enter intoagreement withany associationorchamber ofconunerce tohelpcreate and maintaina school. 'In sucha ease,the presidency ofthe advisory council ofthe, schoolmaybe held onty byacraftsmanand the 4ssociationorcham- ber has the righttoname half themembers ofthe_council.Figures 1 areriot available forthe aniount ofteçhnical educationofferedthus by private effort, but it isverylarge. . Belgium.Technicalredueation inBelgiumwaschangedandcom- pletely reorganized in1933 intoacoherent andhomogeneous systeni. Thirty-three ministerial and royalarrêtéswereissuedregarding it. Schoolswereclassified and therequirements theymust meet in ordey to be accredited and aidedifrom nationalfundswerefixed.Regula- tionswerearranged for theiradministration,inspection,and the appointment of personnel.ArPimportantroyal arrêtécreated the degresi and the diploma ofengineer Ochnicianand fixedthe conditions for obtaining them,aswellasthestatus of the schoolsthat could-grant them. Estonia.A special section forvocationaleducation,wascreated in the Ministry of PublicInstruction ofEstoniaonMay1, 1934.

I* FOREI9NCOUNTRIES. 27 Aror ing through it,measures weretaken to improve vocat imial in- strtiction and to providemoreopportunities for it.' 'Sixnew commercial schools and four shopswereopened andnos.subjectswere offered in schwls alreltdy established. Bulgaria.Bulgaria reportedanoverproduction of intellectuals and lakenewgovernment of 193-1 closed the 41, incomplete gymnasia and 28 gymnasia in small cities and replaced them with54 secondary real schools which offera3-year curriculum to which graduates of the 7-yearprimaryschoolareadmitted. Theprogramsin these schools will be varied accordingto the locality.Theyztreintendedto be morepractical than the gymnasia and will giveaccessto the higher*. vocational schools of Br,ut. Irish.Free State.The suit of the development of technicaleducation in the Irish Free Stateas"dgivehin the successivereports of tile Department of Education for theyears1925-26 to .1034 -35, inclusive, is of such interest and indicates such careful Oattning and414 sound progeess that. it will be reviewed here Insomedetail. Technical education passed into the colitrol of theDeptirtment of Education'inJune 1924.Previously it had functioned under the provisiont of the Agriculture and Technical InstructionAct of 1899 andwaswithout the administration of general education.Onas- suming charge of it, the department's fir.stcare wasto makea survey of this branch of instructicm.That preliminary investigationled . . to t e appointment oacommissiontinquireintoanda vise upon the systemof technical education intorstat Eireann in relationto the requirements of trade and indust "That commission,con- sistiitgof representatives of employers,wot lei's,and of the Departments of Education, Industry and Commerce;' Agriculture, andFinance,anexi;ertì technical education from Switzerlandand another from Swedn, began its w4k inOetoh:q.1926.It presented tothe Dail its finishedreport early irq928. Recommendationswere madeonthe kind of -continued educatiNito be givenyoungpeople who had left the primary school and hadnot obtained employment, onthe technical education requited by apprentices,onhigher technical training for those seeking themoreimportantposts in trade and industry, Andonthe coktrol and finance of schemesof technical instruction..Thereport also contained accounts of the education systems of Sweden and Switzerland and information about the South Africa Apprenticeship Act of 1922. From thereportcamethe Vo- cational Education Act of 1930to replace theold'Actof 1899.

Prior to 1930, instructionwas .offered mainly in(a)technical schools and (b)A county schemes of technical instruction.That the

".% S

...... ummerrh01111=1111=111111111111dille1116101111111111111110_ 28 BIENNIAL SURVEY 91'EDUCATION. 1934-36 demand for technical edm:ationwasconstantly growing is evidenced bythe°followingtables:

TAMA-. 4 2.--.VI"rENDrNcli:-ATTECIINICAJ, ScII001,S FIlf/NI 192-1-25 TO 1921-311

. . - . _ , K 111.1 tif totir.o 192425 1927-N nr2: 29 199-31) 7 - 3 4

e - - -

Itstrirluct-4- I.7:,7 1, 623 2, 197 .n

r 1 cif Andittin1:1.2f.. h. .11 9, 40;A 11. 1W 1 1 . ;.c.ii:111.t. (14111.3116Applits.1 sse7.".7 5,1744 6, 16 6.

4 , 13t),Iirrift 1. Moo I.t,e0 I. 717 2. . _ 1 )Ifurt.t ). . it.s(lericv 3.4 6, tiho h.it) h.t .

-'.rf le tot; 997 1, 154) 1..*. s I It bur 20-1 19 1PO i ;1 , - Tot al.Z_. 21 404 26. On 30, Pi3 3. 911

111.%LE 3.-.vra:Ni).kx(41.: AT (40UNTY SCHEMES(11.'TECHNICAL I NSTRU( IZ1111:12-I-2-1 r14) 1929 311

; tiup! ofilitgtr -ft 192-12:1 ir272,4 1 9 29 1929 3u mlipm _

2 3 4

.,11:011111instruct inn 1c0 4,sl() 5, 46. . ,1)1 Nuke.bri.e. 1.1c. 1-or.)5 933 1. 227 I 1.)otni-.41ic ecotiottly . . t;31 7. 171 h. ON 41. r

Erv:ineerint: . . . _ _. s:1S eottrperve shf 1.063 1.:191 9

. . . Otherubjects 1352 71-1 692 I. I tn. . . . e el& Total . --- 10, 293 14, 721 17,712 15.113.

"The decrease in929-30,"saysthe department, "isnot tobe . takenas a indicative ()f lessening intetvin.fr the classes .condutted in Mildaeas,for which the (4111)1110mper centerisashighas 1 it)the preZkiding session.The County Committeeshave inmany osesbeen c(4pe11edto restrict the number of Turalcentersof in- structionas aresult, of the rapid(kbvelopment, thtbirpermanent technical school 'centersand theconsequent demandsonthe service ofa . limited teaching staff." %/"" In 5yearsthe attendanceat.techni4 schoolsandcounty sehemes intd incrensvd by50 percent.1 9:10-11 wiisa yearof transition. Under the Act ofi930, the former technical instructioncommitteesgave wayto the vocational. education committees each with fewei Inbers, c but withgreater powers and duties. Thenewcommitteeswere,- usy ,arrangingprocedures)to fit thenewlaw,*exploringits possibilities, planning developmentespecially Of buildings,and arranging their

budgets for submission. tothe Department by.Debeinber instead_of the following111ay dr Juneashad been the practice.A complex - system of grants frifin national funds hadgrown upin the30years in whichthe okl lawwaseffective. A simplersystem ofa,single block . grant for each committeewasesfablished,the amouilt of the I

i. CT- '

e --Zrx4'4;;Ar " - 1I/14),i N! S:1111.1..11).) 6g

01 110 pour; 01I1 1:10I I 0111) 1111 alp 1)1() IMOdat; 111,11y4.6!-4 !-;111(1 1: -d(qoAtti) )uoni ptu.i.11 )1:11) pill0M oti ollichtfo.) .\°11. ti() p( 1l).111(11)(1 Intl (1 i 7.4 uttir 1)Itil ito alp 1notim ji IL1). ) 1114),1 land 0)11(11.1 omur i thuin,10,1 will 'mum, Bly .11 ) oi( -4)1)1)1111Mo.) o 1)01.1 oi apim).14 IN1 .14)1 limp:pout pin! 1)111 moil) ;iii11)1111(1 !1i1:1(1 (1.149)1 1 ;)ti NutiotI plot oti au 1s IIIIJ 1:1). .1 .101)(111 e 0111 1101 11'..)Ii1):,1 je)V, St: Ill '74:--11:6i ()la 0.71111:q.) S1:..1. Ill ino.) i 111111 um 111)10m1)a 11011)11v MI\ 1)1"1 4.P1 ("CI 1()("Ps A%.0"111.1(1 1"" -`11111tgi.--`)ttt)-- .111`""s()1(1") 1)11(11-014)11Ak aeldA .s°sii").) 1)'"111)().1)111 .\'(1 Asels"a ).)111"11"" pill: itoui Iiiit).k I (mob lulu Of )0'8 Sploptils U 1 '101)1101 111111 '.-q:4).1V 011 liIII:(14,11) 1",1 no" S)SA Jo) SHP 0(H1 StI.1k. OI il:a.1.71. )11111 11 )111.41111) I)) -1(H).1.)1: ()PP" " 1( m(.\, 'owl" g)1110-1.1u(1 I'll) 1"u - 1101)"11111111(d)1) sl""11.);' ).Pl ...npidod Ill I 7,1:6 1)4) ).mit.ptioni! U Ilo(omiti)11(k.) su.% . lump; ntril jop iliolim v11,6 imam (It vol()tim tutu 6sos.mo.) ) 1( ) 1)(( lt.s 11:110110.tri 110!3Bi1 Jo ilmilai.)41 iconpa um .L11 .(1:--;1 4)91 lIttmilimIda .410(104 e .tt

11441M11111110,1 pun iml:),)) 1: I 111111:011.11),) 1)oni1011(1.) I I dolo.01/ Ael!1)1:111s :1111..111 ; din IiI)Iss.)-; 4;1 U1 *g.J: I 11 11:410.11)S Ili). .1%)11- - , NI(11)11.); 01iom poltado 1)1 ItIbIXI ti1110p 01 MX%) 7t11! 0,14).1% sloops 1101.'1(1111114 ;MM./14614 1 S.U1 % .11,1 1111S1:11.1.)11! 'DI

loam ;HD ()111111111) JOJ 11! 1.111.11S )! 4. MTV l'114 I 11,1 111011111 su -.11! 4)10 -11%).WII) 11Y1SOCI PI111.1 10.)0.14) 114 JO Atlif N11144,11.)': Min! I 11001L)111),) $.) -Mt Srlai 4).11)M pl)1119.1j110.) pi% I II SIS11111011.1 .14 )111 0.14 011.) Si()( 11! S1!).11: )). -lilt

41)011.1111Q alatu, S111( Mrni U 1:).1 i ! 1!Z 1 11041(11/),%.)p III)! ji 0111 iII11I.% 11,)!1im I: pirnits jo 11.111111.111) ! puit 111)!Iimilmi(ì.) mois.iN ito!IV.)111),) S.1.911.) 11!11; 114)1111 i sifoI( .111IptatN )14111It) Put: 1 (r.44)1( Ili SilUHU.Ç4 .qmo.tilt *.1(4)!11:4111.yo II .9 palm! 11:(1111 (1111 \ plitmtat) IIIuJJ ¡Wile It S! Itilstm.1.)(1! T4 oil ril)01 0.)1191110131: u (1:-Mea 11! ¡Mil 1110.0011) `MIMI Jo (()1.111M0.\ pm: [11.-MII(I)1")). 1.)11 110[1 SU.11 '0,9"(79

:'"'" fa

INP - -

gr- , ; :

4if I. ' t.

f 11- .

. ..0": "T.. 44.-r A-41"--7 0 SEcTIoN II. ASIA In the previoussection dealing. Nvitheducation in Europe, certain of, thP larger trndsand movementswereselected and discussed, and education withinacountry \vasmentionedasitalto.rdedanexample ofone or Rioreof the phases underconsideration.-Thatmannerof presentation isnot.easily applicable to Asiaas acontinent.Tbo greater partof the po.pulatioh of Asia is inChina. trid India, only twocountries, and inmanyrespects,asfaraseducation is concerneW tlabyseemtobe going in opposite directions..Itappearsadvisable- in this and most of thesubsequent sections to discusscountriesas entities and pointoui,what each has been (king in the pasf, 10year. The readerwillnotemanychanges analagouA to those most promi- nentin Europe, andmanyotherpeculiarto as countrybecause of its special physicalorhistoricalcharageKisiics.Chistia,India, Iran. and Turkeyareselectedasincluding rno,uf the important education eventsin Asia. CHINA The 18 provinces ofChinaproperhave ariareaof 1,532,815square miles andapopulation 440tin:rted at 370.7millions. Theareais about1:111'w-fourt1ìs that of Europe..uilstof Russia, and the population is approiniatelyequal to that ofwest-6'n Europe.Here, then, is asingle educationproject which- equalsin magnitude the total of the 30Euroiviin systems. , The first mgrked.changetowardamodern schoolsy.stemin China catile-in 1902.The advent of theRepublic in 1912 brought funda- menial alterationsin thesstem.Itwasagain revised in 1922.Tiw National People'sParty (Kuomintang)took ova the governmeht . in 1927 andin 1928 promulgatedthe "LawGoverninghe.Organi- . zation of theNatiohal Govermnen6of.i,heRepublic ofChina!'In 1927 thehighesteducAtionott. uthor0airthe national governmentwas# vestelliilthe National'University' uncil. Ayearlater thenamo of the connil waschungedP toMihist:ry orEducation,and it became ti part ofthe ExecutiveYuan,oneof the five major divisionsotthe. A - governrhent. 1r e e V( e a 3b .1

O . pa 'AREACOUNTRIES 31 AdinfniRtration.Cóncemingthe changesin education policythat werehrou!rht 'aboutin 1929 andlater by thenationalgovernment, the minister of Educationwrote in 1935:1 .4 Tbe developmentof moderneducation inChinli since i 912. has beencon- tiniums butnoteven in alldirections. . .. In fact,iiwas a period of intense activity butdivergent develupment:the university.secondary school, And primary schooleach growingmoreI or less in itsown way. Thisperiod of continuousbut divergentdevelopment could heappro- priately characterizedby what, forwant ofa better term.maybe called spontaneous growth.The guiding spiritin educationwas laissez-faire, not only evident ineducation,' but alsoin much thatwas happening in the social\ and intellectual life ofthecountry.The spirit ol(lai.qsez-fairewas most Obvious in theabsence ofa coordinated educationalpolicy of the Govern- ment -with respect to the.r.lative developmentbetween the uniwrsity, secondary school, and priniaryschool. To all intentsandpurposes. the Government's educationalpolicy since 1929 has been inspiredbyadifferent outlo4)1;:Ifniadifferent 'spirit.and many -Changes have been introducedin the educationsystem of the cotentry.These change's haveOne thing ,incommon: theyare guided by anattitude which refusedto believe in theefficacly andsufficiiIncy ofthe laissez-faire principle.If them isone crucial tost to distinguishthetwo 'periods divided roughly aroun81.)29, itis the renunciationof laissez-faire and. the introduction ofcoordinationas a polioy in education.Thisco- ordination not -only finds applicationin adjusting tiltcomponent parts of the educational system formore harmonious development,butmay also serve as abasis to judge themeasures adopted inrecentyears to meet the problems of each cif theparts. 7 This is the expression ofapolicy'of centralizingthe ,controlof education in the nationalgovernnwnt. That policy doesnot include forcing the political beliefs of thepartyon,the Chinese,people.It is ratheraplan for formingana.decituiteandwerr-Valanced:Tducatiob system.The first stepsweretaken early in1`92S andweremainly in thedirectionof ridding the schoolsof comm;misticand 'political activities.The Fourth Plenary Conference ofthe CPntralExecutive Committee of the Kuomintangheld February2 to 7. 1938, declared that China's greatestcausefor suffering is that immaturestudentsparticipate inaffairs of political and socialstruggle...: Howcan these great national and social tasks be left to theseimmature people withfreedom of action?This is not only'atremplulousac_Aree ofthe preMousfutture life of the nation, but is also makingethé life of theentire nptionor'society anarticle for child's play....

Shih-Cheh. Wang.Education in China.Shanghai. .China United . Press. 1935.45 p. DI.

4 . Ark II .owe 9

*- -_ 32 MENNIALSi7RVEY OF' EDIVATION, 1034-36 Thew:tyof salvo tilln is tosafeguard (Auranal independence, enrich (41!Ir:I f int!:$ 1clintent.4,LAW111:1;z:1inst The corrupt and dtpravation of our young.unior:aiize popular editrot ion, andetthaft:6-i the people's linmvledge Higherrd,,,,,/;(0.IIigher education is given in three classes of utions? Universit ies,independent colleges,and technical schools. Thet woformeraregoverned by the lawonuniversity organizat ion of July .26,.19.29;anamendment of 1934;and the reguTations of

uni versitvadIl.1nistrat ionoiA u!rmit 14, 1929.'The technical schools operateunder la of July6. 192.9,and the revisedre!rukiions..of Afarch .2e), 1931.These laws andregulations aim to insurein eact-.- universityabalance ofofferingssothat both classicalknowledge and science andits appikatiow;maybe had;toafford sound financial bases by fixingdefinite levi minima forinitialexpenseswhenan institution is established,and for its currentyearlyexpenses;tú regulate the int6rnaladministration of theinstitution; and to-provide conunonstandards of matriculationand (rraduat ion.The curricula aremainly in thehands of the institutions.but they alsomay come under the purviewof the Ministry ofEducation. As'trotidaryeducution.Secollolaryeducationwasbrought under three separate hiwspassed in Er32 andthreesetsof regulations is sued by the NIiiii.tryof Education in 1933.Secondary schoolsarc of threeClasses:Middle, 'normal,and vocational.Formerlythe three types could'flinction inOneschool;nowtheymust*be ke.pi separate.The middleschool is topreparestudents for universities.

If isa6-ye1t1 institution divided intothejimi(*)1' middle school of yearsand the ),eniorof 3.In the period from 1922 to 1929,middle schoolsfreeli-offeredelectivecoursesand therewas nostandarIl reasonable distributionof the differentsubjects in thecurriculuiii. he law of1.632and the later regulationsprescribed the subject to)be taught, fixedthe number of houraweek for each, setatotal abolished electives, and discont limed the credit .41 of 34to35-week-hou'rs, system.The stanchttd fortenchiiig each- subjectwasigr6ued .by thti Afinistry of Educationand completed in 1934.The rekulations of the schoolswithrespect tointernal mamigement, fees, admission, instruction, graduation,qualification§ of teachers, and similar mat- tersarecomprehensiveanSprecise.' Tlw. secondary normalschoolsadmitgraduates of juniormiddle schools and witlia:--yearcoursetrai_n them tçlsbe teachers of primary schools.They'alsocregtrictly patterned by the law of 19:3.and the eegulationsof the lkithistry. The yocationalschool'sareeither juniororsenior andmayhe established separately6r Wgether.Bothare3-yearinstitutions. .They alsoarecloselv regulated and by late 1933 tIleMinistry had *issued detailed cuyricula for thedifferent tradegroupsof stùdies.

4 a.s 6 1

.' FOREIGN COUNTRIE 33 4 In the middle and normal schools the law provi(lethatatlea,-t 20 percentof the annual budget shall 141 used for capital outlay purposes,notmorethan 70percentfor salaries. andnotnu)rethan 10 percentfor administration. Elementary piPleation.Elementaryeducation alsocameunder the direction of the Ministry bya1 93.2 lawonprimary sclu)(ds mid for the junior schools and 2 for.the senior.Theschoolsaremainly the regulations of 19V. It isa6-yearprocesdivided into4years supported by district, city,orvillage authorities.'file curriculum is . flied by law kindit is in the development ofthe curriculum thatnnicil ----*ogresshas been made. Themost-importaiit changewasfrom tho useJrntwicalChineseasthe medium of instructiontotilevernacu- . lar.'file educational. and social value of thislimy('isso(Treat that its implications cannotbe grasped.Probably the Chinese could neerhave attained anything approaching elementary education for all their children without taking this step. The law bf July 1934 fixes the qualifications, the examinations, and the certificates for teachers of primai.y schools. Stati8tics.Statistics(i4feducation in Chinavaryconsiderably.A . summaryofoneapparently authenticreport isasfollows:2

TABLE 4.---E1 )UCATIN IN CHINA

Kind of .c.hool Ninnherof: Number of Teaching schools ; st lp It'll I6 matt

1 -2 3 I 4

GO Public: Kindergartens ._ _ _ ..... 769 32. tv.s 1,4iN Primary_ _ _ . . .. - ...... '212.72m 9,S92.:110, 437. 101 Higher priniary ._ N21 I:M.1.17h 13. ;62 secondary . _ _ _ '204 2:). :114 s.

Conipletnentary._ _ - -- 0. 3.-,4 1,2M. 74; 7, 910 Vocat ional______209 26.44S 4, ti77 Normal 0)1 93. to; 10, 702

Universities . . 37 Its. 92,-) 6, 209

Other higherinst i t iltion . 20 1, 92 828 Private: .. Kindergartens. 327 14, *; Primary. __ _ . _ 44, 997 2,381.390 116, 2s1 0 igher prantiry._ _ . . . ;06 14:N.4,10 9, 1,20 Secondary_ _ _ . 330 40. s11 11,47 Complementary. 45, 597 212,230 15, ;#69 Vocational .1110 103 16, 034 2, oso Normal 32 7. 143 693

Universities. _ . . 42 ' 20, 441 3, 905 Other higherinstitutions. _ . 9 1,G48 372

..- - - - - r' "411 - Most of thee schoolsarecoeducational;nfewarefor girls only.. Of the total number of students, at least 14 percentaregirls atid women.

2 BureauInternationald'Education.Annuatre internitionalde`I'Mucationet de Pen- Aseignernalt,1M6. tiene,e,BUreau Internationalcrgducatiuu,1036- III ii

010" 3 111,

s 34 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-3e Compul8ory education.L---The primary school enrollment of around 121/2 millions is small inanationthat must have at least 70 millions of children between the ages. of 6 and 14. The Chinese Government tarly adopted the principle of universal compulsory education but the magnitude of the undertaking, the buildings and equipment to be provided, the books to be sugplied, thearmyof teachers to be trained, and the fundstobe raised, have prevented carryingout the principle inanyshort time.Various plans have been offered and undertaken to meet the situation.The schenite of 1920 provided that complete enforcement of compulsory educatiön should be attained in 8yearsby applying it in 1921toprovincial capitals andopenports; 1922, country seatsánd cities;1923, towns withmorethan 500 families; 1924,townswithmorethan 300 families; 1925 and 1926. townswithmorethan 200 families; 1927, villages withmorethan 100 families; and 1928, villages with fewer than 100 families.Because of political troubles thatprogram was neverseriouslyputinto effect. The National Educational Conference in1930 outlinedaplan that would, it hoped, enforce compulsory education throughout China in 20years.The Ministry of Education in 1932 formulatedascheine toincrease the number of children in primary schools by 10perceht in the time from August 1932toJuly 1935 and fOlow that bya similar drive.It tried toarrangealso for 1yea'rof instruction for childrenbetween-114and 16 who had missed the primary school. The'latest proposal made in1935 is that the duration of obligatory instruction will be1yearfor the5yearsbeginning 1935;.2.years beginning 1940; and 4yearsfrom 1945.For 1935-36, the National Government offered aidto the amount of $2,400,000 to 'carry itout and the Boxer indemnity funds contributed $300,000. Reduction of illiteracy and aun education.TheLeague of Na- tions' Mision of Educational Experts reported:1 Adult education isoneof Abe most satisfactory features of educationin China.Thereare two special aspects of adult education in China which differentiate it at first ilea from the work ofcorresponding organizations in Europe and America.In the nest place, it bulks much larger iiithe educational systemas awhole, and its budget is proportionally ,far bigger than in other countries.In the second place,it standsin'China for somethingverydifrerent, both in its character and its essentialaims, from adult education in Europe and America.... Ina`country wherethe percentage of Illiterates is somewbere about eighty,title teaching of reading and writing is bound to be the tnain object' of'adult education,not merely in order to putanend toilliteracy, but alsoto induce adults to have their children better educated, and to win them éverto thecauseof the extension of educatiqn.Adult education is also here,as a rule, the 1111110111 I The League of Nations' Mission of 'Educational Experts.The Reorganization of Edu- cation in Chin'a.Paris, institute of Igtellectual Cooperation, 1932.200pp.

p f atin FOREIGN4 COUNTRIES 35 principal form of social education.... Educational activitiesfor adults fall unaer three main heads, viz: tki. 1. Theeducationofadults who have had noopportunityof acquiring the rudiments; this includes thecampaign against illiteracy,popular schools, social centers for theeducation of the masses, etc. 2. Subsidiary organizations for adult educationavi advanced study (libraries,=setups,etc.). 8. Social education in general, viz, :estheticeducation, improvement of social manners and popuhir pastinles,popular physical education, weral culture, etc. Allthese activities are directed by adgpartment of the Ministryof Education. aes TheIncasedueaiionMOVeWilt.Most famous of allthe adult education efforts'in China ana indeedamongthemostfamous in :Iffy country, is themasseducation movement launched in 19.20by Y. C. James Yen.In its earlieryearsit involved selecting about 1,000 of themostcommonly used characters fromthe "pai hua," Ow language commonly spoken by themassof the Chinese, preparing texts from them, and workiq outasystemof teaching by which literacyin them could be attained byan averageilliterate working only 1 houraday for 4 months. The planhasproved practical .and workable.Goodprogress was made n the largecities and in 1929 the point of emphasiswasshifted from extensive promotion ofliteracytointensive study of rural life and needs, and the TingHsien experimentwasestablishedtowork onthree types ,of educatipnschool,home, and socialandafour- fold plan of reconstructionin culture,conomics, health; and socio- politics. An account of theexperiment is availabit in English.8 Stictuisof private education.Table 4on. page33siNvsthat pri- vateeducation hasalarge part in thetotal of the education efforts

in China.Moreover, much of thepriA4rateeducation has beenoffèred. -by foreigners; mainlymissionaryorganizations from occidentalcoun- tries.' ,The Chinese people havebyno meansbeen uilaffected by the spirit of nationalismmanifest in the world'in the past two decades, and several attempts havebeen made to *ork outastatusfor private . institutions in China that would besatisfactorytoboth the Chinese governmentand the institutions.Regulations of Noveiùber 1925, Ottiker 1926, August 1029,and October .1933, all look toward making foreign educational enteririsesin China sublecttòthesamerequire-

; mentsasChineseschootsproper.All private schools,are required to registir with the publicauthorities and their organization, curricula, and all other mattersshall be carried°outin accord withcurrent education laws andorders.No foreignersmayestablish primary schools

sChinese National Associationof the Mass Education Movement The Tinglislen". Experiment in 1934.:Peiping, 1934.40 pp.-

411 . T it e

36 I;IENNIAI, SURVEYOF EDU('ATD)N,1934-3G for theinjationof Chinese children;indnoreligiousceremonies maybe held inprimary schools.The head ofaninstitutionof middleschool gradeorhighermust be..a Chinese citizenand in such institutionsnotmorethan One-thirdof the membersof the boardOf director.maybe foreigners.Religioussubjectsmay notbe compul- sorin secondary schoolsoruniversities,and religiouspropagandaas a partof the lesson'sisnotpermitted."In effect,the nationalgovernment intendstohave directcontrol of theprivate educational projectstothe endsthat they givegood instructionand. idonot interfere withthe developmentof Chinesenational life.

I V 4 Edu('atif)nin India hasbeen keenly"respotisiveto political and economic conditions.A wordpictureof theyearsfollowing the Government of IndiaAct of1919 is:4 Indeed, inslum% respects. theyears hetWeN11922 and 1930 forma period which may well be egardedas perhaps themost inl)iring in theannlls14* Indian educa t A burst Ofenthush1smswept children intoschool withunparalleledra- pidit!1/4-;an almost childlike faithin the valueof imitwationwas implanted in the mindsof thepeople:parentswere prepared to makealmostany sacrifice for theeducation oftheir children;the seed oftolerance toward; the lessfortunate in life. WIrl'sbegotten: ambitionsand comprehensivepro- grammesof developmentwere formulated, whichwere calculated to fulfill the dreams ofa literate India: theInslimcommunity, longbackward in edu(ation, pressed forwardwitheagerness to obliteratepast defici.encies; enlightenedwomen began to storm thecitadel ofoblititne prejudiceagainst the educationof Indiangirls:government, with thefullconcurrence of legislative councils,pouredout largesums ofmoney on education,which would have beenregardedas beyond the realm ofpracticalpolitiesten years .previously. InabroadNvay.the followingtable indicatesthe growth. TABLE 5. GROWTHOF EDUCATIONIN INDIAIN NUMBEROF INSTITU- TIONS,AN1) PUPILS,AND AMOUNTO 'EXPENDITURES,1921-22 TO 1933 -3-1 411 11_-

;

Yell* i Insi itutions pend ittires ( r i i wes)

2 3. 4

1921-22 lls 8. 3S1 350 183. 752, 969 1926-27,...... 248,264 11. 157, 4% 1927-28... 245, 847,572 2M, 724 11. 775. 222 ribs. 278, s19 1928-29... 25s. 018 12. leti. 104 1929-30 270. 732, 253 2A0. 94(1 12.415, 12fl 1930-31 274, 2S21Ol 1931 -32..... 262, 068 1Z 689, OM 23, tell 446 257, 792 12, 766, 5,37 27 1.864,622 1%12-33 255, 3414 12, 853, 532 1933-34..... 257, 87, VS 2.in. 725 13, 172. 890 261.76s,ISO

64Anderson.iGoorge.Prógress ofEdueritionIn India 1927-32.Tent!).Quinquenuial Review, T()volumes.Delbi, Ma uagetof Publications,1V34.

11 6 FOREIGN (1 )UNTRIES 37 Translated intotermsof annual increases and decreases. these data show: - -roux 6.--NNUAL INCREASES AND DE('REAsEs' ININSTITI"114)Ns, PUPILS, AND EXPENDITUREs IN INDIA, 1921-122T()193::3-1

1 t !Irv: Year i1:1II Epew t a III )

1 2 3 4

1921-7.2 to 1926-27 t;'24.0 .71 ..71 12.41).. 920 1(.126 '27 to 1927'2` K 4.41 t. IT .7P; 12.431.'217 1927-2N to 192%., 29 3 '294 3'.'11. V.:. 4:41.434 (C Pr2s 29 In19'.-30. "... Owh 1 0.2 1r21-30 to 1930 -31 .... 1.1:-.! 17:c.!bill l.*4., 19 0-31 to 1931 12. 2 1.)7t1 7. 4 211..414'2; 1,, !:431-32 to 193233 ..... 2 2.44$ ¡ 21.A.1.#`414i.7:4 1932-33 to 1933-34 ...... _ ..... _ I.:i; 319.

AnnuAlaveragefor 5yt-trs. 3I *Crt:1-41

In the firstyearof this decennium the !rains in inst itut and expenditureswere greaterthan the annualaveragefor thepreceding quhrittennium.Gains then decreased until the crisisyear, of 19:1 1-32 1932-33 when institutions and expenditures lostall that had beenwonin the previous 3years.It is significant that the number of pupils continuedtoincreaseeventhough slightly.In the followings year, which showed betterment in the economic situation, moderate increases in institutions and expenditures'werere- !gulled, afidalarge addition.wasmadetothe ntim1;er of pupils. Decent ralization of administ rà.tion.Thfingh the Government af India had little control, of education priorto 1921when the political reformswentinto effect,,those reforms includeda processof transfer 6f responsibility to proincial government ami later to local bodie tosuchanextentthat few othercountrieshavesocompletely decentralized the administeation of education.Chapter II of the Quin- quennial Review to .which referencewasmade previously(see page36) isa surveyof thewaythat policy has workedoutinIndia. aclassic in themanydiscusv.6, sof the relative merits and defects in tichaplan.Among thetki*antagescitedare:Developmentof initiative and the desiretoexperiment; closercontactwith publie opinion; removal of:delays caused by the necessity of referring all important questionstoadistant authority; freedom of each provinco todevelopaneducation policy suitedtoits needs; training people in themanagementof theirownlocal affairs;.and active and intel- 11' ligent interestin education shown by the provincial legislatures. Amone the defects that havecome.tolight in this Indian experience are:A natural tendency of the province to isolateitself from its 'neighbors,tppassfrow tbe proincial to the -parochial apd tore- spondtooreadilytokeid implelses; loss of the advantages derived . 4.1 I

- 4 4 I6? 38 ,BIENNIAL SURVEY OFEDUCATION, 1934-36 z from submission of educatiqpplansto anauthority dommanding awider outlook; loss/ of aidfrom centralrevenues to meetthecost of developing compulsory primary education;wastefulness insome provinces of themoney spent onprimary education; seriousover- lapping between the provinces especially in the regiona higher editcation; weak provincial administration andinspeCtidn service; andtoo frequentchanges in provincial education ministerssothat continuity of policy has been madeverydifficult. Compulgor!A eduration.The 13,172,890 students in schoolsin* India in 1934 amountedto 4.85 percent of the population, and literacyamong persons5yearsofageandoverin 191was9.5 percent.In that situation, compulsory educatjon has madesome progress.By 1930 the compulsion principle for boys had been introduced in Madras, Bombay, Bengal, United Provinces, Punjab, Bihar and Orissa, Central Provinces, Assam and Delhitheseare most of Indiabutwasand isnotappliedto the entireareas.In 1932atotal of 153 urbanareasand 3,392 rural sectionswereunder compulsion.It has mhdemore progressjn thePimjabthan inany otberarea.For economic and otherreasons,authorities in'India feel that it is not advisableto enterupon adrasticprogramof enf9rcing compulsory education:5 Spasmodic "drives" to bring in all and sundry ofvaryingagesandcom- . petence cannot be productive ofanylasting benefit and militateagainst orderly organization of good class teaching.The better planwoUldbe tó makeacarefulsurveyof thecensusstatistics and to estimate foreacharea the nuIber of pupils attaining theageof 6years in each year who should beadmittedItoschool by theagençyof compulsion. By thatmeansclass organizahlon would be simplified and, with regularity ofattendance resulting fromcompufsion,pupils should complete the primar'ycoursein the normal period of time."Straining after the last truant"is both vexatiousand extravagant.It is farmore important to exact'penaltiesfrom parents,of children whoareirregular in attendance andwho leave school before completing thecoursethan in respectto boys who havenodesire to attend school. 4 t 0 e at v* $ I; 4 a There-is,'therefore,no causeforunduepessimism, provided .:: that earnegt effortsarebeing made toprepare the way forcompillsion.As efficiency of teaching is improved, so will the pros*cts of cpmpulsionbecomelbrighter. The essential jre1linnary is the establishmentofaseries of five-class

schools, staffed by well-trained products of vernacular middle 1 hools. A

well-devised distribution of schools is also essential;cOmpuisiocannot be , ; based9nephemeral schools without continuityortradition. A viageschool . 1 under compulsion should becomeavillage'institution. . '4 I Education of girls and tvoinen.Ofthe 12,766,537 studenonthe

. rolls in 1932 of all classestfinstitutions,2,492,649or19 percent

. I Anderson, Sir Ge6rge.Progress of Educationin Indian 1927-32.Tenth Q inquennial Review. Two volumes.Delhi, Manager of Publications,1934. . fr

... '... A 7..4.. 4. L.,..,..".. --, ... , . . , ., , '14 ------/.._..,..;-._-L.-,...... -. . ,. . . .-, i .. ,. ,..,,,...4..,...., _- , -- --- ..---&-.....,,, -'-=-e-,:r -,-:. -:-.-um irfte. ---=-4.e'*1--.0-,'&-;021--'4"--.....L`---:.d.'1" w--_ --kt&7-- -2--4.1.0--.40--..1-:: =':...21, 'Iti.f="i. 't.'-''.:--- -y,4-1.:15=.-Z' t FOREIGN .COUNTRIES 39 were womenand girls. That ratio ofonetofourexpressesbroadly theattitude in Indiatoward educationofwomen.Moreover,an overwhelming part ofthis enrollment isin the first threeclasses,61 theprimary schools,and the losseac:11yearis startling.The number of girls byclasses from 1927 to1932'was: Class Year Enrollment Remarks 1927-28 1, 215, S22

faim MO. had droppe(1 out). 11 mONI. .11W MO& .M1 el. 1924-29 311, 281 (near]; three-fourths

air ONO 1929-30 1)7,321 (more than tive-sixths had gone). Iv 1930-31 120, 464 (about 1 in Aremained). V 1931-32 69, 945 About 1 in 17 of thosewho-entered class Ihad reached andwere studyingin class V.Ofcourse,classes IV and Vare'necessaryif there is tobeany assurancethat the girls will acquir6 aminor kind of literacy andretain it.Note the numberof girls in classes IVand V by provincesin 1932, and therelationship of that number tothe female population.

TA.B77.NUMBER OF GIRLSIN CLASSESIV AND V, ANDFEMALE POPULATION 4- Female Girls in Province populationclasses IV (rfilllions) Ind V lit. IrarmahNmille Madras 23.6 69,770 Bombay-- 10.3 44,782 Bengal_ 24. 0 15,779 2119 12,092 United Provinces... _ Punjab lo 7 20,840 7. 1 14,605 6 . ------175 Bihar and Orissa _ 1g 8 4, Central Provinces 7.7 6,583 Assam 4.0 8,919 Northwest Frontier.. 1.1 1,564 British India, including minorsubdivisions__ a 1 131.7 203,728

This pictureof Myer than 264thousand girls in thethird and fourth grades outofatotal femalepopulation ofmorethan 131 millions is far frombeing bright.Yet it representsagain of nearly 50 percent in 5 years.Further increasesof 20,097weremade in 1932-33,and 23,645 in 1933-34. OP The underlyingcausesof the situationhave been thesocial and Aligious attitudestoward the educationofwomen.They expressed themselves inallowing comparatively scantappropriations for girls' schools, compelling girls toattend schools for boysand be taught bymenteacherg, makinglittlle provision for the training ofwomen teachers, andopposition to thatkind ofcoeducation in which both * -menandwomen are onthe teaching staff. flo The situationhas improvedmuch in the pastdecade. Many of. the social and.religious obstacles towoiti- en's educationarecrumbling; the percentof.girl students'who reach classes IVand V is increasing; a ..1. 3

- 6

40 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDWATION,1934-36 an the trainingschools forwomenteach&rsareconstantly enrolling morestudents.High schook andmiddle schools for girlsare growing in number andmost of the Provincial authorities-fare optimistic overthe deN.elopmentof collegiateeducation forwomen, ot/wr phtmeN ofedrIcation.Adulteducation has forthemost part failed in India, and vocationaleducation has maderelatively little progress. IRAN' The founding of thePahlivi dynasty.December16. 1925; opened thewayfor the rapid advancesill education.Since that datesteps have been taken in quicksuccessionto round outacomplete effect- tive school.N.stenifor the 12 millionsof people.For themost part educationalmovementsin thepast decade in Iran have followedthe patternof those connected withrevolution inEurope.Iran has knellpassing throtigharevolution in thewayof file adoptionof manyOccidental ideals,-customs, and modes of livingand withthat change hascomethewestern concept of universal education.The Iranian situation is characterizedbystrong nationalization ofeducation in thesensethat the centralgovernment administers.and mainlysupportsall'public education,controls al.uraids private dtools, has alltypesof education withinits purview,and is.build- ingup awell-tiftifiedsystekn of Jay schools. Statistically theprogressis indicatedin tlfefollowingstable: TABLES. GROWIII OFEDUCATION INIRAN, 1924-25- TO 1931-35 1 t 1924- 1034-3i

Schools of all kinds and levels 3, 285 5. 339 Number ofstudents 108,939 255, %- 173 Te:whing SlatY ...... 6, bst 11, 9o1 Pupils taking the examinationsat primlrysellook 1,876 8, 874 Pupils taking the examinations ofthe berimI cycle of sec-undulyeducation 77 748 Students on taking (examinations university 61 183 Education ,budget, in riais 40.08'24at par) 7,731, 38U US, OK 070 . 4

Milltipiying the educat'ion'budget, by somethingmorethanseven and doublingthe enrollment in thee'schools duringyearsthatwero mainlyw:ithinaneconomic crisisbespeaksanunusualearnestness di and effort.4 0 Schoolsof different kindsand levels.Kindergartensnumbered 22 in 1934-35. 111.t1tthe excevtionofonewhich ismaintainedby the Governmenttoserve as amodel, allarecarriedonby private ,organizations andkeptOpenfor the greater Nut of the day.Some 4p

continue their workduring thesummervacation. -3

. 4ThePersian Governmentrequested thatbeginning withthe Persian NeirYear, March 22, 1935, allother governmentsin addressingit ukse "Iran"and "Iranian"instead of "Persia".and "PerSian." ThePersians call theircountry "Iran" andrefer to themselves as"Irani."Iran is derived fromthe ancient"Aryana' meaningthe country ofthe Aryans.

ane 4

%.4

6 -`-'a Fuld; COUNTRIES 41 Primaryinstructionhas been.madeobligatory forboth boysand girls from 7 to 13yearsofage.In thecities thecurriculum is(3 years;in the ruraldistricts,44 Eighteenprimaryagriculturalschools Invariousparts Of thecounty follow the4yearsof generaleducation by2%yearsthatarepurefyagricultural.Not until1935-36was there coedufationonprimarylevels.Int hatyear somemixed schools wereestab )(Idin Teheranand in ia the provinces.Publicprimary schools in (34 :;:")were915 withaneiTollment,..pf10S,Gia, of which 23,379weregirls.At thesametime3,726 privateprimary sch(xas had120,162 pupils,includi.ng ;29girls.Pupils whohave finished the sixth -yearof primaryschoolingand earnedthe certificateof completion ofprimary studies , may stopschool,enterasecondary school 4)fgeliN:111 tivaining,ortakeupwork i'navocational school. -. Secondauy instruNion is6yearsfor boys,5 for girls,and issimilar to s"econdary trainino- inFrance. Abaccalaureateis grantedtho successfulstudents andwith itcomesadmissiontostudyonuniver- sity4vels.Publicsecondaryschoolsnumbered104 in 1934-35and em ed10.0-20 pupils, of which747 a weregirls.Therewere547 private secondaryschools with12.200 enrolled,including2.47s girls. In furtheranceof its planto haveacompleteNationalsystem of education, theIranianGovernmentset apart 2 million rhilsin the ' .budgetiof19:33-34 to purchaseasite andbegin buildingsforapublic. university.The lawestablishing theuniversity(Danesligali)was approved byVarliament(11ajlis)onJune :Pi,1934.OnFebruary.4, 1935, the Shah laidthe founaat iohstone of thenewinstitution.Von- struction hasbeen goingOncontinuouslysince.ThisnewTeheran University hasfacultiesof medicine,htw andpiditicaletjonomy, theology,sciences,art's,and , engineering.Not allof these tirenew faculties.That of 114edicine, (g.,. forinstance, datesto 1854 andis.the. oldest ofthegroup's which I.1, are nowbroughtintoasingleorganiza- tion connectedwith theMinistrya PublicInstruction.In1934,-33 t withastair of109, the University o registered1,19s studentsand grad- uated158. . Almost coincidentwith thelawestablishingTeheranUniversity was amenactment providingthat withit!5yearsafter Alarch21, 1934, theGovernment shouldfound'25 lowerno-rmalschoolsat therate of 5 eachyear, ahighernormal gehoolfor girls,andcomplete the 4 previouslyfounded highermumlsehool forboys.Atthe closeof 1934-35 therewinse 7 oftheselower normalschool'sfortraining: Primary schoolteachers andearly inthe followingyearnewlower normalswereopenedat TeheranoTabriz,Meched,Chtraz,and Reek. Technical andvocational education. are notbeingneglected,but r the schoolsaremostly underministriesotherthan thatof public. instruction.Besides thefacultyof engineering . intheuniversity, 52172*---38-4 kit

a . .. e .. _ , - 42 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 arethe higherschools' ofwar,arts Eind crafts, agriculture,midwives, financialsci06$, -and veterinary science.011 lower.levels of instruction,areschogls of arts and crafts,commerce,Cyeing, posts and telegraphs, agriculture, civil service, andfinancial sciences. Reduction ofilltleramj.Earlyin 1936anactive campaign against illiteracywaslaunched byanorder directing the Minister ofPublic Instructionto*open in prilnary schools alloverthe country classes

.in reading, writing, and arithmetic forilliterate adults between 18 and 40 yeurs ofage.The instructionwasmade compulsory for illiterate policemen and subalterns inpublic offices'.Later in the.year reportsshowed that 752.night classes had beenestablished.

Sending students .abroad.The.idea of sendingyoung1,ranianls abroad for training originated in 1911 whenalawwaspassedpro- viding that the Government wouldsetid 30 eachyearto Europe,half of them to taketeacher-trainingcoursesandreturn to enterthe 'teaching profession in Iran.Political disturbances in the World War brplieupthis sOleme after the firstgrouphad been selected andnt.But the jdeaclung:dwastakenupagain in 1928v when pron.n wasmade for 100 .stqcier,its togoabroad yearly to Europe

and Am ica, 35.of,them tosiOy education. . In 6years,640were granted tsescholarshipsan4:-.669 _completed theirstudies.*The number in education was 143.,Thirty-one other vocationswere represented in the,group;medicine stpod' second highest with 96.

TURKEY " 4N 4-, 4.:4 Att . .- 'the revolutiothat has been takingpiacein Tutkey in the past 4 rryears has benhorough and drastic.Frpmadespotism presided overby aolute hereditary monarch, thfi _governmentchanged _._ toareiib1ic withanational as-sembly and ari electedpresidene.. 4.` The seat of governmentwasmoved from Istanbul, which had been.' the capital ofone oranother empire for 16 centuries, to Ankhara, aninland town.thecivilgovernment wasseparated from the .church.The franchisewasopenedtoall Turkish*enandwomen at theageof 23 andwomenwale declaredeli011efor electionto public offices.Even the alphabetwits discarded and'amoresuitablé oneadopted. Education keptpacewith the revolution.The law oft uniform education of March 3, 1924,closed the theological seminariesAMad- raseh), numbering:)me490 and attendedby 12,000 pupils, and paved theway*for secularization ofeducatiA andamodernscho61systerh. Private schoolsareunder careful public supervision and haveaplace much less importantthan formerly in Turkisheducation affairs. The abolitionof the Arabic itlphabet bylaw ofgovemberf,1928, and the substitution 'ofthe Latinalphabet greatly simplified the

41 . , -ka a- an.4., Z.'4,-..'."1=S.PLA14$.44,.04.1....., a . 1-:=--:' :I- FOREIGN COUNTRIES 43 teaching of rding and writing andmude itmoreReady possible tobring the 16 millions of Turkish. peopletoastateof literacy in areasonable time.Illiteracywasestimatedat 85.percentin 1931,32. With the change in alphabetacommissionwasset'up by the Ministry of Educationto simplify and purify the language, compileadic- tionary for it, and settleits scientific and technical phraseology. From January 1, 1929, all Government departments and business. houseswerecompelledtousethenewalphabet aqdnoother could be employed inanybookor newspaper.Westerji_figures and the mitric systan;of weights aridmeasures wereadopted- from Junè 1,in9. . Obligatoryinstriwtion.Thebasic lair cif theneweducational oriánization dates,from March22. 1926.Unckr itstermsthe control ofeclùcation is strongly centralized in the nationalgovernment acting mainlythrough .t.1* ilinistry of Public Instruct.ion.Tlw Allinister holds the right of inspectioneven overthe colleges and deparfments of theUniversii.1337. Article 87 of the constitution, .primaryulti cationwasmade 'obligatory for all Turks and free oftpitioncharges in the public school.The obligation beginswhen4104chihlis 7.years ofageand lasts for. 5 ye4rs.It has hot.been 'e-nforced throughout alitlie iepublicbecause ofalack of school buildidgs,an urgentprob- lem to which the authorities have given nnich attentioil.Thecost ofavillage school building isadirect charge againsethe villagers. Some of the richer vilayets (proiinces into which Turhefyis dile(l for-91.rposes of Oministration) have been ableto eréctaschool in

!'1. more , 'eirery,village,l'In:poor4... and qmrsely settled hreas jointscbools ar6 ¡ .:Oita&gom'etimes -boanling aecommodatifms and inother %,..T Caség withtrans irt-atiot Wand from school.Actingpnthe adte

r-; ofEirrppeaì-.v.etiitii4s;:the Ministry .hasamodel buildingat A - -.- .,_ ,. haratiud."-distriimtesto,thè vilayets plans of buildings suitedtoeach`

área,iiiirticul.ar attention being paidtothe.typeof building material .. , . ., . . . ..,.-, .`: , . . available in the locality. .,..- ,. The 5-yèar primary school **gram adopted is essentiallyof the . activitytype based...on centers of interest,aridsomedifficulty is mér incarrying it through because of theextreme change from previous programsand the lack of trained teachersto undertake the.more . . difficult form of, teachink. . , r '.'.- ,

e Teacher training.---Toprovide accommodations for the noiinal

. , schools that must be established to train elem'eatary school'teachers, the government voted considerablesumsofmoneyand- required'each ...... z . vilayet to set aside 10 percent of its local budget._ each for 5years.- !-;t .?, i -By thatmeans someexCellentmodernstructures'withgood equip-

ment_wereprQvided. By 1933-34 there vierii 10 primary-normal . sch-giolsforinenand 7, forwomen.Theprogramof studies,based I. 4

4. 0,

NO 11 ....wore or. , 44 BIENNIAL SI EY 1.1)1V.1TION, lt13-1 onthe 5-year Primaryschool curriculum,asatfirst itself of 5 years' duration.Experience proved that tohe unsatisfactory, andanother year wasadded. niaking two cyclesofstu.diesof 3yearseach.The first cycle is essentially thesame a,;that of the higher,prilnary ciltools; the second is stronglyhi:It-441 towardpeda

itiems conflicting.The Turkish delegate-Apr at the Third Interhational )11 E IGN cnt-NTRIEs 45 . ( (inferenceonPublic Instructionheldin Geneva.'Switzerland, reported forthe schoolyear1 932-33 substantiallyasfollows:7

Tully 9-.-EDUCATION INTURKEY,P.r.12:13 - qr. 0/.

a 1 Nu ni herof schools Number of c.tutient, 'Fe:tutu:1c iir Kind of school

Public , Pm ate 1tIh1R' ; FriAte Public Priv:ite A

"mmonNIMIN 2 3 4 4 6 7

- -

Kindergarten . 13 611 Primary_ .., 6,.°10;, 540. tro 11.:1 30, 3 s 13.7%.11.28 II prim:try Zt 30. s.V 1..412 rt.4 1.. :9', -.econflary. .. 31) 32 5, 3:t.1 '2. INN .1 .N1 1)Cat 1011. :iti 4. :92 . 1141.1 I,07:1 Normal. . _ IN 2. (I:,9 . 319

t 1 r..9 niversity. 3, '217 Otter liii4tier 11 1. N9 . .)-

_ The schoolsystem is in the maincoeducat ional;ahighPercentage of the studentsaregirls andwomen.

Anima IIeInternational de l'Éducat ionet de l'EnseIgnemont, 1935. CenAve, Bureau Internalional &Education,1935.

"b.

13 . . %or

I A. 4

SECTION III.AFRICA s For this greatcontinent, the Union ofSouth Africa andEgypt presentthe national asc)lool systemstaken ifitoconsiderationassig- nificakThemanydifferent and mulchvarying schemes of colonial educationaresketched briefly. UNION OF SOUTHAFRICA The totalareaof the fourProvinces of the Union is 472,550 square miles; the estimatedpopulation is 1,944,000 ofEuropean descent, and 6,656,000 nativesand Asiatics. As regardsthe Europeans, the country is bilingual. TheofficiallangutigesareEnglish and Afrikaans. The language situationis further complicated bythe considerable number of native a.nd Asiatic tonguesthatarespoken. Administration;:No other-countryhassoCuriousadivisic;nof educational authorityand administrationasbetween the cen.trr..1 andpro- vincial governments. Whenthetrnionwasformed in 1910,aUnion

EducationDepartmehtwascreated tx) administerhigher educatioi! ahd education "gther than higher"wasentrusted to the provincial authorities.Originally higher educationwasconstrued tomeanonly theactivities of institutions of university i:ank.Gradually the Union Government hastakenovervarious phases of educationuntilits administration applies tocertain kinds ofinstructionon.all level-. 'The Union EducationDepartment deals withchild welfare, vocational ;nation(including agricultural),technical colleges, universityrna- triCulation, and professionalexaminations."Other than higher' educition within its borders is controlledbyeach Provinceand includes the kindergarten,primary, and secondaryschools of general education,aswellasthe teacher-trainihg thatisnotcarriedonin the universities, andnative educatio'n.-In*these lines the _Union Goveriuneht haslittle authority, though itsubsidizes the Provinces toa4out 75 percentof their expenditurtifor education. This division ofresponsibilities anddutieiasbetween the Union . and Provincial governmentshas not been satisfactory.In effect five independent and còequaleducation departments,ono thereare .,# each for the Cape ofGood Hope,Natal,. Transvaal, the Orange Fre State, and the Union of South Africa.Coordination is lackingand

vaipus attempts have been made toprovide it. . th 1929aNational Bureau of Educationwasinstitutedaa àpart of the Union Education Derrtment. .TheBureau'squnctionsareto - .

11. N. a ob. FOREIGNCOUNTRIES 47 collect and compilestatistics . oneducation throughoutthe Union; actas aliaison office betweenthe five educationdepartments;rep- resentthe Union in connectiori the work Qf theCommitteeon Intellectual Cooperationof theLeague of Nationsand the Inter-\ national Bureauof Educationat Geneva; buildup alibrary of documentation of -educationin all countries;and doresearchwork in problems ofaneducationalorsocialnature. By 1935 the Bureau had five divisions:Educational research,socialres-eárch,psychologi-. cal research and service,the NationalLibraryonEducabional and Social Research, andtho film division. Teacher training whiledistinctly hi!rheredwationinthesensethat it is post-matriculationstudy, is mainiycarriedonin18provincial normalortraining colleges.One of the fi'rstimportant piecesof work undertaken bytheNagon'alBureau ,of Educationwas astudy of andareportonthe training\of teachersthroughout theUnion. Itsfindingsthat therewasgreat diversity in thenamesandconnota- tions of the teachers' certificates,training methodsvaried much, percapitacosts for providing training rangedfrom I:102to 2252, and that the Provincesweremakingaprofitonthe subsidypro- vided by theUnion Governmentfor teachertraining, led theSecre- taryfor Educationto recommend in1930 that the servicebeor- ganizedon anational basis andplaced underUnion control.The recommendation hasnot been carriedout. echnkal educatiart,The UnionDepartment ofEducation administers 8 technical.colleges underAct No.30 of 1923, 7 industrial schools by provisionsof the Children's.ProtectionAct No. 25 of1913, and 29 State trade,commercial,agricu1t4a1,and house-craftschools under the Vocational Educationand SpecialSchools ActNo. 29 of 1928. It aids I othervocational schools.Special schoolsfor tile blinddid'deaf also handledby the UnionGovernment underAct 20, areadministerpdby theDepartment of theInterior. Fromits in- ception the Union Governmenthad been graduallyassuming control of technical instruction,andonApril 1,1925,asaresult ofaninter- Provincial conferenceheld in 1924,it tookoverall the industrial sildtrades schoolsformerly administeredby theProvinces. h hisreportfor 1928, theSecretary foiEducation reviewedthe situ ation withrespect to technical education..*He notedthát, the technical collegeswereconstantly discoveringnewneeds forwhich they shouldmake provision, andrecommend thaturban hostelssub- sidized by thestate be establishes for tbe many young pe9ple who 114 wishtechnical training butare.toopoorto afford it.Othersug- s. gestions includedasubstantial increasein the23,000 fundfor bur- sarieo,the future abolitionof tuition feesfor technicalschools, instruction being madeasfreely nonfee payingasthat in thegeneral secondary schools; andapis.o gramof developingagriculture;house-.

4 b . s % .111. . 4 ; 110 .ezs. 1.6 ..t .. -Y . . '1 4 t L.- _ .P.-4. I. - - I 48 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION,1934-36 41. craft, and trades schools inrural and small townareastobe carried form ard without interruption. Hepointedoutalso thatmanyOf the vocational schoolswerein nee.d of better buildings andequipment. Further, he indicaed that the salary scalesfor teachers hi technical instructionwere*much lower than those paid inthe,sevondarvi sch6o1s of generaredueatioh,acondition that made itdifficultto attractthe kind ofmenandwomenthe service demanded. A mugmovementwasin evidence in1932totransfer vocati(inal

educationtothe control of the Provinces.In oppositionto the 1 -.Secretary for Education wrote:1

under/ the Provinces the Vile:1t S(..hoolsworer?.garda.daspoor schools and t1t(.6 instructionwasoften made subservientto the production of marketable goilds.Many of'thjmwereinfactstatefactories, the underlying idea being that thepauPer children should reader serviceto the state for themoney spent on them and if possible by production coverthecosts involved. ... The vocational instructionwas not graded, alid itsne.cessary culturalbackgroundwasneglected. Under Union controltheinstruction has been pr(yerlygraded and production,i though retained, hasteenreduced and Issoregulatedas not to have a detrimental, but on the contrarya verybenetkial, effecton

th work of the schoolsaseducationalinstitutions. . General cultural subjects and the .provision of librariesarereceivingcareful attention. .a'nd the schoolsareregularly inspected byexpert °general and vocational inspectorshosee'-ioit that the(intl./M.of the work and the tnethods of teachingareofagood standard.... Theyant no longerregqr;lell

Ig as poorschools,orinany case,certainly.notto the extenttheywere, and the policy of thedepartment*responsible for the removal ofthe stigma of pauperini which used to be attachedtothem. ,

- By 1935 themovementseems tohave lost its forceawl the de'part- mentasagain urging that, since the Union is importinglargenum- bers of skilled workmen, tilchnical education shouldbe provided within thecountryfor all who desire andcanprofit by it.,To that end, it asked formorefinancialsupport for the technical college:: hostels forcountrypupils who wishtoattend the colleges, advanced technicalcoursesincountrydistricts,awidening ofthe choice of trades offered, and longsr periods of training. k ThepoorvMtes of South Afriea.--!A study of thepoorywhite probkm in the Unionwasmade with the help of the CarnegieCor- poration of New York in 1928' and 1929.Briefly, thepporwhites 4weredefinedas"persons of European descent, gaining fheirliveli- hoodchiefty by farming and 'consisting principallyofpoorbywoners, hiredmen onfarms, owners.of dwarf holdingsorof small, undivided shares of land,poorsettlers, and the vowinggroupof unskilled orpoorly trained labouren and workers outside of farming."°An

IUnion of South Africa.Annual report of the Department of Education for theyear -Tended December Pretoria,theGovernment Printer, 1934.

, t 111

I. . . . . ; FOREIGN cOUNTIIIES 49 exactenumeration of themwasnot'practirahle buta conervitive etimnte is that31-10.1)04), nearly one-iNth of the population ofthe Union.er,.1 very poor. Thereportof thessurveyis worthy of careful.stud-by the authorities ofany c4umtryhavifigasimilar problem. Weare con- . ex , (Trued mainly With the volumenit :umthe Poor White." Thesumb.vorsdecided thatajudicious application of improved , methods of education winild beveryprofitable because. aboutoint- third Kt the criildren haamorethanaverageintellirence andsome wereexceptionally gifted though thp intelliirence of thepoorwhite groupaslowerontheaveragethan that of the European popula- tionasiawhole aml thepercentof subnormalswasabouttwi'reas 6 larfreasitis in the total Europeangroup.Sixty-six.percent.and inpoorercommunities 90percent,of the !..tudents didlvotproceel pa-1standard VI (approximately the eighth grade in the United Stat(bs) ondmollethan 9,*;pereent.of the boys who left schoolto (TO, onfarms hadno-vocational trainincr in a(rrimIttire. Without further listing of the commission's findings.weshallttrn toits chief recommendations: 1. It isvery necessarythat the ediwation of thepoorwhite should IR) 1)1'01101a into closer contactI h incontentand methodwitilthe requirements of practical life,especiailyin ruralareas. 2.In ordert mftlie thisneworientationin education possible, conside'rabl. chaiigeswill havetobe made in the training of teachers. 3. The ruralschool should besoadapted that itwillserve as-a socialcenter tosatisfy.the natural craving. forrecreanonand social intercourse. and makethe Vehicalive Possibilities Of'broadcast ing and sinillarmea,ns moreaccessible for both adults and children. 4. Localcommittees enjoyiug the support of the Stateshould be formedtowork in close cooperationwith the public authorilies in investigating sOcial conditions.coordinating charity. giving aavice regardingemploymentpossibilities,andprovidingvocational (riddance. 5. TheagriculturalexterAon service should be mademoroextenstve and intensive and shouldbe linked moie closdy tothe ordinary urban and rural schools. 6. To counteractthe evils ofsocial isolation, the country schools and e.specially the farmschools, shouldbe provided with farmore readingmatterofasuitable kind andatastefor reading should be fostered which wouldcontinue to form aneducative influence in later life..

*The Poor White ProblemIn South Afriea.Report of the CarnegieCommission of Tnvestication on the Poor White QueNtionin South Afriea.Stellenbosch, ProFeciesia-

.Drukkery, 19.:;2.5.ro1s. .

0 50 BIENNIAL SURVEY OFIptICAT IuN. 1934-36 7. With the assistanceof local andcentral authorities,nursinz organizations shouldbe created inruralareas toperform nledical did educationa -ices. 8. The girls whoare uped in variousinstitutions andcome,from poorfamilies shouldhave special trainingin the duties:and functions of motherhoodand homemaking.. 9. Education shouldbe compulsoryup toan agelimit offitleast 15yearsandagreater varietyof subjectsshould beoffered after standard VI. --- 10. The school hostelsfor indigentchildren formpart. ofasound general policyof. centralizingfarm schools, btittheir supervision shouldf be improvedand provision should'he madefor training quidifiedmatronsand payingthem adequate salaries. The commissionfelt that: Thepresent system of divided controlof education, bywhich the ordinary primary and secondaryeducation is placedunder 'the fiurProvincial Departments of Education,nnd the vocationalandmore practical forms underthe Union Departmentof Education, hasdeleterious effectson educationas a whole and especIallyonthat of thepoorer youth of the nation. Nativeeducation.For the fewerthan2 millions of Europeansin the Union, thematter of providing educationforover61/2 millions of natives necessarilyloorns large. Aninterdepartmentalcommittee wasappoiuted in July1935: r. 1. Toexamine andreportuponthe systems ofnative eeucation ofthe Provinces If 2. To considerand make recommendationsconcerving: (a) Whether, inview of the extentto which the UnionGoternment has assumed financialresponsibility for nativeeducation, itshould takeoverthe administrationfrom theProvinces, and, ifs.o,in ,whatway native education should...bo-allministered (b) What shouldbe therelationshipbetween 'the Stateand missionary bodies in thematter or native education 3. Toconsider and "makereco rn menda tions on the following educational iitatters: (a) The alms of native jeducation. - (b) The aims having.1...ndefined, the methodsand 4 scope, of native 4 education. (c) The partto be played by thevernacular and bythetwo official languages in native education.'

The aims of nativpeducation! Notafewgovernments havewor- riedoverthem in thepastdecade.The committeeinquires, Whatare wereally driving.at in educatingthe South Africannative? Arewq to Europeanize himas cniekly as possibleso that becantake hls place inour pattern of Western cidization Withaslittle troubleas possible?

.6Union of South Africa.Report of theInterdepartmentalCommitteeon Native Educa- tion 1936-36.Pretoria, the GovernmentPrinter, 1936. 157pp. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 51

Orat* we to preparehim for anisolated native civilizationor, as some people put it, to "develophim along hisownlines?" , Stating bluntly thatthe education of the whitechildprepareshim fur lifeinadominant society and theeducation of the black childfor asuboklinate society. the committee declaresthatafull liberalphi- applicable 'wive education andthat, sinye losophy isnot at present to 0./10.10 the natiVe isbetoming Europeanized, theproblem is to deviseatype of education whichwill tide himoverthe, period duringwhich tribal anctionsareweakening, and before he feelsthe force oftile sanctions of Europeancivilizations. The definition of aim atwhich thecoin- mittee finally arrived is: . The effective organizationof the .native's experiences sothht his tenden- cies and powers maydev,elopina mannersatisfactorytohinslevifand to the community in which he lives.by the growth of sociallydesirable knowledge, attitudes, aild skills. To attain this aim,the curriculumrecommended includes in the order of importance:Religion, health and sanitation,the tool-:-ubjects, music, interpretation ofthe environment, andskills suOIasmanual work, industrial training, andagriculture. Lang uages.Seven1yìtulangua-ges (Zulu, Xhosa, Tsoana,South.: ernSotho, Northern Sotho,Thonga. and Venda) .arOiflicially recog- nized in theUnion of South Africa,and therearethetwoanal languages,English and Afrikaans.What language,or languages then shall be the mediumof instruction in thenative school, and what language orlanguages shallbe subjects of study.?Two broad principles arelaid down: (1 ) Anative language shall beacompulsory subject of study throughoutprimary andteacher-trainingcourses;and (2) at- leastoneofficial language shallbe included in the còurses. Asfaras possible the mother tongueistobe the mediumof instruction during atleast the first. 4yearsof the child'sschooling.Thi.sisdifficultto apply shice most ofthe Bantu languageshave little literature, text- books written in themarepractically nonexistent,terminologies in mostof the subjectsof ptimaryinstruction do not exist, andmany areas aremultivernacular. Toovercomeina measuTethe first three. of these, thecommittee recommends'thatprizes be awarded annually for the bestworks Aritten,preferably by nati.%/eauthors, inaBantu language; andcommittees be setuptoformulate tentativeterminolo- giesasrequired in thesubjects of instructionfor the different Bantu lailguages.Inmultivernacularareas,schoolsaretobe classifiedon atinguage basisor on abasis of allied languagegroups. 4 Oneorthe other of theofficial languagesis to beasubject of in- sauctipp throughoutthipail-118r);course,and? from the fifthyear vivill-béthe principal medium ofinstruction. al tu a , A

. 6 . iii_LL _ 52 BIENNIAL SURVEY, OF EDUCATION,1934-36 AdminiNtration.After yeigbingall theprosand,conssubmitted 2 to'it,the committee recommendedfirmlyt.hatnative educationi4b transferred from theconfrol of rhe Provincialcoun-cilsto t hat of thi, Union Governmenttobe handlednot by t he Native :kfrairsDepart- ment,but iT the Union Departmentof Education.The administrative machinery proposrd neednot hove be reviewed. , Statts.Ges.The(9ír()1 Iiììeiit i 11institutions forEuropeans inila; three claes of schools,Provincial. Unroll,and private, in1934are given int hefollowing table.

TABLE 10,ENI0)1.1.NIENTIN ALI. INsTrITTIONSFOR EUROPEANSIN unt - 0111.m.

Kind of institution. BO'S ( ;iris T DLit

OIL

'2 3 40" 4

011=111

Pry vincial public schools . . ... s:.7oi 172.117 361. I11; Private schools 11.31,2 769 Union public institutions: 23: 131 Vocational WO 3,4 L! Tualinicaldleves Fulltime students 3,:21I Part-Hine students I. Universities _- - . ..._ - . .: _. 7. 14

Total _ 441,951

\, These data donot include 62:2menand .1,369womenin Provine.ial teachers colkges, and Uni-6nschoolsasfollow: Continuationclasses, 1,741 stildents; institutions underthe ChildrenProtect ion Act,8.916: and other,993.Enrollments in the Provincialschools in1926Were 330,762,sothat the gain in8yearswat-4i.3540'Ile Europeanenroll- inent in private schools decreasedfrom 21,589in1921 to the low point of19,159 in .1928.Since then it'hassteadilyt,iiwreased.The avehgeregistration inthe universit ies stoodat 5,7,69 in1926 and has movedupregularly sinte thibn. Thegrowliiof native education isshoFnasfollows:

TABLE 11.STATISTICSOP NATIVE EDUCATION,1026 TO 1935

s. e. Year Enroll- Expendi- Year Enroll- Expendi- ment ture ment ture

1928 214.245 _ L42(1,.99S 1932 e e ..... eM 291. 24.11; £590. WI 1V28 2:1 1045 193-.1 474 893 4. 3211, 301 5(17,Si 1930 2725, 661 562, 323 I93 A 31:),440 b7S,564;

4- All the expenditures'here showncomefrom Unionfunds. In addition the CapeProvince spends about£25,000 and the_Transvaal £6,000 yearly.

l 1 %

. . : . ) ' ; * : 4 1 . i. . V , .e., , ... . . ' .':..r.' b I ,, e i . . t ,.411-..0114-1.---tt.P.';,_."-._,.:-.;At 4.1.-.1 ..-.-- : r-. : 1 - .1 ...... i...- tr r- : ' I, 'At j e: .11 . . -.'--- --.- --d-, ,.- ---.....:-.`''---:r.:44,..r.tr- ' 2-S.-::.--1:7!4...e.-,,r-1.2-.,.".,,,,.te-4.4 2,-,,,}:--.LP'. ,f.":=..:6S,.....4...114...-!.1,1.-e-Lb ' 4` - NDI:1110:1 S:1111.1.N.1().) E9 &Lc/A:0

otput 4(1..71:1 suit 1: .14).11:.pul:1 Jo ol)0'1:1; 0.11:1111S bSt)iltt 4t10(111 Sll At% 11.)11111 SI: slrXeil 1)111: mox ().)1X1)K Toill(1111o.) 1)111 tioiluindmi Jo) ¡I HUI I um st pt)11:1)tio.)110.)0s III (10511 0.1111k4 sopiti ;Imp: all X all Ili 41t).%

1)111: 114)1) PAL 4)11 HUI t)IIM lit 1 al( SUO,Li: )1111d0(I .111(1 IMU111)`.4 1)01111.)S `41).ifiLitlAI: I tir LI S7111(1l11illt JO .L01(10%1 t)(1 I M all! p puu 1) 11101X O J 71 ..10)1.1.11), 01 4110.14).0,) it4110.)11114) paff).1(I st .;14).Nivimithiv.) 111:11K )111j, dll 01 1161 pnil mop 011,11 Joe,. )iing jo t)11) 41(10)(1 s! -1.ko po.mai) .(1 0111 .;.)1!.11)1m4 Bog) .Iirj Imp 1111111 pill: I s 1101110A (11 1 )1I 14 HI it' 1.)1M VS1 I)414).k t)1(11: 0.1 rail pity 0)1.1m Ill ..)1(IR.11v II pull fisswpil;frp) iv----',/i)1011,11vo/.! IWO owl) 1: tioissimmo.) sUm piiittu)(1(1I? .oi attnuj I: (11:1(1 .loi .711M11111 .Ù1:11tottloit) pli.t3st1.1 itOl gli11:11 (11 1.1 St1:-+4 11V1 jo mil I 11(100( :1-111K1H S31 .011I011.1S 110 i 114-011 Alt).1 till()110.4-011111 '1(()11.1ti 1)111 xvp/Imr, pomilutio.) .11)1()S I( '.)1(114iv put: 0111 tn:*loulotiniv ).tII In( 1101:411111(10.) 111 P1):7111.1 Jost 1: 4).%Iy:,).01o,t(1 poili(L()14).01) ILE ,):,11) slooti.): pow tit . IIV pilloy ,)(1 4)(Hik(.: tit. 4.i.)4111111it o o.11)111 n s.lr.o.,7:1o) jo bo.tu 0111: 1 1 .)lii 7; dILINIII-11! HoI. ()I )1: yitn ssiutq .14-fill.toilo ii plotoww: or otil Pinta . . . ii()F-44111( or 1: .1..I11111.1d 111.1:4 104 I J OIL ilii papIII) 01 MO.) Milli ()1M .01:11110,1t)ti 1)114! .I011.71p1 ))).0.111)11 .110i aS011414 :Iiit)11(1)11) 4..i1 101(.)S Sil ILIOM 0) all 10(10 S( pp .%.I ()I ()M1 iiIIMOVII) IM).1.11 JI) 3s `t-;111.)1111 III: MU,/ .7111,1 JImi-gmo AIT . . 1 gore.) 0: Ill(massq.) III Um pill: 11:.)I).)1:.1(I 61.10. it.)Ils SI: `).111)111.)1.1.111: . pill i .6.1)SI 01)SolItt)l) ba.M.)1.)s °.))0 ).1([ tioNi.( 41!.k osil: (Tutu Iloi sasilloo .10.1 S)LIIIM pun .(1 fr,GT mil 1110.).11)(1 Jo .01,..11)Iir pull tIshmi posiva went 8 0) la SpILL )1.1OA1. jo littp-lolt).01) Abduluatuov) Ito!pmipo ;kip(' poitIll4110.) 11.)111II st: 1)11111111(1 pig 111 1 .11)MOIS %WU pun 141 .11111.0.1111) iI.11 )1 011I6S

)1). SO.)1111,11 II! 11 J dill 110),111.71.101)111.1 pill 1))(10.11 0) riu1.1(1 1Lm.1.710.i(l 03 SvOuoi(ilho.) %nu, urticH213 IstIO.) uOt jo Hady b6I `11,7;61 , pvi[ pouhulap j1I.J huittaufai;) 1109.)11.1)sut i4 41.1011:11!1((0 aoj ilu -dSzia sum.) Jo inocit saxas p1l1: ii!.. ,RI tto4t91 Sisnopulti.cri tit .)1.1(1m1 .m111)111111 110 iplyr `(1 TINT Mil po10.,-Illottilli.11:(1 tIR q.100.71tICI0 1).).1;1 -analstii 1 101 A19.1 rtmizu tio9u.itlp ji) saliMIS su (i SAWS auj ll%).1111111.) fllU.IJ. j, ptiu gt puu (Hu laofgus ltpluul'aoputu 01 0(1 alp 'utLION uo!,1!p).1 typos btiopv.)tipa ;Tit:J*7 ).-int1.11uul bsol.witimputit pan `..101s1.11 6S.I0r4!1{ puu. ;)psio1101) o.)uops put `Stplittrerlooil . 'ammo .t0j.) (statfd P),

. .riuppix ato Mut aAwajja uOtIn.rfugo Jo (nu h1s!um Jo ainnd u09.)11.1)sur tppim Itatt »41) (isi1(11: Si? SUM!! squpplu SI: )1: SO:dtar -SOIN)11 641111?:3 atinuadop 0113 sluatugstund oi out posodtut Ito sjuaiud aoj -tiou

1sti1riutu puu eft, 'iottull(litio.) 1.),idstit aplAta(1 odinba.t iutauLto.ui SpatifiO4) 0) .41%).1.) matt Upp1111 titiotAN imp mutt aapuu sump ,.ilotp!pstatif )qi, unra&:.1(1 Jo .7lindOloAa1) squpimu lop.) Jo basailoa aol 13 .-UO3

se 4 141-

b4 54 BIENNIALSURVEt:OFEDUCATION, 1934-36 , siderable recruitment of teachers. By 1933-34 the Ministryhades- _ tablished 29 normal schools formenand 18 forwomen.The students areselected by competitive examination from graduates of the 5-ytar elementary.schoolcourse, aregiven 2yearsofpreparatorytraining. and then take the regular normal school curriculum oT 3or4 years; duration. Primary schools.The Egyptian primary school, somewhatmore- advanced than the elementary, provides mainly for ehildreii who will contihue theirstudies.' Itis 4yearsin duration, does'not ordinarily admit pupils under 7yearsofage,and closes with the,

' pertificate of primary studies which isaprerequisite for enteringa secondary rhool. Primary schoolsareprovided by the Ministry of Public Instruction, the provincial councils,and private organizations. The Ministry finances and controls thefirst class, aids ifinancing andto some extentcontrols the second, and inspectsmanyof the third. The primary schoolprogramNs-s.rn. -odifiedin 1926 sind afterafrial period thenewarrangement. wasmade definite in 1930, In thatyear the Ministry setup acommission t.o studyprimuiy education in mostof.' itsaspects.The result isaseries of proposals looking . towardanactivity primary school,iheproject method of teaching. classes baseaonthe intelligence ratings of the pupils, fewer and less formal examinations,moretea0iiig in Iheopenair, and theuse of the cinema in the schools.It isoneof themanyproposals made inth`epast10yearstoaid underprivileged peoples throughatype 9f education in which themajorstressisnot onliterary teaching. e. A:Secondaryeduced ion.The secondary schoolis a2-cycle institution of 3yearswhiph leads to the first part of thecertificate of secondary studies, followed by 2yearstoattain the secondpart.Previousto Egypt's liberation from Turkey in 1914, FrenOtinfluenceonEgyptian educationwasstrong.With theestablisiment ofaBritishpro- tectoratein 14, English influencecame*into the ascendancy and

the English languagebegan to have equal favor with the French 41L amongthe ruling .classes of theEgyptians.Since the termination of thei'protectoratein 199,2,, both languageshave retainedahold, ,v- andwesternEuropean rather thanOriental influences have shaped secondary and highereducation in Egypt.Both these levels of instructionareprimarily.destinlécltofit the students forgovernment I. . positions. By1933*therewere27 nationalsecondary schools for boys with .anenrollment of 14,470, ani 8fór girls with 1,455 students,atotal of 15,925. inaddition, 181 provincialAnd private secondaryschoòls -werecaring for 16,787 boysand 3,376 girls.In May 1037 under

. the presidencyof, the Ministry,acommissionwascreatedto study

andreorgan.fr.e srMidary education with the hope of giving the ,

* I

,, . ar V I Il e 0 a " .- : It . . .1...... b Ftl1 i & . ;.**. 146;.'4Itare...%..1,t t ..i.4 I. . % ...... -!.. .. 0, 4.2-='....L..:.- %'. la ... ;,.-... ,.. : v 4.'' I., .s..._:e a . 4 -r 1 . , ...... % . c.' 1., Ao.., , , ,.... ' ,,,*;it. L't_ . . 1., .1'.."- : -. .! .4 - -,-----...--..-_.1.,1-,...a....e.i.,_.,..-,,,,,,.._-.:L-,--u- --at4.i_..,_i.: .2,_. ___,.,.., ,...a.,.._,,,,s.::-..._;_.,ifii.1.______:"7. ._:..4.,,_,_....s.,..,,_,...,:l.A.z.ii ____;,_.___::... ._,-.__:..,-,....5:1A e..,-- --, ..._::.. ...___,,=..... ;...,2_._.;.....-_,._;_- -.--- _ -.....-.-..----. -- - FOREIGN cOUNTRIES 55 students bettertraining,especially in modern foreien languages. The commissionwasaskedtoconsider: (1) Recasting theprograms astothe distribution of class hoursaweek and the number of hours tobe allottedtoeach subject;6(2) reforming thepro2Tamsin the senseci lightening them if the instruction seemedtobeon toohigh alevel; a,nd (3) providingmeftnsfor strengthening the pupils in theirknowledge' of foreignlanguages.The commission recommended anincrease of time for the first Aorei!rn 1an!ruage,adek'rease for scjence and history, and certain decreases in morals, civic instruction, and mathematics, in the section of letters. .Technical education.In its development ofamodern school systeni, the Egyptian Government isnotneglecting technical education.There have been established intermediate schools of agricul- trY! ture(three in 1931,32 with 900 students).aschool of appliedarts, twoschools ofart§and crafts, five intermediate schools ofcommerce besides eveningcoursesincommerce,andpreparatoryinstruction in fine arts. Higher educatian.The University of EgyptatC&iro is modelled along European lines With faculties of !etters,. sciences. law, and medicine.It is independent of the Ministry of Public Instruction, though the Ministerisex-offici.ochancellor.Sevenot her institutions, Royal Polytechnic School, Higher School (if Agriculture, Higher School of Commerce, Higher School of Fine Arts, Veterinary School, the School of Dar-El-Oulown.an'dthe Institute of Pedagogy, give .instructiononagherlevels.Mostrecentof these is the Institute of Pedagogy founded in 19'29tostrengthen teacher training in Egypt. It áccepts graduates in arts or science fromthe uniwrsity and gives theta 2yearsof special pedagogical training to fitthebmfor teaching

in secondary schools.viIt admits also graduates of seeondary schools who wishtobe primary teachers and puts them throngha3-year curriculum, the last 2yearsof whicharelargely ..pedagogics. Summary.Insummary,educationinEgypt'. in- thièpast 10years hasconanuedits trend towardwesternEuropootn ideals. A Govern- mentpolicy of sending §tudents thereand to the United States for training has beenconsisiently pursued.Secularization of instruction is increasing. The Ministry'scontroloverall forms of private education has been strengthened,butnoattempthas been made.toclae private schools.Indee4;# the Governmentacknowledge.iihegreat debt of the Egyptian people toprivate enterprise in education and statesthat the public treasurycould ftot financeacomprehensive and adequate educational system..Consi.derablenationalization of education in thewayof creatingamongthe peopleapride in thclir governmentand countrywasin evidence but byno means sostrongly asinmanyother countries.Definiteprogress wasmade in .the.introduction of the principleófcompulsory education., The Islamic . .

wk-

CL-p of 410) 11.1 .. tz _t_ilimmaisiormaolialllartmarboartharnomillImiNtiromsamoriosLs&L.A.s-1.-...._-_ 56 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUrATIoN. 1;134-36 tradition with regard towomenis being rapidly laid ak-ide andnew schools for girlsarebeing created together withnew attitudes toward admittingwomen tohigher inst it tffions and the pro1e64sions for which they train. COL017.4 /4 AFRICA Exclusive of Egypt. theTnion of South Africa, and Liberia.son 101,:2 millionsquaremiles in .1 fricaareinhabited by about 115 million people undergovernmentsdirected by Iteilrium, theBritish

Comm6nwea1th of Nations, France. Italy, and Portugal.TO dtsS4. HI themanyeducationsystemsof tlese colonies, especiallyasthey relate totraining the native peoples, and tell of theirprogressin thepasi loyears,is muchtoplargeanundertaking for this generalsurvey. Burnosketch of modern education would beonipleto withoutsome accountof what has been done inrecent°yearsin the education of

the natives in colonial Africa. . Thearrangement at the closeof the World War for mandatories for backward peples 'under the League Of .N;!t ions broughtoutthe importance of education, for if these peopleswere ever to come ow of the mandates in which theywereiflaced,theymustbe trained tomanagetheirownaffairs inaworhl thatwasand 'is rapidly adopt- ing Occidentalwaysof living.ie foreign mission societiesof North America and Europe, realizing that. thoirvaried and mainly independent efforts neede41tobemorecooperative andto havea foundationof comprehensive facts about conditions inAfricaas a basis forin()re'effectiveeducational work. asked the a-Nsistance ofthe Phelps-Stokesli111(1111(1 through its aida surveyf education in Africawasmade in MO and 19.21. aiTd the findingswerepublished in 1922.'Thiswasfollowed byasecond study made in1923 and 1924 and reportednotlong thereafter.In its intrAuctiontothis secondreport,the Phelps-Stokes:Fund expressedaphilosophy that hadgrownout of theexp'èriencesof .thewar,and since itsexpression has beenrengthened by the ,world economicdepression The trustees of the Phelps-Stokes fundfirmly believe thatthepeace and welfare of the worldcan neverbe assured until conditionsinevery country, no matter how smallorhow remote from the worldcenters of civiliza- . . tion,arereasonably satisfactory.In other words, justas achain isas strong as its weakest link,so not even ¡he dominant civilization in Europe and Americacanbe countedupon toendureas long as people anywheretust weakasthe result of ignoranceor anyotlwrcause.Justascommeilknows nonational boundaries,soepidemics, whether of diseaseor of Bolshevism, orof warfare betweengroyps,quickly spread fromcountry tocouniry,and ; 4 Jones, Thomas Jesse. - Education In Africa.A study of West,South, and*atoll& Werthy the African.- Education Commission.New York, Phelps-StokesFluid:1922. s Jones, Thomas JPSRP.Education in Easts1fiim.A stud* of East. (-`ntral,and South Africa by the Second AfricanEducatiop Commission.New York, 1;p1riips-stokesFund, ,e 1925. .. 4 . 41i ..... It-4 r NO

I R .: i !, il -. - .. t ; . . : 1 e . , ', s ... . -,, 4 e è W.' ,. It(' , . . . ii, j 4174. . 1 . 1i" . 4t ; '" ':''' 21--1.---.16-14.1.4.-- N' ..'1ai f.1.-Ii2F:darL.=fi.;414.;.;,4A- ' .r -' .. . ..ti i.b..4,.1.,,:.14-_-....-:"IL '!-L...i',...... f lb. .--..!'''.1t-2"--....-.6' '' ' "._- ...:1-..,,..*__---...;.-,,...i.e".±__...t..__ FOREIGN COUNTRIES 57 canonly be controlled by modern science and anénlightenedpublic opinion....As longas anyportion of (America).orofanyother continent, suffers because of diseaseorsuperstitionorprejudiceorignorance. the elementsare athand out of whichaconflagration, which might later *gain world proportions,maybe fanned intoaflame. In laying down the objectives that thesystemsof native schools shoull be organized to attain, the Commission voicedafeeling that has made wide advances in nearly all countries, whether for indigenousor other schools.In the order of importance thosb objectiveswerestated as:(1) The development of character, witharecognition thatreligi;)n isa necessary meanstothat end; (2)promotion of hett,lth;(3) development of agriculturaland industrial skill; (4) improvement of family life throughaknowledge of such home activitiesasthecareof children, food, sleeping..facilities, sanitation, and all thatcentersabout thelife ofwoman;and(5)creation of sound and healthful recreation. The comAssion emphasized that reading, writing, and arithmetic mustform the basis of the elementary school curriculum, In7t*should be taught, not to the exclusion of other subjects, butasthemeansof imparting knowledge and of buildinguppractice in health, agriculture,industry, home liferecreation, and character.Of language instruction it wrote: Languages of instruction rank with the ordinary school subjects.The appeal to the native mind cannot be effectively made without the adequate useof the native language,nor canthe essentials of sound character be taughtnorinterest in agriculture or industry be developed without Its use. It is equally importtint that advanced pupils shall have opportunity to learn someEuropean language as they themselves demand.Africa erequires in- creasingly whatever knowledge can be adapted from European civilization toMeet its peculiar needs. The Intercoionial Congress.Colonial educationwasagain brought strongly to public attention at the InternationalColonial Exposition held in Paris in 1931 in connection with whichanIntercolonial Con- gressof Education in the Colonies and in OverseasCountrieswas convened. Representatives fromPortugal, the Netherlands, the Brit- ish Commonwealth ofNations, Belgium, Denmark, the United States, and France participated. The Congress discussed suchquestionsas:6 In what language should instruction be given ?How should the European andespe- cially the indigenous teachersbe trained ?Whatprogramsof study should be followed?Should they haveastrongpractical bias? What

Exposition Colonials Internationale de 1931.'Adaptation de l'Enseignement dans les Colonies.Rapports et Compte-Rendu duCongrès introlonial de l'Enseignement dans les. Colonies et les pays d'outre-mer, September25--27, 1931.Paris, Henri Didier, 1932.312pp. 52172*-38----5 ear. "fle

s. 58 BIENNIALSURVEY OFEDUCATION,1934-36 a methodsofinstruction shouldbe used ?Whatshould be donein tho wayofarri.ingingand supplyingschoolmanuals?How'slu;uld edu- (-.ation beexpandedamongthe feminineelement of thepopulation ? The languageofinstructionwes themostcontentious issue.'nu, French policyis generally to useFrenchasthe vehicularlanguage but inMadagascarand FrenchIndo--Chinaremarkably goodinstruc- tionthroughthe nativelanguages hasbeen developed.The otlwr colonialnations favor giving atleastprimaryinstruction through the native tongue. - The generalview of the congress wasthat Europeanteaclier, should havespecial trainingbefore entering6nilbeirduties in thean.:, towhich they wereassigned, andthat native teachersshould receive soundpedagogicaltraining withmuch practicalknowledge -of 11,x-, giene.agriculture,and kindredsubjects.In thewayofprogram: the majorityof opinionfavored practicalknowledge in such matter-, asagriculture,but warnedagainstoverdevelopingvocational training lest thegraduateswould not beabletofind positionsandsoform abody-ofdiscontentedunemployed. Thedirect method ofinstruction asunanimouslyreportedasbeing used toadyantage. Special manualsand texts forindigenous schoolsisanimportant. questionin allcolonialareas.The cost ofpreparation,establishint; agoodterminologyinscientific subjects,arranginganalphabet, grading thelessons,selectingappropriate -subject matter,and like questions, enterinto thisdifficult problem.The Frenchin Math-

, . gascarandIndo-China andthe Dutch in theNetherlands Indies, have made the mostadvances in thisline. Extendingeducation towomenis, in thevi4Xof thecongress. I. extremelyimportant, especiallytraining in home management,but it is muchcomplicatedby thetraditions andreligions of indigenoni peoples. The AdvisoryCommittee.Early inits post-war activities(1923) the ColonialOffice of theGovernment of theBritish Commonwealth of NationsestablishedanAdvisory Committeeonmattersof native education intropical Africa.Itwas souseful thatadecisionwas madetotxtend its service to allareasunder the directadministration of theColonialOffice.Accordingly, the committeewasdissolved anda newand largercommitteewasconstituted, effective from January 1, 1929, to: (a) Advise on anyschemes for theimprovement of education that limy be specificallyreferred to them by'the Secretary of State for theColonies. b) Submitrecommendations to the Secretary of State oq anysubjects relating tocolonial education thatthe chairman of thecommittee considers

. suitable fortheir discussion. (c) Keepthemselves informedthrough materialssupplied by their secretaries, discussi9nwith expertrepresentatives from thecolonies,. and other means,of the progress and needsof education in thecolonies. 1SO4

I, \. -444_ :_* FORFAGN COUNTRIES I. 11_ 59 r Probablyno*other committee inany govermnenthassolarge and variedafield ol educational theory andpractice from whichtodraw dataand exnerience.It hastwo secretaries-,oneof whom dealspar- ticularly with African affairs.ItmeetsordinarilyOnce amonth and in itsrelat ively sljort life has handledalarge number ofmatters per- taining toeducation in the colonies.One of its particularly helpful activitiesis the preparation and publicationof Orer,veir Ed//eutisorl, ajournal of educationalexperimnt and researchin tropical and subtropicalareas, aquarterlynowin its eighthvolume. Out ofall these effortsto shape throuTh education the future of ,the nativesof that Africa whichis developing fluid openingso rapidly.efforts that three decades hence willprobablyseem tohave beenonly fumblings, havecomein the last10years ake9Crealization

1, that native life andcustoms must be better andmoresympathetically understood, that the native mentalitymustbe teamed, andthatany line of action ought to be taken only afterclose consultation with native opinion.

_or.:

1 *16- . .14:-V-1,1, . . , , --e _ --L SECTION IV. AUSTRALIA

The publicatjon in1927 ofavolur* describing adequatelythe sixseparate and independent school 7stems inAustralia,gaveto the publicabetter ideaandanincreased interestin thepart that Australia is playing inthe cultural affairs ofthe world.Here is aCaucasian people numbering-about -six and three-fourthsmillion occupyingacontinent and adjoining islandswithan areaof 2,974,5q squaremiles,far separated from other Caucasiangroupsand°working out Itsownadaptations. Administration.TheCommonwealth Governmenthas little voice ineducittion. Each of the six States hasits strongly centralized system of public schools which it maintains and directs in#1tsown way. All of thesystemsarefairly complete in general andtechnical education,careof subnormals, training of adults, andthose other aspects thatgoto makeupwelhrounded schemes of education.The Government has pursuedasteadfast policy of careful'selection of immigrants, and the indigenesarefew in number,solinguistic and racial problems scarcely exist. Progress in education in Australia in thepastdecade has been orderly and along orthodox lines. It has been subjected tono strongly nationalisticmovementordrasticrevolution. Theecoilonuic depressionwas severeand education expenditureswereheavilycur- tailed, but through carefulmanagementdamageto the efficiency of the schoolswascomparatiely light. Stati8tic8.-The changes in the State schools from1925 to 1933, the latestyearfor which figuresareavailable,areshown inthe following table.

TABLE 12.-STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOLS IN AUSTRALIA,1925 TO 1933

Year SchoolsTeachersEnrollmentAverage Areran e attendancexpendo tire

2 3 4

1925 10, 235 28, 241 872, 473 720, 975 .8, 246 102 1926 10, 203 29. 633 883, 925 730, 571 8, 751, 552 1927 10. 208 30, 992 901, 326 748, 712 9, 142, 500 1928 10. 160 31. 838 920,ow 764, 496 9, 814, 951 1929 10, 263 32. 391 929, 299 777, 828 10,087. 570 1930 10, 57 33, 533 914, 043 ROL 729 9, 673. 713 1931 10,097 33, 762 936, 901 817, 262 8, 541, 786 1932 10, 246 32. 725 934, 075 8i8. 566 8, 317. 52S 1933 10, 343 32. 581 929, 200 805, 334 8, 117. 517

I Not including technical colleges, and exclusive of expenditureonbuildings.

. I Browne, G. S.- Education in Australia.AcomparatilZstudy of the educationalosys- tone of the six Australian States.terns- London, The Macmillan Company, Limited, 1927. 461pp. 60 ar. ale

fir FOREIGN COUNTItIES 61 During theseyearstheprent of attendancerosefrom 82.6 in1925 to871 in 1930 andrec-ededt86.1 in 1933. Similar statistics,expenditurenotjven,of privateschoolsare as

1 follows:

TABLE 13.-STATISTICSOF PP \ ATESCII0OLS INAUSTRALIA IN19:5 TO 1033 - ...r1.1111 Year Averace Schools I Teachers Enrollment attendance

e i 3 4 1 ;

1925 a 1, 737 9, 766 212,(;4 175, 283 1976 s 1, 761 9, 512 233, )sroi 17A, 985 1927 4 1, 763 9, 753 235, 074 141. 396 1928 1, 779 9, 792 Z17, 713 1144, 464 1929 1,1006 9, 955 242, 077 189, 018 1 1930 10, 090 242, 024 193, 691 1931 1 /406 9, 995 221, 387 189, 685 1932 1, R20 9, 940 220. 723 41933 188, 912 1, 842 10,002 222, 625 189, 984

Thesearethe data ofstable -schoolsystems which have builded slowly, haveno greatarrearsof provisionfor educationto makeup quickly, andare strongenQughto maintainafair level ofinstruction for all the population. Education bycorre8pondence.-Adistinctivefeature ofAustralian education is thecarewith whichprovision ismade for childrenliving in sparsely settledareas.The aim istocarrythe benefitsof education into themostremote districts.Half-timeschools,itinerantteachers, traveling schools,and railwaycampschools haveall been provided. But apparently themost successful planiscorrespondenceinstruction. Each State hasan arrangement for giving public-schoolinstruction primary andseCondary,to childrennot only in Australia,but alsoin the New Hebridesand in NeWGuinea. Thenumber ofchildrenbeing taught inthisway in1927, 1930, and1933,weredistributedasfollows:

TABLE 14. NUMBER OF CHILI)RENVECEIVINGINSTRUCTIONBY . CORRESPONDENCE ...1111.1.

6.6 Area 1927 193.0 19;lf

-;. New South Wales 3, 50V Victoria b, 044 6, 300 -- 601 938 , 1,000 Queensland 3, 737 South Australia 4, 659 5, 776 606 1, 275 ... 1, 681 Western Australia 1,450 Tasmania_ 1, 903 2,135 Northern 270 297 259 Territory 23 Total- 14,14, 114 1%173

446. 4 4;4

40 1-- - 4 4 *$ .! 4 t - t V%,...... ;-.; s I ... . .%. e I:IL; -stt*,-"-;-',",: 7:-. .!J , 4 62 BIENNIAL SURVEY OFEDLIOWTION,.1934-36

With suchapolicy consistently and csonstantlycarried forward, 1

itseemsprobable that Australiawillneverhave 1 , a"poor Viite" problem.

School con.s.olidaton.Consolidation of schoolswith boardingal- I lowances and free. transportationof pupilswasbegun inNew South 1 Wales in1904 and isnowusedtosomeextent in all of the States. 4 except perhaps in Queensland whichseemsnot to be applying it.The expendituTe for boardingallowance andconveyance to. central schools in 1930 reached£62,869 in New SouthWales and£144,0Win Victoria.Thosetwo States, especially New South Wales, havesince I made considerable. reductionsin that item.Expenditures for3diifer- 0)4 eptyears are asfollows:

TABLE 15.EXPENDITURE FROMITBLIC FUNDSON BOARDINGALLOW- ANCE AND CONVEYANCEOF PUPILS TOCENTRALSt, IOOLS -,.

State 1927 1930 1933

2 3

New South Wales 49. 843 62. s69 1S. 4S1 Victoria - 8, 179 14. 058 11. 073 South Australia 4. 631 12. 740 14. 605 Western Australia 'if 221 12. 566 14, 162 Taman ia 3. 600 5, 420 4, 844

Total 77, 474 107, 653 43. 343

Summary. Arecent criticalaccount of Australian education sunnnarizes the situationsowell that it ishere quoted..Cómmenting On acertain lack of objectives,the authorsays: The absence of , anyveilprecise objectivesfor the schoolis better than the deliberateuseof the school bythe State forthe production ofa i)ar- ticular brand of citizen.One feels thatthere shouldalways be sufficient vagueness and sufficient tolerationof the pointsot view of minoritiesto renderspontaneous evolution posiible. Ile continues: A hurriedreminder of Australia'sachievements ineducationmay also be attempted.Special mentionmust bemild('of her effortstocarry efficientelementary schoolinstructionto all childrenin. outlyingareas. Her one-teacherrural schools andher correspoiidenceschemes, especially for primary schoolpuOils,are matters of legitimate pride. Having establisheda system of high schools duringthe first 20years of thecentury, allSlateshave paidsome attention to the provisionof post- primary schools ofnonacademictype.Some of theseschoolsh11%,..arural bias, others, again, giveinstruction in household subkéts.Intfieelementary school there isadefinitemovement towardsa lessacademfctype of 'cur- Diculum and-greater °freedom forthe .teacher.This is 'associatedwitha marked increasein school clubs,particularlyyoung farmers' fclubs, and

I Cunningham, K. S.A critical accountof Australianeducation.hi The Year Boot ofEduCation1936.London, Evans Brothers,Limited, 1936.

,1: l e - . -a j - . I ? r .- .. . . Z 6 - -b_.,»...fitt&L`6--.ti .-A01:,101 -:1_._.A--.:,.Ni,Var is.- FOREIGN, 'COUNTRIES --63 with increasedencouragement ofhandicrafts andhobbies. The last few years have seen in allstates the introductionof educa4iomabroadcasting and of v.tationalguidance schemes,althoughsome areas have naturally proceeded muchfurtherthan othersinthesematters. Thespontaneous growth-ofparents associatidns isasign of increasing interestin the schools V by the general public.Most 'Stateshave providedat leasta few special classesor schools for backward children.andtwo States, New SouthWales and Tasmania,have recentlysetup experimental classes forgifted children. The two Statesjust namedhave alsotakena step whichafewyears7 ago r was completely unthoughtof, .thät of 11 setting asidespecial officersto conduct 4 inquiries andresearches.Special' mentionmust be madeof thesteps 1 taken in Victoria'to substitute internalfor external éxaminations.Finally, it isa healthy sign thatsome of the independentschools whichexperiment with suchcomparativeease are abandoning theircustomary adherenceto traditionalpatterns,and, inseveralcases,are introducing extremely siKnifIcant changes. . There isroom for much satisfactionin connection°with certainaspects Qf the teachingservice. Thestability ofthe service ismuch higherthan 41' insome other countries. Teachershave *securityof tenure,and teaching is rarelyregardedas a stepping stonetosorne other occupation.An investigation carriedout severalyears ago, showed that theaverage length of teaching servicefor fullytrainedpermanent teachersisover 22 years formen, and almost 12years forwomen. Men teachersare commonly found in elementaryschools.The totalproportionofmen towomen teachers is about 40to 60.

r 1-

A or

olr

. t 4

dr.

. Ara -11 ...I-. Irairanat -sae. YEN. . 4.011.° SECTION V. THE WESTERNHEMISPHERE r** CANADA Here is another self-governingdominion of theBritish Common- wealth of Nations whichin botharea,and population islarger than Australia. The101/2 million pe6ple in Canadaare morethan 50per- cent of British origin and the remainderareCaucasianraces.The indigenes numberabout149,000;thepercentageof orientals is small; and therearefew Negroes.The total landareais 3.466,793square miles, considerablylarger than continentalUnited States.Lan- guageproblemsaremainly confinedto theuseof French and English, Quebec isaFrench-speaking Province andFrenchgroupsinsome of the neighboringareasdesire that theirchildren be educated

through the French medium. . . Administration.The Dominion Govet;nm,nthas little voicein educationexceptfor that Cfltbe nativeIndians and Esquimauxand the schools iithe Yukon andnorthwestTerritcries.Each of tile nine Provinces has controlof itsownschoolsystem througha provincial ministryof education and eachsystem is distinctive though, with the exceptionof the French schools inQuebec, thereare many similaritiesamongthem. The DominionGovernment providesless than 2percent of the funds for education.The Provincialtreasuries contribute about21 percent, and the local school administrativeunits 64 percent.The remaindercomesfrom fees, endowments,and . miscellaneoussources. ; During thepast decade education in Canada also has undergone noextreite 'changes,has been subjectedtonosharp revolutions. Progressasbeen careful.The depressionwas severebut Canadian educationcamethrough it without vital impairment.In1921 the percentage ofpersons10yearsofageandoverwho could read and 1931 it 95.74. , write wa04.26 in was No campaigns forthe liquidation of illiteracywere necessary.Theaveragenumbérofyearseof

schooling received by eachpersonbetween 18 and 24yearsof.age in 1911was6.58; in 1921iAvas7.58; and in 1981, 8.55.'Those figures aloneare ampleevidencethat Canada has been making goodprovision

for education formany years. . . Stati8tival 8unmary.---The followingtable summarizestwo important indications of educational trends. in thepast 10years. 64 FOREIGNCOUNTRIES 65 TABLE 16.-ENROLLMENTAND EXPENDITUREÌN CANADIANSCHOOLS, 1926 TO 1935

Enroll- Year Expenditire Year Enroll- ment ment I Expenditure

14r.)6 2, Al,415 $122, 701, 259 , 1931 2, 542, 747 178, 701, 507 '7 2, 291, 720 125 876 375 , 1432 2, 593, 116 163, 944, 758 P.144 . '2, 342 391 128, 8, 836 1.4 1933 . 2, 530, OM 146, 921. 861 - 1..44.14 2, 387, 057 _ 138, ?Li, 885 i 1931 2, 527, 558 138, 833, 825 1930 2, 490, 623 165, 361, 198 I' 1935 I 2, 484, 877, 136, 040, 659

II Pi Enrollment.----nefirst enrollmentincrease shownis relatively s,mall, eight-tenthsof1. percent, lowerthan therate of population increase, and considerablylower thantheaverage pgrcentof increase in enrollment betweentheyears1921to 1927. The slowing downis -attributedtoamoveméntawayfrom school "of th.eolder pupils dues* tobetter employmentconditions. T4increase ofmorethan 50,000 in the followingyear wasmainly incolleges, technicaland night schools, sloi.t,coursesin universitiesand college-s,and regularcourses in universities.In1929the tendencytowarddisropprtionate increasein studentsin universities,colleges, andsecondary schoolscon- tinued; the ordinaryschools metintainedby publicfunds barely.held their regularincrease.Manual andvocational traininghadmore*

thananormal increase. . ir Part of thelarge advancemade in1930overthe enrollmentin 1'929 wasdueto raising theschool-leavingageand stricterenforcement of compulsoryeducation laws,but much of itwasin theuppergrade§ a. androsefrom thedifficultyadolescents hadin findingemploymentso they remainediii schoolor evenreturned afterhaving beenouta year or more.Theincreases qifsome50,000 eachyearin 1931 and 1932 showed continuedrapidascent in numbeis inthe secondary grades, while in1932 elementaryschool enrollment:actually declined in severalprovinces.Thecensusof 1931reported fewerchilaren under5yearsofagethan therewerebetween5 and 10,aportent that increasedenrollments in Canadianschools wouldsoon cease. Decreaseswereconsiderable in 1933',1934, and1935. In thosewyears the number ofuniversity studeAtsdidnot change much;the effectof the §mallerchild populationwasbeing mademanifest inthe lower F grades aridmanysecondaeypupils,weremovingoutkoemploymènt. &hoc* expendituresreached the peakof $178,701,000in19$1, tn declinearapidly.to 1934 andslightl?in 1935.Capitaloutlays and teachers' salarieswerecutmorethan other items. Schoolfinance.--Naturallyquestions ofschool finance.wereempha- sized. TheEducation Branchof the DomitiionBureaùof Statistics in 1933 Madethree studies:Expendituresfor schoolsas afactor in thecost of ritizig the Canadianchild; expendituresfor schoolsin ".

41.

. e 66 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 relationtonational income and other items of national expenditure: andacomparison of several factors of schoolsupport. in 1931 and 1913.In the .first the conclusionwasre.ache0that in thecostofra ingaCanadian childtotheageof self-support about one-seventh wasspentfor education.In thè second itwasfound thatoutof the total national expenditure of Canadianconsumersabout 3.5 pere61i1 went foreducation. By the third, thecost ofaday's schooling in 1931wasrelatively c116.4-a1)er than in 1913 and certainly much improved in quality and theaverageschool-leaver in -1931 had received8yelars of schoolingasagainst 6yearsin 1913. These data did muchtooffset

the feeling that the schoolsweretooexpeniive. . That schoolcostsin Canadaareborne mainly by local sohool admin-

istrative units has already been noted.(Seepaw64.) . Thevery unequal reductions, during the depression, in schoolsupportled to cousideration of better methods of ,financing. Of the 23,000independ- ent localadministrtitive units in the Dominion, 21,000,havean aver- agepopulation of fewer than 250persons.Theyaccifimtforsome5 million-or about half the total population of Canada, and in thém the diterttenceof ability and willingness maintain good school§ is-ery greit All- the Provinces. have hadwaysof givingmoreassistance t,o ruralc(;ii-up.unitiesthan would be grantedon anordinaiyperclipita or perpupil basis, but equalizaticin ofcosts Has not becomemore general because- local communities fear that:ahigher proportion ofPro:' SA.4vincialsupport'-wottldmean moreProvincial control and. Provincitil

''. authorities, -faced with budget deficits,arepnwilling .toassumefftr- ther obligations. Larger units, speltasthe toWnship, the.lounty, the ... ruralmuificipality, have been triedtosomeextent andliave helped the situation inasmall degree only.Schoól,taxesarelaid primarily onreal property andagrowing sentiment favors findilygptlwr bases . .s.... of takation. , The movémentso COMMQI1in Europetoproiide"help for mentally , gifted children whoarefinancially unable to coritirtue their studies has m'adelittleheadway in Canada. Qn the se.condary level there is

.. little or' nothing 'of that. nature.University* admission.'sCholarship§ .tothe number of 540wereavailable in 1934.These had.itn_averity.e' valtie of $200 each, 'enough to provide foroneineveryhundred- matriculation students. On the undergraduate level,somefurther iwatdsmaybe had, andafew fellowships, scholarships, and bursar- iesare open.fiirirraduate,:study.. Technical.education.TheDominiondovernmentin 1919 voted 110,000,000toaid lit' the .improvelmt, ..of technical educationpro- , vided that each Provinceghould.i3sp'6aan:additional aMount equalto iti, 'share:By 1929, when the original glint'wits toexpire, only the Province of Ontario had:iainéd iis full-VOta and.5yews more . . ...,, wereallowed in whiathe'other Prbvinces.__..,. ,infght qualify. gain in .: -ki . . s. . f 4..

, s

%AO' / C ars I.:7". ,

:741 . . FOREIGN =."- COUNTRIES 67 , __..

'1931. . an'tifinualsumof$750.000foM5years wasvoted.Reginning ..witli1920, Don-linionaidr()sefrom$136,500to $1.15,41(M in1929, I when all theProvinceswereparticipating.There;N-erethen121,212 pupils in schoolsreceivingDominionaid;45017in day.courses, 73,877 in eveningclasses,fend1,447 takingcorrespondencecourses. As the Provinces exhaustedtheirportion ofthe funds,the kiidle creased untilin1935 tbreeNovaScotia, 'Aranitoba,'iiilli-Saskatche- wanwerestill- drawinggrant and thetotal had declineilto$90,720. 4 V alguidance.Theofficialrepirt for1935'reviews the social positio . the yaungpeoplein relationto the world into which theyp after leavingschool.Pointingout that.4,44411-outh of todayhav.pobablvlessthiinhalf theeconomicinde )endence in theirteens that thepre-war generation had,thatin 1931therewas an average difference of1.14yearsbefweenthieageof _leavingschool 'and theageofselfsupport, - and thatindependenceisnot'reached byyoungpeople untilthey arewell inthe nineteelithyearwiththe rr, probabilitythat inafew yetirs thiswill e,xtendto the twenties,the t report asks foracloserartitulationof schook4n4industry, andre- ,,, vie.%.vsthe-comparativelyfewattempts made inCifliadarnihe realm of vocationalguidance.No actmirProvincialscheme. badebeen'de: 'i vehitiédby1935.In Ontarioavocapnalguidanceassoaifroil had been formes],a4cLinAlberta theTeachers'Associationand theSchool of EducaiioniniheUniversityweremaking studiesofvocational .1 opportunities findMethodsof guidance. . Departmental .V examinatians.Thegrowth ofsecondaryeducation 'in Canada didnotcarrywith itthepractice ofestablislEng AI- accredit-, t ing,agencigfor secondaryschoolsorthesystem of -timemeasurenient wthacertain numberof creditsorunitsr(iquired forand 1-.)ermitting E,' .giaduationasi'sthecasein the-UnitedStates.Admissionto high school, proinotionfromyeartoyear,.and graduan werebasedon ii. pas'singexaminationsset and marked bytile ProviAcial departments' i of education.Tosome extenttheProvincial (ertificalesisued..as a. results ofthese examinatioywereaccepted bytheuniversitiesfor .. matriculation. -`-;,--..-..'-'.-.' ..- 111 . 8 . . I" . '.Upto 1927or1928,or evenlater, thedepartmentsgenerallycon- 1ducted theexaminatiöllsfor admission to high school and for.each .., subject eachyearAroughout thesubsequent4years.Sincethen the trend hasbeen stronglytowittedfeivr.examinations.In the admis7 sion andlower high4chootgrides theyarerapidly.4*vearingand -1- dePartmentsare more.ándmoreaccepting the_findiiigs-ofthé indi- 4, 'vidualschoolsas 4..r. 6thp7*krgss,and capabilityof theAudents.,More- a , V over,Proviricial '7"'' f.-'.. . .depaints and universitymittricti1a4oPdboardsare r

. cooperatingbett, thematter of ticcgptipg'casiites,and itis 4 , ...... --- . , , . . . , (.- '. ., L -.- . tDominionBureauofiStati61K--- z Survey .ofEducatiqiIn Canatiti 103. . ..., . z; .. Ottawa, *C.2.,..i.:,. , J. O. Patenande..1.937- . . , -,..*, . ... t-L--. r::-...,,', --:- -...--:.r-7-...1.--v-,4,.,---.. .4.?, , .. ., .* aOr7.$ .2 .. i : , . a Sal) a %... . : . I . ! I- ...I' .. . u' #I. °-"!. -- .. . I. . a , ..;% .... . e, he . I e 0 , . , , I ., . . .-4", .. - , 4/ ', , ',.. . , 4%46:-1.4--.:::,- Nr.', 14 . ., 0'. i 4- . . , 1 A .-.,;417--r-%- %4.7ibr l ' .. '!*4 ,..: .. , ..1 -"-'4.14,,'.34, t 4 t.4 4%j %.''7 7 . , 4, :/.. ' - ,, . ) 4 : .4 k ,t4 s ; t. j.1::).L.:7'. 4§ 4 :,ft,I..Ak.A____ ,___,2,...._!;..a..112..milL'''iiiiiiiiit.;....112.L..._.4--_,;...- -__, : -''.: r; "Z. .--.2-'.34,...,.._._..4:2-.ti., ISVI4i . ..1' :4*.I.t:(.41, C ''I.d- !*--,,' r %r7 Y_Il'-9..-:<:j:::: ----.24 68 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION,1934-36 be6ming easierfor studentstomovefrom Provinceto Provinceor tiniversityto university andcarrytheir credits with them. Reorganization of instruction.-rTheEnglishreportonthe education of the adorescent in1926 stressed theageof 11 plusksthe natural timeto change the character of the child's training.The junior high khoolmovement which began about 1910 in the United States-wa in recognition of this principle.Both the junior high schoolsand the Englishreportwerewell known in Canada and 'instruction there

.is being changed gradually fromthe 84 plan to somethingmoreiii line with English thought. Manitoba, British Columbia,Ontario.

and Nova Scotia have takensteps in that direction. . . , Univerffity admission.-Though the English-speaking schoolsys- temsweregenerally 8 elementary grlides plus4 secondary, the last orgrade XII of the secondary selloolwasusually consideredasbeing parallel and equal to the firstyearof the universityarts curriculum. This'wasespecially true in the collegiate institutes.Strong comple- . tion of grade XI admitted toauniversity.The trend ishow toward requiring grade XII graduation for university matriculittiob.

LATIN AMERICA The 20 Latin American*republicsnamed in the order Öfpopulation

size are'as indicated below. . \ .00 TAFILE17.--POPULATION AND AREA OF THE LATIN AMERICAN REPUBLICS

Country Population Area in Personsper square milessquare milt

2 ..4

Brasil 45, 332, oeo 3,2/75.510 9. 3 Mexico lfk, 562, 722 7Ki, 944 21.6 Argentina 12, Z27, 761 1, 079, 965 11 3 Colombia & 368, 540 447, 636 1g 7 Peru 6, 147, 000 482, 133 12.7

Chile .a 4, 287, 445 285, 133 15 Cuba 4, 011, 088 44. 164 90.S Venezuela 03, 261, 734 352. 051 A 2 Bolivia 3, 077, 533 514, 485 5. 9 Ecuador 2, 646, 641 W5, 936 9. 6 Haiti. 2.MO. 000 '10, 204 250 Guatemala 2, 2156 593 45, 452 47 Uruguay 21020, 040 72, 153 27. 9 El Salvador fk 1, 522, 186 13, 176 115 Dominican Republic 1, 478, 121 Jge 332 76 Honduras 962, 685 44,4275 24. 9 Paraguay 901, 768 161, 647 5. 5 750, 000 51, 660 14. fi Cokirtarstrica. 471, 525 X4, 000 20 Panama 467, 459 32. 3$0 14. 4 Total L 11I, 282, 1.1 tt4, 11$

klb In totalpopulathi'n andarea,all of Latin Americaisconsiderably

ssmaller than the Union .of Soviet Republics 711ich hasmorethan 166 millionpeople and nearly 81/4 million iquamiles.. 'Excepting

0,4tr' a 469

, f $ ;0' r- . 1 . r- -0- . le . ke P- .-* .. - . , . wrime 11.1. .P tii-:&A Oki se r-

FOREIGNCOUNTRIES r"- 69 Brazil,noneofthese countrieshasareally IfuNgeeducation project .9 burallof them havethe responsibilitiesconnected withthe training of their citizenry,present and future, usuallyassumed bynational entities. From themanyphases of theprogressthat has beenmade in Latin Ameericain thepast decade, fiveapeselected fordiscussion.They are:Nationalization%of education;reduction of illiteracyand the incorporation ofindigenouspeople; the "octivityscho91", andeducational research;provision for tectnicalLind vocatiotialeducation; anda more.favorableattitude towardthe educationofwomen. Following thesearebriefaccounts for Argentina, Brazil, andMexico. 'Nationalizationof edveatian.Someinclination towavdfurther nationalization ofeducation has beenshown hut,except inMexico°, it hasnotbeen towardtheextreme type of nationalizationfound in Italy, Germany, andthe Soviet Union.The delegate fromColombia tothe FourthInternational Co.ngressof Public Instruction,Geneva, 1935, iNexplanation of thepurposesof the educationprogramof hiscountry, said,' To begin withandthiswas some yearsagowe changed the current terminology. Weno longer speak of public instructionbut of national education.This isnot simplyachange of words Wewished to indicate that the state oughtto educate, that istosay,form the willand heart of the youth ratherthan instruct by loadingthem down withknowledge more or less useful. Beginning withJanuary1, 1928, the ministry ofinstructionand public health becamethe ministry of nationaleducation, 'andthe Min- ister of National Educationin hismessageto the Congress of1934, wrote: 3 It isnecessary to have from the Congress througha constitutional reforn4, orfrom the Executivebymeans of provisions that the Presidentof the Republicmaydictate forthe regulation of instruction,afunction the fundamintalcharter gives him, it isnecessary, I 'fay, to establish absolute nationalization of primaryeducation.In the formin which it isestablished today, when this missionis performed separatelyby the Nation,the depart- _ merit'sand the municipalities,it is impossibleto devisea plan and a general courtiefor solution of theproblem because thedisintegratedactivities and efforts do not bringresults equal to those ofunited action.We should eel adoptadivision of thecountry into educationalzones or territories with theirréspectiveinspectors,menof the highestcapacity. Thelimits of thesezones ought not to fall within the present territorialdivisions,which necessarily havean administrative character andconsequentlypolitical, things that weaken the workof education. 4

sBurean Internationald'Education.Annuaireiiternationalde l'educationet del'en- seiguement, 1936.Genève, BureauInternational d'Edueat1on..1988.P. 151. siteitiblicade Colonibia.MemorladelMinisterio dertAltr,cionNacional alemigres() de 1934.Tomo LBogota, Impreuta Naciblial, 1934. 114$,X1X.-'. 0 ., .---.. . .,:......

P . b .9 ..."'-I' ...I % II . . .. . A e % : .% 04 A Z . . "....* -.. . : ..- - .;,_,...r2t. I. 414:7 . . . 6_I 4 t r . ..; . .-.._ ' . t f ...... a.. , ,;,, ...... 171.04.4.11;2141i. .7-2'.1-,...1.?;ria., 4 .-, .--...::'1,;._ 6,-;. ,..,:....,- :k__.....,...-.._.....,__..:____,...-.2...... ,....6.--,,,,,,..------._,_---,-,-1.--,,:... BIENNIAL SURVEY OFEDUCATION, 70 1934-36 A The Chilean EducationalMission that madc surveyof the edu- '1; 1 cationsystemof Costa Rica in1935 recommended further national direction andsupport of education, especially preschool,primary, 1 and teacher-training, andadvised the creation ofageneral direction of primary education withinthe Secretariat of PublicEducation. But it urged strongly against politicalinfluence inthe schools mid advised that the centralo efctr education be largelyautonomous. Itwrotei,npart: 4

Excessive officialism inpublic education has beenat times prejudicialto its development.Experience teachesusthat it should haverelative inde- pendenceto the end that itmaydevelop free from politicaland partisan -pressure."Without whatwecall 'knights-errant',"says Wells, "scientific progress would not have begun in Greecenorbeen renewed inEurope. The universities hadsome part but not the directive voice in the philosophicand scientific thinkingof those times.Maintained pubiceducationis timid and conservative, lackingin initiative, and resistantto all innovation." While thisseems an exaggeration, there issome reason in it.One need only note thenew education movement toseethat the primaryschools of this typewereprivate schools,and that themovement for educationalreno- vationwas sustained by the primary teaching staffsinmanycountr1e0in an open struggle against imperious officialism. Toassure the efficiency of the educational functionof the State,it isneces- , sarythat the service of primary educatioilbe directed bya central officem- plied with thenecessary instruments for maintaining unityand stability 7rd the indispensable technicalknowledge, and havingpower to exclude from its work the influenceof politics. Autonomy, decentralization,and technical knowledgeweconsiderthe basic principles fororganization of the directiveoffices. Themovements towardgreater National control ofeducation in Brazil and Mexicoarenotedon pages80-83, 85-87. Reducti,on ofilliteracy.Bolivia, Ecuador,Guatemala, Mexico,El Salvador, and Peru havepopulations thataremainly indigenousand Ancient native civilizationsthatseem tobe coming intoarenaissance. Most of the othercountries haveafairpercent of native peoples. Foralong, long timenot muchwasdoneto include these indigenous folk in the body politicof their respective countries. . The attitude in thatrespect has changed much inrecentyears.Spe- cial attention is being giventothe education ofindigenousgroups, a processthat involves making betterprovision forschools inrural areas.Byadecree issued in 1927, theIndians in Peruwerefreed frotha peonage systemthat had existed insome partsof thecountry. In 1930, the Governmentset aside June 24 of eachyear as anational holiday knownasthe "Day of the Indigene"to be celebrated appeo- priately.The authorities have forsome yearsbeen _makingspecial effortsto provide the Indians withasatisfactoky kindof education

4 Misión Edncacional CbilenaenCosta Rica 1935.InformsyTrabajos.Vol. I.Bane Joist, Juan Arias, impresor.1935.P. 96.

Ag- o' . , FOREIGN COUNTRIES 71 and enoughof it, andto that end haveestablishedindependentrural normal schoolsand ruralnormal'sections insomeof the publicsecondary schoolswithaviewto trainingrural schoolteachers.Arnim-- lant schoolsweretried butwere ilot successful. The provisionalPresidentof EcuadoronApril3, 1935, signeda decree creatingaNationalPedagogicalMissionto consist ofatech- nical director,school engineer,schoolphysician,schoolagrononiist, visitor, chiefof personnel,secretary, and suchother staffmembers asthe Presidentmaydeemnecessary. Among other ies, thisIis- sion.wasto organizeanexperimentalschool ineach Provincetoserve as amodel for otherschools, andto setup one ormoreexperiment al schools specializingin indigenousculture.Noreportsareavailable as totheprogressthat hasbeen madein carryingout this plan. School gardens,somewhatsimilarto those in theUnitedStates priorto Americanentrance to the WorldWar, havebeen developed inthe DominicanRepublic andhavemetwith muchsuccess. Chile reports that in1933, 8 schoolfarms and186newrural schools werecreatedto give, along withgeneral education,aninstruction suitedto the needs of the peoplein thedifferentareas. Theseareexamples of theattempts thatarebeing/madegen throughout LatinAmericato domorefor theruralareas, to nari ow the wide chasmbetween the culturedruling fewaridthegroupsthat have beenunderprivilegedforso manygenerations,to look lessto Europe. andNorth Americaapdmorelobuildingtheirown(Ps- tinctivecultures andincorporate in themthe bestof theremains of iheancient Indiancultures.Naturally suchmovements will bring areduction inilliteracy, andmoregeneral literacywill initsturn

further thesemovements. . The ChileanGovernment claimsthat between19420 and1933, the percent of illiteracywasreduced from38.6 to25.2.TheNational ConferenceonIlliteracy, heldin Argentina,in1934 is described later.(Seepage76.)Many school buildingshave beenerected in the rural sectionsof theDominicanRepublic inthe hopethat through better attendanceof the children,and adultclasses,illiteracy maybe muchredwed. The"culturalmissions"of Mexico,oneof themost original contributionsmadeto education inthepast quarter ofa centuryhave aidedmaterially in dieadvancestowardliteracy in thatcountry. In Brazil the burdenof *havingahighpercent of thepopulation illiterateis beingmoreandmoreappreciatedand both publicandte-pdvateorganizationsarestrivingto lighten it. The "activityschool."--The"escuela activa,"at least in principle, ifoneistojadge bythe writings of 'theprofessionaleducators,has takentrstrong hold in the South andCentralAmericancountries. All thosemovements connected withthe sowwhatvague term "pro. gressive education"aremuch discussed.Dewey, Pecroly,Claparede. 72 BIENNIAL SURVEYOF EDUCATION,1934-36 and others oftheneweducationgroup arewViely quoted.-This seemsnatural.Literary education,education frombooks hasmade comparatively littleprogressin themanydecades thatit has been tried. The geniusof the nativepeoples didnot lie in that direction. Their modesof expressionandmannersof living haddeveloped in them manualand practical skillsofanextremely high orderand it isto the training anduseof these thatLatin Americeneducators in the riast decadeor morehave turned.The principles ofthe escuela activa fitted in wellwith theirplans andwereadopted. Along with thatcamethe spirit ofeducationalresearch, tiledesire to find by experiment andstudy thetypes of educationbest suited to the children andmost apt to further the growthof thesecountries. In Chileabureau ofpsycho-pedagogicresearchwas setupin1933. A 'yearlater the PeruvianGovernment createdabureauto makere- clarches in thespecial aptitudesol Peruvianchildren inorderto determinetilekind ofinstructionmost useful for them.A psycho- pedagogic laboratorywasopened inUruguay in1933 andsomeex- perimental schoolswerearranged inwhichto try the Decroly methods. The Institute ofPsychotechnics andVocationalGuidanceconnected with theMinistry of Justiceand PublicInstruction inArgentina carriedonimportant workaround theyears1927to 1930 butwas closed during thedepression forreasonsofeconomy.A National Institute of Pedagogywascreated in Brazilin January1937 when the Ministry ofEducation and PublicHealthwasreorganized.The Institute of EducationalResearchatRio de Janeil?o,apart-ofthe Department of Educationof the FederalDistrict ofBrazil,was recently reopened. The National Instituteof Psychopedagogy,setup as partof the Secretariat of Public Educationof Mexico.will dealwith ...exact knowledge of thecharacteristicsof the Mexicanchild, his classification, thespecial educationthat the mentallyOfectiverequire, the physicalrecuperationa'undernourishedpupils, educationof physical defectives, vocationalguidance, mental integialityof the pupils;and the organization, methods,programs, hours, etc., in the schools.' The Institute will havesevenservices:Psychophysiology,child study, psychometrics, childstudy andorganization,vocationalguidance, special education,and.amental hygiene andconduct clinic. Technical andvocational education.Theinterestinrural education, the obviousnessthat the literaryschoolwas notin itselfsuited ---tomanyof the people,the necessity forraising theearning capacity ofas manyof the studentsas soon aspossible, allstimulated,the . movement toward better provisiorCiortechnical andvocationaltrain-

4 Secrets la de EducacioPublica.InstItuto NacionalVopedagogia.Mexico, D. F.,Tellers.Graft*. de 1Nacion, 1936.92pp. Pea - FOREIGN COUNTRIES 73 ing.In 1925 the School of Arts and Craftsand College of Engineers, named for Jose Miguel Carrera (Escuela deArtesyOficiosyColegie de Ingenieros "Jose Miguel Carrera")at Valparaiso, Chile,was founded by the Frederico Santa Maria Foundation.It istoconsist ofaschool for apprentices and7eveningcourses; ahigherPreparatory school, and preparatory and voluntarycourses ; anelementary and 4.higher technicalsChool; avocational school foroverseers,anda higher college for erigineers.Thesewereto be devolped in the order named from 1932to 1937, when the firstyearof the 3-yearcur- riculum of the Higher College for Engineers will be completed. Years II and III will be added in1938.This school has developed asplanned and its example has had considerable effectontechnical educaiionnot only in Chile but in neighboring countries. The Salesian School of Arts and Craftswascreated in the Domin- ican Republic in Januaryoi1935 to supplement the vocational schools th'en existing.It gives instruction incarpentry,shoe making, and jailoring.The vernme+contributedthe land and 30,000pesos toward constructicfrof the building, and allowsamonthly subvention. The National Sool of Arts and Crafts of Haitiwasfounded in October 1936. It offerscoursesin woodworking, cabinetmaking, and shoemaking. The State of Silo Paulo, Brazil, isoneof the better developedareas in Latin America withrespect tovocational education.Its first twopublic *schools of this kindwerefounded in 1911.Then followed 1 in 1913; 1in 1919;1in 1924; 1 in 1925; 2 in 1921; 1 in1929; 1 in 1931;2 in 1933; 10 in 1934; and 3in1935.Note that of the25 for which, dates,of foundingaregiven, 19 began operatioms during and since 1927.On June 30, 1935, therewere28 such schools witha teaching staff pf 674 andanenrollment of 9,045. The State director general of instruction had charge of vocational education to 1925; thenaspecial inspection of manual workWas created, A technicalassistance for vocational educati9nwasestab- lished in 1930; 3yearslater because of the gruwth in interest in this typeof training,direction of the service of general and secondary educationwas c.#:ed.Finally in 1934asuperintendence ofvocational and domestic educationwasestablished by decree. Thisverysketchy outline ofprogressmade inoneState, whilenot exactly typical, is still strongly indicative of the growth of vocational training and increasing interestin it throughout Latin America. The Minister of NationalEdiication of Colombia writes: Inanagricultural country such as ours, the immense majority of the childrengofrom the school to the fields, from the alphabet to the plough,

s Bulletin International de l'Enseignement Technique, Juillet 1037, p. 25, 62172*---8:

-*1 0,40 74 BIENNIAL SURVEYOF EDUCATION,1934-36 from Cie slateto the pickaxe.He has succeededafter fouryearsin reading large letters,in writingsome phrases, in reciting ina nasal and hurried voicesome history that he willnever repeat, and in counting with the aidof his fingerssome numbers not above threedigits. * * With suchinstruction, it is inhumanto send the childto thecountry, to his economic aceNity,to his solitarystruggle with life. It is indispensableto complete the rudimentsof instructionby placing him ina school where he is taught practicalthings, wherethereare solved for hima short list of problems whichpresent difficultiesin the calm and productive exerciseof his ruralor artisan vocation. Aschool where he learns howto makeatable,a tabouretaneabed, thingsthat he has never seen in his cabin; where he isrendered capableof buildingthestorage places needed forthe productsof his land,the shoesto protect his feet; the clothingtocover him and give him socialdignity;where he is given ideas of the forgeandways of repairing his oldorbroken ironwares; where, finally, he istaughtsome principles;very general andverysimple, ofSgrarian and industrialeconomy. That word pictureof what isnecessaryin largerur:reasof Latin America isveryexpressive.Colombia istryington the situation inpart through what .it callscomplementaryschools.Itnowhas 242 of them. Educ*;on ofWOMC11.---"Certainlytherewerealways, inthecourse

of, .thecenturies,someremarkablewomenwhodistinguished themselves by aspiringtoanintellectualculture higherthan that oftheir epoch butupto thesecond half of thenineteenthcentury public and sygtematic highereducation forwomen wasneglected byall th6 countries of Europe,"writes AmelieArato.7Ifthatistrue of Eu- rope,it is equallytrue of Latin America,not only in universityedu- cation but insecondary instructionaswell, andperhapseven on primary levels.In the statisticsof eductttionfor Argentina(see page78) it isshown that in1926out of 15,111 studentsin national colegios, only2,305,pr15.2percent,weregirls.(AndArgentinawas probablymoreadvanced than itsneighborcountries inthisresmct. The situationimproved considerablyin thedecade.In 1936, of 23,645 students, 065,or20.5percent,weregirls.In thesameperiod, the proportion ofwomenin the studentbody of theuniversitiesrose from8.4 to 10.6percent.(Seepage79.)Seemillgly, theattitude toward increasingeducationalopportunitiesforwomenis becoming morefavorable inArgentina. But thatcoeducition andequaleducationalopportunitiesfor womenwillcomeslowly inCentral and SouthAmerica isfairly well shown by the attitudein Mexicowhere in spiteof thesocialist regime, the head of thodepartment ofsecondaryeducation inthe Secretariat of Public Educittionrecommended, in1936 in his BantiOfthe So- .. 1/4 ?Arató, Amete.L'enseignement secondaire des jeunesfinesen Europe.. Bruxelles, Office de Publicit41, 1984.812p.

:L. FOREIGN 'COUNTRIES 75 c11J11i8t Secondary School thatcoeducation shouldnot be abruptly in- , troduced in the secondaryschools, unlesstostudents who have had someprevious experience in it.Since the number ofschools for girls is markedly less than thatfor boys, if coeducationa0vances slowly, education opportunities for girlswillmovetardily. Argentina..Argentinais second inarea(1,079.9(i5squaremiles) , and third in population(12,230,000) of the Latin Americanrepublics. The peoprearealmost wholly of European descent;caring for indige- . nous groupsplaysaminorpart in the education scheme. Each of the 14 Provinceshas, in ftbcordance with the nationalcon- stitution, builtupitsownsystemof primary schools,but since 1904 the Federal Government has aidedthe Provinces byestablishing national primary schools inanyProvince whosegovernmentre- quested it.The National Council of Education (ConsejoNacional (le Educación),adepartment of the National Ministryof Justice and Public Instruction, hasstrong control of the primary schoojs in the city of Buenos Aires, and in the10 territories,8 and of the national Primary schools inthe Provinces. / The Ministry ofJustice and Eaucation throughits other departments controls virtually all secondary, normal, industrial,commercial, 4 and finearts training, and the primary schools which`areattached totobe normal schools.Private schoolsareallowed andaregranted considerable freedom though-theyaresubjectto inspection and if the pupils wishto obtain the official diplomas, the instructionmust necessarily conform rathercloselyto the officialcoursesof study. Progress in education duringthe decadewasorthodox and orderly.

- The schoolswereinfluenced bynodrfisticpoliticalorsocial revolution. A representative of theNational Governmentreported for the year1933 9 the following special activities:(1) A meeting of teachek of Spanish and of Argentinehistory and geographywasheldto. study theprogramsand methods of teachingthose subjects witha viewto having them better correlated andto stress training the children in National prideand in appreciation of theircountry; (2) acommission appointed bythe-Inspector Generalgavemuch study tothe character,èxtent, and airps of secondary education;(3)new normal 'schools of regionaladaptationwerecreatedtoprepareteach- ersto giveakind of instructionsuitedto the region in which they 4,0 verelocated, andsomeof the higher primaryschoolswerechanged to schools of rural orientation;(4) to meet the demandsof Argentine womenthat training for professionsother than teachingbe opened

s These territories that havenot attained the status of Provincesare:La Pampa, Mi- siones, Chaco, Rio Negro, Chubut, Neuquen, Formosa,Santa Cruz, Los Andes,and Tierra del Fuego.They havea combined area of 466,885squire miles and.apopulation of 640,400. , Bureau International d'Éducation.Annuaire internationalde l'iducationet de rep- Niglio:nut 1935. 4 (knave, Bureau International d'tducation,1935.446p. . ..k

A . _ . . . s: . : . . 45. PK I ),"'" 4, 76 BIENNIAL SURVEY OFEDUCATION, 1934-36 to them, secondary schools for girlswerecreatedat Buenos Aires, Cordoba, and Rosario;(5) the HigherNormal Schoolat Paranawas reformed andonitas abasisaNational Institutefor Secondary Teacherswasfounded with the."José Maria Torres"Normal School annexedto it;and(6)specialattemptsweremadeto reduce illiteracy. Conferenceonilliteracy.In connectionwith this lastitem,aNa- tional ConferenceonIlliteracy. composedof representativesfroMall

the Provincesand Territoriesand the NationalCouncil of Education4- washeldat Buenos Aires,jegimigOctober29, 1934 to consider sevendifferentaspectsof illiteracyandmeansfor its eradication:

1. Factors whichdetermine thepercent of illiteracy inArgentina; plitn for combattingilliteracy; actionby the State, andthe stimulation of private action. 2. Obligatoryschooling; methodsfor enforcingtbe laws,aswellas school attendance,up to a minimum of instruction. e 3. Uniformityin the obligatoryschoolage and correlation of plans of study for primaryinstruction. 4. Desertion fromschool; its economic,regional, andpedagogicalcauses. 5. Illiteracyamong adults; its economic, regional,andaccidentiilcause; methods of combattingit. 6. Economicand financial questionsrelated to illiteracy;coordination of the work of the Nationand of theProvinces. 7. Necessitv oforganizinga system of statistical data thatwill show pert- odically theamount of illiteracy. Seven committees,oliofor eachaspect, presented their rospective recommendationsto the conference. Theywere manyandcannotbe reproduced here.Theymaybe found inthe printedproceedings of the conference."It is of specialimportance that, themembers planriedalong-termprogramfor the'eradicationof illiteracy,including nationalconferences t:o beheldevery5yearsanda permanent commission for thestudy of illiteracy.The commissionwasconsti- tuted in 1935. Survey of8econdary educatioD,a-Thecommissionappointedtoin- quire into secondaryeducationconsidered,at the reque§t of theMin- istty of PublicInstruction: Anincrease inthe numberofyears devotedto secondary studies; closecooperation betweenthe different directions ofsecondary instruction,for thepurposeof culturalunifi- , cation; foundingsecondary studieson agener0structure basedon two cycles, theone tobe tower,comnion and\ culttiral,the otherto be higher .withculturalintensificationfor thebaccalaureate,and with

to República ArgentinaMinisterio de Judie%e instruccitis Pública.PrimeraCon feren- cia Nacional sobreAnalfabetismo rennidaen Buenos Airesen octubrey noviembre de 1934----Antecedentea,actas,y conclusiones.Buenos Aires,Talleres Grificosde la Pent- tenciaria Nacional,1935.436p.

V. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 77 vocational-technical specializationin teacher-training,commerce,and industry; and the 'necessity forpromoting studies relatingtothe Nation and of orienting theechIcation of the youth A:hoaretrained in institutions of secondaryinstruction, towardanincreased spirit of nationalism. , Thereportwaspublished in 1934." It isproperly included'among \the importantsurveysof thedecadeThe commission submitted plans of study for the lowercycle, the National colegios,and the normal. commer.cial, and industrial schools.The different subjects andtheir place and value in the curriculumarediscussedatsomelength. The programproposed for, the lower,common,cultural cycle of4years (basedon7yearsof primary schooling)is of special ifiterest. TABLE 18.PROPOSED PLAN FORTHE LOWER CYCLE OF sEcONDARy EloUCATIoN f.

!Number of hoursa week by year Subjetts of study

1 II III IV

r- 2 3 - A. Linguistic-literary culture: 4anish (language,gramniar, literature). 5 5t. 4 3 French or English 4 .4 3 3 B. HisWrical-social sciences: o History: (1) Ancient; (2) medieval and modern withcorresponding American; (3) contemporary and American; (4)Argentiniantrom 1810 3 3 3 Civics and elements of law 3 Geography: (1) Elements of astronomical and physicalgeography. Asia with its Islands, and Africa; (2) Europe andOceania; (3) America; not including Argentinaexcept for physical features; (4) Argentina, etpeciallyithe human and economkaspects 3 2 2 2 C. Mathematical sciences: Mathematics: (1) Arithmetic and planegeometry; (2) arithmetic and plane geometry; (3) arithmetic, algebra, and solidgeometry; (4) arithmetic, algebra, and plane trigonometry 6 6 4 D. Physico-natural sciences: Biological sciences: (2) Botany; (3) zoology,anatomy, and general hysiology; (4) human anatomy, physiology, and hygiene 3 3 3 Chemistry 2 2 Physics _ 46 3 E. Esthetic culture, expression,etc.: Music f. 2 21 I Drawing 2 4P 2 2 Penmanship 2 F. Practical training: e (Varied according to the regionortbe school) 3 a 2 1 G. Physical culture. T i4

Total 1 tr-7-4 s. How far the various recommendationsmade by the commission have been incorporated in theactual schoolsystemisnot yet determined.

11 Ministerio de JusticiaeInstrucción Pública.Proyecto de reformat;alos planes de estudio de la ensellansa media.Buenos Aires, Talleres Orificos de laPenitenciaiù Na clonal,1934.349 pp,*

4111111°

s. 11 :: 78 BIENNIAL SURVEY OFEDUCATION, 1934-36 stot;NtirR.For theInternational Expositionof Paris,the Min- istry (if .iutice ,andPublic Instruction-preparedand publisheda statisticalsurveyof educationin Argentina12 showing itsprogress in the decade from19J3to1936.The dataarewell organizedand aregraphically Mu:tedf The progréssof education,both public and private, insofarasstatisticscan expressit, is shownsomewhat better than formost other countries.Four summariesexcerpted from thesurvey arepresented. The first of these is given inthe tablefollowing.That section of the table headed"Primary" relatesto schools maintainedand controlled by the Provincialeducationauthoritiesorthe National Counc.ilof, EducationatBuenos Aires.All the otherinstitutions beginning withSecondary"arecontrolled bythe Ministryof Jus- tice and Public Instruction.

T.unE19.STATÌsTICSOF PUBLIC EIMTATIONIN ARGENTINA.1921 A AND 1936

Schools Teachers Students Kind ofinstitution a

101 1936 1936 1 1936 13 1936

2 I 4 5 s 7

Primary: Ferral Capital S75 ! S4.47 11,156 14. 017 287, 556 341, 1(4 Privinee S.NI1 ' 10,064 31. 208 42. 959 931. 683 t 1, 253, 341 Territorieq, t..69 1.317 2, 703 4.912 1 75. 8S5 130, 169

Total A.. 10, 545 12. 778 45, 087 61. Sk48 1. 295, . 1, 724. 614 ..-11r Secondary: . National eolegios 4.$ 62 1,972 '3, 045 15,111 23, 645 e Normal Schools S4 ! . 89 Normalcourse 2,1015 2, 438 13,997 19, S56 A pplicM ioncourse 41246 1, 263 29,887 34, 553 Attached kindergartens 1 14 1 16 52 59 1,362 1, 282 Special Institutes . S 11 254 341 3,497 4, Q02 Industrial andArts and Crafts Schools 44 1: 58 472 799 3, 533 7.068 CommercialSchools* 12 19 403 Vocational 1.043 3.151 6. 874 Schools for Girls 21.) 21 315 444 5, 336 7, 480

Total 212 ! 268 6,829 9, 434 27i, 0474 f

1 These kindergartensare countedas partof,no separate from, the normalschools to which theyare attached.For thatrea9Dn they are not included in the totalsof number of schools. 4 of which 42.776 are women. . . 3 Of which 56.579are women. The preponderance ofwomen students is due to the fact thatwomen studentsare overwhelmingly in the majority inthe normal schools.The Nationalcolegios mainly bymen; the women numbered 2,305 are attended or 15.2 perCent in 1926 and 4,865or 20.5 percent in 1936. . Theamount that private effort,mainly'.sectarian,cowributes toward v trainingyoungpeople in Argentina,is indicatedby the data inthe next table.

' IsMinisterio de Justiciae Instruccion Publica de laRepublica Argentinaen la Exposi- (ion Internacional de Paris del Ano1937.. Buenos Aires, Telleres Gratleósde la Peniten- ciarfa Nacional, 1937.41pp.

. ..' ...... ;.1...".:..,.- 4. " . .-e . .' . .. . rr. ,... A.1, le...... I 1 ...... I Z.5.-;%..-.... ''''(. I t , v .Iti. ' 40 4.-...-ftliagkfl"- :111-teiii.i.ttl-::.:-..4,14,kirii..;-_:.L-i,_-_,I,,.., ,,,,-....1.11.....:i'..,.. I ' ,,... . ., ... i..__;,,-.¡2-....L__..L.:_*L.-&-1,...... _..71A.-..:. ---k-2-t----.-,--t------2,-::-.:'-k...,..--...... '...... -..'-- "...Lt. Nrs...... -...-.27.1, .....; ..,..:...... ' 411

FOREIGN COUNTRIES 79 TABLE W.-STATISTICS OF PRIVATE EDUCATION IN ARGENTINA. 1926 ANI)1936 4 .ONNIM .. Schools %Teachers Stludents

Kind of ion : 1926 1936 1

1 i 1926 . 1936. 1 1926 1936 i I. Men Women Men ._. Amen l

3 4 I ! 7

.1 Secondary 64 17S . 741 2. r1077;t; 4. 831;2 4 139 , 10. 733 : '2, 474

nr, 7 1 Normal 37 . 35 609 1.s: ; 3.4:43 : .313 . n. Commercial 5 74 Co 616 I X.6 i 1, (1:i2 1.:112 I Vocational...... ; 1 20 15 1.r. :. _ - _ ... . . 49 765 Industrial S 1W ./%,.. :.;,,....,,.. Fine Arts...,_____...1 1 1 8 3 : 9 . 21 , 4 4 5

j Total . .I 19* . 316 1. 439 3. 6%9 3, 266 3. 742 1'. 971 ; 11. 473 a

Thereare5universitiestowhichareannexed :21 institutions. These universities draw their support mainly from Public funds andarein hconsiderable degree autonomous, with sentiment favoringeven (Treaterfreedom in their action.

TABLE21.-STA;IIISTICSOF HIGHER EDUCATION IN ARGENTINA.192+1 AV) 1936

ammo..

1 Professors Stulents e

a Kni ersity Men I Women i Total 1926 1936 1926 1936 1926 1936 1926 1934

2 s 4 7 .s

I. e 1 M2 Buenos Aires 790 8. 629i 9. 781 597 i.3l 9. nfi I 11. 064

: La Plata 223 316 1. 3s5 5. 4s8 245 I 53Y 1. 430 i 6. 027 Litoral 262 143 2. 14$' 4. 598 340 491 I 2. 4ss I 5.1%9 Cordoba 159 21 2. 290 I 2, 801 13s 379 2. 4s, 3 1SIE Tucuman 17 25 51 1 331 20 52 71 I *X;

Total 1, 213 I 14 4.11 I 14, 5.3 IN 1,349 t, 744 IS, 843 24743 1 n

The University of Buenos Aires has2 institutions annexed to it; La Plata has 7: Litoral, 5;Cordoba, 2; and Tucuman,5. Theseare nationalcolegio8,econklaryschools for girls, higher schools ofcom- mer,schools oftigriculture, aildinstitutions of likenature.Not alla theinstruction isonAniVersity levels. .They eliroll'a considerable number of studentsasshown in table 22.

011114, 4t.

. . _ _ 1 80 BIENMALkRVEYOF EDUCATION,1934-38 . . TAB 22.STiTISTICSOF TEACHERSAND STUDENTSIN INSTITU- TIONS ANNEXEDTO THE UNIVERSITIES,1926AND 1936 41. Teachers Students Unierity , Men Women Total 1926 1936 - 1926 1936 1926 1936 1926 1936

2 3 4 7 6

Buenos Aires 301 350 2,993 2, 811 2. 993 2, 811 La Plata 151 22,4 1, 097 1, 850 Litoral 354 568 1, 451 2, 418 195 225 42E1 4, 252 310 1, 035 1, 736 6, 287 Cordoba 58 91 673 837 . . 673 837 _ Tucuman ...... 68 81 . 377 , 4 2:1 266 430 643 amuni.. 8..55 Total 7.73'I 6,360 16,173 US to 033 7,4N 12, NS

. f Summamy.-wittetotal of students,1,403,307, for 6wasalmost 14 (13.9)percet, of the populatibn,then estimateto be 10,030,000, The increase,in 10yearsof 478.652students raisedthepercentage to- 15.4 of thiS12,230,000 inhabitantsof Argentinain1936.Either percentage- is, interms of provisionforecritIttionthroughout the world,rather highandcomparesfavorably withthe smaller,more self-containedand relativelyhomogeneousnations ofwestern Europe.None 'of theelements ofaCompletesystem` of education ç. is lackingbutsomeof themsuchaspreparation fortaking training in theprofessions, andtraining int6.'professionsthemselvesseem to be developedtoa greater extent and bigher degreethan others. Brazil.Brazil- islargest inareaand greatéstin populationof the- LatinAmericannations. With3,275,510squaremiles of terri- 9tgry and about451/2 millions ofpeople, itincludesmorethan40 percent of theareaandnearly,40percent of the populationof Latin ,America. TheUnion ismade 'up 'of20 States,1 Territory,and the FederalDistrictat Rio de Janeiro.°ThelariestStates in poiniof populationare:Minas Geraes,5,888,000; Sio Paulo,4,592,000; Bahia, 3,3354900; Rio GrandedoSulr2,183.000;Pernambuco,2,155,000%0Mo de Jitneiro,1,559,000; Ceara,11319,000 ;.the FederalDistrict,1,158,000. They lie alongor nearthe 4 east coast andaccount for aboutone-half thei)opulation,4-4.:---.. . -, The First Republiccarn4texi ar;end in October1930welamilitary uprising forcedthe resignationof thePresident.A provisional government functioned untilJuly .16,1934, when theSecondRe- publicwasinaugurated anda newconstitutionadopted.Among _ other *uses to education, the A relit% ..t ' . constitutionprovidesthat Arr.149.It devolvesupontheUnion: -Itil-srodrift'a.coniprehensiveplansof nationalgducationbrierualieall degrees and branchesof Instruction, . general andspecialized,and tocoot.- dilate andsupervise theexecution ofthis plan inall partsof the,iontitry.

t - , r "i .. . . . o' 1...... j . lip . . -. . ...4,0 . ,. . . . ., `- 1.,* - ' . - = . " . .'" 1,.' 7 FOREIGN COUNTRIES 81 (b) Tolo-AIowardultimatefree tuitimvtii Perondary and prépAratory saovls and in institutions of higher lokning,exercisingoverthem the

becessary supervision:--' .' , , (c) To organize and maintain .in,411 kevtionsof the countrysystems of . , education adaptedto the particulitr, needs. 1 7 . (d) To maintain in theFederar District secondaryschools,, instiiutions of higher learning, anduniviiiés. . . . t (e) To supplyorsuppleinent educationalactivity, wherevernecessary .because;pillick. ofinithitive , or funds and to stimulate educational work in whrcountry bymeansof studies,investigations,demonstrations, ., and sub es. / . Pro,.. rd: The national plan of educationaccording to the Federal Law, in the terms ofart. 5 in XIV, and-1!) in ..s aande, can only

reestliblishédfor definite periodssaie will conformto the tollowing ubrn . (a) Free tiiidcompulsory prit yinstruc;tion, ¡Deludingadults. b) Work toward freeeducation above the primarylevel. in order to

make*itmore _actesAble. Jr- 4 () Freedom ipteachingiillbranches andat alllevels, accordingto presCribedlegIslation,both Federal and State. (d) inprivate schools the teach_ing bfall subjects, except foreignlanguages,in thè language ofthe country. (c) Admission limitedto the teaching capacity of thescboolvnd-selection . bymeansof intelligence tests,orby objectiveprocessessufaillto thepur poseof thecourse. . (f)Recognitionof privateschools onlywhentheyassuretheir teachers of security and worthyremuneration during acceptableservice. Further, the Unionand the municipalitiesareto apply to the maintenance and developmentof education ileverless than 10tpercent of the income fromtaxes, and for'rural . education. the Unionwill set aside at least 20percent of the funds appropriated foreduca- z tion in the annual budgets. The division of educationalauthority andresponsibilify between the States and theNational aovernmentfrom 1925to 1930was generally. that the States providedelementary education and,any othertype that they might wish.The NationalGovernment through its National Departmentof Education-7-notadepartment in the meaning of the wordin the UnitedStates butabranch_orbureau of the Ministryof *Justice and theInterior, establishedin 1925 wascharged with administeringsecondary and highereducation, and supervising the grant-in-aidthatwasmade by the.NationalGpyerAr, ment to the States forghe maiptenance of ruralschdols providedcer- - tain .conditionsastoteacherqualifications,coursesol study,and Stalesupport of educationwere met. InAvember1930, shortly after thesircessofthéievolution,a National Ministry of Education and Pub1ic,41-lealthwasestablished. . Thiswasnotsomuch the beginningofne*Federal activitiesitsit:. wasthe centralizationof efforts alreadyisting. Theeducationpart

of. the Ministry includes theformer Departmentof EducatIon, the. :

University of Rio de Janeiro,the .superiniendence ofcommercial 1144 . . .

, . A 6416 ' 3 a. , .:1 a. - . . . . . a Sr . .. . - it a 1; ..."0201=0.41...... 1.14*, . ;:. . a r; .;%..471 ...;461.;4 - _.,.;* . . , 4N11114 *RIO

BIENNIAL 32.1 SC:RVEY OF.EDUCATION. 1934-36 cation, the inspectorateof technical vocationaleducation, anda number. of alliedcultural institutionssuchasthetwo nationalmuseums. National observatory,and National library.A National Councilof Educationwassetupby lawtoserve as anadvisory bodyto national and State authorities,prepare aplan of educationand in general encourageand stimulateefforts toward educationand culture.Edu- cation in Brazil isto continue apparentlyto be decentralized with each State and theFederal districthaving itsownschoolsystem,the Ministrydealing mainly withsecondary and higherinstruction, and certain specialaspects, and actingas acentralagencyfor gathering and supplying information. To aid the NationalCouncil in itswork, theMinistry prepared aqtiestionuryon anational planof education,"and under dateof January 16, 1936,sent it to teachers, students,journalists, writers, scientists, ministers ofthe gospel,militarymen,politicians, 'profes- sionaliiien"allthose convincedthat education isaprimary,essen-_,,, -tiai, and basic problem'ofthe Nation andbecause of that wishit orientedmorefirmly and givenabetter organization."This plan ofseeking.adviceoneducation from thepeople throu.ghoutalarge republic issounusual thatsomeindication ofthenature of the. questionaryseemspertinent. It consists of 213paragraphsorarticles, each ofwhich isone or morequestions arranged under -general headingsortitles1that are%divided intochapters.Title I is theintroduction, andunder it chapter I deals with the-definition,comprehensiveness,and duration of the national plan ofeducation. Thequestionsare: 1. How should thenational plan of educationbe defined?What ought it to comprehend? Shouldit be limited solelyto school activitiesorextend to all the extra-school activities ofan educativelnfluence?

. 2, What should.be understoodaseducationto be given by the family? Ulthinwhat limits ought educationto be supplied by pubM authoiities? 4. Understoodas a code of directions for nationaledugution, whatlimit ought the national planof educationto have? 5: What periodicduration should the--national plan ofeducation lavii? Is it advisedlyaduration of 10years,time enough forits full application an5j, verificationof all its results?' . A few otherquestionsare : .41"-29. What oughtto be taught in the pOnvyschool? 35. What issecondary education? *Whatlimits shouldit bare? 30. Should therebemorethanone type of secondary curriculum?"If yes, what type? What the objectiveofeach? 109. Whatshould be included in theeducationalsystem of the Union? Should the Unionmaintain and directduly the services ofeducation that v. t IsMinisterio daEducatlioeSaude Publica.Plano Nacional deEducaciio.Questionario para um Inquerito.Rio de Janeiro, ImprensaNacional, 1986.42pp.

t p. 4 FOREIGN .COUNTRIES 83 *are*Of'sfrcial national significance?Or shoulditalso maintainand direet educational services intendedto satisfy local necessities? 123. In what conditiOns oughtprivate educationinanygrades and branches be permitted in Brazil? 126. What special conditions should be established inorder that private schools maintainedordirected by foreignersmayfunction"!Where would they be? 177. What is religious instruction? Whatareits limits?Ilow should the problem of religious instruction in Brazil be considered? 1S6. Who should maintain primary find preprimary instruction?Only. the States?Should the Municipalities organize and direct flrimary amid preprimary schoolsormgely collaborate with the Statesi1theirorgnrOaR tion and direction? :Whatresourcesshould be setapart for the mainte- naneeof varioustypes of primary and preprimary schools? 187.Wfioshould maintain secondary instruction?Whatresourcesshould be set apart for its maintenance? . 190. Who should maintain higher instruction? What &sources should be set apart for it? Theseareold questions,-as oldaseducation itself. Hov the people of Brazilanswerthem,notin the questionnaire, but in actualPrac- tice, will determine thecourseDf humun training in thatcountry. The Federal District and fourorfive of themorepopulous and wealthierStates have made considerableprogressand their example is being followedaswellas maybe by the other States In the Federal District, markedprogresshas been shown intile provision of 30newschool buildings for 30,000 pupils, the establishment.in 1933 ofanInstitute of Educational Research, abolition of intermediate schools 'in 1931, veation in1933 ofasystemofcon- tinuation and extensioncourses,the revision in 1931 of the curriculum -for setondary schools, betterarrangmentsfor teacher tKaining. and thefoundingof theUniNlersityof the Federal District. The Brazilian attitude.Apparently the Brazilian authorities feel that. their State and Federalsyaemsoi educationareneither adequate norwell organized. The variousstepsthat baye been takentobring aboutgreaterparticipationonthepartof the FederalgoN:ernmentare mainly-motivated byadesireto have better unity in education iir Brazil andmoreilleA037,equaleducational opportunities in all'areas of the country:;:iiosignificant trend toward using the schoolsto furtheraspecial politicalbeliefhas appeared. The approach toward aNational educationalsystem " is being made slovay and for.thatvery reasonshould eventually be succ6ssful. Mexico.Avast.amlittnt ofarrars to-makeup,broadly describes the education situation in Mexico arotwd 1927.After the revolution of 1917 the betterment of the Mexican peopIe through educationwas earnestly undertaken. The situationatthe'doseof the first decade under the.wwconstitution issowell outlined byaformer under- ). -.--

ra. .

t 1..4.81 '411- !-11," I. 477 .tS 4 , " . . - s ** ;1 e 84 BIENNIAL SURVEY OFEDUCATION. 1934-36 secretary of public instruction14 that aertinentexcerpts from itare quoted. Ina country laboring under the weight ofa63 percentillitxacy, hetero- geneous from an ethnicalas well as from a physical point of view,divided byathousand spiritualbarriers and byas many material obstacles. with valuable traditionalcultures repressedand foreign conceptionsimposed; ina country with these conditions everything isaproblem, which might simply be stated thus:Ugly, to makea nation out of the ethnical and cultural conglomerate. * s e Thereare in 1927 only 13,117 public schoolsalltold, and abouthalf of the children withouta school to go to.True, thegovernments of the revolution have hastilytried tocorrect this situation, but the 5,000rural schools that the FederalGovernment will haveestablished by theclose of 192s will have to be multipliedmanifold beforethe minimumeducational need of the country ismet. The growth will haveto be not only horizontal but vertical.

Stategovernmentsarespending 34percent of their budgetsoneducation; the Federal Governinentdevotes 7.37per cent.. .and yet thenational educationalprogramfor Mexico,even conceived in its smallestterms, demands amounts of.moneymany times greater than what isbeing spent.

The movementdesignated by thename "school of action" is themost important in thecountry at the present time.9...Wearesuffering from normalittm * s * We have to do inageneration what should ¡lavebeen donecenturies ago,andwehave to do it, thus, in thegreatest hurry, becauseour nation- ality is in danger of beingovercome from the outside.There exists in Mexicoatraditionale rewhich educatorsshould not andcannot ignore. In past timesour countr asthe site of admirableand noble civiliza- dons. Theycame to naught but they have left perforceasediment of culture.It would be follyto forget it anda greater folly not to take advantage of it Topreserve the valuable elements of theindigenous cultures and to amalgamatethem with thenew conceptions andnew ways of modern civilizationsaccording tonorms acceptable to the Mexican tradition isatask that falls largelyonthe shoulders ofthe Mexican educator. The "Spanishizing"of the Indian, thatis, the teachingof the Spanish language to that .one-third ofthe Mexican peoplewho donot understand norspeakour tongue, thus giving them themeans of communication with the rest ofus,is, along thesame order, one of the most importantprob- we lems have to solve. . To make theschool keep Its sympathyand acquirea clearvision ofthe great contemporary issues 'nowtroubling Mexico,those of theland, of theorganizationof the working class,and of selftgovernmentandto act aos; sothat it will also abstain frompartisanship andpropagandism isanother of the essential problems,of Mexican education. e 14 Suns, Moises.Mexico.In EducationalYearbook of the InternationalInstitute of Teachers College, ColumbiaUniversity, 1927. New York,Bureau of Publications,Teachers College, 1928, FOREIGNCOUNTRIES 85 Again theschool faces thegreat need of bringing aboutaneconomic betterment in thecountry and raising thestandards of living of thepeople. Mexican education isnow learning that it has to becomeeminentlyvoca- tional.This obligation isimposedupon usfor three differentconsidera- tions: Becauseour education was beforeverbiiland theoretical and it mustnowbecome real and practical;becauseour people Wive an evident genius for working withtheir hands;and, lastly, becausethey havegone hungry for centuries,and theymust now be taughtto produce enough to appease that hunger.

. In brief, educationin Mexico in1927 faced the reduction of illiteracy through theprovision ofnianytimesmoreschools thanwere then established;the expenditure ofmanytimesmore moneythan wasthen beingspent;using thenative culturesas afoundationon whichto builda newMexican civilization;giving theindigenods peoplesa common language; making education activeand practical rather than literaryand theoretical;and keepingit free frompartisanship and propagandism. Education in Mexicois and hasbeen forsome years following the European revolutionarypattern.It is beingstrongly nationalized in thesensethat the FederalSecretariat ofEducation ista -*g more andmoreof the controlawayfrom theStates; priva lsare eitherforliddenorcontinue onlyunder the closestmt)ervision of the public authorities;schools of nearlyalltypesarecoming under the directionof theonesecretariat; andeducation hasbecomean instrument for teaching thepolitical, social,and economicdoctrines of thepartyinpower. 4.The fundamental lawasamended in1934onwhich educationin Mexiconow[September 1937]rests is: 4 ARTICLE 3. The education will&the State impartswill hesocialist and, inadditic;nto excluding allrelikiousdoctrine, willcombat fanaticism and prejudice, and for thatpurpose the school willorganize itsinstruc- tion and activities in sucha way as to permit creatingin youtha rational and exact concept of the Universeand of sociallife. Only the StateFederation,States,municipalitieswillimpart primary, secondary, and normaleducation.Itmay grant quthorizationsto private persons and organizations that desireto impart educationinany of the aboielevelsi, in accordinevery case with the followingnorms: 1. The activities andthe instruction inprivate schoolsshall be adjusted, without exception,to the precepts in the firstparagraph of thisarticle and will be in charge ofpersons who in the opinion of theState havesufficient professionalpreparation, suitablemorals, andan ideology in accord with these precepts. By virtue ofthat, religiouscorporations, ministersof creeds, societies for actionsplat exclusivelyor preferentiallycarry on educational activities, and theassociationsor societies linked directlyor indirectly with the propagandaofa religious creedmay not intervene inany wayin primary, secondary,or normal schools,noraid themeconomically. 2. The forming ofplans,programs, and methods of instrtictionbelongs Inevery case to theState: 86 . BIENNIALSURVEiOF EDUCATION, 1934-36 a Private schoolsmaynot function without having previously obtained

. in eacheasethe authorization of the public authority. 4. The Statemayrevoke such authorizationat anytime.Against that revocation there isno processofrecourse nor any judgment. Thesesame normswill regulate education ofanytypeorgrade that maybe given to workersorrural dwellers. Primary education is obligatory. and the State will furnishit free. The Siatemay.withdraw-aritsdiscretion atanytime recognition of official validity from studies taken in private schools. 4,* The Congress of the Uniog, for thepurposeof unifying and coordinating education throughout the Republic, will expedite thenecessary laws intended to distribute the educative social funakonamongtheFederation,the States, and the mmaicipalities, to fix the apporeionments frF thispublic service, and to determine the punishments applicable to those officials who 'donot

4 enforceorhave not enforced the relative provisions,aswellasfor all those who violate them. To about 1932 the Federal Secretariat of Educationpublishedan annual if emoria and detailed statistics of education.In thepast 4 or5years nosuch carefully presented- informationseemsto be available.The Folletin Eioadistfro de la Secretaria deEducacion, Numero. 1, 1932 dedicated to the XXI International Congress of Statistics, states thatin 1932 therewerein the entirecoptry 20,299 schools of all categories taught by 46.841 teachers and enrolling1,923,453 students of bothsexes.Of these schools, 7,838weremaintained by the Federal Government, 8,749 by the States and municipalities, and 3,712wereprivate.Theseweredistributedasshown in the following table.

TABLE 23.STATISTICS OF EDUCATION IN MEXICO, 1932

V Kind of school Schools TeichersEnrollment

Kindergarten 214 867 34, 047 Primary: Rural. 13, 928 16, 756 876. 330 Urban 5, 655 22, 445 937, 354 Industrial, commercial, and arts and crafts 235 1, 996 32, 765 Secondary and preparatitry 108 1, 887 18, 003 Normal 69 1, 319 8, 575 Vocational 42 1, 390 11, 417 Central agricultural and of agriculture 10 100 928 Fine arts 37 81 4, 034 A Total ta, 198 46, 841 1, 823,453

Thepresentadministrationcameintopowerin 1934 and shprtly thereafter adopteda6-year plan to be carried out during the Presi- dent's 6-"yearterm ofoffice. In that plan, educatio* becomesas indicated by law just quoted, the exclusive right of theState and is to reflect the socialistic doctrine to which the Mexicangovement adheres.In 1935 thecoursesof studywerechanged with thaipur- poseinginind. In the firstyearof the plan 16percent of the Federal

c: FOREIGNCOUNTRIES 87 budgetwasappropriated foreducation,anincrease of almost 50 percentovertheaverageannual budgetin the previous5years.The purposeis to increase theappropriationsfor educationuntirin1939 theyamount to 20percent of the total hationalexpenditures. Since theadoption of theplan, thenumber of ruralschools has been increased byone-fifth;12 boardingschools'for Indiansadded to 15 previously existing; and159 schools of the kindmaintained by employers for theworkers' childrenaddedto the 1,980 already in operation.A RevolutionSchool Centerwasopened in MexicoCity. It isto handle 5,0(R) children inthe primarygrades andis well equipped withworkshops.Six regional peasant/schoolsandt Wo imlustrial schools forchildren of thearmy wereestablished. To bringgreater unity in primary education,the FederalSecre- tariat ofEducation has been makingagreements with local andstate governments in order that the educationsystemsmay comeunder Federal control.A National Councilof HigherEducation and Scientific Researchhas been formed.A National Instituteof Psy- chopedagogy has been creaiedwithin theSecretariat ofPublic Education. The trend .----Mexico isthe first andto date the only LatinAmeri- can countryin which the NationalGovernmenthas deliberatelyun- dertakentousethe schoolsto further the social,economic, and political beliefs ofthegroup nowinpower.Naturally, thequestion arises,'"Will otherLatin Americancountries ingreateror tothesame degree, doasMexico is doing?"Atpresent the indicationsarethat they willnot.

I I

- SECTION VI. INTERNATIONALCONGRESSESANDCONFERENCES Nine hundred sixteeninternational conferences,congresses,and meetings of various kindswereheld in the4years1926 to 1929, inclusive. A fairproportion of them dealtdirectly with education; manyothersweremainly cultural andeducational in theiraspects. The assumption is warrantedthat the number didnot diminish greatly; ifat all,in-%theyearsfrom 1930to 1936. A roughsurvey of the situationmakes it evident thatacompleteaccount of the international education meetingsin thepast decade would in itself bean ambitious work. The basesof selection for the gatheringsincluded in this chapterweretwo.First, that theyrepresent differentt hases of education:Preschool, public education;specialtypes of training in thiscase'technicaland commercial;teachers' asociations;pro- gressive education; andadult education.The second criterionre- latedto the reasontible expectation that similarmeetings would be heldat stated intervals byanorganization interestedin thattype of education. Inother words, series, ratherthan isolated interna- tio eetingswerechosen. PRESCHOOL CARE OF THE CHILD Afi International Child Congresswasheld in Paris, July 27to August 1, 1931, in connection with the fiftiethanniversary of the founding of the lay schoolsystem of France.Itwasorganized by the Association of Teachers of PublicMaternal Schools and Infant Classes in France and the French Colonies.Itspurpose was to "bring together all those whoareinterested in questionsconcern- ing the child from2 to 7yearsoldduring that periodof his life, that is, when heceasesto beababy and is inacertainwaybornto the collective life withoutyet beingaschool child."Thirty-four hundied peoplewerein attendance from25 countries.The Congress worked in five sections: I. General organization of scholastic institutionsrelating to the education of children from 2 to 7yearsold.In what formcancollaboration with the families be established? II. The value of and the part played byplant and educaponal materials in the education of children from 2to 7. III. Howcantheprocessof "globalisation" be appliedto the education of such children? What should be thegeneral culture of their teachers? IV. By whatmeans can the child be given a sense of the beautiful? Howcanhis artistic emotion bearoused, confining oneself to music and rhythmic exercises? V. Hygiene and scicial activity. 88 Aar FOREIGN COUNTRIES 89 Connected with the Congresswere manyexhibits from France and other countries;alarge number of pi.actical demonstrations with classes; and visits to maternal and open-air.schools, and other insti tutions notsoclosely related to the woik in hand.

PUBLIC EDI*CATION IP Six international conferencesonpublic instructionwereheld at Geneva, Switzerland, in theyears1932 to 1937, inclusive, by the Inter- national Bureau of Education, with its headquarters inthat city. The first, two of these meetingswerenotstrictly conferences.The International Bureauwasfounded in 1925as aprivatecorporatein- stitution.On July 25, 1929, itwasreorganizedsothat governments in addition to private institutions and internationalorganizations might become members.In 1932 and 1933 the Bureau invitednon- member governments to take partasobservers in the annual meetings of its Council held in July.The interest shownwasstrongenough to warrantcalling for July 1934 the Third International Conference onPublic Instruction.Thirty-six nations sent officialdelegates; Cuba, the League of Nations, and the International Labor Office sent, observers.Each delegate presentedareportoneducation in& his countryfor the precedingyear,and the conferenceas awhole discussed three topics: Compulsory schoolingtendthe raising of the scol leavingage;admissiontosecondary schools; and economies in the fi of public education. To the FourthInternational Conference, 1935,camerepresentatives fróm41 nations,and observers from Afghanistan, the League of Nations, International Labor Office,and the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation.The Bureau regularly collects data fromas manycountriesaspossibleonthe questions to be considered atthe conference andhas it in published form whenthe meetingsare held. The questionsfor this assemblage to handlewere:Profes- sional training ofelementary school teachers; professional training of secondaryschool teachers; and councils of public instruction. N. The organizationof special schools, organization of. rural education, and legislationregulating school buildingswerebrou6tbefore the fifth conferencein 1936 andwereconsidered by delegates from 37 nations.The sixth conference, 1937, tookupinstruction in psyphol- ogyin the preparationof teachers, the teaching of modern languages, and theinspection of education.'

I Beginningwith 1933, the International Bureau of Education has publishedyearly . anAnnuaire internationalde l'Oducation et de l'enseignetnent.It consists mainly of the statements made atthe conferences by the delegates, about education in their respective countries during thepreceding year. b. 1$2172*-38 7

-Pt 90 BIENNIAL SIItVEY OFEDUCATION, 1934-36 TECHNICAL 1:DliCATION AnInternationalCongress ofTechnical,Agricultural,andHyme EconomicEducationwasheldat Charleroi, Belgium,May16to Is. 1925.2TheProvince ofHainaut.,probably themost industralired go. Province inBelgium', aidedby the NationalMinistriesof Industry, EconomicAffairs,Agriculture, awlSciences andArts ofBelgiun: and withthecooperation ofthe Subsecretaryof State forTechnical Education inFrance, organizedand Ranagedthe Congress.Chart eroi istheseat of the ratherunusual andinmany respects fanion Université (1ûTravail.(Universityof Labor)and in itsbuilding most of thesessionswereheld.Theattendancewa.3large. .Thc League ofNatiohs,France, England,Bulgaria,Spain, Luxembourg, Holland,Italy, theSaar,Switzerland,Poland, andBelgiumwen. represented.Thediscussionswere onthe generilorganizationof technicaland vocationaleducation,recruitment ofstudents,moral aspects of technicaleducation, thehome andfamily ofthe industrial workerand provisionfor theeducationaluseof leisure,apprenticeship,vocationalguidance,vocational awlindustrialdrawing,commercial education,andvocationalagriculture.Speakingat the fin:a1 plentity session,the generalreporter said: The pointsof viewthatyou have expressedare remarkable bothfor their numberand quality,and,'an extraordinary thing,no onlv is infected with eitlwrtoo muchprecisionwhich wouldparalyzeinitiativeor too much lack ofprecisionwhich wouldprovokeerror.Thatis a vertiblo mission forour schools. The membersof theCongressseem to have takencare toconserve tn technicaleducationthat/greatelasticity ofprograms and of regulation which givesit' forceand whichpermits ittoprogress rapidly without havinga confusion of laws,arKttés,and decrees. 9. TheInternationalCongress ofVocational,Technical Eccation organizedby theProvinceof Liege,Belgium,and hel t Liege. August1 to 5,1930,was more widelyrepresentative. wenty;four countrieshaddelegates inattendance.TheyincludedBolivia,Bra- zil, andUruguayof theLatin Americancountries;Egypt,Persia. China,Turkey, andthe Unionof SouthAfrica;and severalEuropean countriesthat hadnot takenpart in thepreviousCongress.The discussionsweremorerestrictedin scope.'Vocationalguidanceand selection;the helpoflegislation,and of indusCrialgroupsand workers,in developingtechnicaleducation;post-schoolstudies; andthe formationof teachingpersonnelwere ontheprogram. Finally,eachcountry reportedonthestatus of technical'education withinitsboundaries;and thecongress considered thecreatioof aninternationaloffice oftechnicaleducation.Withrespect 's I Fivesuch 4011 congresses hadprebriouMybeen held:Roubaix, 1911;Lyon, 1921; Marseille, 1922; Ghent, 1923;Brussels,1924. - vs,

. . . . , e . , o . . . . !i-7°:.1;!*"- - *- - - . .. -? - - - I. ...; - ' _s.:4? *: FOREIGN COUNTRIES 91 lastquestion the Congress resolved that it wishedtoseecreated in the Leagueof Nations

... a permanentInternational Office of Technical Education established preferably in the form ofan autonomoussection of the International In! stitute of Intellectual Cooperation and having connection with the Intev national Bureau of Labor. The permanent International Office of Technical Education would have for its mission to aid and coordinate the efforts of the Nations to perfect technicale.ducation,it would encourage them to expan0 its benefits by legislation, and would give them themeansthrough the exchange ofpro- fessors,acoordinated study*ofsciences'appliedto special technologies, and study of their instruction andmetinsof instruction, and of vocational

organization.' . It would aid in raising the general culture of themasses, arealwayof' bettering theconditio'nof the workers. The Office would he charged with organizinganannual conferenceon. technical education. The French Association for the Development of Technical Educa- tion orgiinized and heldanInternational Congress of Technical Edu- cation in Paris, September 24to 27, 1931.Itwas morewidelyrePrel% sentative than either of thetwo previously described.Delegateswere in attendance from 38 countries, the League ofRations,and the Inter- national Bureau of Labor. Out of Latin Americacamerepresenta- tionfrómArgenrinats Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Haiti, Panama, Peru, Uruguayevidence of the growing interest invo- cational education intksection of the world where it had not been

playinganimportantrole.China, Egypt, Greece,. Japan, and Turkey,aswellasmost of the European countries,participated.The Congress consideredsevenmain questions:Vocational guidance; Na- Monalcollaboration with professionalgroups,patrons, -and workers in the organization of technical education; recruitment and training of teaching personnel; recruitment and training of sales and publicity people;general' culture in the technical training of the engineer; the cinema in vocational guidance; the technicalpressand its relatiçnto

technical education. ti) During the interval between thecongressat Liege in 1930 and this OneatParis in 1931,aprovisory International Bureau of Technical Education hadlx;enopened in Paris and had been operating forsortie 3 months when thePariscongress washeld. The Pariscongresstook noteof the work of this/3iovisoryBureau and in order that its activities be nöt interrupted assigned the Bureau certain tasks, and in view of the aid offered by the public authorities of France and the Chamber ot Commerce of Paris, decided toestablishaninternational bureau in Paris and charge it with organizingthe next International Congress of Technical Education at Brussels in 1932.

. .

ao r. . I

4. 92 BIENNIALSURVEY OFEDUCATION,1934-38

. Accordinglythe InternationalBureau ofTechnicalEducationwith itsheadquartersat 2, Place de laBourse, Paris,cameinto beingin late 1931oreaily1932 and in thelatteryearorganized andheld tilt, Internat ionalCongress ofTechnical Eduéationat Brussels, Septem- ber 25to 29.Twenty-ninenations, the Leagueof Nations,the Inter- nationgl Bureauof Labor, andthe Instituteofli4ellectualCoopera- tionwererepresented by1,164 members and360reportswere presented.This meetinghad six sectionsdealing with:Terminology; vocational guidance;vocationalcoursesfor apprenticesandnonap- prentices and theirgeneral culturecontent; . methods foraidingtech niCianstopPrfecttheir generaland techniceltraining whileworkint! attheir callings;the inasiriajstagesin the trainingof the engineer. and his socialrole; and divers questfonssuchasapprenticeship contracts,oursesfor the unemployed,etc. . In1933, the InternationalBureau beganpublishingits official organ,Le8 Informationsdu B. I. E.T.,nowthe BuNetinlitter/Ea- tionql de l'EnseignementTechnique. The Bureau calledand held thenext International Congressof Technical Educationat Barcelona, Spain, May17to 19, 1934.This Congress also had sixquestions forconsideration: Therole of technical education,fromaneconomic point of.view, andfromasocial point of view;vocational guidance;apprenticeship;apprenticeship

and unemployment; . higher grades ofworkmen; andvarious items including the technicalpressand technicaleducation.Asto the first of these questions, therole of technicaleducation,thecongress adopted the followingresolution: s Considering the economic andsocial importanceof technicalandvoca- tional education,as shown by the facts, itcannot becontested: That suchinstruction hasnowadays the formof.a complete education , . at Oncevocational,ivIc, andhumane; That by the flexibilityof its methods,by theextent of itsInformation, by the characterboth economicand ethicalof itspurposes,it fitsper-

fectly the necessitiesof modern life; . That it shouldthus enter intothe plan of develdpmentofevery civilized nation; &solves: That technicaland vocationaleducationshould havein theNational education aevery6Suntry,the placethat its,uncontestediinportance merits. The SixthInternationalCongressof TechnicalEducationcalled tomeet:at Rome May28 to 30,1936,waspostponeduntil December 28 to 30 of thatyear.Its sessionsweredevotedto discussing technical educátionand economiclife; vocationalguidance anditscon- tinuance\training ofworkshoppersonnel;trainingofwomenfor their pcialrole ineconomic life;and varioustopicssuchasthe

01 Nir 1 FOREIGN COUNTRIES 93 4. technical cinema. The proceedings of thevarious Tresseshave been published.* COMMERCIAL Eln *CA VON Congresses of commercialeducationwerehell.atBordeaux in 1886; -Paris, 1889; Bordeaux, 1895; London,1896; Antwerp, 1898; Venice, 1899; Paris,1900: Milan, 11)06;Vienna.1910: and Budapest, a 1913; butmost of the early meetings, exceptingflatat Antwerp, werequiteasmuch concerned withtechnicalaswith commercial education.Not until the meetingat Milan in WOG did thecongressalfa subsequentcongressesdevote their attentionwhoilytocominercial education.An International Society for CommercialEducationwas formed af Zurich, Switzerland, in1901.It continuedtofunction until 1913, then practicallywent out of existence, andcongresses were nolonger held.On September 25, 1926,ameetingwasheld, againat Zurich, to reconstitute the InternationalSociety for Commercial Edu-

cation. Theattemptwassuccessful. . . Under the direction of the SocietyanInternational Congress of Commercial Educationwasheldat Amsterdam, Holland, September 1 to 6, 1929. The followingyear,September8 to 11, 1930,anInter- national Congress of Higher Commercial 'Educationwasheldat Liege, Belgium. Two hundred m.embersrepresenting 29 nations 1 werepresent.Thiscohgress recommend'ed that(1)all interested countries iniprove the higher studies incommercein ord(;rto place themon alevel with other university studies,notably by extension of the generalcu1turecoursesandcoursesofascientific° and juridical tendency, andy a morerigorqus.selection in theadmissionsto these schools; (2) ad the movenient toward legalrecognition of degrees ainhigher commercial education;(3)setaminimum of study in higher commercial education in the differentcountriessothat the diplomamayrank with the academic degrees;and (4) maintain and develop in higher commercial education the study ofmodern lan- guagesoriented in thesenseof economic relationsamongthe nations.

s Province de Hainaut.Congrès international de l'enseignementtechnique, agricoleet manager.Charleroi, 10, 17 et 18 Mai 1925. Two volumes.CWIerol,Imprimerie Pro- vinciale, 1926. - Congrès international de l'enseignement technique professionnelorganiseparla Province de LlOge sous de Haut Patronage du Gouvernement.Rapports, discussion desrappolls. oeuxétnis.Liage, Imp. A. Larock, 1931. v° Congrès international de l'enseignement technique,Faris,24-27 Septembre 1931. Compte rendu destAvaux.Two .volumes.Paris, Sedetariat, Grand Palais,Avenue Altxandre, III.1932. Bureau international de l'enseignement technique.Congrès internationalflel'enseignement technique, Bruxelles, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 Septembre 1932.Compterytidudes travaux. Two volumes, Paris, B. I. E. T., 1933. Buieauinternational de l'enseignement technique.CongrN international de l'enseignement technique, Barceloue, 17, 18, 19 Mai 1934.Two volumes.Paris, B. I. E. T., 1934. Congrès International de l'enseignement technique, Rome, 28-2D- -30 Decembre1936. Two volumes:Rouen, Imprimerie Wolf. 1936.

a 94 BIENNIAIt-SURVEY OFEDUCATION, 1934-36 Thenext International Congresgb,vannoun6edasthe Fifth Triennial Congress of the InternationalSocjety for CommercialEducation, washeld in LondonJuly 25to 29, 1932.Thatwasthe nadir of tlie economic cycle, and the resolutionsof the Congress askedthatyoung peeple afterthe completion oftheir theooreticatetrainingbe enabled tomay*freely fromonecouthryto another forastay in practical business; pointedout that national well-being dependsuponthe well- being of the wor14, andallMust takeaview in international affairs whichseesnational interéstsasreciprocal; and askedthat the quality and standard in commercialeducation benot,'reduced becauseqf/ economic difficulties. , The SixthInternationalCongresswasheld at Prague,Czechoslo- vakia, September1 to 6, 1935.More than 600 memberscamefroin, 26 different countries. Amongthemoreimportant of itsresolutions were: The teacher (ofcommercial subjects) shouldbe sci,ifically trained alike from the,point of viewof economics and ofpedagogy and practical work.As regards scientelilliPtlagogicalinstruction, it is essentialtore- serve an important place for philosophy (ethics,logic,aiidpsychology)._ The teachingat commercial universitiesshould be particularlyofa .highly scientific character;the professors.should,however, remain incon- tinual close contact withthe practielside of business.This also.applies to teachers in schools ofcommerce. : e I TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS A World Conference,QnEducationwasheldat San Francisco, Calif., in 1923.Itsetupa'program tobefollowedthat it hoped wouldsecureinternational cooperationin educationalenterprises; foster the spread ofinformation abouteducatioii in allforms and . amongall peoples; and cultivateinterRgional good 611andpro- mote the interests ofpeacethroughotrthitworld. ward those a, ends it made 20 recommendations.Among themoreimportant of thesewerethataWorld Faération of Education.Associations be established; May18 be designatedas"Good Will Day"to be ob- served in the schools of the world;aninternational commissionCm illiteracy be appoinied; andinternational schoolcorrespondence be fostered. AccordinglyaWorld Federationof EducationAssociationswas 4/81 ,ar founded.It has heldconferencesasfollows: First Biennial ConferenJuly20 to27,1925, Edinburgh, \ . Scotland. \ I I Second BiennialConfererice:-Àúiúsi7 to 0,1927;Toronto,

Canada. , \ , Third Biennial Conference,July \:25toAugust\4, 1929, Geneva, k . witzerland. .-----.....:3ito \ \ '1661. 1

; . FOREIGNCOUNTRIES 95 Fourth Biennial Conference,July 27to August 1, 1931, Door, '010. . Pacific RegionalConference, -July25'to 30.1932,--Honolulu, .7 FiftfiBiennial Conference,July29 to Augitst4, 1933, Dublin,

Ireland., ve . 1* Synchronizedconferences òfthe WorldFederation ofEducation Associations,InternationalFederation ofAssociations ofSecondary Teachers, andInternationalFederation _ofTeachers' Associations,

August 10to 1935, Oxford, England. s Seventh WorldConference, August2 to 7, 1937; Tokyó,Japan. Because of the breadthof its interestand itsstrong slant toward education.for worldpeaceatid betterinternationalunderstanding, . the biennial conferencesof the WorldFederationare morecompre- hensive*than those ofmost other internationaleducationorganiza- tions. %The Oxfordmeeting is typical.It had sectionsOnadult education, broadcasting,colleges anduniversities,commercial education, educationalcrafts, elementaryeducation,geography, health,the Hermann-Jordanpeaceplan, preparationof teachers, preschoAand mtkindergarten, rurallife andrural education,secondary education, .social adjubstment,teachers' organizations,and visualeducation. At- tendance generally range'sfrom_1,500 to 2,000 andfrom 50to 60 countriesarerépresehtd.The proceedingsof all theconferences except the Seventh have beenpublished.Thos'e ofth eventh a should beavailaVesoon. , , THE NEWEDUCATION ta o "Allmauler ofmenspeaking allAawl,enoftongues poured into Elsinore those firstConference days.Finns, Norivegians,and Swedes from the northjostled wjth Italians,.Spaniards, andFreAch from the south; therewereAmericans, Germans,English, Indians,Chi- nese,Latvians, Poles, andBritish fm allcornersoftteEmpire. Men .andwomenfrom forty-threedifferent countriescametogether topayhomageto thecauseof childhoodand to pledgethemselves anewtocarry onthe search for truth." Thiswaswritten of the FifthInternational Conferenceof the Nevi,- Education Fellowshiii held-at Elsinore, Denmark,August8 to 21, 1929. The Fellowship,founded in1915 topromote progressiv) education, had held fourprevious conferencesand is continuing'lidNold thematregular intervals.The toiiie a the Fifth Conferencewas 41. tillenewpsychplogy and theAtyriiculum. . I

"Education for . aChanging Societe-wasthe theme of thesixth conferençe held ar111**Frariée,July29 to August 12, 1932.Ove 1,800 membersatfeiiae4'from52ciaifitries.

*** . 0061r-

41.

Rio 96 BIENNIAL SURVEYOF EDUCATION.1934-3e

The Conferencecalledat Cape Town andJohannesburg,Unionof 'South Africa, inJuly of1934,wasregional indesignation butinto.- national inscope.The generalsubjectwasthe adaptationof educationto meet the rapidly changingneeds ofsociety, withspecialap- Oicationto South Africa. Over 6,000persons werein attendanee and 3,000 ofthemwerefull delegates.Itcame at apeculiarly suitable time forSouth Africa:The findingsof the PoorWhites Com- mission had shownthe specialand difficultsituations tháteducation, in the Union waadfacingand the freediscussion ofalargegroupof people kommanycountries couldnot but be helpful. The twenty-firstannual anniversaryof the Fellowshipwascele., brated by theSeventh WorldConferenceatCheltenham,England. July31 to August 14,1936, andwasdevotedto the discussion ofeducation anda*free society.Most of, thetalks hingedontwo points; howto achieve the free 'personality,and therelatiribetweenthe individualañdthe community.On the firstof these,The NewEra, the English officiidpublication ofthe Fellowship,commentedat the time: In planningthe sort of educationwhichwe hope willensure the evolution ofafree society,we cannot give thechildreiifreedom,we can only set upthFenvironment in which theycan develop freely.Wecan but try to . remove all those obstacles which obstruct ihedevelopment offreeperson- ality, and plan theschoolsothat it shallgive opportunitiesfor practising the type ofconduct in whichwe believe.But havingremovedas many obstaclesas we can and having providedthe material forgrowth,we must leaveourchildren to findtheirown social philosophy. Theycan onlybuilda philosophy of life ifwe enable them toget the 140 facts. ADULT EDUCATION A world Confernce onAdult EducationwasheldatCambridge, Englana,August 22to 29, 1929.Itwasplannedand carriedout by the World Associationfor AdultEducation,anorganizationthen in itstenthyearof life, andwasattendedbyover4Q0 Oulteduca- tionists fiom46 countries. Thegeneralsessionìs.consideredthe principlesand problems . of adulteducation;extensive andintensive adulteduatTon;adult education midthe industrialworker; therela- tionof humanisticto technical instruction;and theproblem ofworhil cooperationthe function oftheWorldAssociation. In the closingaddress of thisConference, the7speakercommented oil the Wily"as follows: . . For 4years the world stopped thinking,except aboutwar, and the children who were in the world at thattimewere instantaneouslyconverted . into oldmen,

1r .

0.*

a : tI 4.. . .i.-;` L.afts: r- .. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 97 andwentontosay Thepresenceinanygeneration ofathirdor ahalf of .the whole body ofthaigeneration atan ageand inacondition when theycanb scribedashaving the generosity and the aspirationof youth. isaredemp- . tion ofanycivilization.Thatwehave had tolive,in this period of philosophically and intellectuallyincreasing lack of certlinty, inaworld full of oldmenand oldwomen, wanting youth, has made the last tenyears a verypuzzling if nota very menacing thing to the humanrace. .* A great philosopher and friend ofmineonce&fined .cdmationasbeing the prolongation and cultivation t.)i) thecuriosity of childhool.Thatseems to me to be a very profound definition, .and itstlgests that thk Adult Education Associationseems to be not only the herald ofacultural renais- sance,but,to be taking this somewhat tired world ofoursby the bandand leading it-backin-to themorehopeful attitude of being childrenonce again. o

I,. '4N.

t it.

.:. qt.

2.4.4,1. !. , s' : . , _ dt -.t--A'r.%AA--t'"a'. ,../ert.1,,,,,tA.,, __:,... _. _ --!1210, --,.A fee