Port-Based Modeling and Control for Efficient Bipedal Walking Robots

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Port-Based Modeling and Control for Efficient Bipedal Walking Robots Port-Based Modeling and Control for Efficient Bipedal Walking Robots Vincent Duindam The research described in this thesis has been conducted at the Department of Electrical Engineering, Math, and Computer Science at the University of Twente, and has been financially supported by the European Commission through the project Geometric Network Modeling and Control of Complex Physical Systems (GeoPlex) with reference code IST-2001-34166. The research reported in this thesis is part of the research program of the Dutch Institute of Systems and Control (DISC). The author has succesfully completed the educational program of the Graduate School DISC. ISBN 90-365-2318-4 The cover picture of this thesis is based on the work ’Ascending and Descending’ by Dutch graphic artist M.C. Escher (1898–1972), who, in turn, was inspired by an article by Penrose & Penrose (1958). Copyright c 2006 by V. Duindam, Enschede, The Netherlands No part of this work may be reproduced by print, photocopy, or any other means without the permission in writing from the publisher. Printed by PrintPartners Ipskamp, Enschede, The Netherlands PORT-BASED MODELING AND CONTROL FOR EFFICIENT BIPEDAL WALKING ROBOTS PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit Twente, op gezag van de rector magnificus, prof. dr. W.H.M. Zijm, volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties in het openbaar te verdedigen op vrijdag 3 maart 2006 om 13.15 uur door Vincent Duindam geboren op 21 oktober 1977 te Leiderdorp, Nederland Dit proefschrift is goedgekeurd door: Prof. dr. ir. S. Stramigioli, promotor Prof. dr. ir. J. van Amerongen, promotor Samenvatting Lopende robots zijn complexe systemen, vanwege hun niet-lineaire dynamica en interactiekrachten met de grond. Traditionele regelmethoden, gebaseerd op het volgen van een referentiesignaal, kunnen wel worden toegepast, maar gebruiken vaak een grote hoeveelheid energie. Lopen op zich vraagt weinig energie, en er bestaan veel energiezuinige lopende robots die dat bewijzen. Jammer genoeg is de regeling van veel van deze robots gebaseerd op ingenieursintuïtie en ad hoc oplossingen, en ontbreken algemene analyse- en regelmethoden. Dit proefschrift presenteert een raamwerk voor het modeleren, analyseren, en efficiënt regelen van lopende robots. Een poort-Hamiltoniaanse systeembeschrij- ving maakt het mogelijk om de dynamica van algemene rigide mechanismen en hun interactie met de grond te beschrijven. De structuur van deze modellen vormt de basis om algemene analyse- en regelmethoden te ontwikkelen. Het modeleringsraamwerk is een uitbreiding van bekende modeleringsme- thoden naar een brede klasse van rigide mechanismen met configuratieruimte be- schreven door een willekeurige combinatie van Euclidische delen, Lie groep de- len (zoals balgewrichten) en niet-holonome delen (zoals niet-slippende wielen). Het afleiden van de modelvergelijkingen is een systematisch en modulair proces, en dus geschikt voor software-implementatie. Twee soorten 3D contactmodellen worden beschreven: een zacht contactmodel, beschreven door een veer en een demper – vooral geschikt voor simulatie, en een hard contactmodel, beschreven door een impulsprojectie tijdens de impact – vooral geschikt voor analyse. Alle resultaten zijn gebaseerd op coördinaat-vrije concepten en beschrijvingen. Met behulp van de structuur van de modellen wordt het probleem om ef- ficiënte loopritmes te vinden geformuleerd als een numeriek optimalisatiepro- bleem. Op deze manier kunnen niet alleen de gewrichtsbewegingen maar ook de mechanische structuur van een robot worden geoptimaliseerd. Ter illustratie worden de meest efficiënte loopritmes uitgerekend voor drie verschillende robots. Hieruit blijkt, dat de loopsnelheid van een simpele planaire passieve robot op een heuvel kan worden veranderd door de massaverdeling aan te passen, en dat een driedimensionale robot met bovenlichaam het meest efficiënt loopt als de massa van het bovenlichaam zo laag mogelijk wordt geplaatst. Tenslotte worden drie efficiënte regelmethoden besproken. De eerste methode i gebruikt de berekende optimale trajecten om nieuwe coördinaten te definiëren, die expliciet de prestatie uitdrukken. De uiteindelijke regelaar is vermogenscon- tinu, volgt de trajecten asymptotisch, en reageert alleen om verstoringen te com- penseren, dus niet tijdens de nominale loopbeweging. De tweede regelmethode stabiliseert het loopgedrag van een experimentele robot met knieën door middel van een enkele PD regelaar in het heupgewricht van de robot. De derde regel- methode gebruikt voetplaatsing om de robuustheid van een driedimensionale lopende robot te vergroten, en om de robot een referentiepad te laten volgen. ii Summary Walking robots are complex systems because of their nonlinear dynamics and interaction with the ground. Although traditional control methods, based on the tracking of a reference signal, can be applied, they generally require a significant amount of energy. On the other hand, research has shown that walking in itself requires little energy, and many experimental robots have been built that walk with high efficiency. General analysis and control tools for such efficient walkers, however, are lacking, and many results are based on engineering intuition and ad hoc solutions. This thesis aims to provide a framework for modeling, analysis, and efficient control of walking robots. The framework uses a port-Hamiltonian system de- scription to express the dynamics of rigid mechanisms and their interaction with the ground. The structure of the resulting models forms the basis for the devel- opment of general analysis and control techniques. The proposed framework extends well-known modeling methods to a broad class of rigid mechanisms with a configuration space described by any combi- nation of Euclidean components, Lie group/algebra components (such as ball joints), and nonholonomic components (such as non-slipping wheels). The deriva- tion of the corresponding model equations is a systematic, modular process, and hence suitable for software implementation. Two different 3D contact models are presented: a compliant contact model, described by a spatial spring/damper and mainly suitable for simulation, and a rigid contact model, characterized by a mo- mentum projection on impact and mainly suitable for analysis. All results are based on coordinate-free concepts and descriptions. Using the structure of the models, the problem of finding efficient walking gaits is cast as a numerical optimization problem. This setting allows one to opti- mize not only the joint trajectories but also the mechanical structure of a walking robot. The approach is illustrated by computing the most efficient gaits for three different walking robots. It is shown how the walking speed of a simple planar passive (i.e. unactuated) robot on a slope can be changed by adjusting its mass distribution, and how a three-dimensional robot with a trunk walks most effi- ciently if the mass on the trunk is located as low as possible. Finally, three control techniques for efficient walking are presented. The first iii control technique uses the computed optimal trajectories to define new coordi- nates that explicitly reveal the tracking performance. The resulting controller is power-continuous, tracks the trajectory asymptotically, and acts only to compen- sate for disturbances – not during nominal, natural walking. The second con- trol technique stabilizes the walking behavior of a kneed experimental robot by means of a single PD controller on the hip joint. The third control technique uses foot placement to increase the robustness of a three-dimensional walking robot, and to control it to follow a reference path. iv Contents Samenvatting i Summary iii 1 Introduction 1 1.1Walkingrobots.............................. 1 1.1.1 Humanoid robots ......................... 1 1.1.2 Researchonwalkingrobots................... 3 1.2Port-Hamiltonianmodelingandcontrol................ 5 1.2.1 Port-Hamiltonianmodeling................... 5 1.2.2 Port-Hamiltoniancontrol.................... 10 1.2.3 TheEuropeanprojectGeoPlex................. 12 1.3Goalsofthisthesis............................ 12 1.4ThesisOutline............................... 13 2 Modeling of Rigid Mechanisms 15 2.1Kinematicsofrigidbodies........................ 16 2.1.1 Configurationofarigidbody.................. 16 2.1.2 Velocityofarigidbody..................... 22 2.2Kinematicsofrigidmechanisms.................... 27 2.3Dynamicsofopenrigidmechanisms.................. 35 2.3.1 Forcesonrigidmechanisms................... 35 2.3.2 Kinetic co-energy of rigid mechanisms ............ 38 2.3.3 Dynamicequationsofrigidmechanisms........... 41 2.4Kinematicloopsandnonholonomicconstraints............ 47 3 Modeling of Compliant and Rigid Contact 55 3.1Contactkinematics............................ 56 3.1.1 Directderivationforsimplecases............... 57 3.1.2 Indirect derivation for general case . ............ 61 3.2Compliantcontact............................. 66 3.2.1 Interconnection structure of compliant contact . ....... 68 v 3.2.2 Compliantcontactforces.................... 73 3.3Rigidcontact................................ 77 3.3.1 Modelsetup............................ 78 3.3.2 Momentumresetonimpact................... 80 3.3.3 Constraintforcesduringcontact................ 82 3.3.4 Conditionsforcontactrelease.................. 83 3.3.5 Extensiontotwocontactpoints................. 85 4 Modeling and Analysis of Walking Robots 95 4.1Gaitsearchasanoptimizationproblem................ 96 4.2 A planar compass-gait walker ......................100
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