enter. Although the roots of this RELIGIOUS FEMINISM IN ISRAEL: phenomenon can be traced to the beginning A REVOLUTION IN PROCESS of the twentieth century in Krakow Irit Koren ritual as one dimension of a larger when Sara Shneirer opened the Bais trend that I would designate as the Yacov school for girls, it has acquired or the last few years my “Jewish feminist ritual revolution.” social power and influence mainly in research has focused on the This revolution is itself part of a the last three decades, both in the ways in which a small, yet F more far-reaching transformation United Stated and in Israel. growing, number of modern that has been underway in the Orthodox women living primarily in modern Orthodox world in Israel for In Israel things began, in my Israel have endeavored to challenge, the last three decades, with parallels opinion, with the establishment by resist, or adapt the Orthodox in modern Orthodox communities in Professor Alice Shalvi in 1975 of wedding ritual and, in so doing, the United States. In Israel, in Pelech’s high school for religious transform it so that it would serve as particular, there are four main areas girls, the first school in Israel in an expression of their own identity, in which the feminist ritual which girls were taught Talmud as values, and ideals. The women revolution has had a significant boys are. Many of the leading figures whom I interviewed identified impact: increased Jewish literacy for of the Orthodox feminist movement themselves not only as Orthodox but women, ritual, the female body and in Israel today are graduates of this also as feminists, or at least as having sexuality, and religious leadership. I institution. Tamar El-Or, on the feminist consciousness and will discuss each knowledge. Some of these women of these arenas, found themselves confronted with a focusing mostly tension between these two aspects of on their identities, as the values developments in embraced by feminism and Israel. I will Orthodoxy are often at odds. begin with the Among other things, feminism arena in which stands for equality between the there has been genders, while promoting the the most freedom of spiritual and sexual change and expression and autonomous self- proceed to definition. Orthodoxy, generally others in which speaking, distinguishes between the the process is two genders, viewing them as two less advanced essentially different entities with and still different statuses and degrees of regarded with freedom, and, ultimately, bestowing considerable more power and control upon men. suspicion. Only some of the women I interviewed, however, experienced Increased this tension; others, who espoused Jewish Literacy both feminism and Orthodoxy, for Women found these two outlooks more The religious easily compatible, since they viewed literacy locus of these two aspects of their identity as power was the mutually enriching. Regardless of the first realm into existence or degree of tension, all of which Jewish the Orthodox feminists in my study feminists in devoted conscious thought and general and effort to reconciling their Orthodoxy Orthodox with their feminism. feminists in particular I view this phenomenon of religious managed to women grappling with wedding Photo courtesy of Irit Koren. 20 other hand, in her book about this are now inserting female experiences, women have been voicing questions phenomenon, Next Year I Will performances, and voices into these and criticism in different forums Know More, identifies its beginnings traditional rituals. For example, they regarding the laws of female in Israel with the opening of the transfer practices normally associated modesty, which require them to women’s seminary Michlelet Bruria with males to women participating in cover much of their bodies in public, in Jerusalem in 1977. This trend the wedding ritual, such as having a and the act of ritual bathing in continued with the establishment of woman read the ketubah, or having connection with menstruation. Many many other batei midrash (houses of both the bride and the groom circle religious scholars and activists, study) for writing from a women such as: HE FIRST ZONE IN WHICH RTHODOX WOMEN SOUGHT critical feminist Kibbutz Ein T O point of view, have Hanatziv, Matan, TO ASSERT THEMSELVES, THE REALM OF EDUCATION, IS THE published books Nishmat, Pardes and articles and many more. CORE FROM WHICH OTHER SOCIAL CHANGES HAVE describing these In these batei traditional attitudes midrash women EMANATED. KNOWLEDGE WAS EXPECTED TO BRING SOCIAL as expressions of a were allowed to hegemonic and enter a world POWER AND INDEED HAS DONE SO. ONLY NOW CAN THESE dominant, that until not too traditional male long ago was WOMEN MOVE ON TO TAKE CONTROL OF NEW PRACTICES discourse. These forbidden to alternative them and to AND RELIGIOUS DOMAINS. discourses are not participate in it in always textual; the a way that bridged the gap between each other under the huppah, instead movie titled Tehorah (Pure), which the modern and the religious worlds of having only the bride circle the led to much debate in different in which they live. groom. forums, tells the story of three Orthodox women who engage in the Orthodox feminism thus started with Finally, we find that in the act of ritual bathing but do not the sense of triumph felt by those synagogue, women have taken on refrain from expressing their who had the same religious Jewish more roles that have hitherto been criticisms of it. literacy and skills as men, a feeling the exclusive domain of men. that gave rise to a social revolution. Examples are found in congregations Another matter of concern to The first zone in which Orthodox like Shira Chadasha in Jerusalem, feminists is the code of silence women sought to assert themselves, Darchey Noam in New York City regarding violence and sexual the realm of education, is the core and similar groups elsewhere. These harassment within religious from which other social changes have congregations identify themselves as institutions and families. In the past emanated. Knowledge was expected both halakic and egalitarian. Women few years there have been several to bring social power and indeed has are allowed and encouraged to lead high profile scandals involving done so. Only now can these women certain parts of the service, chant the prominent Orthodox rabbis and move on to take control of new Torah, and participate in other roles sexual harassment. Extensive practices and religious domains. which were traditionally given to coverage of one of these scandals in men only, such as being the gabbai Ma’ariv and Ha’aretz led a group of The Ritual Domain (manager of synagogue affairs) of the important rabbis to denounce the Transforming the ritual domain is congregation and giving a dvar torah women who had filed the perhaps at the heart of the feminist (teaching a Jewish text) at the end of accusations. Under the leadership of Orthodox revolution today. One the service. Chana Kehat, the religious feminist tendency is the creation of rituals forum “Kolech” rose to the defense aimed at mirroring traditional male Female Body and Sexuality of these women and voiced its rituals, such as the creation of The third arena in which changes are disappointment with the public’s celebrations for baby girls known as emerging has to do with sexuality reaction to what had happened. simchat bat rituals as a parallel to the and the female body. Dealing with celebration for the baby male’s brit these issues is a radical step in In recent years the Internet has milah. Another innovation is the modern Orthodox society since it emerged as a site for people to ask creation of different variations on undermines the foundations of rabbis questions concerning sexual those traditional rituals that mainly gender relations and separation in interaction between single men and focus on male experiences. Women Jewish tradition. Nevertheless, women, including the question of 21 whether women engaged in such religious lawyers (toanot rabaniyot) support the acquisition of more activity should participate in ritual in the religious courts; in the late power and freedom by women. More bathing even though they are 1990s, a program opened in and more women feel now that they unmarried. In view of the traditional Nishmat’s beit midrash to train “own” the texts and thus deserve to assumption that only married women women to become halakic advisors play a greater part in the ongoing have sexual interactions and that the for women who have questions and process of shaping Jewish tradition. act of ritual bathing after concerns about the laws of Perhaps it is this feeling of ownership menstruation is a matter of concern menstruation. I believe that the next that enables and encourages them to to married women only, it is not front is inevitably going to be the persist in their efforts to take control surprising that such issues were rabbinic ordination of Orthodox of new domains. initially channeled into the women. While one Orthodox anonymous setting provided by the woman has already been ordained by Will these accomplishments Internet. What might perhaps be an Orthodox rabbi in Jerusalem, the strengthen or weaken modern more surprising is that matters did path to full recognition is still strewn Orthodoxy in the long run? Some not stop there. These issues were with obstacles. will regard them as proof of the publicly thrashed out at a large wisdom of those who always resisted gathering organized by Neemanei All of these developments have teaching women Torah out of fear Torah Veavodah in the Ohel Nehama combined to create a sense that that it would lead to the slippery synagogue in Jerusalem in 2005 and Orthodox women are not satisfied slope of revolutionary change.