THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS HANDBOOK ENGINEERING GUIDELINES FOR FIXED, MOBILE AND SATELLITE SYSTEMS

EDITED BY JYRKI T. J. PENTTINEN

The Telecommunications Handbook

The Telecommunications Handbook

Engineering Guidelines for Fixed, Mobile and Satellite Systems

Edited by

JYRKI T. J. PENTTINEN This edition first published 2015 © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Registered office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom

For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the lincopyright materia this book please see our website at www.wiley.com.

The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional servicese andneitherth publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.

The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for every situation. In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader isurgedto review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. The fact that an organization or Website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or a potential source of further information does not mean that the author or the publisher endorses the information the organization or Website may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that Internet Websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. No warranty may be created or extended by any promotional statements for this work. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any damages arising herefrom.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The telecommunications handbook : engineering guidelines for fixed, mobile, and satellite systems / edited by: Jyrki T.J. Penttinen. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Telecommunication–Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Penttinen, Jyrki T. J., editor. TK5101.T35533 2015 621.384–dc23 2014022270

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN: 9781119944881

Set in 10/12pt Times by Aptara Inc., New Delhi, India

1 2015 Contents

Preface xxv Acknowledgements xxvii Abbreviations xxix List of Contributors xlv

1 Introduction 1 Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 1.1 General 1 1.2 Short History of Telecommunications 2 1.2.1 The Beginning 2 1.2.2 Analog Telephony Era 4 1.2.3 Wireless Era 4 1.3 The Telecommunications Scene 5 1.3.1 Current Information Sources 5 1.3.2 Telecommunications Market 6 1.3.3 Effect of Video Services 9 1.3.4 Network Scalability 11 1.3.5 How to Handle Increased Smartphone Signaling 13 1.3.6 Effects of Online Video 14 1.4 The Focus of the Book 15 1.5 Instructions for Reading the Book Contents 16 References 20

2 Standardization and Regulation 23 Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Standardization Bodies 23 2.2.1 ITU 23 2.2.2 ETSI 25 2.2.3 IEEE 28 2.2.4 IETF 28 2.2.5 CEPT 29 2.2.6 T1 30 2.2.7 ANSI 30 2.2.8 ARIB 31 2.2.9 TTC 31 2.2.10 3GPP 33 2.2.11 3GPP2 35 2.2.12 Broadcast Standardization 37 vi Contents

2.3 Industry Forums 38 2.3.1 GSM Association 38 2.3.2 UMTS Forum 40 2.3.3 WiMAX Forum 41 2.3.4 BMCO Forum and Open IPTV Forum 41 2.3.5 Global Mobile Suppliers Association 42 2.3.6 CDMA Development Group 42 2.3.7 Other Standardization Bodies 43 2.4 Other Entities 44 2.4.1 UNDP 44 2.4.2 IADB 45 2.5 Frequency Regulation 45 2.5.1 WRC 45 2.6 National Regulators 46 2.7 Guideline for Finding and Interpreting Standards 47 References 47

3 Telecommunications Principles 49 Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 3.1 Introduction 49 3.2 Terminology and Planning Principles 49 3.2.1 Decibel 50 3.2.2 Erlang 52 3.2.3 Noise and Interferences 56 3.2.4 Other Typical Telecommunications Units 57 3.3 Evolution 58 3.3.1 Mobile Networks 58 3.3.2 Mobile Data 60 3.3.3 Demand for Multimedia 62 3.4 Spectrum Allocations 64 3.4.1 ITU Regions and Principles 64 3.4.2 Regional Aspects 64 3.5 Physical Aspects 64 3.5.1 Radio Interface and Radio Links 64 3.5.2 Electrical Wires 65 3.5.3 Copper Lines 65 3.5.4 Fiber Optics 69 References 71

4 Protocols 73 Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 OSI 74 4.2.1 General 74 4.2.2 Physical Layer (1) 78 4.2.3 Data Link Layer (2) 78 4.2.4 Network Layer (3) 79 Contents vii

4.2.5 Transport Layer (4) 79 4.2.6 Session Layer (5) 80 4.2.7 Presentation Layer (6) 80 4.2.8 Application Layer (7) 80 4.2.9 Practice 81 4.3 Fixed Networks 82 4.3.1 SS7 82 4.3.2 SIGTRAN 83 4.4 Mobile Networks 89 4.4.1 SCCP 89 4.4.2 BSSAP 89 4.4.3 MAP 90 4.4.4 TCAP 90 4.4.5 LAPD/LAPDm 90 4.5 Data Networks 90 4.5.1 TCP/IP 90 4.5.2 UDP 91 4.6 Error Recovery 93 4.6.1 Message 93 4.6.2 Error Correction Methods 94 4.7 LAP Protocol Family 96 4.7.1 LAPB 97 4.7.2 LAPD 97 4.7.3 LAPF 97 4.7.4 LAPM 98 4.8 Cross-Layer Protocol Principles 98 References 99

5 Connectivity and Payment 101 Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 5.1 Connectivity 101 5.2 Definitions 101 5.3 IP Connectivity 102 5.3.1 Multilink Dial-Up 102 5.3.2 ISDN 103 5.3.3 Leased Lines 103 5.3.4 E1/T1 103 5.3.5 Cable Modem 104 5.3.6 DSL 104 5.3.7 Power-Line Connectivity 104 5.3.8 ATM 104 5.4 Wired Connectivity 105 5.4.1 USB 105 5.4.2 USB Development 105 5.4.3 General Principles of USB 106 5.4.4 Physical Aspect of USB 107 5.4.5 Cable Length 109 viii Contents

5.4.6 Power 109 5.4.7 Serial Port 114 5.5 Radio Connectivity in the Near Field 114 5.6 NFC and Secure Payment 115 5.6.1 General 115 5.6.2 Readers and Tags 116 5.6.3 Architecture 117 5.6.4 Standardization 118 5.6.5 Products and Use Cases 119 5.7 Secure Payment 120 5.7.1 Softcard 120 5.7.2 Background to Secure Payment Standardization 121 5.7.3 Functionality of Secure Payment 121 5.7.4 EMV 123 5.7.5 Practical Solutions 123 5.7.6 Other Payment Solutions 123 5.8 Bluetooth 125 5.8.1 General 125 5.8.2 Bluetooth RF 126 5.8.3 Bluetooth Profiles 126 5.9 Hearing Aid Compatibility 129 5.9.1 T and M Rating 129 5.9.2 HAC Compatibility Aspects 130 5.9.3 TTY/TDD Compatibility 131 5.10 Other Connectivity Technologies 131 5.10.1 G.V2A 131 5.10.2 MirrorLink 132 References 132

6 Fixed Telecommunications Networks 135 Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 6.1 Introduction 135 6.2 Network Topologies 135 6.2.1 Point-to-Point 136 6.2.2 Bus 136 6.2.3 Star 137 6.2.4 Ring 137 6.3 Redundancy 138 6.4 Telephone Network 139 6.5 User Devices 140 6.5.1 Telephones 140 6.5.2 Data Equipment 142 6.6 Plain Old Public Telephone System (POTS) 145 6.6.1 General 145 6.6.2 Numbering of Telephony Networks 146 6.6.3 The Principle of Telephone Networks 146 Contents ix

6.6.4 Billing Principles 146 6.6.5 Comparison of Current VoIP Solutions 147 6.7 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) 149 6.7.1 Standardization of ISDN 149 6.7.2 Principles of ISDN 149 6.7.3 ISDN Reference Model 150 6.7.4 ISDN Signaling 151 6.7.5 ISDN Services 151 6.8 Intelligent Network (IN) 153 6.8.1 IN Principles 153 6.8.2 IN Elements 153 6.8.3 IN Applications 154 6.9 SIP 155 6.9.1 Background 155 6.9.2 Functionality of SIP 155 6.9.3 SIP Elements 158 6.9.4 Protocol Stack for Internet Multimedia 158 6.9.5 Initiation of Call 158 6.10 Telephony Solutions for Companies 159 6.10.1 Centrex 159 6.11 Transport 161 6.12 Cloud Computing 161 6.12.1 General 161 6.12.2 Principles 162 6.12.3 Benefits 163 References 163

7 Data Networks 165 Jyrki T. J. Penttinen, Tero Jalkanen and Ilkka Keisala 7.1 Introduction 165 7.2 IPv4 165 7.2.1 General 167 7.2.2 IPv4 Addresses 168 7.2.3 Notation of the Address 169 7.3 IPv6 169 7.3.1 Principles 170 7.3.2 IPv6 Address 170 7.4 Routing 172 7.5 ATM 174 7.6 Frame Relay 176 7.6.1 Definitions 176 7.6.2 Functionality 176 7.7 LAN and MAN 177 7.7.1 IEEE 802.1 (Bridging) 177 7.7.2 IEEE 802.2 (LLC) 177 7.7.3 IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) 177 7.7.4 IEEE 802.4 (Token Bus) 181 x Contents

7.7.5 IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring) 181 7.7.6 IEEE 802.6 (MAN) 182 7.7.7 IEEE 802.7 (Broadband LAN via Coaxial) 182 7.7.8 IEEE 802.8 (Fiber Optic TAG) 182 7.7.9 IEEE 802.9 (ISLAN) 182 7.7.10 IEEE 802.10 (Interoperable LAN Security) 183 7.7.11 IEEE 802.11 (WLAN) 183 7.7.12 IEEE 802.12 (100BaseVG) 184 7.7.13 IEEE 802.13 (Unused) 184 7.7.14 IEEE 802.14 (Cable Modems) 184 7.7.15 IEEE 802.15 (Wireless PAN) 184 7.7.16 IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX) 186 7.7.17 IEEE 802.17 (Resilient Packet Ring) 187 7.7.18 IEEE 802.18 (Radio Regulatory TAG) 187 7.7.19 IEEE 802.19 (Coexistence TAG) 187 7.7.20 IEEE 802.20 (Mobile Broadband Wireless Access) 187 7.7.21 IEEE 802.21 (Media Independent Handoff) 188 7.7.22 IEEE 802.22 (Wireless Regional Area Network) 188 7.7.23 IEEE 802.23 (Emergency Services Working Group) 188 7.7.24 IEEE 802.24 (Smart Grid TAG) 188 7.7.25 IEEE 802.25 (Omni-Range Area Network) 188 7.8 Wi-Fi 189 7.8.1 Standardization 189 7.8.2 Wi-Fi Authentication and Accounting 191 7.8.3 Wi-Fi Offloading 195 7.8.4 Wi-Fi Roaming 198 7.9 Inter-Operator Networks 202 7.9.1 Introduction 202 7.9.2 Overview 202 7.9.3 Different Solutions 203 References 204

8 Telecommunications Network Services and Applications 207 Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 8.1 Introduction 207 8.2 Voice 207 8.3 Messaging 208 8.4 Audio and Video 210 8.4.1 Streaming 210 8.5 Health Care 212 8.6 Education 212 8.7 CSTA 213 8.8 Advanced Telecommunications Functionalities 214 8.8.1 Email 214 8.8.2 Videoconferencing 216 8.8.3 Telecommuting 217 8.8.4 Advanced Applications 217 Contents xi

8.9 Business Exchange 218 8.10 Public IP Network Develops to NGN 218 8.10.1 IMS Architecture 219 8.10.2 SIP 221 8.11 Voice Service Access Points 222 8.11.1 VoIP as a Solution for Fixed Communications Networks 223 8.11.2 Residential Areas 223 8.11.3 Business Environment 224 8.12 Mobile Services 224 8.12.1 Mobile Exchange 226 8.12.2 The CAPEX and OPEX of Mobile Exchange 234 8.12.3 Deployment of the Mobile Exchange 236 References 236

9 Transmission Networks 237 Jyrki T. J. Penttinen and Juha Kallio 9.1 Introduction 237 9.2 Physical Transmission Systems 237 9.3 Coding Techniques 238 9.3.1 Unipolar Format 239 9.3.2 Bipolar Format 240 9.3.3 Modified AMI Codes 240 9.3.4 Delta Modulation 241 9.4 PCM 241 9.4.1 Principles 241 9.5 Coding Techniques 243 9.6 PDH 245 9.7 SDH 245 9.8 WDM 246 9.9 Carrier Ethernet Transport 247 9.10 IP Multimedia Subsystem 250 9.10.1 IMS Architecture 250 9.11 Case Example: LTE Transport 257 9.11.1 Ethernet Transport 257 9.12 Cloud Computing and Transport 257 References 259

10 Modulation and Demodulation 261 Patrick Marsch and Jyrki Penttinen 10.1 Introduction 261 10.2 General 261 10.3 Analog Modulation Methods 262 10.3.1 Amplitude Modulation 262 10.3.2 Frequency Modulation 262 10.3.3 Phase Modulation 263 10.4 Digital Modulation and Demodulation 264 10.4.1 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) 265 xii Contents

10.4.2 Phase Shift Keying (PSK) 266 10.4.3 Combinations of ASK and PSK 267 10.4.4 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) 268 10.4.5 Modulation from a Mathematical Perspective 269 10.4.6 Pulse Shaping and Power Spectral Density of Modulated Signals 269 10.4.7 Typical Transmitter- and Receiver-Side Signal Processing 271 10.4.8 Digital Modulation Schemes Used in Practical Systems 274 10.4.9 Multiplexing, Multiple Access and Duplexing 276 10.4.10 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex 277 References 280

11 3GPP Mobile Communications: GSM 281 Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 11.1 Introduction 281 11.2 Development of GSM 281 11.3 Specification of GSM 285 11.4 Architecture of GSM 286 11.4.1 General 286 11.4.2 Area Specifications 287 11.4.3 The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) 288 11.4.4 Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) 291 11.4.5 Operations Subsystem 293 11.5 Functionality of GSM 294 11.5.1 Frequencies 294 11.5.2 Channels 296 11.5.3 Traffic Channels 297 11.5.4 Control Channels 297 11.5.5 Multiframes 300 11.5.6 Channel Configurations 302 11.6 Numbering of GSM 303 11.6.1 Subscriber Numbering 303 11.6.2 Mobile Numbers 306 11.6.3 Network Numbering 307 11.6.4 Other Numbers 308 11.7 GSM Data 308 11.7.1 Principles 308 11.7.2 The Network Architecture 310 11.7.3 GPRS Interfaces 314 11.7.4 Special GSM Solutions 315 11.7.5 Machine-to-Machine Communications 315 11.7.6 Energy Saving Functionalities 316 11.7.7 Smartphone Signaling Optimization 316 11.8 Dual Half Rate 317 11.8.1 The Functionality and Usability of OSC 318 11.8.2 Effect of OSC on Capacity 319 11.8.3 OSC Radio Performance Analysis 327 Contents xiii

11.8.4 OSC Radio Performance Model 331 11.8.5 Complete OSC Model 337 11.9 DFCA 341 11.9.1 Dynamic Frequency and Channel Allocation Principle 341 11.9.2 Joint OSC and DFCA Performance 342 11.10 EDGE 349 11.10.1 Technical Features 350 11.10.2 GERAN-Architecture 350 11.10.3 The Functioning of the EDGE 352 11.10.4 Channel Coding 352 11.10.5 Multifunctioning 353 11.11 DLDC 354 11.11.1 Installation Aspects 354 11.11.2 Time Slot Allocation 355 11.11.3 Feature Functionality 355 11.11.4 Case Study of DLDC Performance 358 11.11.5 Test Cases and Results 360 11.11.6 Analysis 366 11.12 EDGE2 366 References 367

12 3GPP Mobile Communications: WCDMA and HSPA 371 Patrick Marsch, Michał Maternia, Michal Panek, Ali Yaver, Ryszard Dokuczał and Rybakowski Marcin 12.1 Network Architecture 371 12.1.1 Node B – Base Station 372 12.1.2 Radio Network Controller 373 12.1.3 UTRAN Interfaces 375 12.2 Physical Layer Aspects 376 12.2.1 Spreading and Scrambling 376 12.2.2 Channel Estimation 378 12.2.3 Equalization 379 12.2.4 Power Control 380 12.2.5 Data Transmission in WCDMA and HSPA 381 12.2.6 Overview on Transport Channels and Physical Channels 386 12.3 Radio Interface Procedures 387 12.3.1 Cell Search Procedure 391 12.3.2 Synchronization 392 12.3.3 Cell Update 393 12.3.4 Paging 395 12.3.5 Call Setup 395 12.3.6 Scheduling 396 12.3.7 Handover and Soft Handover 400 12.4 WCDMA/HSPA Evolution since Release 5 402 12.4.1 Multicarrier 402 12.4.2 MIMO 406 12.4.3 Multiflow 407 xiv Contents

12.4.4 Heterogeneous Networks 408 12.4.5 Self-Organizing Networks 410 12.5 Planning and Dimensioning of WCDMA/HSPA Networks 410 12.5.1 Typical Frequency Usage 410 12.5.2 Capacity and Coverage Optimization 412 12.5.3 Location Areas Size vs Paging Load 415 References 415

13 3GPP Mobile Communications: LTE/SAE and LTE-A 417 Jacek Gora,´ Krystian Safjan, Jarosław Lachowski, Agnieszka Szufarska, Stanisław Strzyz,˙ Szymon Stefanski,´ Damian Kolmas, Jyrki T. J. Penttinen, Francesco D. Calabrese, Guillaume Monghal, Mohammad Anas, Luis Maestro, Juha Kallio and Olli Ramula 13.1 Introduction 417 13.2 Architecture 418 13.3 Elements 419 13.4 Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network 422 13.4.1 eNodeB 422 13.4.2 User Equipment 424 13.4.3 S-GW 424 13.4.4 P-GW 425 13.4.5 MME 425 13.4.6 Policy and Charging Resource Function (PCRF) 426 13.4.7 Home Subscription Server (HSS) 427 13.4.8 GSM and UMTS Domain 427 13.4.9 Packet Data Network 427 13.5 Interfaces 428 13.5.1 Uu Interface 428 13.5.2 X2 Interface 428 13.5.3 S1 Interface 429 13.5.4 S3 Interface 429 13.5.5 S4 Interface 429 13.5.6 S5 Interface 429 13.5.7 S6a Interface 429 13.5.8 S11 Interface 429 13.5.9 SGi 429 13.5.10 Gn/Gp 430 13.6 Protocol Stacks 430 13.6.1 User Plane 430 13.6.2 Control Plane 431 13.6.3 Layer 1 432 13.6.4 Layer 2 433 13.6.5 Layer 3 433 13.7 Layer 2 Structure 434 13.8 LTE Radio Network 435 13.8.1 Introduction 435 13.9 LTE Spectrum 436 13.10 Physical Layer 438 13.10.1 Principles of OFDMA and SC-FDMA 438 Contents xv

13.10.2 OFDM Transceiver Chain 442 13.10.3 Cyclic Prefix 442 13.10.4 Channel Estimation and Equalization 444 13.10.5 Modulation 444 13.10.6 Coding 444 13.10.7 Signal Processing Chain 445 13.11 SC-FDM and SC-FDMA 448 13.11.1 SC-FDM Transceiver Chain 449 13.11.2 PAPR Benefits 449 13.12 Frame Structure and Physical Channels 449 13.12.1 Downlink 451 13.12.2 Uplink 452 13.13 Physical Layer Procedures 453 13.13.1 Random Access 453 13.13.2 Timing Advance 453 13.13.3 Power Control 453 13.13.4 HARQ – Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request 454 13.14 User Mobility 455 13.14.1 Tracking Area Update 455 13.14.2 Handover 455 13.15 Radio Resource Management Procedures 457 13.15.1 Packet Scheduling 457 13.16 Link Adaptation 458 13.17 ICIC 459 13.17.1 Hard Frequency Reuse 459 13.17.2 Fractional Frequency Reuse 460 13.17.3 Soft Frequency Reuse 460 13.17.4 LTE Context 461 13.17.5 TDM eICIC 462 13.18 Reporting 463 13.18.1 CSI 463 13.18.2 CQI 464 13.18.3 RI 464 13.18.4 PMI 465 13.19 LTE Radio Resource Management 466 13.19.1 Introduction 466 13.19.2 QoS and Associated Parameters 466 13.20 RRM Principles and Algorithms Common to UL and DL 467 13.20.1 Connection Mobility Control 467 13.20.2 Admission Control 468 13.20.3 HARQ 471 13.20.4 Link Adaptation 471 13.20.5 Packet Scheduling 472 13.20.6 Load Balancing 475 13.21 Uplink RRM 477 13.21.1 Packet Scheduling: Specific UL Constraints 477 13.21.2 Link Adaptation 478 13.21.3 Uplink Signaling for Scheduling and Link Adaptation Support 479 xvi Contents

13.22 Downlink RRM 482 13.22.1 Channel Quality, Feedback and Link Adaptation 482 13.22.2 Packet Scheduling 483 13.22.3 Intercell Interference Control 484 13.23 Intra-LTE Handover 485 13.24 LTE Release 8/9 Features 487 13.24.1 MIMO 487 13.24.2 Diversity MIMO 488 13.24.3 Spatial Multiplexing 489 13.24.4 Beamforming 491 13.24.5 Self-Organizing Networks 491 13.24.6 Self-Configuration Rel. 8 491 13.24.7 Self-Configuration in Preoperational State 492 13.24.8 Physical Cell Identifier Selection 492 13.24.9 Automatic Neighbor Cell Configuration and X2 Setup 493 13.24.10 Self-Optimization Rel. 9 493 13.24.11 Mobility Robustness Optimization 494 13.24.12 Mobility Load Balancing 494 13.24.13 Energy Savings 494 13.24.14 RACH Optimization 495 13.24.15 Heterogeneous Networks 495 13.24.16 Node Types (LTE Context) 496 13.25 LTE-Advanced Features (Rel. 10) 496 13.25.1 Requirements for LTE-Advanced 496 13.25.2 Motivation and Targets 497 13.25.3 Advanced MIMO 497 13.25.4 Carrier Aggregation 498 13.25.5 Relaying 500 13.25.6 Cooperative Multipoint 502 13.26 LTE Transport and Core Network 504 13.26.1 Functionality of Transport Elements 504 13.26.2 Transport Modules 504 13.26.3 LTE Transport Protocol Stack 505 13.26.4 Ethernet Transport 505 13.26.5 IP Address Differentiation 505 13.26.6 Traffic Prioritization on IP Layer 505 13.26.7 Traffic Prioritization on Ethernet Layer 505 13.26.8 VLAN Based Traffic Differentiation 505 13.26.9 IPSec 505 13.26.10 Synchronization 506 13.26.11 Timing Over Packet 506 13.26.12 Synchronous Ethernet 506 13.27 Transport Network 506 13.27.1 Carrier Ethernet Transport 508 13.27.2 Transport for S1-U Interface 509 13.28 Core Network 509 13.29 Charging 510 Contents xvii

13.29.1 Offline Charging 510 13.29.2 Charging Data Record 512 13.29.3 Online Charging 512 References 513

14 Wireless LAN and Evolution 515 Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 14.1 Introduction 515 14.2 WLAN Standards 515 14.3 IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi) 515 14.3.1 Wi-Fi Variants 516 14.3.2 Wi-Fi and Other Wireless Networks 522 14.3.3 Security Aspects 523 14.4 IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX) 524 14.4.1 WiMAX Standardization 525 14.4.2 WiMAX Frequencies 525 14.4.3 Technology for WiMAX Deployments 525 14.4.4 Architecture of WiMAX 526 14.4.5 Marketing Aspects 527 14.4.6 Applications 528 14.5 Evolved IEEE 802.16 (4G) 529 14.5.1 General 529 14.5.2 Impacts of IEEE 802.16m on Network Planning 531 14.5.3 Applications and Key Functionalities 533 14.6 Comparison of Wireless Technologies 534 14.6.1 Other Connectivity Methods 534 14.6.2 The Future 534 References 536

15 Terrestrial Broadcast Networks 537 Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 15.1 Introduction 537 15.2 Analog Systems 537 15.2.1 Radio 537 15.2.2 Television 538 15.3 Digital Radio 539 15.3.1 Principle 539 15.4 Digital Television 540 15.4.1 DVB 540 15.4.2 DVB-T 540 15.4.3 DVB-H 541 15.4.4 ISDB-T 548 15.4.5 ATSC 548 15.4.6 MBMS/eMBMS 548 15.4.7 CMAS 551 References 552 xviii Contents

16 Satellite Systems: Communications 555 Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 16.1 Introduction 555 16.2 Principles of Satellite Systems 556 16.2.1 General 556 16.2.2 Orbits 556 16.2.3 Frequencies 558 16.2.4 Characteristics of Satellite Systems 559 16.2.5 Functionality 559 16.2.6 Equipment 560 16.2.7 System Architecture 561 16.2.8 Satellite Antennas 561 16.2.9 Challenges in Satellite Communications 565 16.3 Voice and Data Services 569 16.4 Broadcast Satellite Systems 571 16.4.1 Principles 571 16.4.2 Formats 571 16.4.3 Satellite TV 573 16.4.4 Satellite Audio and Radio 573 16.5 Standardization 574 16.6 Commercial Satellite Systems 577 16.6.1 ACeS 577 16.6.2 Telstar 578 16.6.3 Globalstar 579 16.6.4 ORBCOMM 581 16.6.5 Mars Odyssey 582 16.6.6 SkyBridge 582 16.6.7 Iridium 585 16.6.8 Molniya 589 16.6.9 Teledesic 590 16.6.10 ICO/Pendrell 590 16.6.11 Inmarsat 590 16.6.12 Thuraya 593 16.6.13 MSAT/SkyTerra 593 16.6.14 TerreStar 594 16.6.15 VSAT 594 16.7 Radio Link Budget 595 16.7.1 Principle of the Link Budget 595 16.7.2 Link Budget Forming 596 16.7.3 Example of the Link Budget 597 References 601

17 Satellite Systems: Location Services and Telemetry 603 Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 17.1 General 603 17.2 GPS 604 17.2.1 Background 604 Contents xix

17.2.2 System Architecture 605 17.2.3 Frequencies 607 17.2.4 Functionality 607 17.3 GALILEO 608 17.3.1 General 608 17.3.2 European Variant 609 17.4 Positioning Systems: Other Initiatives 614 17.4.1 GLONASS 614 17.4.2 BeiDou/COMPASS 615 17.4.3 QZSS 615 17.4.4 IRNSS 615 17.5 Space Research 616 17.6 Weather and Meteorological Satellites 616 17.6.1 Geostationary Satellites 616 17.6.2 Polar Orbiting Satellites 617 17.7 Military Systems 617 17.7.1 Orbits 618 References 619

18 Other and Special Networks 621 Pertti Virtanen and Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 18.1 IS-95 621 18.1.1 General 621 18.1.2 Standards 621 18.1.3 CDMA Principles 622 18.1.4 Network Architecture 623 18.2 CDMA2000 624 18.2.1 General 624 18.3 TETRA 625 18.3.1 TETRA I 626 18.3.2 TETRA II 629 18.3.3 Security 632 18.3.4 Benefits 632 18.3.5 Key Services 635 18.3.6 Functionality 638 References 640

19 Security Aspects of Telecommunications: 3GPP Mobile Networks 641 Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 19.1 Introduction 641 19.2 Basic Principles of Protection 641 19.3 GSM Security 642 19.3.1 SIM 643 19.3.2 Authentication and Authorization 643 19.3.3 Encryption of the Radio Interface 644 19.3.4 Encryption of IMSI 646 xx Contents

19.3.5 Other GSM Security Aspects 646 19.3.6 Potential Security Weaknesses of GSM 647 19.4 UMTS Security 647 19.5 LTE Security 649 19.5.1 Security Process 649 19.5.2 Network Attack Types in LTE/SAE 649 19.5.3 Preparation for the Attacks 650 19.5.4 Certificates 653 19.5.5 LTE Transport Security 654 19.5.6 Traffic Filtering 655 19.5.7 Radio Interface Security 655 19.6 LTE/SAE Service Security: Case Example 659 19.6.1 General 659 19.6.2 IPSec 660 19.6.3 IPSec Processing and Security Gateway 661 19.6.4 Single Tunnel with Dedicated Tunnel Interfaces 663 19.6.5 Single Tunnel with Shared Tunnel Interfaces 663 19.6.6 Multiple Tunnels with Dedicated Tunnel Interfaces 663 19.6.7 Multiple Tunnels with Shared Tunnel Interfaces 663 19.6.8 Summary 663 19.7 Authentication and Authorization 663 19.8 Customer Data Safety 665 19.9 Lawful Interception 665 References 668

20 Planning of 2G Networks 669 Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 20.1 General Planning Guidelines for Fixed Networks 669 20.1.1 General 669 20.1.2 Planning of the Networks 670 20.2 Capacity Planning 672 20.3 Coverage Planning 675 20.3.1 Link Budget 675 20.3.2 Radio Wave Propagation Models 677 20.4 Frequency Planning 679 20.4.1 C/I Ratio 679 20.5 Parameter Planning 681 20.6 Network Measurements 683 20.7 Effects of Data Services on GSM Planning 684 20.7.1 Capacity Planning 684 20.7.2 Coverage Area Planning 700 20.7.3 Frequency Planning 710 20.7.4 Parameter Planning 712 20.8 Other Planning Considerations 714 20.8.1 Multilayer Networks 714 20.8.2 Variation of the Load 715 20.8.3 Vegetation and Weather Conditions 715 Contents xxi

20.8.4 Quality of Service Levels 716 20.8.5 Transmission 716 20.8.6 The Effect of the Applications 717 20.8.7 The Usability of GPRS Data 718 20.9 GSM/GPRS Measurement and Simulation Techniques 722 20.9.1 GPRS Measurement Devices 722 20.9.2 The C/I Measured from the Network 722 20.9.3 Conclusions 726 20.10 Simulations 729 20.10.1 Interference Level Simulator 729 20.10.2 Simulation Considerations 729 20.10.3 Simulations: Example 731 20.10.4 Results 734 References 741

21 Planning of Advanced 3G Networks 743 Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 21.1 Introduction 743 21.2 Radio Network Planning Process 743 21.3 Nominal Network Planning 746 21.3.1 Quality of Service 746 21.4 Capacity Planning 749 21.5 Coverage Planning 750 21.5.1 Radio Link Budget 751 21.5.2 Radio Propagation Models 754 21.5.3 Frequency Planning 757 21.5.4 Other Planning Aspects 757 21.6 Self-Optimizing Network 757 21.7 Parameter Planning 759 21.7.1 eNodeB Transmitter Power 763 21.7.2 Calculation of Downlink Interference Margin 771 21.7.3 Path Loss Prediction 773 21.7.4 Frequency Planning 776 References 776

22 Planning of Mobile TV Networks 777 Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 22.1 Introduction 777 22.2 High-Level Network Dimensioning Process 777 22.2.1 Capacity Planning 778 22.2.2 Coverage and QoS Planning 782 22.2.3 Propagation Models 788 22.2.4 Safety Distance 791 22.2.5 Cost Prediction 791 22.3 Detailed Radio Network Design 795 22.3.1 Identifying the Planning Items 795 22.3.2 Detailed Network Planning Process 796 xxii Contents

22.3.3 Capacity Planning 796 22.3.4 Coverage Planning 797 22.3.5 Local Measurements 799 22.3.6 Effect of SFN 806 22.4 Radiation Limitations 818 22.5 Cost Prediction and Optimization 819 22.5.1 Cost Optimization in Noninterfered Network 819 22.5.2 Cost Optimization in Interfered SFN Network 822 References 830

23 Planning of Core Networks 835 Jyrki T. J. Penttinen and Jukka Hongisto 23.1 Introduction 835 23.2 General Planning Guidelines for Fixed Networks 835 23.3 Planning of the Networks 836 23.4 Capacity Planning 838 23.5 Network Evolution from 2G/3G PS Core to EPC 840 23.5.1 3GPP R8 Requirements for LTE Support in Packet Core Network 840 23.5.2 Introducing LTE in Operator Network 841 23.6 Entering Commercial Phase: Support for Multimode LTE/3G/2G Terminals with Pre-Release 8 SGSN 841 23.6.1 Support for Multimode LTE/3G/2G Terminals with Release 8 Network 842 23.6.2 Optimal Solution for 2G/3G SGSN and MME from Architecture Point of View 843 23.7 SGSN/MME Evolution 845 23.7.1 Requirements to MME Functionality in LTE Networks 845 23.8 Case Example: Commercial SGSN/MME Offering 846 23.8.1 Nokia Siemens Networks Flexi Network Server 846 23.8.2 Aspects to Consider in SGSN/MME Evolution Planning 846 23.9 Mobile Gateway Evolution 847 23.9.1 Requirements to Mobile Gateway in Mobile Broadband Networks 847 23.10 Case Example: Commercial GGSN/S-GW/P-GW Offering 847 23.10.1 Nokia Siemens Networks Flexi Network Gateway 847 23.10.2 Aspects to Consider in GGSN/S-GW/P-GW Evolution Planning 848 23.11 EPC Network Deployment and Topology Considerations 848 23.11.1 EPC Topology Options 848 23.11.2 EPC Topology Evolution 849 23.12 LTE Access Dimensioning 850 Reference 851

24 EMF – Radiation Safety and Health Aspects 853 Jouko Rautio and Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 24.1 Introduction 853 24.2 The EMF Question 856 24.3 The Scientific Principle and Process: The Precautionary Principle 856 24.4 The Expert Organizations and Regulation 858 24.5 Some Topics of the EMF Debate 860 24.5.1 Cancer 860 Contents xxiii

24.5.2 Electro Hypersensitivity 861 24.5.3 The Children’s Issue 862 24.5.4 So-Called Funding Bias 863 24.5.5 Ana-Digi 864 24.6 SAR 864 24.7 The Safety Distance and Installation 866 24.8 Summing Up 869 24.9 High-Power Network Planning 870 24.9.1 Introduction of DVB-H Interference Estimation 871 24.9.2 Safety Aspects 872 24.9.3 EMC Limits 877 24.9.4 Conclusions 880 References 880

25 Deployment and Transition of Telecommunication Systems 883 Michał Maternia 25.1 Introduction 883 25.2 Why to Deploy Wireless Systems 883 25.3 Transition of Telecommunication Systems 885 25.4 Network Deployments 886 25.4.1 1G Systems 886 25.4.2 2G Systems 887 25.4.3 2G Evolution from GSM to EDGE 889 25.4.4 3G Systems 891 25.4.5 Evolution of 3G Networks 893 25.4.6 4G Systems Considerations 895 25.4.7 Can HSPA+ Become a 4G System? 897 25.4.8 4G Systems 897 25.5 Spectrum Considerations for Network Transition 900 25.6 Terminals Support for the Network Transition 904 25.7 Evolution of Macro Sites and Deployment of Small Cells 906 25.8 Beyond 4G Systems: 5G 910 25.9 Challenges and Possibilities 911 References 913

26 Wireless Network Measurements 915 Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 26.1 Introduction 915 26.2 Principles of Radio Interface Measurements 915 26.3 GSM/GPRS 915 26.3.1 GSM/GPRS Measurement Devices 915 26.3.2 The C/I Measured from the Network 916 26.4 LTE 921 26.4.1 Principle 921 26.4.2 LTE Traffic Simulators 923 26.4.3 Typical LTE Measurements 925 26.4.4 Type Approval Measurements 926 xxiv Contents

26.4.5 Modulation Error Measurements 927 26.4.6 LTE Performance Simulations 927 26.5 LTE Field Measurements 928 26.5.1 Typical Field Test Environment 929 26.5.2 Test Network Setup 930 26.5.3 Test Case Selection 933 26.5.4 Items to Assure 933 References 934

Index 935 Preface

The evolution of mobile telecommunications is breathtaking. It is also an excellent indicator of technical advances in general – as computers and processors evolve, there is impact on telecommunications solutions with an ever-growing need for capacity and data rates. Knowing that mobile communications were still only utilized by a small group of privileged people back in the 1980s, it is fascinating to realize the current speed of the development of telecommunications networks and devices both technically as well as for business opportunities. It is actually hard to find any other business area which has changed the lifestyle of somanyin such a short time period. Presently, the majority of global population has mobile phone whilst the utilization of Internet is growing exponentially – all this only within a couple of decades! Who would want to return any more to the era prior to emails and mobile phones? The speed of this evolution has also generated challenges. Systems are becoming more and more compli- cated, and it is very hard to establish a complete picture of telecommunications technologies and systems achievement. There are many new technology areas that need to be learned and taken into account in realistic network deployments, such as security and advanced network planning methods. Furthermore, there is no longer a single concept of fixed and once-and-for-all learning of some areas of telecommunications asnew solutions require constant upgrading of knowledge. The updated understanding about the wider aspects of current and future systems is important for many professionals and higher-level decision-makers because there are increasingly interdependencies along with the evolvement of systems and services. One example is the inclusion of 2G, 3G, 4G, local connectivity and location-based services into smart devices, so knowledge about the respective possibilities as well as limitations of the solutions is essential for service providers, device manufacturers, network architects and planners, and many more professionals. Another example is the efficient planning of the transition from older telecom systems as new systems start taking place. The optimal solution might not be simply a matter of ramping down the previous system to offer maximum capacity for the new one. Instead, utilizing the optimized intermediate solutions for spectral efficient gradual handing over the capacity offered between networks might save huge amount of money for operators. One concrete solution for the gradual lowering of GSM spectrum is the VAMOS terminals and base stations which serve a sufficient number of users within a narrower spectrum whilst pre-4G LTE and actual 4G LTE-Advanced may have greater capacity. It is thus soon highly recommendable for telecom engineers to also start learning 5G! Currently, it is on the design table but as 2020 approaches, more professionals with updated knowledge are needed. It is a matter of maintaining relevant knowledge for efficient working as the understanding of functionality and end-to-end performance of the complete set of systems gives great assets to optimize user experiences. This Telecommunications Handbook aims to tackle the need prior to the concretization of 5G. It is a well- known fact that systems evolve so fast that literature tends to become outdated at the moment of publication. Nevertheless, the basics of the relevant systems are valid for the long term, and the presentation of the complete set within one book is justified, especially when the information is useful for a variety of professional profiles in order to understand the interdependencies of the systems. This book is meant for experienced professionals who are seeking updated information about systems outside their own special area, and also for persons not familiar with practical telecommunications systems, for example, in technical universities and institutes. The main focus of this book is to combine the information needed in both practical and academic environments: xxvi Preface seasoned professionals can get easy access to telecom theories, and students can obtain realistic views of the practicalities of the systems. Gradually, as systems evolve, new aspects require new editions, but I totally believe that this book will not be outdated too soon – whilst the systems remain in the markets, their basis as described in this publication will remain relevant. I also maintain updated information via the website www.tlt.fi which contains clarifications as well as extra information, to complement the contents not only of this book but my previous publications The DVB-H Handbook and The LTE/SAE Deployment Handbook, all published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. I hope you find this Telecommunications Handbook useful in your work and studies and I would very much appreciate any feedback via my personal email address: [email protected].

Jyrki Penttinen Morristown, NJ, USA Acknowledgements

This book is based on many experiences from real-world projects, results of academic studies, and other investigations in telecommunications field. It also references the research, development and technical project results over a long period of time of many professionals I have worked with in Europe, North America and Latin America, interfacing with telecom companies, governmental organizations and educational institutions. I believe these activities have formed a useful knowledge base for summarizing telecommunications topics in book format. I would thus like to express my special thanks to all my good colleagues at TeliaSonera Finland and Yoigo (Xfera) Spain, standardization groups of ETSI, 3GPP and DVB-H, Aalto University School of Electrical Engineering, United Nations Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, Finnish Information Society Centre, European Commission, Giesecke & Devrient and organizations of the Nokia umbrella – to mention only some – for the friendliest cooperation whilst I have worked with my employers or as a consultant via my company Finesstel Ltd. The collection of a complete telecom summary into a single book is without doubt a challenging task for presenting relevant topics in balance, in a compact yet sufficiently deep manner. I acknowledge that our contributor team succeeded in this job excellently by sacrificing valuable personal time with the understanding attitude of the families and significant ones. I appreciate the dedication of the team higher that can be expressed by words. I am also most thankful for the professional support of Wiley. This book would not be a reality without the planning and organization skills, and gentle yet persistent track keeping of Wiley. I thank very much Liz Wingett, Sandra Grayson, Clarissa Lim, Mark Hammond, and all others from the Wiley team who have worked on this project, as well as Baljinder Kaur at Aptara. I would like to acknowledge especially the hard work of Martin Noble in language editing. I also give my warmest thanks to the Association of Finnish Non-Fiction Writers for their support. Finally, I would like to give my special thanks to Elva, Stephanie, Carolyne, Miguel, Katriina, Pertti and all my close family for their support and understanding during the writing.

Jyrki Penttinen