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Proceedings of Kermadec Discoveries and Connections

Science Symposium April 11-12, 2016 Academy Galleries, Queens Wharf, Wellington PROCEEDINGS OF KERMADEC – DISCOVERIES AND CONNECTIONS

ISBN: 978-0-473-36137-2

Edited by: Bronwen Golder and Amelia Connell,

The Pew Charitable Trusts PO Box 25459 Wellington

Kermadec – Discoveries and Connections, Wellington, New Zealand, 11-12 April 2016

Suggested citation: Author Name(s). 2016, Article . In B Golder and A Connell (Eds.) Proceedings of Kermadec – Discoveries and Connections. Paper presented at Kermadec – Discoveries and Connections, Wellington, New Zealand (inclusive page numbers). The Pew Charitable Trusts.

The Pew Charitable Trusts is driven by the power of knowledge to solve today’s most challenging problems. Pew applies a rigorous, analytical approach to improve public policy, inform the public, and invigorate civic life.

Cover images: ©2016 Jason O’Hara

DISCOVERIES AND CONNECTIONS

– these are words that excite our imagination and inspire scientific .

The Kermadec of New Zealand Readers of this Proceedings Document will BRONWEN GOLDER, represents the last frontier in marine and find the descriptors ‘unique’, ‘never before DIRECTOR, KERMADEC island exploration. The near pristine seen’, ‘first record’, ‘new ’, and INITIATIVE, GLOBAL OCEAN and island of the Kermadecs offer ‘distinct’ used frequently in the papers LEGACY, THE PEW scientists and conservation agencies a presented – yet further scientific CHARITABLE TRUSTS unique research and management confirmation that the habitats, species and [email protected] . oceanic processes and connections of the Kermadec region are a globally significant. In 2010 The Pew Charitable Trusts hosted the first ever Kermadec Science Symposium Scientists presenting to the Symposium also - DEEP – Talks and Thoughts Celebrating explored the opportunities for scientific Diversity in New Zealand’s Untouched research that the recently proposed Kermadecs. Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary has the potential to provide. Set out below is a Between 2010 and 2015 a number of summary of their recommendations for expeditions have made their way to the consideration by the future Kermadec Kermadec region – exploring the islands, the Ocean Sanctuary Conservation Board and near shore waters, the arc, and the deep sea. conservation managers. While scientists estimate that only 5% of the Kermadec region has been explored to date, On behalf of The Pew Charitable Trusts, these recent expeditions (some long WWF-NZ, and Forest and Bird, we thank planned, others opportunistic) have added mana whenua, scientists, conservation significantly to scientists understanding of managers and ‘Kermadecians’ who the Kermadec region, and its relationship to contributed their research and their the wider health of ocean systems and expertise to the 2016 Kermadec Science species. Symposium.

The April 2016 Kermadec Science A special thanks to Kina Scollay and Judith Symposium – Kermadec – Discoveries and Curren (Our Big Blue Backyard, NHNZ), Connections – hosted by The Pew Charitable photographer Richie Robinson, Trusts, WWF-NZ and Forest & Bird, brought videographer Steve Hathaway, artist/author together mana whenua, scientists, and Gregory O’Brien and Rebecca Priestley, conservation managers involved with the Senior Lecturer and author for the Kermadec region. Over two days, sitting breathtaking images, passionate words and amidst the works of the latest Kermadec inspiration that they shared at the exhibition, scientists reported on their most symposium. recent Kermadec expeditions. We look forward to their continued The Symposium audience heard about the expeditions of exploration and discovery, 15 species new to science identified by the and the growing understanding their 2011 Kermadec Biodiscovery Expedition; the research brings to the protection and largest submarine eruption ever recorded management of the Kermadec region of (Harve in July 2012); the discovery New Zealand. of pine pollen from northeastern New Zealand in the depths of the 10,000 m deep Kermadec Trench; and, the first ever tracking of Humpback whales from to the waters of . RESEARCH THAT SCIENTISTS WOULD WHAT IS NEEDED TO PURSUE THIS RECOMMEND BE INCORPORATED INTO A RESEARCH ACROSS THE KERMADEC SCIENCE PLAN FOR A KERMADEC OCEAN OCEAN SANCTUARY SANCTUARY . Leadership, infrastructure and . Scientific exploration and intensive capacity to implement the science sampling / collection across the plan and support researchers in a Kermadec region (micro to macro, timely and effective manner surface to hadal, vertical and (including streamlining of horizontal) to improve permitting processes and descriptions and agreement and co-ordination understanding of community amongst researchers) composition, abundance, genetic connectivity, and recovery . Continue and expand collaboration potential (current research focus across agencies (national and on about 5% of the region) international) to facilitate and coordinate multi-disciplinary . Geospatial mapping of ocean research, at scale, and including pelagic species to determine the participation of international importance of the Kermadec research vessels and national region as a habitat and migratory marine science investment in route for oceanic pelagic fish and extraordinary assets for marine cetaceans science – e.g. AUVs, ROVs

. Multidisciplinary and multi-year . A collective of skilled and research programmes to experienced personnel understand processes, linkages (particularly specialist taxonomists and structural continuum and geneticists)

. Initiation of fixed, long-term . Prioritise collections of national monitoring stations across the significance to inform and increase Kermadec region the value of expeditions

. Advanced offshore databases (submarine structures, volcanic centres, habitat distribution and biodiversity) using new data analysis techniques and statistics and making it easily transferable to end users

. Identification and analysis of unidentified samples / material from previous voyages

. Revisit previous surveys (1990’s) to assess sensitivity to, and impacts of, climate changes on species and systems .

CONTENTS

1. Ocean Processes in the Kermadec Region CRAIG STEVENS, STEPHEN CHISWELL, PHILIP SUTTON AND GRAHAM RICKARD

3. Latest geophysical investigation in the Kermadec Arc Backarc system GEOFFROY LAMARCHE, RICHARD WYSOCZANSKI AND SOPHIE BARTON

7. The Colville Arc: Insights into the magmatism that shaped the Colville and Kermadec Ridges MONICA HANDLER, RICHARD WYSOCZANSKI AND CHRISTIAN TIMM

9. Havre 2012: The largest historic submarine eruption the world has never seen RICHARD WYSOCZANSKI, MONICA HANDLER, REBECCA CAREY

12. Deep-sea benthic sampling in the Kermadec region: recent research efforts and the need for a coordinated and integrated approach to future sampling MALCOLM R. , ASHLEY A. ROWDEN, GEOFFROY LAMARCHE

16. Current status of the of communities of western back-arc basins and volcanoes ASHLEY A. ROWDEN, MALCOLM R. CLARK, JENNIFER C. BEAUMONT, RACHEL E. BOSCHEN, ALISON B. MACDIARMID, KAREEN E. SCHNABEL, DIANNE M. TRACEY

20. Ecological diversity of hydrothermal vents, and issues for management of seabed mining RACHEL E. BOSCHEN, ASHLEY A. ROWDEN, MALCOLM R. CLARK AND JONATHAN P.A GARDNER

24. Connectivity of Vulnerable Marine Ecosystem indicator taxa: genetic data to inform environmental management of the Kermadec region JONATHAN GARDNER, LYNDSEY HOLLAND, CONG ZENG, RACHEL BOSCHEN, ASHLEY ROWDEN, MALCOLM CLARK AND, JOANNA HAMILTON

29. Protected coral communities on the Kermadec : recorded and predicted distributions, and risks from ocean acidification DIANNE TRACEY, OWEN ANDERSON, HELEN BOSTOCK, SARA MIKALOFF-FLETCHER, MALINDI GAMMON, VONDA CUMMINGS, PETER MARRIOTT

36. 10,000 m under the sea: an overview of the HADES expedition to MILLS S., LEDUC D., DRAZEN J. C., YANCEY P., JAMIESON A. J., CLARK M. R., ROWDEN A. A., MAYOR D. J., PIERTNEY S., HEYL T., BARTLETT D., BOURQUE J., CHO W., DEMOPOULOS A., FRYER P., GERRINGER M., GRAMMATOPOULOU E., HERRERA S., ICHINO M., LECROQ B., LINLEY T. D., MEYER K., NUNNALLY C., RUHL H., G., YOUNG C. AND SHANK T. M.

39. The unseen multitude: life in the sediments of Kermadec and Tonga trenches DANIEL LEDUC, ASHLEY A ROWDEN, MALCOLM R CLARK

42. 2005 – Kermadec - Tonga Arc expedition – A pilot’s tale TERRY KERBY

44. Rate of species discovery in coastal waters of the and opportunities for future research TOM TRNSKI AND CLINTON A J DUFFY

48. The Kermadec corridor – an important habitat for migrating oceanic fishes? MALCOLM FRANCIS, CLINTON DUFFY, AND JOHN HOLDSWORTH

51. Kermadec Islands constitute a migratory corridor for the humpback whales breeding in New Caledonia CLAIRE GARRIGUE, ROCHELLE CONSTANTINE, SOLÈNE DERVILLE, RÉMI DODÉMONT, VÉRONIQUE PÉRARD

54. The Kermadec Islands and ‘The Great Trail’ ROCHELLE CONSTANTINE, OLIVE ANDREWS, VIRGINIA ANDREWS-GOFF, C. SCOTT BAKER, SIMON CHILDERHOUSE, RÉMI DODÉMONT, MIKE DOUBLE, CLAIRE GARRIGUE, REBECCA LINDSAY, LEENA RIEKKOLA, DEBBIE STEEL, JAMES TREMLETT, SILJE VINDENES, ALEX ZERBINI

57. New Zealand’s Southern Right Whales: Reason for Hope ROCHELLE CONSTANTINE, C. SCOTT BAKER, EMMA CARROLL, SIMON CHILDERHOUSE, JENN JACKSON, WILL RAYMENT, LEIGH TORRES

58. A building biodiversity story for the shallow marine biodiversity of the Kermadec Archipelago , ERIC A. TREML, J. DAVID AGUIRRE, AND TOM TRNSKI

61. Doing whatever it takes to survive: examining morphological divergence in high-latitude, reef-building corals DAVID AGUIRRE, LIBBY LIGGINS AND PAUL MUIR

64. fauna of the Kermadec Islands: Much left to learn KAT BOLSTAD

66. Terrestrial invertebrates of the Kermadec Islands WARREN CHINN

70. return to an oceanic island: Raoul Island, northern Kermadec Islands CHRIS P. GASKIN, MATT J. RAYNER, GRAEME A. TAYLOR, KAREN A. BAIRD, MARK MILLER, STEFANIE H. ISMAR

74. Kermadec – Discoveries and Connections REBECCA PRIESTLEY

77. Poetry, a church pulpit and an ocean sanctuary 11 May 2016 GREGORY O’BRIEN

Collage photo credits: 8 2 1. NOAA 8. Malcolm Francis 1 9 10 2. Robin White 9. NOAA 3. Malcolm Francis 10. John Pule 3 4 4. Karen Baird 11. Gareth Rapley 12 6 11 5. Gregory O’Brien 12. Malcolm Francis 6. Phil Dadson 13. Malcolm Francis 5 7 13 14 7. Malcolm Francis 14. NOAA P i t c R

Ocean rocesses n he Kermade egion Craig Stevens, Stephen Chiswell, Philip Sutton and Graham Rickard

The Kermadec region plays host to a diverse Kermadec Ridge. As this flows north, CRAIG STEVENS, range of ocean processes at a range of its properties become modified and NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF scales. While bathymetrically the region is eventually some upwells and returns WATER & ATMOSPHERIC defined by the combined ridge and trench as Pacific Deep Water (PDW). RESEARCH, WELLINGTON, running to the north-east, from the ocean’s NEW ZEALAND, perspective it is also defined by the Pacific Further north of the Kermadec region the , Ocean basin scale circulation, water column flux of heat and material associated with this AUCKLAND, NEW ZEALAND stratification and wind-forcing. Submarine boundary current is constrained by the [email protected] ridges like the Kermadec Ridge create Samoan Passage where recent observations dividing lines in all but the near-surface (Voet et al. 2016) identified a volume flux of STEPHEN CHISWELL, PHILIP 6 3 -1 waters and strongly influence a range of around 6 Sv (1 Sv= 10 m s ) of water, much SUTTON AND GRAHAM RICKARD processes (Bostock et al. 2013). This has of which was 0.8°C or colder. The NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF implications both near-surface and in the persistence of this heat transport depends WATER & ATMOSPHERIC abyss. Such ocean processes in the western heavily on the degree of turbulent mixing. RESEARCH, WELLINGTON, This mixing is difficult to determine Pacific have a wide range of implications for NEW ZEALAND, New Zealand, as well as globally, in term of explicitly. However with sufficient fine scale weather, climate, and ocean productivity. water property measurements it can be possible to infer mixing rates. The GLOBAL SCALES Kermadec Trench region is being utilised by Compared to other of the world, the initial experiments looking at floats currents in the Kermadec region are modest. with extended depth ranges (Deep ARGO) This is largely because the ridge is close to that have developed sensor technology to the centre of the South Pacific Ocean with pressure and precision subtropical gyre. Consequently there is no requirements, in order to close the oceanic strong mean flow when compared to the temperature budget (Johnson and Lyman, western boundary currents (like the East 2014). Auckland Current) or the flows to the north in the equatorial region, or at high latitudes. INTERNAL WAVES Thus circulation in the region is dominated The topography in the region is a strong by mesoscale variability rather than mean driver of internal tides. This is where the flows. barotropic (surface) tide causes the stratified ocean to interact with bathymetry The oceans are a critical buffer for heat and and results in the generation of internal CO2 in the ’s changing climate. The waves that can then transport energy rate of penetration of these properties deep efficiently over vast distances across the into the water column is an important factor earth. These internal waves eventually in defining the climate and its evolution. The break and this allows energy to be removed ridge and trench act as a channel for deep from the tides and dissipated elsewhere. flow within the global thermohaline This creates a transfer in energy that circulation whereby water cooled at near influences mixing throughout the oceans. Antarctica sinks and moves equator-ward. The region to the north of New Zealand, The pathway of this water is a function of incorporating both the Kermadec and bathymetry, the earth’s rotation and the Norfolk ridges is a regional hot-spot for such density of the water. The Kermadec Trench energy transformation. The resulting mixing is one of the few pathways in the Pacific influences climate though heat transport Ocean deeper than 4,000 m. Chiswell et al. and in doing so connects processes at the 12 (2015) reviews the of the hour timescale with climate scales of New Zealand region and describes the Deep decades to centuries. Western Boundary Current that carries a mix of Antarctic Bottom Water and Lower Circumpolar Deep Water northwards east of These topographic features individually and New Zealand along the flank of the collectively add (contribute (?) to the

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Ocean Processes in the Kermadec Region 1

complexity of the ocean-seabed interaction. how observational campaigns are FIGURE 1. Schematic showing Certainly the ocean provides a way of conducted. There is great scope to explore a range of water mass connecting isolated seamounts through physical oceanography from scales varying provenances and broad both advection but also through internal from climate, through interannual variability structure of the trench/ridge wave interaction. While many of the (e.g. El Niño) to tidal timescales. Focus combination seamounts are deep (i.e. their crest is well could be not only on physical aspects like below the photic zone) a number come heat fluxes but also the biophysics of how quite close to the surface (Stevens et al. ocean production is influenced. 2014). Furthermore, the dynamic geology means that geological and oceanographic REFERENCES timescales, normally separable, are Bostock, H.C., Sutton, P.J., Williams, M.J. and occasionally intertwined. For example Opdyke, B.N., (2013). Reviewing the circulation Rumble III erupted in 2009, resulting in a and mixing of Antarctic Intermediate Water in the South Pacific using evidence from geochemical loss of around 100 m from the crest of the tracers and Argo float trajectories. Deep Sea . This increased the summit depth Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers, to below that of light penetration and also 73: 84-98. to below the depth of the maximum seamount interacts with the stratification Bryan, S.E., Cook, A.G., Evans, J.P., Hebden, K., Hurrey, L., Colls, P., Jell, J.S., Weatherley, D. and and the subsequent internal wave Firn, J., (2012). Rapid, long-distance dispersal by formation. rafting. PLoS One, 7(7), p.e40583.

SURFACE PROCESSES Chiswell, S.M., Bostock, H.C., Sutton, P.J. and As well as influencing the vertical transport Williams, M.J., (2015). Physical oceanography of of heat, internal tides described above affect the deep seas around New Zealand: a review. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater ocean productivity by mixing nutrients, Research, 49(2), 286-317. oxygen and/or . Work to the east of the Kermadec ridge considering Chiswell, S.M., Bradford‐Grieve, J., Hadfield, M.G. upper ocean biological productivity found and Kennan, S.C., 2013. Climatology of surface the water column was inundated with 50-80 chlorophyll a, autumn‐winter and spring blooms in the southwest Pacific Ocean. Journal of m peak-to-trough internal waves (Stevens Geophysical Research: Oceans, 118(2): 1003-1018. et al. 2012). Potentially this type of high frequency variability dominates as the ridge Johnson, G.C. and Lyman, J.M., 2014. itself is not particularly apparent in large Oceanography: Where's the heat?. Nature Climate scale biological mapping (Chiswell et al Change, 4(11): 956-957. 2013). Horizontal transport in the near Stevens, C.L., Consalvey, M., Devine, J.A. and surface is very complex, involving Clark, M.R., 2014. Mixing and transport near the integration of the effect of the changing shallow-crested Rumble III seamount and the wind-field. This connects to issues around implications for distribution. New larval transport, but also fate of material Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 48(2): 194-215. ejected from the active on the ridge. For example, recent submarine Stevens, C.L. Sutton, P.J. and Law C.S., 2012. eruptions generated pumice rafting (Bryan Internal waves downstream of , et al. 2012) that is then advected over western Pacific, and their biophysical implications. relatively short timescales. Limnology and Oceanography, 57(4): 897-911. Voet, G., Girton, J.B., Alford, M.H., Carter, G.S., FUTURE INITIATIVES Klymak, J.M. and Mickett, J.B., 2015. Pathways, Water column physics-focused exploration Volume Transport, and Mixing of Abyssal Water in is very expensive and typically is conducted the Samoan Passage. Journal of Physical in conjunction with other foci such as Oceanography, 45(2): 562-588. seabed disturbance or ocean surface productivity. New technology. e.g. ARGO, Deep ARGO and ocean gliders, is changing

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Latest geophysical investigation in the Kermadec Arc Backarc system Geoffroy Lamarche, Richard Wysoczanski, Sophie Barton

INTRODUCTION Over the past decade several voyages on GEOFFROY LAMARCHE, Geophysical techniques have been NIWA's (National Institute of Water and RICHARD WYSOCZANSKI, employed for many years to understand the Atmospheric Research) research vessel SOPHIE BARTON nature of the Earth’s subsurface and to Tangaroa have acquired seismic reflection NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF enhance our understanding of volcanic and profiles between the Colville and WATER & ATMOSPHERIC plate tectonic processes. Many of these Kermadec Ridges, including the breadth of RESEARCH, WELLINGTON, techniques, which include seismic, acoustic, the Havre Trough, to study the age and NEW ZEALAND magnetic and gravity surveys, are well mechanism of volcanism and rifting in this [email protected] established whereas others have seen a region. These include profiles, south to development in novel new instrumentation north, from the (voyage and applications in recent years. TAN0810 “BoPEC”; Lamarche et al., 2008), the southern Havre Trough at 36° S Here we give two examples of recent (TAN1513, “SAMSARA”; Wysoczanski et al., geophysical surveys in the Kermadec Arc 2015) and at 34.5°S (TAN1007 “KARMA”; back-arc system that highlight the Lamarche et al., 2010) and from the techniques used, both traditional and novel, northern Kermadec Arc at 31°S (TAN1213, and how they have contributed to increase “NIRVANA”; Wysoczanski et al., 2013). The our understanding of the natural processes results of these profiles show that the that control the development of this proto-Kermadec Arc, the Colville Arc volcanic system. These are multi-channel active at least 17 Ma ago, was spilt on its seismic (MCS) surveys to examine the forearc side when opening of the Havre structure of the Havre Trough and Trough commenced (Eccles et al., 2012). multibeam echosounder (MBES) seafloor The present day Colville Ridge is and water column data to map the interpreted as the remnant of the distribution of hydrothermal vents. volcanoes of the Colville Arc. By contrast, the Kermadec Ridge to the east is SEISMIC PROFILES REVEAL THE comprised of volcanic sediments that STRUCTURE OF THE HAVRE TROUGH would have formed the ring plain around Seismic reflection profiling provides images the ancient volcanoes. These sediments of the relationship between the sedimentary have since been back-tilted and uplifted to cover and an actively faulted volcanic form the Kermadec Ridge. An important basement, which provides a means to implication of this is that it is the Colville constrain the geometry of the arc-backarc Ridge that is more likely to host mineral system at depth. It is a technique that has resources such as volcanogenic massive been established and little changed for sulphide deposits than the Kermadec decades, yet it remains an essential tool for Ridge. providing images of the sub-seafloor. Seismic data is acquired using sonic waves An example of one of these MCS profiles, that propagate through the water column acquired during the NIRVANA voyage, is and the geological layers. These waves are shown in Figure 1. It shows from east to reflected back to the source where they are west: recorded and processed to generate seismic profiles that show the architecture of the 1. An eroded volcano of the Colville Arc geological strata beneath the seafloor from (Colville Volcano; Wysoczanski et al., depths of 10 m to > 20 km depending on the 2014) sitting atop the Colville Ridge, power of the system used and frequency which shows no seismic structure content of the outgoing source signal. This indicating it is comprised of hard gives us a unique view of the structure of volcanic rock the earth and allows us to reconstruct how the crust was built and deformed over time. 2. Deep sediment filled basins. Notably the base of these basins is the same depth

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Latest geophysical investigation in the Kermadec Arc1 Backarc system 2

as the deep sediment-poor basins of the for generating maps of the seafloor rather FIGURE 1. MCS profile conducted southern Havre Trough indicating that than the sub-seafloor. MBES technology has during the NIRVANA voyage, from the Colville Ridge in the west, across the only difference between basins in developed rapidly, with echosounders the Havre Trough, and over the the north and south is that the northern specifically designed for different water Kermadec Ridge in the east (from basins are filled with sediment derived depths, including high resolution (1 m) Wysoczanski et al., 2013). Numbered from the Colville Ridge; the southern systems mounted on autonomous circles refer to bullet points basins are sediment starved as the underwater vehicles that provide stunning described in the text. The vertical scale has been exaggerated. Colville Ride is too thin at that location images of features on the ocean floor. One to provide sediment. Also notable is that important advance in recent years is the FIGURE 2. An example of an the sediment package is nearly 1 km ability of MBES systems to image not just echogram, showing a hydrothermal vent plume, generated by a single thick and shows no evidence of faulting the seafloor, but the water column, allowing MBES ping as described in the text. except at its base, suggesting that the us to detect features in the water that The echogram forms a triangle from basins in the west ceased rifting shortly provide a backscatter signal, such as the point source (the vessel) and after opening of the Havre Trough hydrothermal plumes. extends laterally to the sea floor. As began. the vessel continues to (here Gas bubble and fluid discharge are easily towards the top of the figure) further echograms are generated that can 3. A basal platform in the central Havre identified as water-column "flares" on sonar be stacked into long profiles. The Trough topped with volcanic cones. The echograms (Figure 2). Backscatter echoes echograms are coloured by lack of seismic structure indicates that generated within the water column are amplitude of the sonar reflection, the platform is comprised of hard recorded using shipboard MBES, such as which indicates the density contrast volcanic rock, although whether it is old NIWA’s Kongsberg EM302 system. Each between the object imaged and the surrounding water. Colville crust that has been rifted or new echosounder ping provides a 2-dimensional crust formed during opening of the triangular echogram from the ship, Havre Trough is equivocal. The cones extending laterally to the ocean floor however are young and the shallow (Figure 2). Individual echograms are sediment filled basins are faulted generated as the ship moves providing suggesting more recent tectonic activity continuous coverage of the water column. in the east than the west. The width at the base of the echogram is 4 to 7 times larger than the water depth, i.e. in 4. Back-tilted sediments of the Kermadec 1000 m of water a 5 km swath of seafloor Ridge, indicating a volcanogenic for each ping is not uncommon. sediment origin for this ridge with little or no magmatic activity. An example of hydrothermal venting detected in deep water (> 900 m) occurred These results provide a new interpretation during the 2012 NIRVANA voyage to Havre of the development of the ridges and volcano, which had erupted two months trough: that the Colville Arc rifted on its earlier (Wysoczanski et al., this volume). forearc side, that the Colville Ridge is the Multibeam mapping of the eruption site dissected Colville Arc chain, and that there is showed the growth of several small cones (< no difference, other than sediment infill, 250 m) during the eruption (Carey et al., between the basins of the northern and 2014). Water column data detected a 200 m southern Havre Trough. This new model of high hydrothermal plume emanating from the system has only been made possible by one of these cones confirming that the the acquisition of MCS data, which was not volcano was hydrothermally active (Figure previously available when older models 3). were constructed. The ability of MBES water column data to DETECTING AND IMAGING locate hydrothermal plumes was also HYDROTHERMAL VENTS THROUGH evident during the SAMSARA voyage in ACOUSTIC WATER COLUMN DATA. 2015, where water column data was As with seismic acquisition, MBES collected over four volcanoes (Clark, technology has become an essential tool for Tangaroa, Rumble III and Rumble V) with imaging beneath the sea surface; in this case

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3 Lates geophysical investigation in the Kermadec Arc Backarc system 3

known hydrothermal vent sites (de Ronde and . As water column data imaging et al., 2007). These included sites of diffuse is a new technique, very little data has been FIGURE 3. Echograms acquired over Havre volcano (low temperature) and focused (high collected in the Kermadec region to date. on the 16th October 2012, temperature) vents. For each volcano, However, as it can now be collected during the NIRVANA voyage. venting was imaged in the water column routinely during any bathymetric survey the The series of echograms are above the sites of known hydrothermal areal extent of the water column imaged time stamped and show the activity. Large plumes 200 m and 210 m should rapidly increase with each future echograms acquired as the vessel travels towards a high were imaged from Clark (Figure 4) and marine survey. The data collected will give hydrothermal plume Rumble III, respectively. In some cases, re- us important insights into the location and emanating from one of the surveying of the vent sites showed activity activity of hydrothermal activity and new volcanic cones formed to be ephemeral. perhaps can even be adapted for other during the eruption. At first applications, such as in fisheries. the plume is seen only in the Water column data collected by MBES is a water column, but as the vessel travelled over the cone new way to detect the presence of REFERENCES. the plume can be seen to hydrothermal vents and to monitor their Carey, R.J.; Wysoczanski, R.J.; Wunderman, R.; originate from the cone’s activity. This includes low temperature Jutzeler, M., (2014). Discovery of the largest summit. After the final diffuse venting, which can otherwise be historic silicic submarine eruption. Eos, 95(19): echogram, acquired five difficult to detect. However there are 157-159. seconds after the previous one, no sign of the plume complications. First of all, swim bladders of de Ronde, C.E.J.; Baker, E.T.; Massoth, G.J.; indicating could be seen, fish produce reflective intensities similar to Lupton, J.E.; , I.C.; Feely, R.A.; Greene R.G., indicating that it was seep bubbles and care must be taken not to (2001). Intraoceanic -related dispersed in the opposite misidentify colonies of fish as hydrothermal hydrothermal venting, Kermadec volcanic arc, direction (to the northwest) to plumes, such as showing a point source on New Zealand. Earth and Planetary Science the vessel’s course (to the Letters, 193: 359–369. southeast). substrate for the plume. Second, not all vents may be visible as gas bubbles capable de Ronde, C.E.J.; Walker, S.L.; Ditchburn, R.G.; of disturbing the beam may not emanate Caratori-Tontini, F.; Hannington, M.D.; Merle, S.G.; from some vents, e.g. due to low Timm, C.; Handler, M.R.; Wysoczanski, R.J.; Dekov, temperatures or deep water inhibiting gas V.M.; Kamenov, G.D.; Baker, E.T.; Embley, R.W.; Lupton, J.E., (2014). The anatomy of a veiled separation. The more expensive and time submarine hydrothermal system, Clark volcano, consuming technique of He isotope analysis Kermadec arc, New Zealand. Economic Geology, of the water column (e.g. de Ronde et al., 109: 2261-2292. 2007) is still the most definitive method of locating hydrothermal vents. However, as Eccles J.D.; Lamarche, G.; Wysoczanski, R.; Wright, I.; Caratori Tontini, F.; Kenedi, C.; shown here, water column data is also a Castellazzi, C., (2012). KARMA reveals true origins viable means of detecting hydrothermal of the Kermadec Ridge, north of New Zealand. vent activity – and of monitoring temporal EGU General Assembly, Geophysical Research changes on a short (hourly) to long (yearly) Abstracts 14, EGU2012-2152. scale. Lamarche G. and shipboard science crew, (2008). Bay of Plenty - East Cape (BOPEC08). R.V. FUTURE INITIATIVES. Tangaroa Research Voyage Report. NIWA Internal Geophysical surveying remains an integral Report, NIWA, Wellington, New Zealand. pp.57. tool for understanding the processes that have occurred, and are occurring, in the Lamarche G. and shipboard science crew, (2010). Kermadec Arc. In the case of the techniques KARMA - TAN1007 (Leg1) R.V. Tangaroa Research Voyage Report. NIWA Internal Report, NIWA, described here, further seismic and water Wellington, New Zealand. pp.98 column surveys will be conducted in future. In addition to MCS surveys, significant Wysoczanski, R and shipboard science crew, seismic survey initiatives would include the (2013). NIRVANA - TAN1213 R.V. Tangaroa deployment of ocean bottom seismometers Research Voyage Report. NIWA Internal Report, NIWA Wellington, New Zealand. to monitor seismic and acoustic events in pp.69.Wysoczanski, R.; Clark, M.; Timm, C.; Barton, the Kermadecs, and of seismic refraction S.; Handler, M. ; Stewart, R., (2014). Colville profiles to provide images of the deep crust Volcano: Geohabitat of the first discovered intact

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Latest geophysical investigation in the4Kermadec Arc Backarc system

volcano of the -Pliocene Colville Arc, SW FIGURE 4. MBES data from Pacific. InterRidge News, 22: 60-67. multiple swaths acquired over Clark volcano were combined Wysoczanski, R and shipboard science crew, to produce a 3D image of the (2015). SAMSARA - TAN1513, R.V. Tangaroa NW cone of Clark volcano. Research Voyage Report. NIWA Internal Report, Hydrothermal vents, at the NIWA Wellington, New Zealand. pp.52. sites described by de Ronde et al. (2014), can be seen emanating from the cone

6 e o e Th Colvillec Arc: Insights int the magmatism that shaped the Colvill and MonicaKermade Handler, RichardRidges Wysoczanski, Christian Timm

INTRODUCTION COLVILLE ARC MONICA HANDLER The modern Kermadec region is shaped by Fresh samples from the Colville and UNIVERSITY OF magmatism generated by the collision of Kermadec Ridges were collected in three WELLINGTON, WELLINGTON, the Pacific and Australian tectonic plates dredges undertaken by the R/V Tangaroa NEW ZEALAND (Figure 1). The dives (subducts) KARMA cruise (Kermadec ARc Minerals) in [email protected] beneath Plate giving rise to May 2010 (Figure 1). Major and trace the arcuate chain of largely submarine element data and mineral chemistries of the RICHARD WYSOCZANSKI volcanoes that form the active Kermadec Colville Arc lavas can be compared to NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF WATER & ATMOSPHERIC volcanic arc, stretching some 1600 km modern day Kermadec Arc and Havre RESEARCH, WELLINGTON, northward of New Zealand’s Bay of Plenty Trough lavas, with both similarities and NEW ZEALAND. and including the emergent Kermadec striking differences observed. CHRISTIAN TIMM Islands. Subduction zones such as the GNS SCIENCE, LOWER HUTT, The Colville lavas range in composition from Kermadec Arc are sites of potentially NEW ZEALAND explosive volcanism and of crustal growth, to basaltic (46 – 53 wt% and are also a major interface for recycling SiO2), with variable vesicularity (0 – 25%), of material among the deep Earth, the crust, and contain an abundance of crystals the oceans and atmosphere via subduction, (), up to 60% (e.g. Figure 2). magmatism and hydrothermal venting. The most striking differences from lavas of the modern arc are the accumulation of a Some of the major volcanic and bathymetric large crystal cargo dominated by features defining the Kermadec region are , with rare orthopyroxene and the result of an older manifestation of , and distinctly higher potassium subduction volcanism. The Colville volcanic contents in both the lavas and the minerals arc was active from at least ca. 17 Ma until (Figure 2). The bulk lava compositions opening of the Havre Trough split the represent a combination of liquid melt and Colville Arc asunder, producing two sub- crystal cargo. Quenched magmatic melts, parallel ridges: the Colville Ridge to the west however, are also present as groundmass and Kermadec Ridge to the east (e.g. glasses and olivine-hosted melt inclusions in Mortimer et al., 2010). These two ridges a Kermadec Ridge sample. These follow bracket the modern Kermadec arc – Havre classic tholeiitic melt evolution trends that Trough back-arc system. are very similar to the modern volcanic front magmas and melts, but are offset to higher Most research into magmatism in the region K2O contents (Figure 2). By contrast, the has focused on the active Kermadec arc bulk lavas differ markedly from the modern volcanoes and, to a much lesser extent, the Kermadec Arc lavas, with generally lower ridges and basins of the actively rifting SiO2 and MgO, and higher Al2O3 and K2O Havre Trough. The Colville and Kermadec concentrations (figure 2). All but K2O can be Ridges however, represent approximately explained by accumulation of plagioclase 30% of the magmatic material produced by crystals, whereas the higher K2O subduction processes in this region, yet little concentrations in the Colville Arc lavas and is known of the composition or history of accompanying higher K2O contents of the these edifices. Investigations into the plagioclase crystals require the magmatic magmatic history of the Colville Arc provide system to have been distinctly more K-rich insights into the tectono-magmatic history in the past. The higher crystal loads also of the region and how subduction systems suggest significant differences in the evolve from individual stratovolcanoes, as magmatic plumbing system in the ridges typified by the modern Kermadec Arc, to compared with the present day volcanoes. more mature ridge-like edifices produced by the Colville Arc.

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The Colville Arc: Insights into the magmatis tha shaped the Colville 1and Kermadec Ridges. 2

Trace elements provide insights into mass over time. How, and over what time frame, FIGURE 1. – a) – b) movement of elements through the were the ridges of the Colville Arc Bathymetric maps showing the Kermadec arc volcanoes subduction zone. Elements that are typically constructed and then pulled apart to (white triangles) and mobilised by fluids or sediment melts trace essentially start over with a new locus of boundary between the Pacific the dehydration of the subducting Pacific volcanic activity? and Australian Plates (a), inset oceanic plate and melting of subducting showing location of the sediment, respectively, as the oceanic plate REFERENCE sample dredges (white circles) descends into the mantle, and the transfer Mortimer, N., Gans, P. B., Palin, J. M., Meffre, S., (b). Herzer, R. H., and Skinner, D. N. B., (2010). c)- d) Schematic cross of these elements from the Pacific plate to Location and migration of Miocene-Quaternary sections running NW-SE the magma source (mantle wedge) and volcanic arcs in the SW Pacific region, Journal of across the plate boundary ultimately into the overlying crust (e.g. Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 190: 1-10. showing the modern Figure 1). Classic indicators of fluids (e.g Kermadec arc – Havre Trough back arc system and remnants Ba/Nb ratios) and sediment melts (e.g. of the Colville arc (c) and likely La/Sm) show no significant difference configuration of the older between the recycled subducted Colville arc (d). White and pale components of the older Colville and blue arrows represent transfer modern Kermadec arcs, suggesting the of elements via fluids or melts into the overlying mantle dynamics of the subducting plate have not wedge. Red arrow represents changed substantially over time. By melting of mantle wedge to contrast, trace elements that are not produce volcanic front affected by these recycling processes magmas, blue arrow indicates suggest the nature of the mantle source has melting beneath the back arc basin. changed. Specifically, tracers of prior melt depletion of the source (e.g. Nb/Zr) are FIGURE 2. Major element more similar to the modern back arc basin compositions (MgO and K2O lavas of the Havre Trough than to the vs SiO2) of bulk samples from modern volcanic front lavas. This can most the Colville arc (Colville Ridge simply be explained if there was no back arc = circles, Kermadec Ridge = red circles), modern basin associated with Colville Arc (Figure 1), Kermadec arc (pale blue and hence that extension and rifting squares) and Havre Trough commenced with the opening of the Havre back arc (pink squares). Trough some 2 – 5 million years ago with Quenched melts (glass) shown volcanic arc magmatism being refocused by open diamonds (melt inclusions), open circles along the new Kermadec Arc. (groundmass glass) and open squares (Kermadec arc FUTURE INITIATIVES glasses). The composition of The samples of the Colville Arc presented in mineral phases are shown by this study quite literally just scrap the labelled boxes (plag = plagioclase, opx = surface of the major magmatic edifaces of orthopyroxene). The bulk the Colville and Kermadec Ridges. Since the samples are a mixture of melt 2010 R/V Tangaroa voyage, further (glasses) and minerals (mainly expeditions have been undertaken or are plagioclase, with lesser scheduled to map and sample the Colville amounts of orthopyroxene ± olivine). Ridge and immediate surrounds, including a Inset – photomicrograph of a multinational, German-led expedition of the thin section of a Colville lava R/V Sonne in early 2017. Such programmes from the Kermadec Ridge, in of seafloor mapping and targeted sampling, cross-polarised light, showing ideally through the use of remotely large grey phenocrysts of plagioclase in a dark glassy operated vehicles and other submersibles, groundmass. Field of view are critical to build up an understanding of approx. 2 cm. how this tectonic boundary has evolved

8 e e t w h n Havre 2012: Th largest historic submarine ruption he orld as ever seenRichard Wysoczanski, Monica Handler, Rebecca Carey

INTRODUCTION pumice raft that spanned much of the RICHARD WYSOCZANSKI, The eruption of Havre volcano in July Pacific. NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF 2012 is the largest submarine eruption WATER & ATMOSPHERIC ever documented. Despite its size (it was THE PUMICE RAFT AND THE HUNT FOR RESEARCH, WELLINGTON, larger than the destructive eruption of ITS ORIGIN NEW ZEALAND Mt Tarawera in 1886) the eruption was The first sighting of the pumice raft was [email protected] not actually seen and evidence of an by a passenger, Maggie de Grauw, on a .nz underwater eruption was only commercial flight from Apia to st MONICA HANDLER discovered several weeks later when its Auckland, on July 31 , 2012. Within days VICTORIA UNIVERSITY OF most conspicuous product, a pumice raft scientists worldwide, including in New Zealand, , Belgium, Tahiti, the WELLINGTON, WELLINGTON, covering an area the size of Canterbury, NEW ZEALAND was sighted. The search for the source US and the UK, were searching for the source of the raft. Through a of the pumice raft ensued, with satellite REBECCA CAREY imagery and seismic data suggesting combination of and UNIVERSITY OF TASMANIA, that it originated from Havre volcano in hydroacoustic data and NASA’s MODIS HOBART, TASMANIA, the northern Kermadec Arc. satellite images the origin of the raft was AUSTRALIA linked to an eruption of Havre volcano VOLCANOES OF THE KERMADEC ARC on July 17th. On August 10th, a NZRAF The Kermadec Arc is a chain of ~ 40 Orion patrol plane flying from Samoa to volcanoes extending some 1600 km New Zealand photographed the raft, northwest from New Zealand which then spanned an area the size of (Wysoczanski and Clark, 2010). To the Canterbury. The location of the raft was south lie the volcanoes of the offshore relayed to the HMNZS Canterbury then Bay of Plenty and on route to Raoul Island. The vessel of central , built atop diverted from its course to intercept the continental crust. The volcanoes of the raft, which they found to be 0.6 – 1.0 m Kermadec arc, however, occur on thick and composed of pumice ranging with a base as much as from cm-sized clasts to clasts larger 4000 m below the sea surface. Despite than a soccer ball. A few days later, the depth of their base many are larger when the crew reached Raoul Island, than Mt Ruapehu, with Rumble III being they found clasts of the pumice twice the size. In a few cases the tips of scattered on the beach. Over the next volcanoes are emergent above the sea several years the raft dispersed pumice surface: these peaks compose the across the Pacific, with for example, Kermadec Islands. pumice washing up on beaches in northern New Zealand, Australia and Volcanos generally occur as two types: Tonga. large conical stratovolcanoes such as Mts Taranaki and Ruapehu, and A more complete description of the volcanoes with large elliptical vents, search for the origin of the pumice raft such as Lake Taupo. Stratovolcanoes can be found in the September 2012 produce magma that forms lava flows, issue (volume 37. No. 9) of the whereas caldera volcanoes tend to Smithsonian’s Bulletin of the Global produce large highly explosive eruptions Volcanism Network. An account of the that can generate substantial amounts first encounter of the raft on board of pumice. Havre volcano is a HMNZS Canterbury can be found in submerged caldera volcano at the Priestley (2012). A detailed description southern end of the Kermadec Island of the dispersion of the raft is presented chain that in 2012 explosively erupted to in Jutzeler et al. (2014). produce a large amount of pumice that breached the ocean surface to form a

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Havre1 2012: The larges historic submarine eruption the world has never seen 2

The unique combination of detailed FIGURE 1. Havre volcano in VOLCANIC PRODUCTS OF THE mapping by Sentry, and the sampling the Kermadec Arc, ~900 km NNE from the Bay of Plenty. ERUPTION AND THE NEED FOR and video images taken by Jason, Changes to the seafloor found SUBMERSIBLE VECHICLES. revealed a desolate submarine during the R/V Tangaroa In October 2012 a NIWA voyage of the landscape devoid of life presumably voyage in October 2012 are research vessel Tangaroa examined decimated by the eruption and not yet shown, with new cones and a Havre volcano two months after the recovered. Whereas shipboard bulge in the SW caldera rim prominent features of the eruption. Comparison of bathymetric bathymetry (at a resolution of ~ 25 m) eruption (from Carey et al., data collected during this survey with could only reveal changes to the 2014). The rex box in the Small data collected prior to the eruption seafloor, mapping by Sentry (at 1 m Cone Field is enlarged as (Wright et al., 2006) found evidence resolution) and imagery by Jason Figure 2. for the growth of several new volcanic showed a number of individual lava FIGURE 2. Enlarged view of a features up to 250 m high, and up to flows, giant car-sized pumice blocks, cone of the Small Cone Field 50 m of new material on the western mass wasting deposits, volcanic domes, (red box of Figure 1) as rim of the caldera wall (Carey et al., ash deposits and hydrothermal venting. mapped by EM122 shipboard 2014). Material recovered from the The data from this survey will be bathymetry (left) and AUV Sentry bathymetry (right). volcano was found to be of the same analysed for several years to come, yet Both images were acquired composition as pumice sampled from already our knowledge of the products during the R/V Roger Revelle the raft and deposited on beaches in and transport styles of large pumice- voyage in 2015 and clearly northern New Zealand, confirming the producing submarine eruptions, never show the vastly superior volcano as the source of the raft. The before seen in situ, has changed our resolution of the bathymetry acquired by AUV operations. volume of material erupted was understanding of these dramatic 2 Field of view is ~350 m across. estimated at 1.5 km and the eruptions. Importantly, it is only with the magnitude of the eruption at 5 on the use of state of the art technology such volcanic explosivity index (Newhall as AUV’s and ROV’s that we are able to and Self, 1982). Put into perspective, more comprehensively understand subaerial eruptions of this size occur submarine processes. Shipboard five times per century, with the Havre surveying, whilst fast and adequate for eruption being larger than both the many purposes, only reveals the fatal Mt St Helens eruption of 1980, shadows of the sea floor: submersibles and the Tarawera eruption of 1886 that the full colour picture (Figure 2). destroyed the pink and white terraces. HAVRE 2010: INCREASING OUR In March 2015 a second voyage to Havre, UNDERSTANDING OF SUBMARINE funded by the US National Science VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS Foundation, was conducted using the The results of the two surveys to Havre Scripps Institute of Oceanography show a complex picture of the eruption research vessel Roger Revelle. This dynamics of a large submarine caldera voyage included the dual deployment of eruption. Notably, they show that the AUV (autonomous underwater volcanic pumice-producing eruption vehicle) Sentry, used to construct a high plumes can originate from vents 900 m resolution map of the volcano, and the deep, and that the overlying water mass ROV (remotely operated vehicle) Jason, does not prevent plumes from entering to collect samples of the eruption the Earth’s atmosphere. They also products and images of the seafloor. highlight the fact that the submarine This survey, based on significantly more volcanoes of the Kermadec Arc are intense surveying and sampling than the chemically distinct: pumice from the raft, previous shipboard survey, resulted in pumice washed up on beaches across the most detailed examination of a the Pacific, and pumice from the seafloor submarine eruption from a caldera ever at Havre volcano were all found to be undertaken. chemically similar and distinct from pumice produced from other Kermadec

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Havre 2012: The larges historic submarine eruption the world has never seen

arc volcanoes. Indeed pumice from other and geochemistry of the 30°–35°S volcanoes were also found to be sector, and overview, of southern chemically unique to each individual Kermadec arc volcanism. Journal of volcano, potentially allowing the origin Volcanology and Geothermal Research of pumice rafts both past and future to 149: 263–296. be identified. Furthermore, it was several Wysoczanski, R.J.; Clark, M., (2012). weeks before the eruption was even Southern Kermadec Arc – Havre Trough known to have occurred, and then only Geohabitats and Biological through serendipity due to the keen Communities. P. Harris and E. Baker, eyes of an airline passenger. How many (eds). Seafloor Geomorphology as eruptions occur on the ocean bottom Benthic Habitat: GeoHab Atlas of and go unnoticed? Just how volcanically seafloor geomorphic features and active are volcanoes of the world’s benthic habitats. Elsevier, 853-867. oceans? Perhaps most surprising of all is that the surface manifestation of this eruption − a pumice raft – does not at all represent the diversity and often synchronous eruptive activity of multiple vents on the seafloor. The ~5 km wide caldera structure itself was virtually unmodified during this event, raising the question just how large (and destructive) was the eruption(s) that formed Havre’s caldera and those of the similar caldera volcanoes of the Kermadec Arc?

REFERENCES Carey, R.J.; Wysoczanski, R.J.; Wunderman, R.; Jutzeler, M., (2014). Discovery of the largest historic silicic submarine eruption. Eos, 95(19): 157-159. Jutzeler, M.; Marsh, R.; Carey, R.J.; White, J.D.L.; Talling, P.J.; Karlstrom, L., (2014). On the fate of pumice rafts formed during the 2012 Havre submarine eruption. Nature Communications, DOI: 10.1038/ncomms4660. Newhall, C.G.; Self, S., (1982). The volcanic explosivity index (VEI) an estimate of explosive magnitude for historical volcanism, Journal of Geophysical Research 87: 1231–1238. Priestley, R., (2012). The mystery of the pumice raft, Listener, issue 3774, URL: http://www.listener.co.nz. Wright, I.C.; Worthington, T.J; Gamble, J.A., (2006). New multibeam mapping

11 g c re re ch e Deep -seae benthic asamplin in the Kermade region: h centt fut sear s fforts and th need for coordinated and integratedMalcolm R. Clark, Ashleyapproac A. Rowden, Geoffroy Lamaorche ure ampling

A QUICK RECAP records held at Te Papa comprised 570 MALCOLM R. CLARK, Clark et al. (2010) described three lots of deep-sea taxa, with 43 species ASHLEY A. ROWDEN, general phases of deep-sea survey work known. GEOFFROY LAMARCHE and biological sampling in the Kermadec NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF WATER & ATMOSPHERIC region: CURRENT RESEARCH Since 2010, research surveys have RESEARCH, WELLINGTON, 1) Historical expeditions–these continued their focus on the seamounts NEW ZEALAND comprised the large global of the Kermadec Arc, with a particular [email protected] exploration surveys of the emphasis on understanding the Challenger (1874), Galethea II (1952), geological nature and environmental and Vityaz (1958). characteristics of mineral deposits. 2) Mixed New Zealand institute However, considerable research has also sampling–the period from 1960 been undertaken at almost the other through to the late 1990s saw wider extreme, the Kermadec Trench, which at geological, oceanographic, and about 10 km depth is one of the deepest biological surveys by the New areas of seafloor on the planet. In total, Zealand Oceanographic Institute, there have been 11 major voyages that Ministry of Fisheries, and the newly have included sampling in the proposed formed NIWA. Most surveys Ocean Sanctuary, or the area occurred close to the Kermadec immediately to the south along the Islands, or inshore Bay of Plenty. back-arc (Table 1). However, in the 1990s there was an

increase in geological studies of the KERMADEC ARC The suite of surveys that covered a Kermadec Arc seamounts, and variety of back-arc seamounts have interest in commercial fisheries and progressed three key aspects of their bycatch. investigations into the biodiversity of the 3) Targeted biological surveys–during region: the decade from 1999 to the first symposium in 2010, there were a TABLE 1: Summary of research voyages carried out in the general Kermadec region number of survey programmes between 2010 and 2015. Parentheses indicate limited, or selected, sampling developed through the government’s “public good science Year Voyage Location Camera Samples fund” that had specific biological 2010 TAN1007 Rumble II West, Brothers Yes Yes objectives to improve knowledge of seamounts biodiversity. There was also a shift 2011 TAN1104 Clark, Brothers, , Yes Yes towards more integrated and Lillie, Rumble III multidisciplinary studies, and the seamounts start of surveys focused on assessing Neptune Rumble II West, Rumble Yes (ROV) (Yes) mineral resources of the region. This IV, Brothers, Clark phase also saw the development of seamounts strong international linkages with KAH1109 Kermadec Trench Yes (lander) (Yes) Germany, Japan, USA, , and 2012 TAN1206 Whakatane, Tangaroa, Yes Yes the UK. Clark seamounts The status of deep-sea benthic TAN1213 Clark, Tangaroa, Rumble No Yes invertebrate sampling in 2010 was that III, Havre, Rumble IV, there were about 400 sampling stations Rumble V, Sonne, SO1 recorded in the NIWA Invertebrate seamounts Collection database, with 2400 records KAH1202 Kermadec Trench Yes (lander) (Yes) (“lots”) of invertebrate taxa, comprising 2013 YK13-11 Hinepuia Seamount Yes (Yes) approximately 240 “species” KAH1301 Kermadec Trench Yes (lander) (Yes) (operational taxonomic units). Fish 2014 HADES Kermadec Trench Yes (Yes) 2015 MESH Yes (Yes)

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d d a ed d e Deep-sea benthic sampling in the Kermadec region: recent research efforts 1 an the 2nee for coordinat an integrated approach to futur sampling

• understanding of broad patterns of highlight was the first benthic sampling hydrothermal vent communities, and of Cotton and Lillie seamounts. FIGURE 1. Photographic describing the composition of transects carried out during The “NIRVANA” survey (TAN1213) associated, but inactive, TAN1007 on Rumble II West covered a large area from 30°S to 37°S, communities Seamount, showing the including active vent sites (Havre, sampling stratification by • additional sampling to fill gaps in the Rumble III, Rumble V), inactive ridges topography. middle and northern region of the (Colville and Kermadec) and deep basins Kermadec Arc where seamounts had in between the ridges. Although FIGURE 2. The AUV “Sentry” not been sampled geological sampling was the about to commence a dive • surveying areas of the Colville Ridge priority, extensive biological collection during the TAN1104 research (to the west of the Kermadec Ridge) also occurred, with a number of new voyage that has been very poorly sampled species records from a seamount on the The “KARMA” survey (TAN1007) studied Colville Ridge. three southern Kermadec Arc seamounts in detail, with both geological Assessing the biodiversity of multiple and biological objectives focused on habitats was the key driver of NIWA’s understanding the characteristics of Vulnerable Deep-Sea Communities active and inactive sites of interest for project. Its second survey (TAN1206) their seafloor minerals (SMS; seafloor sampled a number of seamounts, as well massive sulphides). Brothers has SMS as hydrothermal sites, canyon, and slope and is active, Rumble II West has SMS areas in the southern Kermadec region. but is largely inactive, and Rumble II East This survey, coupled with an earlier one does not have SMS, and is inactive. In on the near Cook addition to among-seamount Strait, has found differences in species comparisons, the survey was stratified composition and abundance among within seamounts, with sampling of the habitats, as well as differences in cone, outer flank, caldera wall, chimney biodiversity patterns between areas. field and caldera floor features (Figure Active seamounts in the northern region 1). This sampling provided extensive of the Kermadec Arc were a target of biological data that was presented at the the joint JAMSTEC-NIWA-GNS voyage symposium, and described by Boschen (YK13-11), which was part of a global et al (this volume). Japanese survey of deep and extreme SMS mineral deposits were also the habitats. Two dives of the Shinkai 6500 target of a commercial survey by submersible were carried out on Neptune Resources in 2011, which Hinepuia volcano, which was believed to focused on Rumble II West with be active, but had never been sampled. photographic transects carried out by an A hydrothermal vent source was ROV. This survey covered both areas of located, with extensive beds of a commercial prospectivity, and a bathymodiolid mussel (Figure 3). potential reference (protected) site. The last survey of the back-arc complex Detailed bathymetric mapping and was conducted by US researchers in studies of the geochemistry of 2015, and involved principally geological seamounts to understand SMS investigations of the effects of the distribution was also a central objective volcanic eruption in 2012 (see paper in of “NZASMS” (TAN1104), which was a this volume by Handler et al.) with collaborative survey between GNS, seafloor mapping, photography and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution sampling with an ROV. (WHOI), and NIWA. This survey used the WHOI autonomous underwater vehicle KERMADEC TRENCH The Kermadec Trench has been the “Sentry” (Figure 2). A biological

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d d a ed d e Deep-sea benthic sampling in the Kermadec region: recent research efforts an3 the nee for coordinat an integrated approach4 to futur sampling

subject of the international research there are three main aspects of sampling FIGURE 3. Hinepuia programmes “HADEEP” and “HADES”. that need to be improved: Seamount, showing the hydrothermal vent (top) and a HADEEP was a global project lead by 1) Many parts of the Kermadec region bed of bathymodiolid mussels the University of Aberdeen and remain unsampled. The spatial (bottom) imaged from the partnered in the New Zealand region by coverage has improved since 2010, submersible during the YK13-11 NIWA. Surveys included all the large but there are still large gaps in the research voyage. trenches in the Pacific Ocean. There geographical coverage. In addition, were 4 surveys of the Kermadec Trench, there has been a strong sampling FIGURE 4. Deploying a hadal using baited photographic landers bias towards depths down to 1500 lander off R.V. Kaharoa, (Figure 4), and and fish m, and little sampling below this targeting the seafloor of the traps. In addition to investigating depth to provide an understanding Kermadec Trench 10 km latitudinal (trench axis) and longitudinal below. of the biodiversity of deeper (depth) gradients within the Kermadec ecosystems. Temporal coverage is Trench, sampling enabled detailed also poor, with few sites being comparisons with biodiversity in other monitored over time to understand Pacific trenches (e.g., Tonga, New longer term changes in their Hebrides, Marianas, Peru-Chile). biodiversity. HADES, with a large international 2) Research has concentrated on contingent of scientists lead by the US, seamounts, but needs to focus more surveyed the trench in 2014. This survey, on the Kermadec Ridge, the adjacent using the WHOI hybrid ROV , Colville Ridge, as well as the Havre landers, and traps, is described by Mills Trough, Kermadec Trench, Louisville et al. this volume). Ridge, and the deep abyssal plains and basins. Only with improved THE CURRENT STATUS knowledge of the multitude of The surveys described above have habitat types in the area, and taking considerably improved our coverage a community-level approach, can and sampling intensity in the area of the biodiversity of the Kermadec Ocean proposed Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary. A Sanctuary area as a whole be fully further 200 invertebrate records have described and evaluated against the been added to the NIWA Invertebrate wider regional fauna. Collection database, and a large number 3) Few sites have been sampled of seafloor photographs have been intensively, and even on the collected. Additional sampling of the seamounts the mega epifauna is not Colville Ridge, as well as new sites along completely known, let alone infauna the back-arc, have expanded the or macro- and microfauna. The coverage from 2010 (Figure 5). TAN1007 survey showed the gains Importantly, the sampling conducted that can be made with more along the Arc to the south of the intensive sampling on a smaller sanctuary area (e.g., TAN1007, Neptune, number of sites, but this detailed TAN1104) and in multiple habitats (e.g., approach needs to be partnered TAN1206, TAN1213) is improving our with wider-scale studies to provide understanding of patterns of the regional context. A range of gear biodiversity, and the environmental types, and disciplines, is needed to drivers affecting benthic community describe biodiversity and its composition and abundance in the associated environmental general Kermadec region. determinants. FUTURE RESEARCH The challenges facing the achievement The key issues remain largely the same of this increased level of sampling as those described in 2010. In particular include the need for a structured strategic plan to ensure the best science

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d d a ed d e Deep-sea benthic sampling in the Kermadec region: recent research efforts 5 an the nee for coordinat an integrated approach to futur sampling

is done in the right places at the right REFERENCE times. High technology equipment may FIGURE 5. The location of Clark, M.R., Rowden, A.A., Schnabel, K., stations with records of be needed (stressing the need for Tracey, D.M. (2010). Deep-sea benthic benthic invertebrates in the international partnerships with AUV, sampling in the Kermadec region: past, general region of the ROV gear), and it is critical to retain, or present, future. Pp. 56–58. In The Pew proposed Kermadec Ocean increase, the skilled and experienced Environment Group (comps). Sanctuary (data from NIWA personnel required to carry out a Proceedings of DEEP: talks and thoughts Invertebrate Collection). White coordinated and integrated research celebrating diversity in New Zealand’s symbols = samples taken plan. untouched Kermadecs, August 30-31 before May 2010, yellow ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 2010. Wellington, New Zealand. symbols = samples taken The Foundation for Research, Science & between May 2010 and April Technology, Ministry of Science and 2016. Innovation, Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, Ministry of Fisheries, Department of Conservation, Census of Marine Life Seamounts Programme (CenSeam), and Neptune Minerals for funding and contributing to research in the area. We acknowledge the collaborative input of NOAA, JAMSTEC, WHOI, University of Aberdeen and GNS in recent international surveys. Thanks to Sadie Mills for database extracts. We acknowledge the efforts of The Pew Charitable Trusts in running the Symposium.

15 t c Curren status of the biogeography of hydrothermal vent communities of western Pacifi Ocean back-arc basins and volcanoes s of t o t Current tatus he biogeography s f hydrothermal ven communities of western Ashley A. Rowden, Malcolm R. Clark, Jennifer C. Beaumont, PacificRachel E. Boschen,Ocean Alison B. backMacDiarmid,-arc Kareenbasin E. Schnabel, and volcanoes Dianne M. Tracey

ASHLEY A. ROWDEN, INTRODUCTION biogeographic scheme on a map to identify MALCOLM R. CLARK, In the deep sea, faunal communities the location of the ‘missing pieces of the JENNIFER C. BEAUMONT , associated with the venting of hydrothermal puzzle’, that if filled should reveal much ALISON B. MACDIARMID, fluids at plate boundaries were first about the evolution of life at hydrothermal KAREEN E. SCHNABEL, discovered in 1977 on the East Pacific Rise. vents. The New Zealand region was one of DIANNE M. TRACEY Since then studies have revealed that many the missing pieces identified by Shank NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF species, such as certain clams and (Figure 1). WATER & ATMOSPHERIC tubeworms, rely upon a process known as RESEARCH, WELLINGTON, . This alternative source of The first biogeographic analysis of the NEW ZEALAND energy production is at the base of an entire western Pacific region was published in [email protected] ecosystem. Microbes are able to synthesize 2006. This scheme identified two provinces energy by metabolizing compounds, such as for vent fauna, but the authors chose not to RACHEL E. BOSCHEN sulphides, contained within the include the sparse data available at the time NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF hydrothermal fluids. In turn these microbes for the New Zealand region in their analysis WATER & ATMOSPHERIC provide, either directly or indirectly, the (Desbruyères et al., 2006). Therefore the RESEARCH, WELLINGTON, relationship between the vent fauna of the NEW ZEALAND energy source for the larger fauna. Some of New Zealand region and rest of the western PRESENT ADDRESS: the microbes live as endo or epi- symbionts DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY & with these fauna (Van Dover, 2000). Pacific continued to be unresolved. SCHOOL OF EARTH AND OCEAN SCIENCES, Typically, vent communities have low The Census of Marine Life project on UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA, species diversity, but are dominated by a chemosynthetic ecosystems (ChEss) VICTORIA, BRITISH few species that occur in high abundances. compiled data for vent fauna into a COLUMBIA, CANADA These include the aforementioned clams publically available database (ChEssBase), and tubeworms, as well as certain species of which Bachraty et al. (2009) used as the , snails, , mussels and other basis for a new global biogeographic fauna. At vent sites where the occurrence of scheme. Their analysis, which included data hydrothermal venting is relatively short- from just two sites in the New Zealand lived, the dominant species may change region, identified six provinces. This scheme over time as the environmental conditions at divided the western Pacific into two the vent change, or they become succeeded provinces, but the southwest Pacific by superior competitors. As well as species province included the New Zealand region that are directly tied to chemosynthetic and also the . Using some processes, there are a number of others that additional data, but a very different and form a close yet indirect association with the innovative analysis method, Moalic et al. hydrothermal vent site. These species are (2012) identified five global provinces for also considered to be part of what we call hydrothermal fauna. Their scheme placed the vent community (Van Dover, 2000). the New Zealand fauna in a single western Pacific province. After sampling DEVELOPMENT OF A BIOGEOGRAPHY hydrothermal vents in the , FOR HYDROTHERMAL VENT FAUNA Rogers et al. (2012) added their data to those compiled by Bachraty et al. (2009) In 2002 the first account of global and re-analysed it using a different composition and distribution of vent methodology. Their analysis identified 11 communities was published with a provinces globally, identifying four biogeographic map. This biogeographic provinces in the western Pacific, including a scheme identified six provinces, including a distinct New Zealand province (Figure 2). single western Pacific province, which did not include an analysis of any data from the New Zealand region (Van Dover et al., 2002). Two years later, Shank (2004) reproduced Van Dover et al.’s

16 t c Curren status of the biogeography of hydrothermal vent communities 1 of western Pacifi Ocean back-arc basins and volcanoes

DEVELOPING A NEW VENT the western Pacific only, and reanalysed BIOGEOGRAPHY FOR THE WESTERN using multivariate cluster analysis and a FIGURE 1: The missing pieces PACIFIC OCEAN routine that identifies non-random structure in the global biogeography of The most recent biogeographic schemes in the similarity between faunal data from hydrothermal vent fauna have included only very limited data from the sampled sites. This analysis identified (source: Shank, 2004). the early phase of sampling of deep-sea four faunal groups (and one at an outlier vents in 1998 (Wright et al., 1998) and 2001 site), or biogeographic provinces, which (Clark & O’Shea 2001) in the New Zealand includes a distinct New Zealand province region. Since then targeted sampling and (Figure 3). While this analysis is only imagery, including that provided by manned preliminary, the addition of more data submersibles and remotely operated (available since the initial compilation) to vehicles (ROVs), has provided more data on the analysis is expected to reveal the same vent fauna from over 20 sites along the result. There are a number of types of vent Kermadec Arc. The use of specialised communities within the New Zealand region sampling technology has only been possible (Rowden et al., 2010), but they are all through collaboration between New sufficiently distinct from those found Zealand scientific institutions and elsewhere to consider the hydrothermal international partners from Japan in 2004 vent communities of the Kermadec area and 2013, USA in 2005, 2009 and 2014, and unique. Germany and Canada in 2007. While some of these samples have been analysed and THE ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT have provided descriptions of vent endemic IMPLICATIONS OF A DISTINCT NEW species (e.g., Muira & Kojima, 2006; McLay, ZEALAND OR KERMADEC 2007; Ahyong (2009); Cosel & Marshall, BIOGEOGRAPHIC PROVINCE 2010), and contributed to our basic If the proposed Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary understanding of the regional composition is implemented and distribution of vent communities (http://www.mfe.govt.nz/node/21209/), the associated with the Kermadec volcanic arc vent fauna that occur within the sanctuary (described at the previous Kermadec area will not be disturbed by fishing, mining Science Symposium, Rowden et al., 2010), or oil extraction. But does this mean that the data have not yet been compiled or integrity of the New Zealand region’s vent analysed to help better define the communities will be adequately protected? biogeographic status of the New Zealand region. In order to propose the Ocean Sanctuary, the government had to negotiate with NIWA does not have a vent-specific science parties that have established interests in the project, but we have been collecting area identified for protection biological data from vents as a side product (http://www.mfe.govt.nz/marine/kermadec of a number of deep-sea projects that may, -ocean-sanctuary). For example they are for example, focus on geological structure of currently in negotiation with Nautilus the Kermadec Arc, seamount biodiversity, Minerals, which had applied for a the potential effect of seabed mining, or Prospecting licence to potentially mine for through international collaborations. Some sulphide deposits, which are found at funding has recently been provided to current or relic hydrothermal vent sites. facilitate a biogeographic analysis of New More than half of Nautilus’s application area Zealand’s fauna, and the findings of a falls within the proposed sanctuary. To preliminary analysis are briefly reported address this established interest, it is here. possible that the area just outside of the sanctuary, where Nautilus currently holds a For this analysis, data from eight vent sites prospecting permit, may be expanded. on Kermadec volcanoes were added to the data compiled by Bachraty et al. (2009) for

17 t c 2Curren status of the biogeography of hydrothermal vent communities of western Pacifi Ocean back-arc basins and volcanoes 3

This area just outside of the sanctuary also are different in structure and character from FIGURE 2: Global biography of contains vent communities, some of which hydrothermal vent fauna the ones within the sanctuary. Some sites Boschen, R.E., Rowden, A.A., Clark, M.R., Gardner. (Source: Boschen et al. 2013, are within a fisheries Benthic Protection J.P.A. (2015). Limitations in the use of archived after Rogers et al. 2012) Area but these may be unprotected from vent mussel samples to assess genetic any future deep-sea mining. Some of the connectivity among seafloor massive sulfide FIGURE 3: Preliminary deposits: A Case Study with Implications for communities contain vent-endemic species biogeography of the Environmental Management. Frontiers in Marine that are found within the sanctuary, but the hydrothermal vent fauna of Science, 2: 105, doi: 10.3389/fmars.2015.00105. continuation of populations there may the western Pacific Ocean Boschen, R.E., Rowden, A.A., Clark, M.R., Pallentin, (sites included in the analysis depend on receiving larvae from outside of the sanctuary (Boschen et al., 2015, see also A., Gardner. J.P.A. (2016). Seafloor massive are numbered; site symbols sulphide deposits support unique megafaunal with the same colours have Gardner et al., this report). Thus, in order to assemblages: Impliactons for seabed mining and similar vent communities; sites ensure the protection of the unique vent conservation. Marine Enviornmental Research. 115: 19-26, coloured yellow, communities of the New Zealand region, the 78 – 88. represent a distinct New Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary alone is Clark, M.R., O’Shea, S. (2001). Hydrothermal vent Zealand province). insufficient. Rather a network of protected and seamount fauna from the southern Kermadec areas is required (Boschen et al., 2015, 2016), Ridge, New Zealand. InterRidge News, 10: 14−17. selected according to the international guidelines for protecting chemosynthetic von Cosel, R., Marshall, B.A. (2010). A new ecosystems (Van Dover et al., 2012). and species of large mussel (: Bivalvia: Mytilidae) from the Kermadec Ridge. Tuhinga, 21: 59–73. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS All the scientists, in New Zealand and Desbruyères D., Hashimoto J., Fabri M.C. (2006). overseas, who have contributed to our Composition and biogeography of hydrothermal knowledge of vent communities in the vent communities in Western Pacific back-arc Kermadec region (there are many). All basins. Geophysical Monograph Series, 166: 215– 234. institutes in New Zealand and overseas who have actively supported and encouraged McLay, C. (2007). New from hydrothermal research in this field (there are not so vents of the Kermadec Ridge submarine many). All funders (there are even fewer). volcanoes, New Zealand: Gandalfus gen. nov. (Bythograeidae) and Xenograpsus (Varunidae) REFERENCES (: Brachyura). Zootaxa, 1524: 1–22. Ahyong, S. (2009). New species and new records Moalic, Y., Desbruyères, D., Duarte, C.M., of hydrothermal vent from New Zealand Rozenfeld, A.F., Bachraty, C., Arnaud-Haond, S. (Carida: Alvinocardidae, Hippolytidae). (2012). Biogeography revisited with network Crustaceana, 82 (7): 775-794. theory: retracing the history of hydrothermal vent communities. Systematic Biology, 61: 127-137. Bachraty C., Legendre P., Desbruyères D. (2009). Biogeographic relationships among deep-sea Rogers, A.D., Tyler, P.A., Connelly, D.P., Copley, hydrothermal vent faunas at global scale. Deep J.T., James, R., Larter, R.D., Linse, K., Mills, R.A., Sea Research I, 56: 1371–1378. Garabato, A.N., Pancost, R.D., Pearce, D.A., Polunin, N.V., German, C.R., Shank, T., Boersch- Boschen, R.E., Rowden, A.A., Clark, M.R., Gardner. Supan, P.H., Alker, B.J., Aquilina, A., Bennett, S.A., J.P.A. (2013) Mining of deep-sea seafloor massive Clarke, A., Dinley, R.J., Graham, A.G., Green, D.R., sulfides: A review of the deposits, their benthic Hawkes, J.A., Hepburn, L., Hilario, A., Huvenne, communities, impacts from mining, regulatory V.A., Marsh, L., Ramirez-Llodra, E., Reid, W.D., frameworks and management strategies. Ocean Roterman, C.N., Sweeting, C.J., Thatje, S., and Coastal Management. 84: 54 – 67. Zwirglmaier, K. (2012). The discovery of new Boschen, R.E., Rowden, A.A., Clark, M.R., Barton, deep-sea hydrothermal vent communities in the S.J., Pallentin, A., Gardner, J.P.A. (2015). southern ocean and implications for Megabenthic assemblage structure on three New biogeography. PLoS Biology, 10: e1001234. Zealand seamounts: implications for seafloor Rowden, A.A., Clark, M.R., Tracey, D.M., Beaumont, massive sulfide mining. Marine Ecology Progress J.C., MacDiarmid, A.B. et al. (2010). Biological Series. 523: 1 – 14. communities associated with areas of

18 t c Curren status of the biogeography of hydrothermal vent communities of western Pacifi Ocean back-arc basins and volcanoes There are a number of types of vent communities within the New Zealand region, but they are all sufficiently distinct from those found elsewhere to consider the hydrothermal vent communities of the Kermadec area unique.

In order to ensure the protection of the unique vent communities of the New Zealand region, the Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary alone is insufficient. Rather a network of protected areas is required

. hydrothermal venting on the Kermadec volcanic arc. In: DEEP: Talks and thoughts celebrating New Zealand’s untouched diversity in the Kermadecs. PEW Environment Group. pp. 63-65. Shank, T.M. (2004). The Evolutionary Puzzle of Seafloor Life: Scientists are assembling critical pieces to reconstruct the history of life on the ocean floor. Oceanus, 42 (2): 1-8. Van Dover, C.L. (2000). The Ecology of Deep-sea Hydrothermal Vents. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. Van Dover, C.L., German, C.R., Speer, K.G., Parson, L.M., Vrijenhoek, R.C. (2002). Evolution and biogeography of deep-sea vent and seep invertebrates. Science, 295: 1253-1257. Van Dover, C.L., , C.R., Ardron, J., Dunn, D., Gjerde, K., Levin, L., Smith, S. (2012). Designating networks of chemosynthetic ecosystem reserves in the deep sea. Marine Policy, 36: 378-381. Webber, W.R. (2004). A new species of Alvinocaris (Crustacea: Decapoda: Alvinocarididae) and new records of alvinocaridids from hydrothermal vents north of New Zealand. Zootaxa, 444: 1-26. Wright, I.C., de Ronde, C.E.J., Faure, K., Gamble, J.A. (1998). Discovery of hydrothermal sulfide mineralization from southern Kermadec arc volcanoes (SW Pacific). Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 164: 335–343.

19 sity s Ecological diver of hydrothermal vents,Rachel E. Boschen,and Ashleyissue A. Rowden, Malcolmfor R.management Clark and of seabedJonathan P.A Gardnermining

RACHEL E. BOSCHEN MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE KERMADEC SEAMOUNT COMMUNITY STRUCTURE SCHOOL OF BIOLOGICAL REGION Two surveys were undertaken on SCIENCES, VICTORIA UNIVERSITY OF The seabed within the New Zealand seamounts on the southern Kermadec WELLINGTON, WELLINGTON, Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) offers Volcanic Arc to assess the structure of NEW ZEALAND multiple opportunities for mineral benthic communities potentially at risk from NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF extraction, including seafloor massive sulfide SMS mining. Towed video footage and WATER & ATMOSPHERIC (SMS) deposits. These form through environmental data were obtained to RESEARCH, WELLINGTON, NEW ZEALAND hydrothermal activity and can occur at a investigate the patterns of benthic CURRENT ADDRESS: tonnage and mineral grade comparable to megafauna distribution, community DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY & land-based deposits, making them attractive structure and association with SCHOOL OF EARTH AND to mining companies (Boschen et al., 2013; environmental variables, both within and OCEAN SCIENCES, Hannington et al., 2011). Such deposits form amongst three seamounts (Boschen et al., UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA, VICTORIA, BRITISH along the Kermadec Volcanic Arc, stretching 2015). Each seamount had different levels of COLUMBIA, CANADA. northeast from the North Island towards hydrothermal activity: Rumble II East has no [email protected] Tonga. Of the 78 seamounts along the Arc, history of hydrothermal activity, Brothers is at least 16 are known to be hydrothermally hydrothermally active and Rumble II West is ASHLEY A. ROWDEN, active (Fig. 1), with many of these occurring predominantly inactive (Fig. 1). They also MALCOLM R. CLARK NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF in areas that have been previously licenced occur within close proximity to one another WATER & ATMOSPHERIC for the prospecting phase of SMS mining (0.5˚ latitude) and have overlapping depth RESEARCH, WELLINGTON, (https://permits.nzpam.govt.nz/aca/). New ranges: Rumble II East, 907 to 3017 m; NEW ZEALAND Zealand deposits are particularly rich in Brothers, 1350 to 2250 m; Rumble II West, copper, zinc, iron and , and occur within 1194 to 2994 m (Wright, 1994; Wright and JONATHAN P.A GARDNER SCHOOL OF BIOLOGICAL exploitable depths (Wright et al., 1998; de Gamble, 1999). SCIENCES, VICTORIA Ronde et al., 2011). UNIVERSITY OF Video transects were distributed randomly WELLINGTON, WELLINGTON, ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY OF SMS amongst broad-scale habitat strata (caldera NEW ZEALAND DEPOSITS floor, caldera wall, seamount cone, Sites of SMS deposition also have seamount flank and chimney fields) defined considerable biological value. a priori based on general topography from a Hydrothermally active areas support unique previous multibeam survey. Both fauna and chemosynthetic communities that are substratum type were identified from the reliant on the hydrothermal activity at these video, which was split into 200 m sections environments (reviewed by Van Dover, for analysis. Additional environmental 2000). Where hydrothermal activity has parameters (depth, backscatter, rugosity, ceased, relict (inactive) deposits support aspect, slope and three measures of diverse communities of slow growing sessile curvature) were extracted from multibeam -feeders (Galkin, 1997; Collins et data. The relationship between the faunal al., 2012), with the potential for development distribution data and environmental of a further community adapted to the variables was assessed using multivariate weathered sulfide environment of inactive statistical routines. deposits (Van Dover, 2011). All these communities are vulnerable to mining In total, 186 putative taxa were identified disturbance, with mining activities expected from 249 video segments and assigned to to remove all large organisms and their 20 assemblage types (communities). habitat in the immediate area to be mined, Community structure was significantly along with downstream effects from different amongst the three seamounts, with turbidity plumes (Van Dover, 2011; 2014). some communities found at multiple Before suitable mitigation strategies for seamounts and others appearing to be seabed mining can be designed, there needs restricted to just one (Fig. 2). A priori to be a thorough understanding of the defined habitat (nested within seamount) seabed communities that could be affected. also contributed to explaining variation in community structure.

20 ,

Ecological diversity of hydrothermal vents and issues 1 for management of seabed mining

Magnetivity, as a proxy for hydrothermal the proposed mine site. This suggests that FIGURE 1. The location of activity, explained most of the variation in on its own, the proposed Reference Site marine boundaries, protected community structure amongst seamounts, would not be representative and therefore areas, SMS prospecting with depth, topography, substratum (and insufficient as a in the case of licenses and seamounts along magnetivity for Brothers) explaining most mining at 1. the Kermadec Volcanic Arc, within seamounts. Overall, environmental relative to New Zealand. Main The most important environmental figure: the New Zealand proxies were able to explain 26 – 47% of the Exclusive Economic Zone variation in community structure within and descriptors in the models were largely those (EEZ: green line), the amongst seamounts. related to hydrothermal activity (active and Kermadec Benthic Protection inactive chimneys; dead vent mussel shells; Area (BPA) and the proposed A key result was the identification of altered sediment and oxide deposits). Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary ‘unique’ communities that were restricted to Communities unique to Proteus 1 occurred (blue diagonal lines), Tectonic Reach BPA (purple hash), specific locations on individual seamounts. in locations associated with hydrothermal Neptune Minerals Inc. In the case of Brothers and Rumble II West, activity, including inactive chimney prospecting licence areas these communities appeared to coincide structures, providing further evidence for (dark brown), and seamounts with hydrothermally-formed chimney the existence of communities in association coded by hydrothermal structures, indicative of SMS deposits (Fig. with inactive sulfides. The occurrence of activity; no hydrothermal activity detected (no activity: 2). This provided some support for the hydrothermally active and inactive pale green triangles) and existence of unique communities colonising structures within close proximity suggests active (red triangles). The inactive sulfides. that protection should include a larger area three labelled seamounts that encompasses both habitat types. (Brothers, Rumble II West, MINE AND REFERENCE SITE COMMUNITY Rumble II East) are the locations for the three studies. COMPARISON KEY MANAGEMENT CONCLUSIONS Inset: New Zealand mainland Patterns of benthic megafauna distribution The surveys reported here show strong and EEZ. and community structure were further differences in community composition at a examined in a second study, using video range of spatial scales. Such patterns data from an industry survey with a require detailed surveys, as environmental Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV). Two proxies alone may be inadequate to reveal sites were surveyed, a proposed mine site fine-scale complexity. Hence evaluation of (Proteus 1) and a proposed Reference Site management options needs to be based on close together on the northeast flank of robust baseline survey work, and operate Rumble II West (Boschen et al., 2016b). over differing spatial scales. Large-scale patterns of biodiversity need to be known to Fauna and substratum type were identified establish the regional context of smaller from the video, which was split into 15 m areas/seamounts of interest to mining segments for analysis. Additional companies. However, even within a environmental data (depth, backscatter, seamount, differing geophysical and aspect, slope and three measures of geochemical conditions mean faunal curvature) were extracted from multibeam communities will vary over 10s’ of meters. data. The relationship between the faunal This has important implications for the scale distribution data and the environmental at which management needs to occur, and it variables was again assessed using will differ between sites. multivariate statistical routines. One of the mitigation strategies to preserve In total, 42 putative taxa were identified benthic communities within a prospective from 153 video segments and assigned to 11 mining region is by providing protected or communities. Despite being only 200 m ‘set-aside’ areas with similar physical and distant, the two sites had significantly biological characteristics to the mine site different community structure, with only a that are designated as no-impact zones subset of the total communities present (Coffey Natural Systems, 2008; International located at the proposed Reference Site (Fig. Seabed Authority, 2010; Collins et al., 2012). 3). Whilst five communities were found at Such protected areas need to support both sites, six communities were unique to communities with taxonomic composition,

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Ecological diversity of hydrothermal vents and issues 2for management of seabed mining

abundance and diversity similar to the mine sea seafloor massive sulfide mining activities. FIGURE 2. Digital terrain Ocean & Coastal Management, 122: 37-48. model maps of community (a site. – t) distribution over the three Boschen, R. E., Rowden, A. A., Clark, M. R., Barton, study seamounts. Symbols The newly announced Kermadec Ocean S. J., Pallentin, A., Gardner, J. P. A. (2015). with a black centre indicate Sanctuary Megabenthic assemblage structure on three New assemblages unique to one (http://www.mfe.govt.nz/node/21209/) will Zealand seamounts: implications for seafloor seamount. Red stars indicate massive sulfide mining. Marine Ecology Progress the locations of hydrothermal provide protection from SMS mining for all vent chimney structures from of the communities at SMS deposits in the Series, 523: 1 - 14. video observations. far north of the EEZ (Fig. 1). However, many Boschen, R. E., Rowden, A. A., Clark, M. R., Reproduced from Boschen et of the benthic communities at seamounts Gardner, J. P. A. (2013). Mining of deep-sea al. (2015) with permission from south of the Sanctuary are not afforded the seafloor massive sulfides: A review of the Inter-Research. Copyright for deposits, their benthic communities, impacts from the figure remains with Inter- same protection. Brothers, Rumble II East Research. and Rumble II West are within a current mining, regulatory frameworks and management Benthic Protection Area and are protected strategies. Ocean & Coastal Management, 84: 54- 67. from bottom trawling, but there are no current restrictions relating to mining within Boschen, R. E., Rowden, A. A., Clark, M. R., this area. To fully protect these Pallentin, A., Gardner, J. P. A. (2016b). Seafloor communities, protected areas need to form massive sulfide deposits support unique a coherent network, with high connectivity megafaunal assemblages: implication for seabed mining and conservation. Marine Environmental within and amongst seamounts to facilitate Research, 115: 78 - 88. genetic exchange and the maintenance of healthy populations (International Seabed Coffey Natural Systems (2008). Environmental Authority, 2011; Van Dover et al., 2012; impact statement, Solwara 1 project, Nautilus Boschen et al., 2016a). Such a network Minerals Niugini Limited, Main Report Brisbane: Coffey Natural Systems. would provide protection for the diversity of habitats and associated benthic Collins, P. C., Kennedy, R., Van Dover, C. L. (2012). communities on Kermadec Volcanic Arc A biological survey method applied to seafloor seamounts. massive sulphides (SMS) with contagiously distributed hydrothermal-vent fauna. Marine ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Ecology Progress Series, 452: 89-107. We thank the crew and scientists aboard the de Ronde, C. E. J., Massoth, G. J., Butterfield, D. A., TAN1007 cruise on RV Tangaroa and RV Christenson, B. W., Ishibashi, J., Ditchburn, R. G., Dorado Discovery during the 2011 surveys. Hannington, M. D., Brathwaite, R. L., Lupton, J. E., We also thank Neptune Minerals Inc. for Kamenetsky, V. S., Graham, I. J., Zellmer, G. F., making the video footage and Dziak, R. P., Embley, R. W., Dekov, V. M., Munnik, F., Lahr, J., Evans, L. J., Takai, K. (2011). Submarine environmental data available for use in this hydrothermal activity and gold-rich mineralization study. REB was supported by PhD at , Kermadec Arc, New Zealand. scholarship funding from NIWA and Victoria Mineralium Deposita, 46: 541-584. University of Wellington. The research reported here is part of the NIWA project Galkin, S. V. (1997). Megafauna associated with hydrothermal vents in the Manus Back-Arc Basin ‘Deep-sea mining of the Kermadec Arc – (Bismarck Sea). Marine Geology, 142: 197-206. Geophysical prospectivity and environmental impacts’ funded by the New Hannington, M., Jamieson, J., Monecke, T., Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Petersen, S., Beaulieu, S. (2011). The abundance of Employment (formally the Foundation for seafloor massive sulfide deposits. Geology, 39: 1155-1158. Research, Science and Technology) (Contract CO1X0702). International Seabed AuthoritY (2010). Regulations on prospecting and exploration for REFERENCES polymetallic sulphides in the Area. In: Boschen, R., Collins, P.,Tunnicliffe, V., Carlsson, J., AUTHORITY, I. S. (ed.) ISBA/16/A/12/Rev.1. Gardner, J., Lowe, J., McCrone, A., Metaxas, A., Kingston, Jamaica: International Seabed Sinniger, F., Swaddling, A. (2016a). A primer for Authority. use of genetic tools in selecting and testing the International Seabed Authority (2011). suitability of set-aside sites protected from deep- Environmental Management of Deep-Sea

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Ecological diversity of hydrothermal vents and issues 3 for management of seabed mining

Chemosynthetic Ecosystems: Justification of and Considerations for a Spatially-Based Approach. FIGURE 3. Digital terrain ISA Technical Study Series. Kingston, Jamaica: model maps of community (I International Seabed Authority. to XI) distribution over Proteus 1 (A) and the Reference Site Van Dover, C. L. (2000). The ecology of deep-sea (B). The thick pale grey lines hydrothermal vents, Princeton, New Jersey, indicate the spatial extent of Princeton University Press. each site. Reproduced from Boschen et al. (2016b) under Van Dover, C. L. (2011). Mining seafloor massive Creative Commons sulphides and biodiversity: what is at risk? ICES Attribution-Non Commercial- Journal of Marine Science, 68: 341-348. No Derivatives License (CC BY NC ND). Van Dover, C. L. (2014). Impacts of anthropogenic disturbances at deep-sea hydrothermal vent ecosystems: A review. Marine Environmental Research, 102: 59-72.

Van Dover, C. L., Smith, C. R., Ardron, J., Dunn, D., Gjerde, K., Levin, L., Smith, S. (2012). Designating networks of chemosynthetic ecosystem reserves in the deep sea. Marine Policy, 36: 378-381.

Wright, I. C. (1994). Nature and tectonic setting of the southern Kermadec submarine arc volcanoes: An overview. Marine Geology, 118: 217-236.

Wright, I. C., de Ronde, C. E. J., Faure, K., Gamble, J. A. (1998). Discovery of hydrothermal sulfide mineralization from southern Kermadec arc volcanoes (SW Pacific). Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 164: 335-343.

Wright, I. C., Gamble, J. A. (1999). Southern Kermadec submarine caldera arc volcanoes (SW Pacific): caldera formation by effusive and pyroclastic erruption. Marine Geology, 161: 207 - 227

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Connectivity of Vulnerable Ecosystem K indicatorc r taxa: genetic data to informJonathan Gardner,environmental Lyndsey Holland, Cong Zeng, Rachelmanagement Boschen, of theAshley Rowden,ermade Malcolm Clark and, Joannaegion Hamilton

JONATHAN GARDNER, INTRODUCTION Our aim is to better understand temporal LYNDSEY HOLLAND, Connectivity involves the movement of and spatial genetic connectivity and genetic JOANNA HAMILTON individuals between populations and helps diversity and how these are influenced by SCHOOL OF BIOLOGICAL to define how similar (high level of life-history characteristics and by processes SCIENCES, VICTORIA connectedness) or how dissimilar (low level such as physical oceanography (currents UNIVERSITY OF of connectedness) the populations are. and flow – e.g., White et al. 2010). We WELLINGTON, WELLINGTON, Connectivity may involve the movement of anticipate that this new information can be NEW ZEALAND any or all stages of the life history of a taxon, used to inform decisions about the design of [email protected] from larva through juvenile to adult. a network of marine protected areas in the Information about genetic connectedness EEZ that will include the Kermadec Ocean CONG ZENG, helps to inform managers about the Sanctuary. SCHOOL OF BIOLOGICAL potential vulnerability of populations to SCIENCES, VICTORIA UNIVERSITY OF activities such as mining and fishing, and to THE HYDROTHERMAL VENT MUSSEL, WELLINGTON, WELLINGTON, design spatial management measures to GIGANTIDAS NEW ZEALAND protect marine ecosystems from human G. gladius is endemic to an 830 km section NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF disturbance (Cowen & Sponaugle 2009, of the Kermadec Volcanic Arc at depths of WATER & ATMOSPHERIC Boschen et al. 2013, Van Dover 2014). 191 – 884 m. We used archived material from RESEARCH, WELLINGTON, the NIWA Invertebrate Collection (NIC) and NEW ZEALAND Vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs) are were able to obtain good quality DNA from susceptible to damage or disturbance from 150 of the 942 mussels that were tested RACHEL BOSCHEN human activities such as fishing, mining and from seven sites, ranging from the far north SCHOOL OF BIOLOGICAL dumping (FAO 2009). VME indicator taxa to the far south of the mussel’s distribution SCIENCES, VICTORIA (FAO 2009) are defined as those that are (Fig. 1A). We assessed genetic variation by UNIVERSITY OF unique or rare, functionally significant, sequencing the cytochrome c oxidase WELLINGTON, WELLINGTON, fragile, structurally complex, slow to recover subunit I (COI) gene from the mitochondrial NEW ZEALAND or may never recover, exhibit slow growth, genome (Boschen et al. 2015). NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF late age of maturity, low or unpredictable WATER & ATMOSPHERIC recruitment, and are long lived (FAO 2009). We observed 35 different COI haplotypes RESEARCH, WELLINGTON, (genetic variants), of which 28 (83%) were NEW ZEALAND The proposed Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary observed only once. Haplotype 1 (blue) was PRESENT ADDRESS: covers 15% of New Zealand’s Exclusive observed in all populations except Calypso DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY & Economic Zone (EEZ) and is topographically Vent (Fig. 1A). The star-like haplotype SCHOOL OF EARTH AND rich, including the world’s longest undersea network (Fig. 1B) suggests a recent OCEAN SCIENCES, volcanic arc and one of the deepest expansion event (probably < 10,000 years UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA, trenches, whilst containing a high ago). Overall, there was limited population VICTORIA, BRITISH proportion of endemic species. The differentiation, consistent with high levels of COLUMBIA, CANADA Kermadec region hosts deep-sea fauna that gene flow. Greater COI haplotypic diversity ASHLEY ROWDEN,, are considered to be indicators of VMEs, existed within central populations, and MALCOLM CLARK including corals, and mussels found lower diversity was observed at both ends NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF at hydrothermal vents. However, genetic of the mussel’s range (Fig. 1A). Rumble V WATER & ATMOSPHERIC structure and connectivity of these seamount had the highest diversity and may RESEARCH, WELLINGTON, populations within and beyond the be acting as a source population. Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary are poorly understood. SPONGES - POECILLASTRA LAMINARIS AND PENARES PALMATOCLADA In the present paper we describe levels of Samples of P. laminaris and P. palmatoclada genetic diversity and patterns of were obtained from the NIC. For P. laminaris connectivity for one mussel species, two we sequenced the COI and cytochrome b species and five coral species from (Cytb) mitochondrial genes, whilst for P. the New Zealand EEZ (and in some cases palmatoclada we sequenced the COI and beyond), with special reference to the the 12S mitochondrial genes (Zeng et al. in region of the Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary. prep).

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For P. laminaris we observed clear evidence sequence) (Holland et al. in prep, Zeng et al. of a pronounced north-south split in genetic in prep). FIGURE 1. Location of 7 sampled populations within structure (Fig. 2A). For both gene regions, the distribution of the cooler colours (e.g., dark blues) representing For D. dianthus we assayed genetic variation hydrothermal vent mussel, northern haplotypes were strongly in 348 individuals. A range of analyses Gigantidas gladius. (A) differentiated from warmer colours (e.g., revealed that there was pronounced Haplotype diversity along the pinks, oranges and yellows) representing regional differentiation amongst populations Kermadec Volcanic Arc. Each haplotype is represented by a southern haplotypes. The Kermadec of D. dianthus. The principal components different coloured slice of the population sits within the northern group plot (Fig. 3B) revealed the differentiation of pie chart. “n” is the number of and the appears to be an area the northern populations (Kermadec and individuals sequenced per of genetic mixing. There is a barrier to gene Louisville seamounts – Valerie, 39South, population, “Hap” is the flow between the Kermadec region and all Forde) from all other populations. In number of haplotypes, and (B) Minimum-spanning haplotype other regions (based on results from both addition, there was strong evidence of network for all Gigantidas COI and Cytb), indicating that the Kermadec genetic differentiation based on depth, with gladius individuals from the population of P. laminaris is isolated from all shallow (< 800 m) and deep (> 1000 m) seven populations. Circle size other populations within the New Zealand populations being significantly different. The is proportional to the number EEZ. Generally, the pattern of gene flow Kermadec population had almost of individuals with that haplotype, lines indicate (connectivity) observed for P. laminaris is in exclusively deep-water affinity, with the relatedness of haplotypes. agreement with the known patterns of exception of one individual collected from Line breaks indicate current flow, suggesting that oceanographic White Island (at 180 m depth). These mutational steps in the dynamics are important in both connecting findings confirm both the differentiation of connectivity between areas and also isolating areas. the Kermadec (and Louisville) population haplotypes (taken from Boschen et al. 2015). Pop 1 = from all other populations and also the Macauley Volcano, Pop2 = For P. palmatoclada small sample sizes differentiation of deep versus shallow water Rumble V Seamount sample1, makes interpreting the results more difficult populations (previously reported by Miller et Pop3 = Rumble V Seamount than for P. laminaris. We observed high al. 2011 for a different genetic marker), with sample2, Pop4 = Rumble V levels of genetic diversity and no obvious depth acting as a barrier to gene flow at Seamount sample3, Pop5 = Tangaroa Seamount, Pop6 = evidence of regional differentiation (Fig. about 800-1000 m. Clark Seamount, Pop7 = 2B). There were no apparent barriers to Calypso Vent. gene flow for P. palmatoclada. The For E. rostrata we obtained samples of 39 uncertainty associated with small sample individuals from seven regions (Table 1) and sizes limits our ability to provide robust sequenced the ITS region (nuclear DNA). advice to managers for this species about Populations from the Chatham Rise region the spatial distribution of marine protected were significantly different from those of the areas in the EEZ. north and the south, but populations from the northern and southern regions were not CORALS - DESMOPHYLLUM DIANTHUS, significantly different. The explanation for ENALLOPSAMMIA ROSTRATA, this finding is that the Chatham Rise region GONIOCORELLA DUMOSA, MADREPORA is an area of mixing from both the north and OCULATA AND south, with the result that the central VARIABILIS region’s populations (Graveyard knolls and Samples of all five coral species were the east Chatham Rise) exhibit higher levels obtained from the NIC and new material of genetic diversity. Therefore, the northerly was collected from recent research cruises Kermadec population falls within a largely (Fig 3A). We employed existing and undifferentiated group that covers most of developed new microsatellite genetic the New Zealand EEZ. markers to help quantify population genetic structure and connectivity (a microsatellite locus is a short, simple nuclear DNA

25 m m t Connectivity of Vulnerable Marine Ecosyste indicator taxa: genetic data to2infor environmental managemen of the Kermadec region

TABLE 1. List of regions from which samples were collected for four coral species, Enallopsammia rostrata, Goniocorella dumosa, Madrepora oculata and Solenosmilia variabilis. Sampled locations reflect availability of archived material in the NIC as well as new samples collected for this project.

Enallopsammia rostrata Goniocorella dumosa Madrepora oculata Solenosmilia variabilis Campbell/Bounty plateau Auckland Plateau Bollons Plateau Chatham Rise - east Campbell Plateau Bounty Plateau Chatham Rise - southwest Challenger Plateau Chatham Rise Graveyard Seamount on the Chatham Rise Kermadec Arc Campbell Plateau Chatham Rise Kermadecs, Hikurangi Margin Chatham Rise northwest of New Zealand Kermadec Arc Hikurangi Margin Macquarie Ridge region Macquarie Ridge Kermadec Arc Louisville Seamount Chain Macquarie Ridge

FIGURE 2. Haplotypic For G. dumosa we assayed microsatellite here are reasonably different from one diversity distributions and variation at 27 loci for samples from seven another, suggesting low gene flow amongst regional differentiation for two regions (Table 1). A discriminant analysis of the four regions. Analysis of barriers to gene species of sponge. (A) principle components (DAPC) and flow confirms that the Kermadec population Poecillastra laminaris - COI (above the line) and Cytb assignment analysis were applied to reveal is genetically isolated from all other (below the line) and (B) the extent of genetic similarity (populations populations, as for G. dumosa. Penares palmatoclada - COI which are close together in the DAPC plot (above the line) and 12S are similar) and differentiation that exists. For S. variabilis we assayed microsatellite (below the line). In both panels This plot helps with the accurate assignment variation at 27 loci for samples from ten the number of haplotypes is regions (Table 1). The most pronounced given above and below the of each individual to its population of origin. line for the two respective The most obvious feature in the DAPC plot result is the high degree of difference of the gene regions. A simple North (Fig. 4A top) is the group of purple coded Louisville Seamount Chain population versus South (BY6 versus Kermadec samples that appears to the right. (purple) from all other populations (Fig. 4C). BY10) testing framework is This feature is matched by the large block of This is followed by the separation of the employed – populations are Kermadec population (medium brown) from labelled N (North) or S (South) purple to the right of the assignment panel accordingly. To the left in both (Fig. 4A bottom), indicating that the all other populations. The remaining eight panels – phylogenetic trees for Kermadec samples can be assigned regional populations show medium to high both gene regions showing correctly to their population of origin. Thus, degrees of overlap within the DAPC plot. evolutionary relatedness for G. dumosa the most divergent These results, reinforced by the high level of amongst the respective accuracy of the assignment tests (bottom haplotypes. population is from the Kermadec region. Analysis of the presence and location of a panel, Fig. 4C), highlight the differentiation barrier to gene flow confirms that the of the Louisville and Kermadec populations Kermadec population is genetically isolated from each other and from all other from all other populations. populations. Analysis of barriers to gene flow confirms that the Kermadec population For M. oculata we assayed microsatellite is genetically isolated from all other variation for samples at 11 loci from four populations. regions (Table 1). The DAPC plot and the assignment panel both reveal that the CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Kermadec region populations are For the Kermadec-endemic vent mussel, G. differentiated from all other regions (dark gladius, we have found evidence of high brown Kermadec samples to the right hand levels of genetic connectivity within the side of the DAPC plot; dark brown panel to region, and evidence that there may be the right of the assignment test (Fig. 4B)). source and sink populations. Populations at Populations from all four regions assayed the edges of the species’ distribution are

26 m m t Connectivity of Vulnerable Marine Ecosyste indicator taxa: genetic data 3 to infor environmental managemen of the Kermadec region

differentiated from those in the centre of colleagues at NIWA for field/lab assistance the range. Because Rumble V seamount had and comments - Stephen Chiswell, Mark FIGURE 3. Desmophyllum dianthus. (A) The locations of the highest genetic diversity and may be Hadfield, Michelle Kelly, Sadie Mills, Kareen samples of D. dianthus used in acting as a source population, this suggests Schnabel, Diana Macpherson and Di Tracey. the present study, and (B) that this population may require special This research has been funded by the Principal Components Analysis protection. Ministry of Business, Innovation & (PCA) of samples showing Employment (contract CO1X1229), the population and regional separation. Examination of genetic population structure Ministry for Primary Industries (project for sponge and coral species illustrates that VMES133), the National Institute of Water & the placement of the Kermadecs in a Atmospheric Research and Victoria regional connectivity setting is species- University of Wellington: we thank all for specific. Populations in the Kermadec region their support. may be connected to other northern populations (e.g., the sponge, P. laminaris) REFERENCES or may be connected to all other New Boschen R, Rowden AA, Clark M, Gardner JPA. Zealand EEZ populations (e.g., the sponge, (2013). Review and current status of knowledge P. palmatoclada) or may only be connected of SMS deposits: management implications. to the Louisville Seamount chain (e.g., the Ocean and Coastal Management 84: 54-67. coral, D. dianthus). Alternatively, Boschen RE, Rowden AA, Clark MR, Gardner JPA. populations of the Kermadec region may be (2015). Limitations in the use of archived vent differentiated from all/most other regions of mussel samples to assess genetic connectivity New Zealand (e.g., the corals G. dumosa, M. among seafloor massive sulfide deposits: a case oculina and S. variabilis). study with implications for environmental management. Frontiers in Marine Science http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2015.00105. Although connectivity patterns vary, our research provides strong evidence across Boschen RE, Collins PC, Tunnicliffe V, Carlsson J, multiple species that the Kermadec region is Gardner JPA, Lowe J, McCrone A, Metaxas A, genetically differentiated from other parts of Sinniger F, Swaddling A. (2016). A primer for use of genetic tools in selecting and testing the the New Zealand EEZ and beyond the EEZ. suitability of set-aside sites for deep-sea seafloor Our results indicate that the Kermadec massive sulfide mining. Ocean and Coastal region requires separate management, even Management 122: 37–48. for cosmopolitan species. In addition, not all sites within the Kermadec region are the Cowen RK, Sponaugle S. (2009). Larval dispersal and marine population connectivity. Annual same in terms of genetic diversity and/or Review of Marine Science 1: 443–466. genetic connectivity. The establishment of the Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary will FAO. (2009). International guidelines for the contribute towards ensuring the protection management of deep-sea fisheries in the high of VME indicator taxa. However, to ensure seas. FAO, . more widespread protection for populations Miller KJ, Rowden AA, Williams A, Haüessermann of such taxa, the sanctuary should form part V. 2011. Out of their depth? Isolated deep of a wider network of marine protected populations of the cosmopolitan coral areas in the New Zealand EEZ. Desmophyllum dianthus may be highly vulnerable to environmental change. PLoS One 6(5): e19004. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Van Dover CL. (2014). Impacts of anthropogenic We thank the Pew Charitable Trust for disturbances at deep-sea hydrothermal vent setting up the Kermadec Ocean Symposium ecosystems: a review. Marine Environmental held in April 2016 in Wellington, and for Research 102: 59-72. inviting us to participate. We also thank

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Watling L, Guinotte J, Clark MR, Smith CR. (2010). FIGURE 4. Discriminant A proposed biogeography of the deep ocean analysis of principal floor. Progress in Oceanography 111: 91–112. components plots and assignment plots for 3 corals – White C, Selkoe KA,Watson J, Siegel DA, Zacherl (A) Goniocorella dumosa, (B) DC, Toonen RJ. (2010). Ocean currents help Madrepora oculata and (C) explain population genetic structure. Proceedings Solenosmilia variabilis. Note of the Royal Society of London (Series B- that colours used in the upper Biological Sciences 277: 1685–1694 panel of each plot (DAPC plot) to designate populations are used in the lower panel (assignment plot) to designate the same populations.

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Protected cora communities on the Kermadec Volcanic Arc: recorded and predicted distributions, and risks from Dianne Tracey, Owen Anderson, Helen Bostock, Sara Mikaloff-Fletcher, Malindi oceanGammon, Vondaacidification Cummings, Peter Marriott

INTRODUCTION to be the target of scientific expeditions The New Zealand region has a rich diversity (see Clark et al. 2016 in this issue for data DIANNE TRACEY, OWEN of Anthozoan corals (Phylum ). The sources). These recent expeditions have ANDERSON, HELEN Kermadec area is unique in the New Zealand provided new data for corals, and here we BOSTOCK, SARA MIKALOFF- region in having a coral fauna that includes provide a list of the coral records in the FLETCHER, VONDA both temperate warm-water (hermatypic) Kermadec region, including some revised CUMMINGS, PETER zooxanthellate (those with symbiotic identifications. MARRIOTT microalgae for photosynthesis) scleractinian NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF stony corals, and ahermatypic CORAL DIVERSITY IN THE KERMADEC WATER & ATMOSPHERIC azooxanthellate stony corals, found well REGION RESEARCH, WELLINGTON, beyond the photic zone in colder deep Data were obtained from the NIWA NEW ZEALAND waters. Of the 17 shallow hermatypic Invertebrate Collection database Specify for [email protected] species, all but one is found on the Great the Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary area. There Barrier Reef and these species are at or near are 775 records for deepsea corals in the MALINDI GAMMON their southernmost limit at shallow depths sanctuary area, of which 621 are from VICTORIA UNIVERSITY OF WELLINGTON, WELLINGTON, around Kermadec Islands (Brook 1999). The depths over 200 m. A total of 580 deep-sea NEW ZEALAND. shallow corals occurring close to shore corals have been identified to Order level, include large habitat-forming species but identifications down to genus and or belonging to the scleractinian genus species level are incomplete (Appendix 1). Tubinaria (Figure 1). The most diverse group in the sanctuary In deeper waters on the slope and area are the gorgonian octocorals, with 39 seamounts, corals include those protected genera represented; including the under the New Zealand Wildlife Act: Black Primnoidae and Pleaxauridae sea fans, along corals, order Antipatharia; Gorgonian corals, with bubblegum octocoral, bamboo corals, order Alcyonacea (previously known as the precious coral Corallium, and the golden Gorgonacea); Stony corals (cup and corals Metallogorgia and Chrysogorgia. Nine branching forms), order ; genera of black corals have been identified hydrocorals in the family . from sampling in the area, including These corals are indicator taxa for Antipathes and Bathypathes. Cup corals are vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs) most diverse form of stony corals with 26 because they provide refuge and shelter for genera, while the matrix-forming form of some fish and numerous invertebrates, but stony corals is represented by only 18 can easily be damaged and disturbed by records (4 genera). Hydrocorals in the fishing and other human activities (Figure 1). Stylasteridae are diverse, with 12 species from this family present in the sanctuary NIWA research activities on deep-sea corals area. Table 1 summarises records for the has encompassed species identification, protected corals recorded in depths greater distribution, anthropogenic impacts, and than 200 m. Several of the records have not efforts to understand age, growth, and yet been identified to genus or species. recovery after disturbance. More recently we have investigated how the changing OCEAN ACIDIFICATION IMPACTS ON state of the ocean (temperature, ocean CORAL DISTRIBUTION salinity, ocean oxygen and acidification) will Corals are potentially under threat from affect marine organisms. Here we report on , with CO2 levels increasing recent research to evaluate the impact of at depths in the ocean at which corals are ocean acidification on deep-sea corals. The likely to thrive. The water’s suitability for diversity and distribution of corals in the carbonate formation is determined by the Kermadec region was described at the 2010 carbonate saturation state (represented by Kermadec science symposium (in Tracey et the Greek letter omega, Ω). As Ω reduces, al. 2010). Since then, seamounts in the growth for certain organisms becomes southern part of the region have continued increasingly difficult, ultimately threatening

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Protected coral communities on the Kermadec Volcani Arc: recorded 1and predicted distributions, and risks from ocean acidification

an organism’s survival. The depth at which OCEAN ACIDIFICATION IMPACTS ON FIGURE 1. Left; The warm- the aragonite (the form of carbonate that water (hermatypic) stony CORAL PHYSIOLOGY AND GROWTH coral Tubinaria spp. located stony corals use for building their skeletons) To complement the modelling work we close to the Kermadec islands saturation state Ω = 1 is termed the aragonite undertook experiments to determine the (image Malcolm Francis). saturation horizon (ASH). Below this depth effect of ocean acidification on the Right; The deep-water the ocean is under-saturated with aragonite. dissolution of coral skeletons. (Tracey et al. (ahermatypic) stony coral The ASH is predicted to shoal to depths as Solenosmilia variabilis located 2014; Gammon 2016). on a seamount along the shallow as 300-400 m in the New Zealand Kermadec Ridge (image region by 2100 (Taylor et al., 2012) and it is Over 12-months, colonies of the stony coral NIWA). likely to affect the distribution of stony Solenosmilia variabilis were maintained in corals in the region. It is also likely that temperature controlled (~3.5°C) continuous gorgonian corals, that use high magnesium flow-through tanks. A control group of coral calcite, will also be significantly affected by colonies was held in seawater with pH 7.88 this reduction in carbonate saturation states and a treatment group in pH 7.65. Changes (Bostock et al. 2015). in growth and morphology, measurements of respiration and intracellular pH (pHi) were Habitat suitability models have been used to taken (Figure 3). Respiration and growth predict suitable environment for the corals rates were variable and not influenced by in the New Zealand region (Tracey et al., the reduced seawater pH. A loss in the 2011; Baird et al., 2013) and these, together colouration of coral skeletons was observed with model simulations used to represent in the treatment group and was attributed the current and future state of the to a loss of coral tissue (referred to as carbonate variables (Taylor et al. 2012), coenochyme or coenosarc) (Figure 3). This were used to predict changes in the regions finding could indicate a reallocation of coral distributions due to changing marine energy, allowing for the maintenance of environmental conditions (Anderson et al. those other physiological parameters 2015). From the work by Anderson et al. measured (e.g. growth and respiration (2015) we were able to show the predicted rates). Several studies show that deep-sea suitable environment for the Kermadec corals can maintain constant skeletal growth region for four species of stony coral as seawater pH declines. There are however (combined) (Figure 2). In the future implications for the functioning and vitality prediction scenario, (Figure 2, right panel)) of the coral if its skeleton is weakened, and there is a considerable reduction in habitat health jeopardised, through this loss in suitability for stony corals, 50-100 % skeletal tissue (Hennige et al. 2015). probability remains in a central portion of the ridge and at the northern limits. The The experimental research is an important remaining areas in the Kermadec region first step towards understanding the indicate low probability of these deep-sea sensitivity of deep-sea corals to ocean corals occurring by 2100. acidification and the potential for acclimation, and suggests that in many The predicted changes in suitable habitat for respects, S. variabilis might not be coral species can help inform environmental susceptible to end-of-century projections of managers which areas might act as possible ocean acidification. Nevertheless, the ‘sanctuaries’ or ‘refuges’ for these corals in observed tissue loss warrants further the future. investigation to assess its long-term implications. Furthermore, the impacts on corals at varying pH levels and temperature, and the interactive effects of other ecological parameters such as food availability, need to be tested.

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Protected coral communities on the Kermadec Volcanic Arc: recorded 2 and predicted distributions, and risks from ocean acidification

TABLE 1. Summary of the occurrence of protected corals (>200 m) in the Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary. FIGURE 2. Estimated Note: some groups have not been identified to genera or species, hence the total numbers do not necessarily probability of occurrence of equal the number of sample records suitable habitat for branching scleractinian coral species Order Common Number No of Number of Number of (Solenosmilia variabilis, Name of Families samples samples Goniocorella dumosa, Enallopsammia rostrata, and samples represented (number of (number of Madrepora oculata) from Genera (G) (spp) Boosted Regression Tree represented represented habitat suitability models. Left Scleractinia Stony 154 11 21 (7 G.) 136 (55 spp) panel: present day; Right branching / panel: 2100 AD. Habitat suitability is predicted cup corals between 200-2000m only. Alcyonacea Gorgonian 240 8 161 (39 G.) 47 (19 spp) (Maps reproduced from octocorals Anderson et al. 2015 with Antipatharia Black corals 43 5 21 (9 G.) 21 (11 spp) permission from DOC). Calcified 66 1 18 (7 G.) 42 (12 spp) hydrocorals ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS D.A. (2016). Field validation of habitat suitability We thank our numerous NIWA colleagues models for vulnerable marine ecosystems in the who have participated on voyages in the South Pacific Ocean: Implications for the use of Kermadec region, and helped collect data broad-scale models in fisheries management. Ocean and Coastal Management 120: 110–126. and Sadie Mills (NIWA) for extracting data from NIWA’s Invertebrate Collection Baird, S.J., Tracey D., Mormede, S., Clark, M. database, We acknowledge the CSP Group, (2013). The distribution of protected corals in New Department of Conservation that allowed us Zealand waters. Research report for the to produce the Kermadec figures from our Department of Conservation. Available for download from previous modelling work and the Ministry of http://www.doc.govt.nz/publications/conservatio Primary Industries (MPI) for funding the n/marine-and-coastal/conservationservices- ocean acidification experiment. Ashley programme/csp-reports/distribution-of- Rowden (NIWA) provided very useful protected-corals/ comments on this report and we thank him Bostock, H.C., Tracey, D.M., Currie, K.I., Dunbar, for his input. Finally we acknowledge the G.B., Handler, M.R., Mikaloff Fletcher, S.E., Smith, Pew Environment Group for the opportunity A.M., Williams, M.J.M. (2015). The carbonate to participate in the symposium. mineralogy and distribution of habitat-forming deep-sea corals in the Southwest Pacific region, Deep-Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic REFERENCES Research Papers, 100: 88-104. Anderson, O., Tracey, D., Bostock, H., Williams, M., Brook, F. J. (1999). The coastal scleractinian coral Clark, M. (2014). Refined habitat suitability fauna of the Kermadec Islands, southwestern modelling for protected coral species in the New Pacific Ocean, Journal of the Royal Society of Zealand EEZ. NIWA Client Report prepared for New Zealand, 29 (4): 435 - 460. Department of Conservation. WLG2014-69. 28 p. Clark, M. R., Rowden, A. A. (2009). Effect of Anderson, O., Mikaloff-Fletcher, S., Bostock, H. deepwater trawling on the macro-invertebrate (2015). Development of models for predicting assemblages of seamounts on the Chatham Rise, future distributions of protected coral species in New Zealand. Deep Sea Research Part I: the New Zealand Region. Research Report for Oceanographic Research Papers, 56: 1540-1554. Marine Species and Threats, Department of Conservation. NIWA Client Report No: WLG2015- Clark, M.R., Althaus, F, Schlacher, T., Williams, A., 65. Bowden, D., Rowden, A.A. (2015). The impacts of deep-sea fisheries on benthic communities: a Anderson, O.F., Guinotte, J.M., Rowden, A.A., review. ICES Journal of Marine Science 73 Clark, M.R., Mormede, S., , A.J., Bowden, (Suppl.1): 51-69. doi: 10.1093/icesjms/fsv123

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FIGURE 3. Solenosmilia variablis colony prior to experiment (A) and after six months of exposure (B) to a reduced pH treatment. Note a visible loss in the pink colouration at the branch tips. (C) shows colony in respiration chamber during OA experiment to ascertain impacts of changing pH. (Images NIWA and Malindi Gammon)

Clark, M.R., Rowden, A.A., Lamarche, G. (2016). Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, Deep-sea benthic sampling in the Kermadec 90: 1467-1485. region: recent research efforts and the need for a coordinated and integrated approach to future Tracey, D.M., Clark, M.C., Beaumont, J., Rowden, sampling. In B Golder and A Connell (Eds.) A.A., Consalvey, M., Schnabel, K. (2010). Proceedings of Kermadec – Discoveries and Invertebrate communities associated with Connections. Paper presented at Kermadec – seamounts on the Kermadec volcanic arc. In: Discoveries and Connections, Wellington, New DEEP: Talks and thoughts celebrating New Zealand (12-15pp). The Pew Charitable Trusts. Zealand’s untouched diversity in the Kermadecs. The Pew Environment Group. pp. 59-61. Gammon, M.J. (2016). Corals and carbon: The Tracey, D.M., Rowden, A.A., Mackay, K.A., physiological response of a protected deep-sea Compton, T. (2011). Habitat-forming cold-water coral (Solenosmilia variabilis) to ocean corals show affinity for seamounts in the New acidification. A thesis submitted to Victoria Zealand region. Marine Ecology Progress Series University of Wellington in partial fulfilment of the 430: 1–22. requirements for the degree of Masters of Science in Marine Biology. 112 p. Tracey, D., Bostock, H., Currie, K., Mikaloff- Fletcher, S., Williams, M., Hadfield, M., Neil, H., Guy, Hennige, S.J., Wicks, L.C., Kamenos, N.A., Perna, C., Cummings, V. (2013). The potential impact of G., Findlay, H.S., Roberts, J.M. (2015). Hidden ocean acidification on deep-sea corals and impacts of ocean acidification to live and dead fisheries habitat in New Zealand waters. New coral framework. Proceedings of the Royal Zealand Aquatic Environment and Biodiversity Society B 282: 20150990. Report No. 117. 101 p. Manuscript 2695 ISBN 978- http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2015.0990 0-478-42099-9. Rowden, A. A., Clark, M. R., Lundquist, C. J., Tracey. D., Cummings, V., Barr, N., Moss, G., Neil, Guinotte, J. M., Anderson, O. F., Julian, K. A., H., Marriott, P., Davy, S., Gammon, M. (2014). Mackay, K. A., Tracey, D. M., Gerring, P. K. (2015). Deep-sea coral live tank experiment. Final Developing spatial management options for the Research Report to MPI Project SEA201301 Task protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems in the CORALS. 9 p. South Pacific Ocean region. New Zealand Aquatic Environment and Biodiversity Report 155. 76 p. Taylor, K.E., Stouffer, R.J., Meehl G.M. (2012). An overview of CMIP5 and the experiment design.

Appendix 1: Coral fauna in the Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary (as of Feb 2016). For completeness protected and un-protected forms (soft corals, zoanthids, and sea pens) are also listed.

Order Common names Family Genus Species Count 6 Alcyonacea 14 Gorgonian Acanthogorgiidae 1 Acanthogorgid Acanthogorgia 21 Soft corals Alcyoniidae Anthomastus 9 Bathyalcyon 1 Anthothelidae Victorgorgia Gorgonian Golden Chrysogorgiidae 1 corals Chrysogorgia 13 Iridogorgia 2 Isidoides 1 Isidoides armata 2

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Protected coral communities on the Kermadec Volcanic Arc: recorded and predicted distributions, and risks from ocean acidification Order Common names Family Genus Species Count Metallogorgia 1 Precious corals Coralliidae 2 Corallium 20 Hemicorallium 7 Hemicorallium abyssale 1 Hemicorallium imperiale 3 Hemicorallium laauense 2 Paracorallium 2 Gorgonian Gorgoniidae 3 Bamboo corals Isididae 4 Acanella 3 Isidella 1 Keratoisis 10 Keratoisis hikurangiensis 2 Keratoisis peara 1 Lepidisis 9 Orstomisis crosnieri 2 Nephtheidae 2 Drifa 1 Nidaliidae Chironephthya 2 Bubblegum corals Paragorgiidae Sibogagorgia tautahi 1 Plexaurid sea fans Plexauridae 21 Anthomuricea 5 Bebryce 2 Euplexaura 1 Muriceides 1 Paracis 12 Paramuricea 1 Placogorgia 2 Scleracis 1 Swiftia 1 Villogorgia 2 Primnoids sea fans, Primnoidae 3 sea whips Callogorgia 6 Calyptrophora 18 Calyptrophora clinata 2 Calyptrophora cucullata 5 Calyptrophora diaphana 2 Calyptrophora wyvillei 2 Candidella helminthophora 2 Fanellia 3 Narella 10 Narella clavata 3 Narella hypsocalyx 2 Narella parva 3 Narella studeri 3 Narella vulgaris 5 Primnoella distans 4 Thouarella 3 Taiaroiidae Taiaroa tauhou 1 19 Anthoathecata Calcified Stylasteridae 6 hydrocorals Calyptopora 1 Calyptopora reticulata 1 Conopora 4 Conopora laevis 11 Conopora verrucosa 3 Crypthelia 4 Crypthelia polypoma 1 Crypthelia studeri 3 Errina 1 Errina sinuosa 10 Inferiolabiata 1 Lepidopora 1 Lepidopora microstylus 1 Lepidopora sarmentosa 1

33 c

Protected coral communities on the Kermadec Volcani Arc: recorded and predicted distributions, and risks from ocean acidification Order Common names Family Genus Species Count Lepidotheca altispina 2 Stylaster 6 Stylaster eguchii 1 Stylaster imbricatus 1 Stylaster sinuosa 7

Antipatharia Black corals 1 Antipathidae Antipathes 1 Antipathes gracilis 3 Antipathes leptocrada 2 Antipathes plana 1 Antipathes valdiviae 1 Stichopathes 5 Stichopathes variabilis 5 Aphanipathidae Acanthopathes undulata 3 Asteriopathes 1 Phanopathes zealandica 1 Leiopathidae Leiopathes 3 Leiopathes bullosa 1 Schizopathidae Bathypathes 1 Bathypathes patula 1 Stauropathes 1 Stylopathidae Stylopathes 8 Stylopathes columnaris 1 Stylopathes tenuispina 2

Coronatae Thecate hydroids Nausithoe 1 Aglaopheniidae Lytocarpia alata 1 Campanulinidae 2 Halopterididae Corhiza scotiae 1 Lafoeidae Acryptolaria 2 Acryptolaria conferta 2 Acryptolaria crassicaulis 1 Acryptolaria patagonica 3 Cryptolaria pectinata 3 Cryptolaria pectinata Lafoea dumosa 1 Zygophylax 1 Zygophylax sibogae 3 Zygophylax tizardensis 3 Plumulariidae Plumularia 1

Pennatulacea Sea pen Umbellulidae Umbellula 1

Scleractinia Stony corals, 2 branching and cup form Agariciidae Leptoseris papyracea 1 Anthemiphyllidae Anthemiphyllia dentata 2 Anomocora fecunda 1 Aulocyathus recidivus 1 Bourneotrochus stellulatus 1 Caryophyllia 5 Caryophyllia ambrosia 1 Caryophyllia diomedeae 4 Caryophyllia elongata 2 Caryophyllia hawaiiensis 1 Caryophyllia lamellifera 1 Caryophyllia rugosa 5 Caryophyllia scobinosa 3 Conotrochus brunneus 3 Crispatotrochus rugosus 1 Deltocyathus 1 Deltocyathus formosus 4 Desmophyllum cristagalli 1 Desmophyllum dianthus 6 Goniocorella dumosa 2 Labyrinthocyathus limatulus 1

34

Protected coral communities on the Kermadec Volcanic Arc: recorded and predicted distributions, and risks from ocean acidification Order Common names Family Genus Species Count Polycyathus 1 Solenosmilia variabilis 6 Stephanocyathus coronatus 1 Stephanocyathus regius 1 Stephanocyathus spiniger 2 Tethocyathus virgatus 2 Trochocyathus cepulla 1 Trochocyathus gordoni 4 Trochocyathus hastatus 2 Vaughanella multipalifera 2 Vaughanella oreophila 1 Dendrophylliidae Balanophyllia 3 Balanophyllia crassitheca 2 Dendrophyllia alcocki 7 Dendrophyllia arbuscula 1 Eguchipsammia fistula 4 Eguchipsammia gaditana 2 Eguchipsammia japonica 3 Enallopsammia rostrata 8 Flabellidae 2 Flabellum aotearoa 1 Flabellum hoffmeisteri 4 Flabellum knoxi 1 Flabellum lowekeyesi 1 Flabellum messum 3 Javania lamprotichum 2 Javania pachytheca 3 Polymyces wellsi 6 Rhizotrochus flabelliformis 1 Truncatoflabellum arcuatum 4 Fungiidae Fungiacyathus margaretae 1 Fungiacyathus pusillus pacificus 2 Fungiacyathus stephanus 1 Gardineriidae Gardineria 2 Guyniidae Stenocyathus vermiformis 5 Micrabaciidae Letepsammia formosissima 3 Micrabaciidae Letepsammia superstes 2 Oculinidae Madrepora 2 Madrepora oculata 6 85 Zoantharia Zoanthids 2 Epizoanthidae Epizoanthus 1 Epizoanthidae Epizoanthus paguriphilus 1 Parazoanthidae Savalia 1 Zoanthidae 1

35 000 an ew f t e t K 10, m under the sea: overvi oMills S.,he LeducHADES D., Drazen J. C., Yanceyxpedition P., Jamieson A. J.,o Clark M.ermadec R., Rowden A. A., Mayor D. J., Piertney S., Heyl T., Bartlett D., Bourque J., Cho W., TrenchDemopoulos A., Fryer P., Gerringer M., Grammatopoulou E., Herrera S., Ichino M., Lecroq B., Linley T. D., Meyer K., Nunnally C., Ruhl H., Wallace G., Young C. and Shank T. M.

MILLS S., LEDUC D., CLARK M. R., The of the world oceans (6000– scientific team of 33 scientists from 11 ROWDEN A. A. 11,000 m) occupies <1 % of the marine realm different institutions were onboard. There NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF WATER & and is found almost exclusively in trenches were six specific expedition goals: ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH, but represents ~40% of the total ocean WELLINGTON, NZ depth range. Jamieson et al. (2010 & 1. Determine the composition, abundance, [email protected] Jamieson, 2015) have reviewed the current and diversity (i.e., community structure) of DRAZEN J. C., FRYER P, state of knowledge about the hydrology, mega-, macro-, and meiofauna at 1000m GERRINGER M., NUNNALLY C. physical characteristics, food supply, intervals from 4000m to 10,000m along the DEPARTMENT OF OCEANOGRAPHY, ecology and biodiversity of life in hadal Kermadec Trench axis and the adjacent UNIVERSITY OF AT MANOA, trenches. This review concluded that, there ; HONOLULU, HI, USA appears to be a high level of endemism YANCEY P., WALLACE G. based on the few specimens collected from 2. Quantify the distribution of particulate BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT, WHITMAN historical sampling efforts in the 1950s organic carbon and bacterial biomass in the COLLEGE, WALLA WALLA, WA, USA Galathea Vitjaz Kermadec Trench and adjacent abyssal JAMIESON A. J., (Danish and Soviet environment; GRAMMATOPOULOU E., LINLEY T. expeditions), but because trenches are still D. largely unexplored there is a lot we do not 3. Relate carbon/biomass distribution to OCEANLAB, UNIVERSITY OF know about the ecological structure and faunal community structure, depth and ABERDEEN, NEWBURGH, UK functioning of hadal environments. topography in these environments; MAYOR D. J., ICHINO M., RUHL H. However, relatively recent advances in NATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHY technology using remotely operated 4. Determine whether the topographic CENTRE, SOUTHAMPTON, UK vehicles (ROV) and landers can help us PIERTNEY S. explore hadal trenches in greater detail. features of the Kermadec Trench and INSTITUTE OF BIOLOGICAL & adjacent abyssal plain and/or depth ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES, Through funding by the US National Science variation (and their predicted environmental UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN, UK Foundation, the Hadal Ecosystems Studies heterogeneities) promote speciation, HEYL T., HERRERA S., SHANK T. M. (HADES) research programme has principal endemism and/or genetic divergence BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT, WOODS investigators from seven institutions from through genetic isolation of multiple species’ HOLE OCEANOGRAPHIC around the world, and aims to examine: (1) populations; INSTITUTION, WOODS HOLE, MA, the composition and distribution of hadal USA species, (2) physiological adaptations of 5. Determine if the metabolic/respiration BARTLETT D. hadal organisms to extreme pressures, (3) rates of Kermadec Trench fauna relate to SCRIPPS INSTITUTION OF relationships between food supply and the depth or resource availability; OCEANOGRAPHY, UNIVERSITY OF abundance and biomass of trench CALIFORNIA SAN DIEGO, LA JOLLA organisms, (4) metabolic rates/energetic 6. Determine species-specific depth-related CA, , USA demands of trench biota, and (5) the role of responses to pressure- via counteracting BOURQUE J., DEMOPOULOS A. depth and topography on genetic osmolytes ("piezolytes"). U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, divergence and spatial connectivity of WETLAND AND AQUATIC Thirteen sampling sites at 4000 to 10,000 m trench populations. The programme was RESEARCH CENTER, GAINESVILLE, depths along the trench axis and adjacent designed to be highly collaborative and FL, USA abyssal plain were planned to provide multidisciplinary and initiate a ‘global tour’ CHO W. contrasts between abyssal and hadal of the world’s little known hadal trenches, POINT LOMA NAZARENE environments (Fig. 1). Sampling was to be using the world’s first full-ocean depth UNIVERSITY, SAN DIEGO, CA, USA conducted mainly using the hybrid remotely hybrid ROV in conjunction with full-ocean LECROQ B. operated vehicle Nereus, as well as landers depth elevators and imaging landers. JAPAN AGENCY FOR MARINE- with baited video cameras, fish/amphipod EARTH SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, traps and water samplers, and a megafaunal JAPAN In April 2014 the research vessel Thomas G. respirometer deployed via an ‘elevator’, OKINAWA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & Thompson set sail from Auckland, New which also had water sampling bottles TECHNOLOGY GRADUATE Zealand on a 40-day expedition to explore onboard (Fig 2.). UNIVERSITY, OKINAWA, JAPAN one of the world’s deepest hadal trenches, MEYER K., YOUNG C. the Kermadec Trench. An international OREGON INSTITUTE OF MARINE BIOLOGY, CHARLESTON, OR, USA

36 0

10,00 m under the sea: an overview of the HADES 1 expedition to Kermadec Trench

The dive plan for Nereus included suction rarely collected hadal species were amongst sampling of benthic invertebrates for the samples. The snail fish, Notoliparis FIGURE 1. Planned HADES Kermadec sampling sites (red dots) along the experiments in the respirometer chambers kermadecensis was the most abundant fish trench axis and out along the abyssal and for specimen vouchers, coring to obtain collected in the trench, and all of them were plain. Credit: HADES Kermadec sediments, and video imaging transects. obtained from below 7000 m depth. There Expedition. also may be a new species of snail fish, and Several of the planned Nereus dives did not the specimens were amongst the deepest take place following a series of technical fish ever caught in the Kermadec Trench problems with the ROV, winch, fibre optic (7560 m). A single specimen of the cable, and crane, which along with some supergiant amphipod Alicella gigantea was bad weather, meant that the sampling plan also the deepest ever collected in the was delayed. There were four fully- Trench at 7200 m. A rare specimen of completed Nereus dives at 6000, 7000, prawn, possibly Benthesicymus crenatus, 8000, and 9000 m and two partial dives at was the first specimen of its species to be 4000 and 10,000 m. The final dive collected from the Trench. An undescribed culminated in the loss of the ROV at a depth anemone-like species of octocoral was of 9977 m, near the deepest point of the discovered at 8065 m, and a tube-forming Kermadec Trench. It is thought that the anemone described from the Kermadec vehicle imploded under the extreme Trench in 1956, Galatheanthemum hadale, pressure at that depth, and all that was was collected at 7133 m (Fig. 3). recovered of it were some pieces of floating plastic debris at the sea surface 24 hours The landers deployed at abyssal and hadal later. Despite the setbacks with the Nereus, depths returned over 14,000 images and 56 the research teams successfully deployed hours of video enabling the characterisation fish traps and landers at all planned depths, of bait-attending fauna and their features, measured hadal respiration in situ, including deep-sea fish zonation, feeding, and were able to collect a number of and swimming behaviours (Linley et al., specimens, sediment cores and many hours 2016). of camera footage. Sediment cores were obtained from four A total of 378 fish, invertebrate, sediment Nereus deployments between 6000–9000 and water sample lots were registered into m and are being used for a range of the HADES Specify database during the analyses including foraminiferal, macro- and expedition, which were split nearly 2000 meiofaunal community structure, ways for various analyses. The following biochemical composition and biomarkers, results are preliminary findings from metagenomic profiles of bacteria, cultures unpublished voyage reports: of extremophilic trench microbes and physical sediment characteristics. Sixty-seven specimens of fish were kept as morphological vouchers comprising eight The cellular salt–water balancing ‘species’ or operational taxonomic units piezolyte/osmolyte trimethylamine N-oxide (OTUs). Some of these fish are likely to be (TMAO) was successfully extracted from undescribed species. A total of 160 lots fish from a range of depths and tissue (6402 specimens) of invertebrates concentrations were found to increase representing 57 OTUs were kept as linearly with depth as predicted (Linley et morphological vouchers. Most of the al., 2016). Body wall tissues and fluids were invertebrates were bait-attending extracted from a number of invertebrate amphipods from the fish trap and Hadal- taxa and frozen for further analyses of lander deployments, but several new and osmolyte content.

37 0

10,00 m under the sea: an overview of the HADES 2expedition to Kermadec Trench 3

Samples of invertebrate gonads were biodiversity, structure and functioning of a FIGURE 2. Gear types used on dissected and fixed in either gluteraldehyde range of deep-sea habitats around New the HADES Kermadec Trench Expedition. Clockwise from and then post-fixed in osmium tetraoxide Zealand made through other NIWA deep- left: The Elevator (carries for transmission electron microscopy, or in sea research programmes. water sampling bottles and formalin for paraffin histology, to examine the respirometer chambers), gonad ultrastructure. These preparations ACKNOWLEDGMENTS large and small fishtraps, will help researchers to understand the HADES project is an international Abyssal-lander, Hadal-lander collaborative effort funded by the Biological (with amphipod trap), HROV reproductive mechanisms employed by Nereus. Credit: HADES hadal invertebrates and will provide insights Oceanography Program of the US National Kermadec Trench Expedition, into population connectivity and the Science Foundation (OCE-1131620 to TMS). WHOI (Nereus image). potential for speciation in trenches. NIWA staff time onboard was provided by the project ‘Impact of resource use on FIGURE 3. Examples of Respiration rates of eleven from vulnerable deep-sea communities’ project invertebrate fauna collected on the HADES Kermadec seven taxa were successfully recorded in- (CO1X0906), funded by the New Zealand Trench Expedition. Clockwise situ at 4000, 7000, and 8000 m. These Foundation for Research, Science and from top left: Prawn, rates represent the first in-situ Technology. Heartfelt thanks to all crew, Benthesicymus ?crenatus measurements below 4000 m, and science, engineering and technical staff and Spence Bate, 1881, total length combined with biomass suggest higher students onboard the R/V Thomas G. (TL): 19.1 cm, from 6061 m; Super giant amphipod, Alicella megafaunal community respiration than Thompson. gigantea Chevreux, 1899, TL: anticipated (Nunnally et al. submitted). 18.25 cm, from 7200 m; Tube- REFERENCES forming anemone, A total of 24,748 subsamples or whole Jamieson, A., Fujii, T., Mayor, D. J., Solan, M., Galatheanthemum ?hadale individuals of megafauna specimens, 98 % Priede, I. G. (2010). Hadal trenches: the ecology of Carlgren, 1956, collected at of which were bait attracted amphipods, the deepest places on Earth. Trends in Ecology & 7133 m; Undescribed octocoral Evolution 25(3):190–197. species, TL: 39 mm, from 8065 and seven sediment cores were preserved m. Photo credits: Kerry for analyses. Jamieson, A. J. (2015). The hadal zone: life in the McCulloch, WHOI, HADES deepest oceans. Cambridge University Press. 382p. Kermadec expedition Nine hour-long video transects of the seafloor were recorded by Nereus between Linley, T.D., Gerringer, M.E. Yancey, P.H., Drazen, 4000–10,000 m. Initial observations indicate J.C. Weinstock, C.L., Jamieson A.J. (2016). Fishes of the hadal zone: New observations and updated relatively high heterogeneity in substrate assessment of hadal fishes and a new snailfish types and megafaunal communities (Liparidae) seen at 8145 m in the . between sites. Deep-Sea Research I, doi:10.1016/j.dsr.2016.05.003. Further analyses and at least 35 collaborative scientific papers are planned, Nunnally C., Friedman J. R., Drazen J. C. (submitted). Respiration of hadal invertebrates and initial results from this expedition measured in situ in the Kermadec trench. Deep- suggest that trench ecosystems are more Sea Research I. complex and varied than previously thought. There are plans under consideration for the development of new hadal assets, including a full-ocean depth vehicle capable of remote-operation, to be constructed by the WHOI in future. Samples from this expedition will complement those from sampling efforts in other trenches, for example the HADES Mariana Trench expedition, which was completed in November 2014. The HADES expeditions will provide a more comprehensive picture of the biodiversity found in trenches, and in particular the results from the Kermadec Trench will add to our knowledge of the

38 un m li i t s The seen ultitude: fe n he sediment of Kermadec and Tonga trenchesDaniel Leduc, Ashley A Rowden, Malcolm R Clark

INTRODUCTION the deepest sediment cores ever analysed DANIEL LEDUC, ASHLEY A Animal life in marine sediments is anywhere, which therefore contributed ROWDEN, MALCOLM R dominated by small organisms (meiofauna) precious new data on life in extreme CLARK barely visible to the naked eye. These environments. NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF animals are surprisingly diverse, and none WATER & ATMOSPHERIC more so than nematode worms, which can MEIOFAUNA OF THE KERMADEC AND RESEARCH, WELLINGTON, be represented by over 100 species in a TONGA TRENCHES NEW ZEALAND [email protected] single handful of mud. Nematodes and other The meiofauna of Kermadec and Tonga meiofauna are common throughout the trenches was dominated by nematode world’s oceans from shallow coastal habitats worms (Figure 1), which comprised over to the abyss (Giere 2009). However our 95% of the meiofauna, but other organisms knowledge of this group in New Zealand such as copepod cructaceans were also waters remains limited, particularly in present. Larger sediment fauna (or remote habitats such as the Kermadec macrofauna), which are typically common in Trench. shallower environments, were rare in the trench, and were represented by a few Deep trench environments between 6000 bivalve molluscs and juvenile annelid worms. and 11 000 metres depths represent the last This finding is consistent with observations frontier in marine exploration. Early in other deep-sea environments across the sampling expeditions in the trenches globe which show that the average size of focused on the relatively large fauna, but it fauna tends to decrease with increasing wasn’t until the 1960s that meshes fine water depth, presumably due to decreasing enough for retaining the small meiofaunal availability of food resources (Rex et al. organisms were used. Until recently, no 2006). The abundance of meiofauna, sediment cores had ever been obtained however, was surprisingly high, and ranged from the Kermadec Trench, or from the from tens of thousands of individuals per neighbouring to the north, square metre of sediment to almost half a meaning that the most abundant million per square metre in the Horizon component of the fauna in these trenches Deep) (Figure 2). The presence of such high had not yet been investigated at all. A densities in Horizon Deep was unexpected, research cruise to Tonga Trench in 2013 (led and indicates the presence of relatively high by the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth concentrations of food resources in the Science & Technology, JAMSTEC) and sediment (Leduc et al. in press). Although another to the Kermadec Trench in 2014 (led the reasons for this high food availability are by the Woods Hole Oceanographic yet to be confirmed, they are likely to be Institution, WHOI), provided the first related to the funnelling effect of the steep opportunities to obtain quantitative samples topography of the trench, which may act to from the deepest parts of these ecosystems concentrate fine food particles at the and describe their meiofaunal communities. deepest point (Ichino et al. 2015). Similar Sampling was conducted using a hadal processes occur at a smaller scale in lander, JAMSTEC’s manned submersible submarine canyons along the margins of Shinkai 6500 (capable of diving to a depth (De Leo et al. 2010). of 6500 m), and WHOI’s remotely operated vehicle Nereus (capable to dive to the There was no consistent depth-related deepest parts of the oceans at about 11 000 trends in meiofauna abundance in the m). Sampling in the Tonga Trench was trenches but a positive correlation was conducted in Horizon Deep at 10 800 m, the found between the concentration of pollen world’s second deepest point in the ocean, in the sediments and the abundance of and on the edge of the trench at about 6250 meiofauna (Figure 3). This finding indicates m. In Kermadec Trench, cores were that pollen may be a good indicator of food collected at 6000, 7000, 8000, and 9000 m availability and/or that wind-dispersed depths. These sampling expeditions yielded terrestrial organic matter itself makes an

39

d The unseen multitude: life in the sediments 1of Kermadec an Tonga trenches 2

important contribution to the diet of animals where potential amphipod crustacean hosts FIGURE 1. Newly discovered living in trenches. Detailed comparisons are also common (Leduc & Wilson 2016). nematode species from using scanning electron microscopy showed Kermadec Trench, that much of the pollen in both Kermadec FUTURE RESEARCH Manganonema rowdeni. This and Tonga trenches originated from pine The results presented here demonstrate that genus is exclusively found in (Pinus radiata), most likely from forests in the fauna of trench habitats is largely deep-sea habitats and feeds northeastern New Zealand (Figure 4). dominated by the small sediment fauna, on bacteria. Although pollen is relatively common in which remains poorly known relative to the larger fauna. Many basic ecological FIGURE 2. Mean abundance of deep-sea sediments near continents questions remain unanswered: for example meiofauna at the two Tonga (Crouch et al. 2010), the presence of Pinus Trench study sites (6250 and radiata pollen over 3000 km away from the how do meiofauna communities differ 10 800 m), expressed as nearest source, and at such great depths, between trench and abyssal plain number of individuals per provides tantalising hints of anthropogenic environments, and among trenches? What square metre of sediment. influence in environments we may have environmental/evolutionary factors may be Error bars are standard thought were too remote to ever be driving variation in meiofaunal communities deviations from the mean impacted by human activities. If pollen can within trenches? It is hoped that future accumulate in deep trench environments, sampling expeditions to the Kermadec and what else might possibly make its way Tonga trenches, preferably with the there? Sadly, unpublished data collected by involvement of New Zealand researchers, researchers of the University of Aberdeen continue to expand their focus to include suggests that some pollutants are present in the smallest, but most abundant and trenches (A. Jamieson, pers. com.), which diverse, components of seabed illustrates just how tightly interconnected all communities. of the world’s ecosystems are. REFERENCES The diversity of trench meiofauna was high, Crouch, E.M., Mildenhall, D.C., Neil, H.L. (2010). with a total of 55 nematode species present Distribution of organic-walled marine and in Tonga Trench samples and 109 nematode terrestrial palynomorphs in surface sediments, offshore eastern New Zealand. Marine Geology species in Kermadec Trench samples. These 270: 235-256. records represent a substantial addition to the known species diversity in trench De Leo, F.C., Smith, C.R., Rowden, A.A., Bowden, habitats; for example, only a dozen or so D.A., Clark, M.R. (2010). Submarine canyons: animal species had been reported from hotspots of benthic biomass and productivity in the deep sea. Proceedings of the Royal Society B Horizon Deep previously, and the analysis of Biological Sciences 277: 2783-2792. four core samples yielded an additional 36 nematode species. Most nematode species Giere, O. (2009). Meiobenthology: the appear to be new to science but belong to microscopic motile fauna of aquatic sediments, families often recorded from other deep-sea second ed. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. environments. So far, eleven new nematode Ichino, M.C., Clark, M.R., Drazen, J.C., Jamieson, A., species and two new genera have been , D.O.B., Martin, A.P., Rowden, A.A., Shank, described and several more await T.M., Yancey, P.H., Ruhl, H.A. (2015). The description (Leduc 2015a, b). A parasitic distribution of benthic biomass in hadal trenches: nematode species was also discovered a modelling approach to investigate the effect of vertical and lateral organic matter transport to the inside amphipod in Kermadec seafloor. Deep-Sea Research I 100: 21-33. Trench (7000-10 000 m); this new find represents the first record of a parasite Leduc , D. (2015a). One new genus and five new beyond 6000 m depth anywhere in the nematode species (Monhysterida, Xyalidae) from world (Figure 5). It is likely that similar Tonga and Kermadec trenches, Southwest Pacific. Zootaxa 3964: 501-525. parasites will be found in other trenches

40

d 4 The unseen multitude: life in the sediments 3 of Kermadec an Tonga trenches

Leduc, D. (2015b). New species of Thelonema, 5 Metasphaerolaimus, and Monhystrella (Nematoda, Monhysterida) from Kermadec Trench, Southwest Pacific. European Journal of 158: 1-19. Leduc, D., Wilson, J. (2016). Benthimermithid nematode parasites of the amphipod Hirondellea dubia in the Kermadec Trench. Parasitology Research 115: 1675-1682. Leduc, D., Rowden, A.A., Glud, R.N., Wenzhofer, F., Kitazato, H., Clark, M.R. (in press). Comparisons between infaunal communities of the deep floor and edge of the Tonga Trench: possible effects of differences in organic matter. Deep-Sea Research I. doi:10.1016/j.dsr.2015.11.003 Rex, M.A., Etter, R.J., Morris, J.S., Crouse, J., McClain, C.R., Johnson, N.A., Stuart, C.T., Deming, J.W., Thies, R., Avery, R. (2006). Global bathymetric patterns of standing stock and body size in the deep-sea benthos. Marine Ecology Progress Series 317: 1-8. FIGURE 3. Relationship between abundance of pine pollen in the sediments and the abundance of fauna in the Kermadec (empty circles) and Tonga trenches (filled circles).

FIGURE 4. Scanning electron micrograph of a pine (Pinus radiata) pollen from Horizon Deep sediments in Tonga Trench (10 800 m), which likely originated from more than 3000 km away in northeastern New Zealand. The maximum width of the pollen is about 70 microns.

FIGURE 5. Freshly caught amphipod crustacean from 7250 m in the Kermadec Trench. This specimen is parasitized by several spaghetti-like nematodes which can be seen through the amphipod’s cuticle. The amphipod measures about 15 mm in length.

41 2005 g c

Rin of Fire – Kermade - Tonga Arc

Terryexpedition Kerby – A pilot’s tale

TERRY KERBY In April of 2005, the New Zealand American had developed in the center of the caldera. HAWAI’I UNDERSEA Submarine Ring of Fire 2005 voyage Pisces V explored the caldera and new cone RESEARCH LABORATORY departed from Pago Pago, . and discovered unique areas such as “Eel (HURL), SCHOOL OF OCEAN The aim of the expedition was to explore the City” and the “Moat of Death”. Instruments AND EARTH SCIENCE AND geology, biology and chemistry of were placed on Vailulu’u on these initial TECHNOLOGY, UNIVERSITY submarine volcanoes along the largely dives, which were then collected at the end OF HAWAI’I, MANOA, HI unexplored Kermadec Arc. Using the of the expedition after three months of 96795, USA University of Hawai’i’s research ship RV recording. [email protected] Kaimikai-O-Kanaloa and the Pisces IV and Pisces V submersibles the expedition SEAMOUNT completed multiple dives on 13 active Diving on Monowai seamount was HURL’s submarine volcanoes. The expedition was first real exposure to dense hydrothermal the culmination of seafloor mapping and biota fields that would be observed oceanographic surveys conducted jointly by throughout the Kermadec volcanoes. Areas New Zealand and U.S. scientists over 5 years of diffused venting and deposits were prior to the voyage. Two New Zealand surrounded by extraordinary bio-mass and Crown Research Institutes (Geological and bio-diversity such as mussels, tubeworms, Nuclear Sciences, or GNS, and National shrimp, vent fish, and the main predator, red Institute of Water and Atmospheric crabs, which were found in high densities, Research, or NIWA), and the NOAA Ocean not seen at other seamounts that were Exploration Program joined together to explored (Figure 1A). Only one part of provide the funding and scientific expertise Monowai volcano was explored on the edge to make the expedition possible. 58 of the massive caldera. The summit of the scientists from 21 participating institutes volcano was deemed too active to dive on. representing the disciplines of geology, chemistry and biology took part in the MACAULEY SEAMOUNT voyage. Macauley Seamount has a gigantic caldera with a small volcanic cone on one side. The The voyage used two human occupied dives on Macauley explored this cone, which submersibles, Pisces IV and V, to explore the had an 80m wide and 100m deep explosion undersea volcanoes. The Pisces crater on the top. The submersible was submersibles are rugged working class piloted down into this explosion crater, submersibles that are well suited for volcano where a sandy bottom, 30m wide, was exploration. The submersibles take a crew of discovered. Flatfish were found to be living three, one pilot and two passengers. The on this sandy bottom. The temperature in vehicles are rated for dives down to 2000m the sand was 158°C, and when the and have a working dive duration of eight temperature probe was removed sulfur hours. deposits squeezed out from the sand (Figure 1B). Prior to the 2005 Ring of Fire expedition the HURL submersible pilots and technicians GIGGENBACH SEAMOUNT had 15 years of experience diving on Giggenbach seamount was a relatively Hawaii’s active Loihi. shallow dive, at only 164m. Ambient light reached the summit, and schools of fish VAILULU’U SEAMOUNT were present. Several large, and very The expedition began with dives on curious, spotted black groupers followed the Vailulu’u Seamount, in American Samoa. submersible, interested in what they were Maps made of this seamount in 2000 up to. Evidence of past venting was found, showed a large caldera in the centre of the with old chimneys, and sulfur deposits volcano. Seabeam mapping from the KOK present. Towards the end of the dive, diffuse the night before first Pisces dive to the venting was found with large fields of volcano in 2005 revealed a 300m high cone thousands of mussels, which were covered

42 5 rc n 200 Ring of Fire – Kermadec - Tonga A 1 expeditio – A pilot’s tale

with a thick, white, stringy bacterial mat deep, with caldera walls between 400- (Figure 1C). 500m high. Inside this 3km wide caldera FIGURE 1. A) Spaghetti-like there is also a cone formation. Brothers was tubeworms happily living RUMBLE ‘V’ SEAMOUNT characterized by some extraordinary black amongst mussels, anemones, a Rumble V is a classic-looking volcano. A smoker chimneys, on the northern side of vent fish, and hungry crabs. Most of these animals are only cone that rises from the seabed at over 2 the caldera (Figure 1F). The water venting at found at seafloor hot spring kilometres water depth to a summit only this site was the hottest encountered at sites. metres across, that occurs at just less than 290°C. These temperatures are such that 400 metres beneath the surface of sea. A they can affect the rocks on the sea floor, B) Pisces V samples deposits mix of vent sites and typical (non- altering them such that their original of elemental sulfur (yellow) hydrothermally active) seamount features minerals are completely replaced by other, that were extruded on the were found, with large oval, orange sea different minerals which often results in the seafloor. urchins (reminiscent of cacti) living on rocks being a lighter colour than they were young basalt flows (Figure 3). Diffuse originally. C) The shallow depth to the venting areas were found and large beds of top of Giggenbach volcano mussels (different from those found on Overall, the success of the New Zealand (~100 m) meant that sunlight Monowai) were also seen. Evidence of American Submarine Ring of Fire 2005 penetrated the ocean, fishing activity on the top of Rumble ‘V’ was Expedition underscores the value of enabling Pisces V to navigate also found – lost lines festooned the top and international collaborations in ocean without its lights at times. were a real entanglement danger to the exploration, particularly those where both Pisces V submersible. partners bring expertise, resources and a D) Deep-sea urchins commitment to a multi-year effort to define (reminiscent of cacti) grow on CLARK SEAMOUNT sites for more focused exploration. The the lavas at Rumble V volcano. Clark Seamount had two peaks, relatively Pisces submersibles completed 61 of 56 This is the first time that this close to each other. Hydrothermal venting scheduled dives planned for the expedition. species has been observed was found at one peak, but not at the other. The discoveries made during the Kermadec alive on the seafloor At the peak with venting activity, two Arc expedition showed how unique these E) Iron precipitates grow in massive 6m tall sulfide chimneys were volcanoes and their chemosynthetic vent bizarre tubular twists at Healy found, with water temperatures up to 221°C communities are, and how much potential submarine volcano. measured at the base of the largest there is for more discoveries on those chimney. Large fields of barnacles extraordinary volcanoes yet to be explored. F) Metal rich high-temperature dominated the vent fauna here. At the venting on the northwest second peak, where there was no vent REFERENCE: caldera wall of Brothers activity, many brightly coloured corals and NOAA Ocean Explorer, New Zealand Volcano produces these black sea pens were discovered. American Submarine Ring of Fire 2005 - smoker chimneys. Images NZASRoF'05, accessed 18 May 2016. courtesy of New Zealand- HEALY SEAMOUNT http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations American Submarine Ring of Healy Volcano's main caldera and /05fire/welcome.html Fire 2005 Exploration, NOAA surrounding seafloor were littered with Vents Program. pumice fragments from its last major eruption, estimated to be less than 5000 years ago. The venting sites at Healy were covered with blankets of orange-red microbial mats and delicate and intricate chimneys composed of material rich in iron and silica (Figure 1E. The temperatures were relatively low, at only 34°C, and no large fauna was found to be associated with these vents.

BROTHERS SEAMOUNT Brothers is a caldera volcano, with the bottom of the caldera located at 1850m

43 s e Rate of specie fordiscovery rin coastal waters of th Kermadec Islands and

Tomopp Trnskiortunities and Clinton A J Duffy future esearch

TOM TRNSKI Scientific exploration of the biodiversity of as episodic as the opportunities for AUCKLAND WAR MEMORIAL the Kermadec Islands commenced in 1854 scientists to visit the islands with three main MUSEUM, AUCKLAND, NEW with a visit by John MacGillivray and John periods of increase in known species (Figure ZEALAND Milne, followed by deepwater exploration by 1): the 10-month long Oliver Expedition of [email protected] HMS Challenger (1874), and terrestrial and 1907-1908, multiple visits by staff from Leigh coastal exploration in 1887 by Thomas Marine Laboratory and the Department of CLINTON A J DUFFY Cheeseman during the annexation of the Conservation (DOC) between 1985 and 1995, DEPARTMENT OF islands by the on and the Kermadec Biodiscovery Expedition CONSERVATION, AUCKLAND, behalf of the English empire. It was almost 2011 (which included results of a preceding NEW ZEALAND. 100 years later, in 1984, before the first visit by DOC, NIWA and National Museum of dedicated coastal marine survey was New Zealand scientists in 2004). This data undertaken by Howard Choat, Mike was derived from an annotated checklist of Kingsford and David Schiel from Auckland marine species first published by Duffy and University’s Leigh Marine Laboratory; this Ahyong (2015), and updated as additional survey was cut short due to the sinking species are recorded from the Kermadec shortly after their arrival of their research Islands. vessel in Boat Cove, Raoul Island. Subsequent visits to the islands have been The rate of species discovery has been highly episodic and opportunitistic due to highly variable depending on the taxon. the remoteness of the islands and expense Examining some of these in detail provides a of supporting research at the islands (Trnski long-term perspective on the factors that & de Lange, 2015). influence knowledge of biodiversity from an area. In May, 2011, the largest biodiversity survey of the islands was led by the Auckland Considering the single-celled organisims, Museum: the Kermadec Biodiscovery almost all of the Foraminifera known were Expedition 2011 (Trnski & de Lange, 2015). recorded in a single monograph (Hayward This expedition brought together 13 et al., 1999). Dinoflagellates have only scientists, a photographer and science recently been recorded (Wicks et al., 2010) journalist to build on existing knowledge of but they do include several species that the biodiversity of the islands and report on produce ciguatera toxins (Rhodes et al., their discoveries (Trnski & Schlumpf, 2015). 2014). Authors in this bulletin described 15 species new to science and recorded more than 350 The number of species of macroalgae species from the Kermadec Islands, and the recorded from the Kermadec Islands has New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone, for rapidly increased since the 1980s (Figure the first time. These samples continue to be 3).Macroalgae differ from mainland New studied by taxonomists and additional Zealand in that large brown kelps do not species have since been described, as have dominate, and about 50% of species at the additional species records been Kermadec Islands do not occur in mainland documented. The goal of these studies has New Zealand. There are strong affinities been to develop more accurate models of with tropical taxa and a low level of the relatedness, and the connectivity, endemism. Algal abundance and diversity is among the marine populations at the highly variable among seasons and years, Kermadec Islands to other islands in the with many species recorded from only a region, as well as to northern New Zealand. single specimen, thus estimates of diversity and relative abundance of species has been The documentation of marine species dependent upon infrequent opportunities recorded at the Kermadec Islands has been for collections.

44

Rate of species discovery in coastal waters of the Kermadec 1 2 Islands and opportunities for future research

Coastal sponge diversity appears to be low. to the small number of targetted collections, The first dedicated sponge survey of the but also the capacity for taxonomic FIGURE 1. Coastal marine species recorded from the Kermadec Islands by a sponge taxonomist expertise to study the samples. Kermadec Islands since the occurred in late 2015. This resulted in a 50% 1880s, within each decade increase in the species recorded from the Besides basic documentation of species until 2010, and from 2010 to islands (Figure 4), and work to confirm their known from the Kermadec Islands, these 2014, 2015 (the results of the identity is ongoing. studies provide a baseline to monitor Kermadec Biodiscovery changes in species distributions over time, Expedition 2011), and since 2015. Three significant phases Crustacean diversity recorded has increased especially as we move from a qualitative to of discovery coincide with rapidly in the last three decades as different more quantitaive approach to documenting major research effort in 1907- taxa are studied in detail (Figure 5). A major species distributions and abundance. Recent 1908, from 1984-1995, and in increase in known diversity resulted from genetic approaches provide novel insights 2004 and 2011. the Kermadec Biodiscovery Expedition 2011 into the biogeographic relationships of the FIGURE 2. Cumulative number which had a dedicated team of invertebrate Kermadec Islands, and their connection to of species of Foraminifera and collectors. other islands in the southwest Pacific region. dinoflagellates recorded from coastal waters of the Almost all known species of bryozoans NOTE Kermadec Islands since the known from the Kermadec Islands were Coastal waters are to a depth of 50 m. For 1880s. recorded in publications by Dennis Gordon this paper, it includes species with an in the 1980s (listed in Duffy & Ahyong, 2015) offshore distribution that may venture into (Figure 6). Similarly, a single publication by shallow coastal waters (e.g. tunas), but Fred Brook greatly increased the known excludes mesopelagic species that are species of coastal molluscs, and gastropods usually distributed in deep oceanic waters in particular (Brook, 1998) (Figure 7). (e.g. lanternfishes), even though they may occasionally be recorded in coastal waters And finally fish records continue to increase with subsequent visits (Figure 8). A visit by the senior author in late 2015 added another nine species to those recorded to date, an addition of about 6% to the known coastal fish fauna.

There are now over 1,750 coastal species recorded from the Kermadec Islands, and the rate of discovery is still increasing (Figre 9). As more surveys take place using alternative methods, many additional taxa will be recorded. Focus on poorly sampled groups will uncover more diversity, for example of nematodes, polychaetes and crustacea. Similarly, sampling midwater and pelagic habitats, and depths beyond 30 m diving depth has been rarely undertaken.

The common thread through this pattern of species discovery is that it has relied on a small number of individuals with limited resources and a high level of motivation to work in this remote area. But the opportunities for discovery are high, providing reward for biodiversity researchers. Progress, however, is slow due

45

Rate of species discovery in coastal waters of the Kermadec Islands3 and opportunities for future research 4

5 6

7 8

FIGURE 3. Cumulative number FIGURE 4. Cumulative number FIGURE 5. Cumulative number of species of macroalgae of species of sponges of species of crustaceans recorded from coastal waters recorded from coastal waters recorded from coastal waters of the Kermadec Islands since of the Kermadec Islands since of the Kermadec Islands since the 1880s. the 1880s. the 1880s.

FIGURE 6. Cumulative number FIGURE 7. Cumulative number FIGURE 8. Cumulative number of species of bryozoans of species of molluscs of species of fishes recorded recorded from coastal waters recorded from coastal waters from coastal waters of the of the Kermadec Islands since of the Kermadec Islands since Kermadec Islands since the the 1880s. the 1880s. 1880s.

46

Rate of species discovery in coastal waters of the Kermadec 9 Islands and opportunities for future research

REFERENCES Brook, F.J. (1998). The coastal molluscan fauna of FIGURE 9. Cumulative number the northern Kermadec Islands, southwest Pacific of species recorded from Ocean (includes Brook, F.J.; Marshall, B.A. coastal waters of the Checklist of benthic coastal marine chitons, Kermadec Islands since the bivalves, gastropods and of the 1880s. northern Kermadec Islands). Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 28: 185–233. Duffy, C.A.J. and S.T. Ahyong. (2015). Annotated checklist of the marine flora and fauna of the Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve and northern Kermadec Ridge, New Zealand. Auckland War Memorial Museum - Tāmaki Paenga Hira. Bulletin of the Auckland Museum 20: 19–124. Hayward, B.W., H.R. Grenfell, C.M. Reid and K.A.Hayward (1999). Recent New Zealand shallow-water benthic foraminifera: taxonomy, ecologic distribution, biogeography, and use in palaeoenvironmental assessment. Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences monograph 21: 1– 264. Rhodes, L., K. Smith, T. Harwood, and C. Bedford, (2014). Novel and toxin-producing epiphytic dinoflagellates isolated from sub-tropical Raoul Island, Kermadec Islands group. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 48: 594-599. Trnski, T. and P.J. de Lange (2015). Introduction to the Kermadec Biodiscovery Expedition 2011. Bulletin of the Auckland Museum 20: 1–18. Trnski, T. and H. A. Schlumpf (eds) (2015). I Kermadec Biodiscovery Expedition 2011. Bulletin of the Auckland Museum 20.

Wicks, L.C., E. Sampayo, J.P.A. Gardner and S.K. Davy (2010). Local endemicity gand hi h diversity characterize high-latitude coral-Symbiodinium partnerships. Coral Reefs DOI 10.1007/s00338- 010-0649-7.

47 K c co r an g The ermade rrido – important habitatMalcolm Francis, Clintonfor Duffymigratin, and John Holdsworthoceanic fishes?

MALCOLM FRANCIS The New Zealand Government intends to 1. What oceanic pelagic species occur in NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF establish a Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary FMA 10? WATER & ATMOSPHERIC (KOS) over the waters lying 12–200 nautical 2. How long do they reside there? RESEARCH, WELLINGTON, miles (22–370 km) from the Kermadec Islands. The KOS will encompass a large NEW ZEALAND 3. Where do they migrate from and to? [email protected] area of open ocean, and parts of two major submarine features, the Kermadec and 4. How important is the KOS to them? CLINTON DUFFY Colville ridges. All fishing is currently banned DEPARTMENT OF within the Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve These questions cannot yet be answered CONSERVATION, AUCKLAND, (the area within 12 n.m. of the Kermadec confidently. Here we review the available NEW ZEALAND Islands), and fishing on or within 100 m of information on the presence of pelagic UNIVERSITY OF AUCKLAND, the seabed is banned throughout the fishes in the Kermadec region, and their AUCKLAND, NEW ZEALAND Kermadec Benthic Protection Area (KBPA) movement through it. Relevant information (which extends to 200 n.m. from the comes from three main sources: (a) JOHN HOLDSWORTH Kermadec Islands)1. In the proposed KOS, commercial fishery data, (b) conventional BLUE WATER MARINE there will be a complete ban on fishing, tagging studies (using plastic tags), and (c) RESEARCH, NORTHLAND, which will extend the current BPA ban on electronic tagging studies (using satellite- NEW ZEALAND benthic fishing to other fisheries, including communicating tags). surface fisheries that exploit oceanic pelagic fishes. There is a large commercial longline fishery for albacore tuna in tropical waters north of Historical catches of pelagic fishes in New Zealand (mainly 10–30 oS), with Fisheries Management Area (FMA) 10 (New catches declining rapidly south of 30 oS Zealand fishery waters surrounding the (OFP-SPC and the WCPFC Secretariat Kermadec Islands out to 200 n.m.) have 2015).Seasonal variation in catch rates been small. In the period 2008–2003, only indicates that albacore make north-south 185 t of pelagic fishes were reported caught migrations (Langley & Hampton in the region (Ministry for Primary Industries, 2005).Catches in New Zealand waters are unpublished data). The catch comprised restricted to summer (Griggs et al. mostly swordfish (Xiphias gladius, 77 t), 2014),whereas catches in the latitude of the albacore tuna (Thunnus alalunga, 46 t), blue Kermadec region (25–35 oS) peak in shark (Prionace glauca, 25 t), bigeye tuna autumn–winter (Langley & Hampton 2005). (Thunnus obesus, 17 t) and moonfish Albacore tagged with conventional tags in (Lampris guttatus, 16 t). FMA 10 catches the South Pacific, including New Zealand, made up only 0.3–2.9% of the total New migrate north to the tropical Pacific (Labelle Zealand catches of those species, and came & Hampton 2003; Secretariat for the Pacific mainly from the south-west quadrant of Community unpubl. data).Similarly, FMA 10. Fishers holding quota for these conventional tagging of shortfin mako pelagic species are entitled to take their sharks (Isurus oxyrinchus) in New Zealand catch elsewhere in the New Zealand waters shows a strong movement Exclusive Economic Zone, and are not northwards to tropical regions, particularly restricted to FMA 10. to and New Caledonia, with a significant number also moving westward to eastern In order to inform the debate on the impact Australia (Holdsworth & Saul 2014). The of the KOS on pelagic fisheries, answers to New Zealand skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus the following questions are important: pelamis) purse seine fishery exploits schools of fish that migrate south from tropical waters in summer (Langley 2011).

1 Many other large, tropical, oceanic fishes Fisheries (Benthic Protection Areas) Regulations 2007: occur in northern New Zealand waters only http://www.legislation.govt.nz/regulation/public/20 in summer and early autumn, suggesting 07/0308/latest/DLM973968.html

48 t t

The Kermadec corridor – an importan habita for migrating oceanic fishes?

The Kermadec corridor plays an important role in the lives of many migrating oceanic fishes

that they too migrate seasonally between ample conventional and electronic tagging the tropical South Pacific and New Zealand; evidence for a northwards migration of they include whale shark (Rhincodon typus), tropical pelagic species at the end of oceanic whitetip shark (Carcharhinus summer. When combined with the large longimanus), tiger shark (Galeocerdo number of tropical species occurring in cuvier), giant manta ray (Manta birostris), northern North Island waters during spinetail devilray (Mobula japanica), wahoo summer, but rarely in other seasons, this (Acanthocybium solandri), moonfish, sunfish suggests there is a large-scale two-way (Mola mola, M. ramsayi, and Masturus migration of tropical species between lanceolatus), striped marlin (Kajikia audax), northern New Zealand and the tropics every blue marlin (Makaira nigricans) and yellowfin summer. These migrations involve many tuna (T. albacares). species of large-bodied animals, and some of them at least are sufficiently abundant to Recently, electronic tags have been used to support commercial fisheries that take track the movements of some pelagic thousands of tonnes annually. This indicates species tagged in New Zealand. These tags that there is a major seasonal transfer of fish provide multiple positions along the biomass between New Zealand and the migratory paths, enabling collection of tropical Pacific every year. information on the routes, timing and speed of migrations. Some species associate Conversely, cool temperate species strongly with the Kermadec Ridge, whereas including porbeagle shark (Lamna nasus), others migrate through the Kermadec southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii) region in oceanic waters, apparently and Pacific bluefin tuna (T. orientalis) have oblivious to the presence of the Ridge. been tracked northwards from southern Juvenile shortfin mako sharks tagged off New Zealand in autumn–winter to Northland departed from coastal waters in subtropical waters north of New Zealand, winter–spring and migrated to the reaching their northern limit in the Kermadec Ridge where they stayed for up Kermadec region (Francis et al. 2015b; to 2.4 months (apart from periodic loops Ministry for Primary Industries, unpubl. away from the ridge into oceanic waters) or data). travelled closely along the ridge in both directions (M. Francis and M. Shivji, unpubl. The Kermadec region serves different roles data). White sharks (Carcharodon for different species: it may function as a carcharias) migrated from southern New destination and seasonal home for some Zealand to the tropical South Pacific and species (e.g. mako shark); it may be a north-eastern Australia in winter–spring, waypoint on the migration routes of others and several have been tracked through the or a temporary foraging area (e.g. white Kermadec region en route to Tonga and shark, striped marlin); or it may simply be a New Caledonia (Duffy et al. 2012).Recently a water body that must be traversed to get white shark that had been photo-identified from New Zealand to the tropics and back. at Stewart Island, and recorded by an Regardless of the specific function, the acoustic tracking receiver at the Chesterfield Kermadec corridor plays an important role Reefs in the (Francis et al. 2015a), in the lives of many migrating oceanic fishes. was seen feeding on a whale carcass at Raoul Island. Swordfish and striped marlin also migrate northwards to the tropics from New Zealand, some of them through the REFERENCES Kermadec region (Holdsworth et al. 2010, Duffy, C.A.J., Francis, M.P., Manning, M., Bonfil, R. Sippel et al. 2011). (2012). Regional population connectivity, oceanic habitat, and return migration revealed by satellite tagging of white sharks, Carcharodon carcharias, Although there is currently little direct at New Zealand aggregation sites. In: Domeier, evidence for tropical species migrating M.L. (ed.). Global perspectives on the biology and southwards to New Zealand waters, there is

49 t t r g c The Kermadec corridor – an importan habita fo migratin oceani fishes?

life history of the white shark, pp. 301-318. CRC Press, Boca Raton, USA. Francis, M.P., Duffy, C., Lyon, W. (2015a). Spatial and temporal habitat use by white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) at an aggregation site in southern New Zealand. Marine and freshwater research 66: 900–918. Francis, M.P., Holdsworth, J.C., Block, B.A. (2015b). Life in the open ocean: seasonal migration and diel diving behaviour of porbeagle sharks (Lamna nasus). Marine biology 162: 2305-2323. Griggs, L., Doonan, I., McGregor, V., McKenzie, A. (2014). Monitoring the length structure of commercial landings of albacore (Thunnus alalunga) during the 2012−13 fishing year. New Zealand fisheries assessment report No. 2014/30. 50 p. Holdsworth, J., Saul, P. (2014). New Zealand billfish and gamefish tagging, 2012-13. New Zealand fisheries assessment report No. 2014/11. 26 p. Holdsworth, J.C., Sippel, T.J., Saul, P.J. (2010). Movement of broadbill swordfish from New Zealand tagged with pop-up satellite archival tags. New Zealand fisheries assessment report No. 2010/4. 28 p. Labelle, M., Hampton, J. (2003). Stock assessment of albacore tuna in the South Pacific Ocean. Standing Committee on Tuna and Billfish working paper No. SCTB16-ALB1. 30 p. Langley, A., Hampton, J. (2005). Stock assessment of albacore tuna in the south Pacific Ocean. Western Central Pacific Fisheries Commission Scientific Committee first regular session No. WCPFC–SC1 SA WP–3. 63 p. Langley, A.D. (2011). Characterisation of the New Zealand fisheries for skipjack tuna Katsuwonus pelamis from 2000 to 2009. New Zealand fisheries assessment report No. 2011/43. 84 p. OFP-SPC and the WCPFC Secretariat (2015). Trends in the South Pacific albacore longline and troll fisheries. Western Central Pacific Fisheries Commission Scientific Committee twelfth regular session No. WCPFC12-2015-14. 27 p. Sippel, T., Holdsworth, J., Dennis, T., Montgomery, J. (2011). Investigating behaviour and population dynamics of striped marlin (Kajikia audax) from the southwest Pacific Ocean with satellite tags. PLoS ONE 6(6): e21087: 1-13.

50 y r r ck Kermadec i Islands Ne Cconstitute a migrator corrido fo the humpba whales

breedingClaire Garrigue, Rochellen Constantine,w Solènealedo Derville, Réminia Dodémont, Véronique Pérard

The humpback whale is the most intensively on movements of humpback whales tagged CLAIRE GARRIGUE studied species of baleen whale. These long- in the vicinity of New Caledonia (Paton IRD, UPVD, PERPIGNAN, range migrants which occur in all oceans 2014). FRANCE AND NOUMÉA, NEW around the world, summer in high-latitude CALEDONIA deeding grounds, and winter in tropical, The lagoons and reefs of New Caledonia OPÉRATION CÉTACÉS, typically coastal, calving and breeding have recently been included in the UNESCO NOUMÉA, NEW CALEDONIA grounds. Yet, many aspects of these World Wide Heritage List. They display SOUTH PACIFIC WHALE migrations remain a mystery, and the routes intact ecosystems and provide habitat to a RESEARCH CONSORTIUM, they follow in-between their summer and number of emblematic of threatened marine AVARUA, winter destinations is not very well known at species such as dugongs, sea turtles, sea [email protected] least in the South Pacific Ocean. birds and cetaceans. A small and endangered population of humpback ROCHELLE CONSTANTINE The first information on movements of whales wintering there has been under SOUTH PACIFIC WHALE individual humpback whales in the South study every year over a two to three month RESEARCH CONSORTIUM, AVARUA, COOK ISLANDS Pacific came from the Discovery tagging period for the last 20 years. SCHOOL OF BIOLOGICAL programme in the 1950’s and 1960’s. Since SCIENCES & INSTITUTE OF their development in the 1920’s the The ability to identify individual humpback MARINE SCIENCE, whales by distinctive natural marking and/or discovery tags have mean one of the major UNIVERSITY OF AUCKLAND, genetic markers has been used to create a tools used by biologists in the study of NEW ZEALAND whales. These small stainless-steel bolts, photo-identification catalogue (N=1,200), stamped with information about the tagging and a genetic database (N=1,031; 70% of SOLÈNE DERVILLE, agency, were fired into the whale by means which are also photo-identified) for New IRD, UPVD, PERPIGNAN, of a shotgun in order to penetrate skin and Caledonia. They were used characterize the FRANCE AND NOUMÉA, NEW blubber. When recovered during the humpback whale population of New CALEDONIA flensing process they were returned to Caledonia (Garrigue et al. 2001), to track the provide important information on the movement patterns of an individual through RÉMI DODÉMONT, individual or species. Between 1932 and both space and time – including migration VÉRONIQUE PÉRARD 1984 over 23,000 whales of at least 11 and dispersal (Garrigue et al. 2011a, Garrigue OPÉRATION CÉTACÉS, species were marked with discovery tags. et al. 2011b), to conduct detailed behavior NOUMÉA, NEW CALEDONIA Among this number more than 5,000 studies, and to determine the age, the discovery tags were deployed on humpback growth rate (Orgeret et al. 2014), the whales in the Southern Hemisphere with breeding success and the population size roughly 2,000 in the Antarctic Area V (Constantine et al. 2012, Garrigue et al. located south of New Caledonia and New 2004). Zealand. These marks gave invaluable information on movement patterns of New Caledonia is a breeding ground for a whales throughout the Southern small population of humpback whales that Hemisphere. The few tags deployed in the recently presented an anomalous increase, south Pacific Island waters of Vanuatu and in population leading us to hypothesise New Caledonia, Fiji, Tonga indicated the first immigration from other areas. These whales connection between two islands of Oceania show high fidelity to the area with roughly and the Antarctic: Fiji Area V and VI, Tonga 25% of known individual whales observed are V and I. They also provided the first each year. A limited number of movements information on the between Fiji and the of humpbacks were discovered within the migratory corridors or East Australia and vast South Pacific Ocean. Most of the New Zealand. Finally, they showed links connections between New Caledonia and between migratory corridors between East the other wintering grounds of Oceania Australia and New Zealand, and between have been found with Tonga. Few New Zealand and . Bur no movements were highlighted between New exchanges between the islands of Oceania Caledonia and neighbouring Vanuatu and were revealed by this method and more Fiji, and only two ocean-wide movements specifically it didn’t provide any information were documented over the years with the

51

Kermadec Islands constitute a migratory corridor for the humpback1 whales breeding in New Caledonia

Cook Islands and French . Most of 21 years, from 1994 until 2015. And at least FIGURE 1. Tracks of 20 humpback the whales resighed between regions have one third of these whales were encountered whales tagged in New Caledonia been identified only once in each region, on more than one year in New Caledonia. between 2007 and 2011. highlighting the fidelity of the whales to These results confirm the connection their breeding ground, the low level of between the breeding ground of New interchange within Oceania and the Caledonia and the migratory corridor of apparent transient nature of the movement New Zealand and suggest that at least part between breeding grounds. Males sing a of the breeding population of New song previously sung on the east coast of Caledonia passes through New Zealand Australia. It’s part of the Oceania waters on their southbound migration. subpopulation which has been classifies as endangered by IUCN in 2009 (Childerhouse In addition, telemetry data revealed a direct et al. 2009). connection between the breeding ground of New Caledonia and the Kermadec Ridge, More recently the use of telemetry has with one adult male and one adult female provided interesting information on observed in both areas. The male, regularly migratory movement of whale tagged in observed in New Caledonia since 2003 and New Caledonia. Between 2007 and 2012, 37 tagged in 2007, travelled in the direction of humpback whales were equipped with the Kermadec Ridge until Raoul Island Argos satellite tags in New Caledonia in where it stayed for seven days before the order to study their movements during their tag stopped transmitting. The female was breeding season, and their southern observed only once in New Caledonia in migration towards Antarctic feeding 2011, the year it was tagged as a mother grounds. Twenty-one of these individuals accompanied by a calf. It travelled until the were monitored after they initiated their Kermadec Ridge where it stopped just southern migration from their winter before the end of the tag transmission breeding ground in New Caledonia. Three- (Garrigue et al. 2010). Roughly the same quarters of the tagged whales headed in a percentage of females are found in both south-south-easterly direction. They corridors and some calves born in the travelled along widely dispersed migratory vicinity of the New Caledonian breeding paths spread longitudinally over 1,600km ground have been resighted in both between the Kermadec Ridge and the migratory corridors of New Zealand and the Norfolk Ridge (Garrigue et al. 2015) (Figure Kermadec Islands, suggesting that females 1). with and without calves use both pathways.

There opportunistic comparison of the The “Great Humpback Whale Trail” was photo-ID and genetic data originated from conducted in September-October 2015. New Caledonia with those of New Zealand, During this expedition photo-ID and skin then combined with the information samples were collected from humpback provided by the use of satellite telemetry whales during a 13 day period, leading to 157 revealed a total of 24 whales observed in whales being individually identified (128 both areas, including 10 females and 14 using photo-ID and 78 genotypes) males (Steel et al. 2011, Steel et al. 2008, (Constantine et al. 2016, this conference). Constantine et al. 2007). When sighted in Including the data previously collected, the New Caledonia most of the whales were total number of unique individuals identified adults (83%) but three individuals were first in the Kermadec region reaches 162 observes as calves, and one as a juvenile, individuals. The comparison of the data with before being resighted as adults in New the available information from New Zealand. Five females were observed with Caledonia revealed that 10 (6%) of these calves in New Caledonia, some of them have previously been encountered in New several times across different years. These Caledonia – nine were recognised using 24 individuals were encountered a total of photo-ID only, and one by genotype only. 52 times in New Caledonian over a period of One individual was first identified in New

52

w Kermadec Islands constitute a migratory corridor for the humpback whales breeding in Ne Caledonia

These results confirm the connection between the breeding ground of New Caledonia and the migratory corridor of New Zealand.

Telemetry data revealed a direct connection between the breeding ground of New Caledonia and the Kermadec Ridge.

Caledonia as a calf 16 years before it was low abundance and reproductive autonomy of resighted as a mother during the Great humpback whales on the wintering grounds of Humpback Whale Trail expedition. With the New Caledonia. Marine Ecology Progress Series information coming from telemetry a total 274: 251–262. of 12 individual whales observed in New Garrigue, C., Franklin, T., , K., Burns, D., Caledonia have passed through the Poole, M., Paton, D., Hauser, N., Oremus, M., Kermadec Islands, with 41% of those Constantine, R., Childerhouse, S., Mattila, D., Gibbs, observed more than one year in New N., Franklin, W., Robbins, J., Clapham, P., Baker, Caledonia. This high percentage of C.S. (2011b). First assessment of interchange of humpback whales between Oceania and the east resighting whales could suggest a regular coast of Australia. Journal of Cetacean Research use of this migratory corridor and a and Management Special Issue 3: 269-274. permanent connection between the breeding ground of New Caledonia and the Garrigue, C., Greaves, J., Chambellant, M. (2001). Kermadec Islands. This sheds a new light on Characteristics of the New Caledonian humpback whale population. Memoirs of the Queensland linkage between feeding and breeding Museum47: 539-546. grounds and will help to understand the slow recovery of Oceania’s humpback Garrigue, C., Zerbini, A.N, Geyer, Y., Heide- whales. Jørgensen, M.P., Hanaoka, W., Clapham, P. (2010). Movements of satellite-monitored humpback whales from New Caledonia. Journal of REFERENCES Mammalogy 91: 109-115. Childerhouse, S., Jackson, J., Baker, C.S., Gales, N., Clapham, P.J., Brownell Jr, R.L. (2009). Megaptera Orgeret, F., Garrigue, C., Gimenez, O., Pradel, R. novaeangliae (Oceania subpopulation). . In: IUCN (2014). Robust assessment of population trends in 2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. marine mammals applied to New Caledonian Version 2009.2. www.iucnredlist.org. humpback whales. Marine Ecology Progress Series515: 265-273. Constantine, R., Jackson, J., Steel, D., Baker, C.S., Brooks, L., Burns, D., Clapham, P., Hauser, N., Paton, D. 2014. Conservation management and Madon, B., Mattila, D., Oremus, M., Poole, M., population recovery of East Australian humpback Robbins, J., Thompson, K., Garrigue, C. (2012). whales. Doctor of Philosophy, Southern Cross Abundance of humpback whales in Oceania using University, Lismore, NSW, Australia. photo-identification and microsatellite genotyping. Marine Ecology Progress Series 453: Steel, D., Garrigue, C., Poole, M., Hauser, N., 249-261. Olavarría, C., Flórez-González, L., Constantine, R., Caballero, S., Thiele, D., Paton, D.C., Donoghue, Constantine, R., Russell, K., Gibbs, N., P.M., Baker, C.S. (2008). Migratory connections Childerhouse, S., Baker, C.S. (2007). Photo- between humpback whales from South Pacific identification of humpback whales (Megaptera breeding grounds and Antarctic feeding areas novaeangliae) in New Zealand waters and their demonstrated by genotye matching. Pages 12. migratory connections to breeding grounds of Report SC/60/SH13 to the Scientific Committee of Oceania. Marine Mammal Science23: 715-720. the International Commission. Santiago, Chile. 1 – 13 June. Garrigue, C., Baker, C.S., Constantine, R., Poole, M., Hauser, N., Clapham, P., Donoghue, M., Russell, K., Steel, D., Schmitt, N., Anderson, M., Burns, D., Paton, D., Mattila, D.K., Robbins, J. (2011a). Childerhouse, S., Constantine, R., Franklin, T., Movement of individuals humpback whales Franklin, W., Gales, N.J., Garrigue, C., Gibb, B., between the breeding grounds of Oceania, South Hauser, N., Mattila, D., Olavarría, C., Paton, D., Pacific 1999-2004. Journal of Cetacean Research Poole, M., Robbins, J., Ward, J., Harrison, P., and Management Special Issue 3: 275-281. Baverstock, P., Bouble, M., Baker, C.S. (2011). Initial genotype matching of humpback whales from the Garrigue, C., Clapham, P.J., Geyer, Y., Kennedy, 2010 Australia/New Zealand Antarctic Whale A.S., Zerbini, A.N. (2015). Satellite tracking reveals Expedition (Area V) to Australia and the South novel migratory patterns and the importance of Pacific. Pages 8p. SC/63/SH10 report submitted seamounts for endangered South Pacific for consideration of the Scientific Committee of humpback whales. Royal Society Open Science2. the International Whaling Commission, Tromso, Garrigue, C., Dodemont, R., Steel, D., Baker, C.S. Norway (2004). Organismal and ‘gametic’ capture recapture using microsatellite genotyping confirm

53 e

The Kermadec Islands and ‘Th Great

Rochelle Constantine, Olive Andrews, Virginia Andrews-Goff, C. Scott Baker, Simon Childerhouse,Humpback Rémi Dodémont,Whale Mike Double,Trail’ Claire Garrigue, Rebecca Lindsay, Leena Riekkola, Debbie Steel, James Tremlett, Silje Vindenes, Alex Zerbini

ROCHELLE CONSTANTINE, Extensive commercial whaling during the longest transmission exceeding 7 months th UNIVERSITY OF AUCKLAND, 20 century drove humpback whales duration. The tag data showed whales AUCKLAND, NEW ZEALAND (Megaptera novaeangliae) close to travelling through the Kermadec Island SOUTH PACIFIC WHALE RESEARCH extinction (Clapham & Ivashchencko 2009). chain then diverging paths as they migrated CONSORTIUM, AVARUA, COOK Since the cessation of whaling, humpback south. Whales were spread ~3,500 km from ISLANDS populations have been rebuilding but the west of the Sea through to the [email protected] Oceania population has been slow to Bellingshausen Sea, near the west Antarctic OLIVE ANDREWS, SOUTH PACIFIC recover and remains endangered Peninsula (Figure 1). The longest migration WHALE RESEARCH CONSORTIUM, (Childerhouse et al. 2008, Constantine et al. from Raoul Island until the whales stopped AVARUA, COOK ISLANDS 2012). Throughout Oceania there is sub- to feed in Antarctica was approximately CONSERVATION INTERNATIONAL, population structuring as humpbacks 7,000km and took nine weeks to complete. AUCKLAND, NEW ZEALAND typically return to their breeding ground This does not reflect the entire migration as VIRGINIA ANDREWS-GOFF, MIKE origins. Recent work has shown that the whale had travelled ~1,600km from its DOUBLE, AUSTRALIAN MARINE different age- and sex-class groups prefer Oceania breeding ground and then MAMMAL CENTRE, AUSTRALIAN different habitat when on their breeding continued to move shorter distances whilst ANTARCTIC DIVISION, HOBART, AUSTRALIA grounds, but this is not a limiting factor to on the feeding grounds; so a conservative C. SCOTT BAKER, DEBBIE STEEL, the recovery of Oceania’s whales (Lindsay et estimate is ~8,600km from the breeding to SOUTH PACIFIC WHALE RESEARCH al. 2016). In order to examine possible feeding grounds which is close to the CONSORTIUM, AVARUA, COOK reasons for their slow recovery, our longest reported migration (Robbins et al. ISLANDS; MARINE MAMMAL attention turned to the migration paths and 2011, Stevick et al. 2010). Four whales INSTITUTE, OREGON STATE unknown Southern Ocean feeding grounds migrated to the Bellingshausen Sea region, UNIVERSITY, OREGON, USA of our humpbacks as part of the Southern so this long migration is undertaken by SIMON CHILDERHOUSE, SOUTH Ocean Research Partnership, International many Oceania whales. Four whales passed PACIFIC WHALE RESEARCH Whaling Commission project on Humpback the NZ mainland and , but CONSORTIUM, AVARUA, COOK Whale Connectivity. the majority travelled through the South ISLANDS; BLUE PLANET MARINE, Pacific in a southeasterly direction. NELSON, NEW ZEALAND Since 2008, land-based observations by RÉMI DODÉMONT, SOUTH PACIFIC DOC based on Raoul Island have revealed We collected 85 small tissue samples either WHALE RESEARCH CONSORTIUM, that the Kermadec waters are frequented by from biopsy systems (n = 73) or sloughed AVARUA, COOK ISLANDS; humpback whales from mid-September to skin (n = 12); of these, 54 had a blubber OPÉRATION CÉTACÉS, NOUMÉA, mid-November as they migrate to their sample attached that will be used for NEW CALEDONIA Antarctic feeding grounds. Single four-hour progesterone analysis. Genotyping CLAIRE GARRIGUE, SOUTH PACIFIC surveys have reported up to 153 whales identified 78 individuals with a female bias WHALE RESEARCH CONSORTIUM, passing Raoul Island (e.g., Brown 2010) with (29 males: 44 females: 4 unknown). When AVARUA, COOK ISLANDS the peak in sightings mid-September – mid- the genotypes were matched to previously OPÉRATION CÉTACÉS, NOUMÉA, November (Gibson 2014). In late September identified whales from Oceania, east NEW CALEDONIA; INSTITUT DE to mid-October 2015, we undertook a Australia Antarctica, we identified four RECHERCHE POUR LE multidisciplinary study deploying satellite whales previously sampled on their DÉVELOPPEMENT, PERPIGNAN, tags into humpbacks as they migrated south breeding grounds, including two of the FRANCE past Raoul Island and identifying individuals tagged whales known from Tonga. There REBECCA LINDSAY, UNIVERSITY OF AUCKLAND, AUCKLAND, NEW using genetic and natural markers to was one match to New Caledonia (females – ZEALAND; SOUTH PACIFIC WHALE determine the feeding grounds, population 1999), two matches to Tonga (female – RESEARCH CONSORTIUM, AVARUA, structure and movements of humpbacks 2003 and male – 2005) and one match to COOK ISLANDS; REL MARINE LTD, throughout the Antarctic. American Samoa (male – 2009). AUCKLAND, NEW ZEALAND LEENA RIEKKOLA, JAMES Over 13 days of small-boat based surveys at We photo-identified 128 individual whales TREMLETT, SILJE VINDENES, Raoul, we surveyed 1,480 km around Raoul via the unique pattern of marks on the UNIVERSITY OF AUCKLAND, Island and encountered 127 pods of underside of their flukes and included, an AUCKLAND, NEW ZEALAND humpback whales with a cumulative total of additional five whales photographed in ALEX ZERBINI 235 adults and 37 calves. We successfully previous years, for a total catalogue of 133 NATIONAL MARINE MAMMAL LAB, deployed 24 satellite tags with 18 tags individuals (although this may grow with NOAA, SEATTLE, USA & CASCADIA transmitting for longer than 21 days and the recent acquisition of new photos). The RESEARCH, OLYMPIA, USA

54 e d

Th Kermadec Islands an ‘The Great 1 Humpback Whale Trail’

photo-identification matching is currently calf pair), doubled back on their underway but breeding ground catalogues southeasterly path, or stopped before FIGURE 1. Migration path of humpback whales from Raoul from New Caledonia to the Cook Islands, Antarctica possibly to feed. Further analysis Island to Antarctica from migratory corridors of New Zealand and of the fine-scale tag data will reveal more October 2015 until April 2016. Norfolk Island, and SORP catalogues from details about the whales’ paths and Antarctic waters south of New Zealand, important habitat along the way. Now we have been matched. We found 13 whales have determined individual feeding identified from their breeding grounds; nine grounds, newly developed isoscape models from New Caledonia, and one each from based on isotope markers will allow us to Tonga, , American Samoa and the Cook assign feeding grounds and provide baseline Islands. There were no matches to mainland data on how future changes may influence New Zealand and matching has yet to be their spatial distribution, stock recovery and undertaken with east Australia and other role in Southern Ocean ecosystem function. larger Antarctic catalogues. REFERENCES: In addition, we recorded four hours of song over 10 recording sessions spread Brown, N. (2010). Raoul Island Whale throughout the field season. We recorded a Survey. Field Report, Department of range of song types, perhaps reflective of Conservation, pp 30. the diversity of breeding ground origins of Childerhouse, S., Jackson, J., Baker, C.S., these whales. Ongoing analysis of these Gales, N., Clapham, P.J., Brownell Jr, R. data will examine whether Raoul Island is a (2008). Megaptera novaeangliae (Oceania place where songs are shared between subpopulation). . In: IUCN 2009. IUCN Red different sub-populations of whales, part of List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. their well-documented cultural transmission www.iucnredlist.org. of song (Garland et al. 2011). Clapham, P., Ivashchenko, Y. (2009). A Our research has revealed that humpback whale of a deception. Marine Fisheries whales migrating past Raoul originate from Review 71: 44−52 several Oceania breeding grounds spread over ~3,600 km including New Caledonia, Clapham, P.J., Zerbini, A.N. (2015). Are social Tonga, Niue, American Samoa and the Cook aggregation and temporary immigration Islands. The close linkages with New driving high rates of increase in some Caledonia and New Zealand have been Southern Hemisphere humpback whale reported previously, including tagged populations? Marine Biology, 162: 625−634 whales migrating past the Kermadecs Constantine, R., Jackson, J., Steel, D., Baker, (Garrigue et al. 2011, Garrigue et al. 2016). C.S., Brooks, L., Burns, D., Clapham, P., Whale residency time at Raoul ranged from Hauser, N., Madon, B., Mattila, D., Oremus, periods of <1 day to 21 days with all age- and M., Poole, M., Robbins, J., Thompson, K., sex-class groups passing by the island. Garrigue, C. (2012). Abundance of Exactly why so many humpbacks from humpback whales in Oceania using photo- many breeding grounds pass through identification and microsatellite genotyping. Kermadec waters is unknown - although Marine Ecology Progress Series 453:249-261. may be related to the importance of social aggregations (Clapham & Zerbini 2015) - but Garland, E.C., Goldizen, A.W., Rekdahl, M.L., this provided an excellent opportunity to go Constantine, R., Garrigue, C., Hauser, N.D., to northernmost NZ to understand the Poole, M.M., Robbins, J., Noad, M.J. (2011). importance of southernmost NZ to Dynamic horizontal cultural transmission of humpbacks; Antarctica. The majority of humpback whale song at the ocean basin whales swam directly to Antarctic waters scale. Current Biology 21:687-691 without stopping along their migration path, Garrigue, C., Clapham, P.J., Geyer, Y., but there were some that took a longer Kennedy, A.S., Zerbini, A.N. (2015). Satellite route via mainland New Zealand (a mother- tracking reveals novel migratory patterns

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Th Kermadec Islands an ‘The Great Humpback Whale Trail’

Is Raoul Island a place where songs are shared between different sub- populations of whales, part of their well-documented cultural transmission of song? Humpback whales migrating past Raoul originate from several Oceania breeding grounds spread over ~3,600 km including New Caledonia, Tonga, Niue, American Samoa and the Cook Islands.

and the importance of seamounts for endangered South Pacific humpback whales. Royal Society Open Science 2. Garrigue, C., Franklin, T., Constantine, R., Russell, K., Burns, D., Poole, M., Paton, D., Hauser, N., Oremus, M., Childerhouse, S., Mattila, D., Gibbs, N., Franklin, W., Robbins, J., Clapham, P., Baker, C.S. (2011). First assessment of interchange of humpback whales between Oceania and the east coast of Australia. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management Special Issue 3: 269-274 Gibson, T. (2014). Raoul Island Whale Survey. Field Report, Department of Conservation, pp 10. Lindsay, R.E., Constantine, R., Robbins, J., Mattila, D.K., Tagarino, A., Dennis, T.E. (2016). Characterising essential breeding habitat for whales informs the development of large-scale Marine Protected Areas in the South Pacific. Marine Ecology Progress Series 548:263-275 Robbins, J., Dalla Rosa. L., Allen, J.M., Mattila, D.K., , E.R., Friedlaender, A.S., Stevick, P.T., Nowacek, D.P., Steel, D. (2011). Return movement of a humpback whale between the Antarctic Peninsula and American Samoa: a seasonal migration record. Endangered Species Research 13:1170121 Stevick, P.T., , M.C., Johansen, F., Engle, M.H., Allen, J., Marcondes, M.C.C., Carlson, C. (2010). A quarter of a world away: female humpback whale moves 10 000 km between breeding areas. Biology Letters doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2010.0717

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New Zealand’s Southern Right Whales: ReasonRochelle Constantine,for C. ScottHope Baker, Emma Carroll, Simon Childerhouse, Jenn Jackson, Will Rayment, Leigh Torres

The southern right whales of New Zealand and expanding range provides us with hope ROCHELLE CONSTANTINE th were decimated by 19 century shore- and that they may return throughout all their SCHOOL OF BIOLOGICAL ship-based whaling. During this time, the former NZ range. Spatial modelling SCIENCES & INSTITUTE OF whaling industry killed a total of 34,000- predicting offshore foraging habitat for right MARINE SCIENCE, 38,800 right whales around New Zealand, whales under different climate scenarios UNIVERSITY OF AUCKLAND, reducing the population to only ~15-20 adult highlights the once abundant Louisville AUCKLAND, NEW ZEALAND females by the early 1900s. Despite ridge region adjacent to the Kermadecs as [email protected] international protection, illegal whaling by an area of importance, just as it once was. the Soviet Union in the 1960s resulted in C. SCOTT BAKER further losses to the remnant New Zealand SCHOOL OF BIOLOGICAL population. Assessment of historical whaling SCIENCES & INSTITUTE OF records showed that whales were MARINE SCIENCE, distributed extensively around mainland UNIVERSITY OF AUCKLAND, AUCKLAND, NEW ZEALAND New Zealand, the sub-Antarctic Islands and MARINE MAMMAL INSTITUTE, the . Reconstructing catch OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY, records, historical sightings data and levels NEWPORT, OREGON, USA of genetic diversity and geneflow can help understand population recovery and EMMA CARROLL distribution. Today right whales are largely SCOTTISH OCEANS concentrated in Ross Harbour, Auckland INSTITUTE, UNIVERSITY OF Islands with increasing numbers reported at ST ANDREWS, ST ANDREWS, Campbell Island and around southern mainland NZ during the winter breeding season. These whales are part of the same SIMON CHILDERHOUSE genetic stock with several whales moving BLUE PLANET MARINE, between the mainland and the sub- NELSON, NEW ZEALAND Antarctic Islands. Contemporary sightings records are largely confined to coastal JENN JACKSON regions and known wintering grounds with BRITISH ANTARCTIC SURVEY, offshore habitat use and feeding grounds CAMBRIDGE, still poorly understood. Recent satellite CAMBRIDGESHIRE, UNITED tagging revealed that at least some right KINGDOM whales travel west from the Auckland WILL RAYMENT Islands to forage near the subtropical front. DEPARTMENT OF MARINE Stable isotope data suggest they are SCIENCE, UNIVERSITY OF preying on copepods and krill; this is OTAGO, DUNEDIN, NEW consistent with historical records of ZEALAND stomach samples from Soviet whalers. The New Zealand population is currently LEIGH TORRES estimated to number about 2,100, or <12% of MARINE MAMMAL INSTITUTE, their pre-exploitation abundance and the OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY, stock is increasing slowly but steadily in NEWPORT, OREGON, USA numbers. The is the only significant calving ground in NZ but whales are reported more frequently in coastal waters of the mainland, especially in Te Wae Wae Bay. Evidence suggests mother-calf pairs seek sheltered habitats for nursing which provides insights into areas of the mainland likely to be recolonised and managed to minimize anthropogenic impacts. The increase in numbers of whales

57 A g f t buildin biodiversity story for the shallow marine biodiversity o he KermadecLibby Liggins, Eric A. Treml,Archipelago J. David Aguirre, and Tom Trnski

LIBBY LIGGINS The biodiversity of an island, and the Archipelago is on-going, and these INSTITUTE OF NATURAL AND processes contributing to it, will change colonising species are increasingly from the MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES, over time. Initially biodiversity will increase tropics (Francis and Duffy 2015). , as species colonise the island from AUCKLAND, NEW ZEALAND elsewhere. Depending on population Colonisation of the Kermadec Islands by any AUCKLAND WAR MEMORIAL connectivity with other regions, some given species will be influenced by both the MUSEUM, TAMAKI PAENGA species may then speciate or go locally ocean currents and a species’ dispersal HIRA, AUCKLAND, NEW extinct. Later, as niches fill, interactions characteristics. Most reef fishes and marine ZEALAND among species can lead to the competitive invertebrates disperse in the open ocean as [email protected] exclusion of some resident and colonising eggs and larvae before becoming reef species. The Kermadec Archipelago can dwelling adults. However, each species

ERIC A. TREML offer a globally unique insight into the how varies in how long they can spend in the SCHOOL OF BIOSCIENCES, these three processes – colonisation, open ocean and consequently how far they UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE, connectivity, and competition – shape can disperse. Using a biological- MELBOURNE, VICTORIA, biodiversity. The islands of the archipelago oceanographic model we are able to infer AUSTRALIA are small, they make up one of the most what dispersal characteristics (e.g. egg type remote archipelagos in the world, and they and pelagic larval duration) have enabled J. DAVID AGUIRRE species to colonise the Kermadec Islands, INSTITUTE OF NATURAL AND have an unusual combination of temperate where they have likely dispersed from, and MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES, and tropical species. In light of our globally MASSEY UNIVERSITY, changing climate, directional changes in the therefore what species are likely to colonise AUCKLAND, NEW ZEALAND mix of tropical and temperate species at the the Kermadec Islands in future (for a similar Kermadec Islands may serve as an early approach see Treml et al. 2015). Our TOM TRNSKI warning for more widespread biodiversity preliminary results indicate that colonisation AUCKLAND WAR MEMORIAL change. Our research takes a multi- of the Kermadec Islands may be very rare, MUSEUM, TAMAKI PAENGA disciplinary approach to investigate the role even for species that can disperse in the HIRA, AUCKLAND, NEW of colonisation, connectivity, and ocean for up to 30 days (Fig. 1). Our future ZEALAND competition in shaping the shallow marine research will simulate the colonisation biodiversity of the Kermadec Archipelago, potential and pathways for many more reef and to predict what levels of biodiversity species from surrounding regions of the and community compositions we may Southwest Pacific, and will investigate in expect in future. what seasons and years (e.g. El Niño, La Niña) the Kermadec Islands are likely to COLONISATION: have higher rates of colonisation. Several expeditions have now expanded our knowledge of the reef fishes and marine CONNECTIVITY: invertebrates surrounding the Kermadec Recent research has highlighted the Islands (complete checklist in Duffy and diversity and abundance of tropical marine Ahyong 2015). Findings suggest that the species at the Kermadec Islands (Richards reef biodiversity of the Kermadec Islands is and Liggins 2015), yet there has been little relatively depauperate (e.g. fishes, Francis investigation into their population and Duffy 2015), but the number of species connectivity with tropical regions and how recorded at the islands continues to increase these populations persist in this sub-tropical with each expedition. For example, during zone. Our connectivity research used a the most recent biodiscovery expedition population genetic survey to investigate (November 2015), the tropical yellow- connectivity for populations of the Crown- spotted wrasse, Macropharyngodon of-Thorns seastar (Acanthaster planci) and negrosensis, was observed in Boat Cove for the Collector urchin (Tripneustes gratilla; for the first time, despite this location being full details see Liggins et al. 2014). These among the most surveyed in the Kermadec species occur throughout the tropical Indo- Archipelago (e.g. Schiel et al. 1986, Francis Pacific Ocean, including the Kermadec et al. 1987, Cole et al. 2010). These trends Islands. Since the first published records of indicate that colonisation of the Kermadec the Crown-of-Thorns seastar and the

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A building biodiversity story for the shallow marine 1 biodiversity of the Kermadec Archipelago

Collector urchin at the Kermadec Islands, Therefore, despite both the Crown-of- both species have been repeatedly recorded Thorns seastar and Collector urchin being FIGURE 1. The simulated at the island group (reviewed in Liggins et relatively high dispersal species (~28 and 18 distribution and density of biological particles (i.e. eggs al. 2014). However, it was not clear whether day pelagic larval duration, respectively), and larvae) after 30 days the populations of the Kermadec Islands our research indicates they may have only travelling on ocean currents. were sustained by local reproduction or recently colonised Raoul Island, and these Red regions represent suitable reliant on immigration from other regions. Kermadec populations are not well reef habitat for shallow marine connected to elsewhere in the Indo-Pacific. species from which biological particles are released. In this Our research findings suggest that the Moreover, despite Raoul Island providing simulation eggs/larvae were Crown-of-Thorns seastar and Collector marginal habitat for tropical organisms, released from all locations, urchin populations of Raoul Island have a these populations persist through local except mainland New Zealand. similar history of connectivity with the wider reproduction. Unfortunately, this lack of After 30 days travelling on Indo-Pacific. In both species, the population genetic diversity and connectivity of the ocean currents very few biological particles are in the contained only one genetic type (i.e. Raoul Island populations of Crown-of- vicinity of the Kermadec haplotype) that was also found in other Thorns seastar and Collector urchin means Archipelago. A plume of locations (Fig. 2). The genetic affinities (i.e. these populations are not resilient, but will biological particles originating the shared haplotype) of the seastar with be vulnerable to local extinction. from the Raoul Island group American Samoa, Vanuatu, and the northern can be seen east of the islands. Great Barrier Reef, suggest colonisation of COMPETITION: Raoul Island may have been from these There are finite resources and niches locations, or from a source common to all of available on the reefs around the Kermadec these regions. In the urchin, the source of Islands for which species will compete, and the Raoul Island population was difficult to some will go extinct. At present we know infer, as the haplotype found at Raoul is also very little about these interactions among shared across much of the surveyed species species at the Kermadec Islands, and how range. interactions among species could impact local population dynamics and persistence. The low genetic diversity of the populations One guild of species that have been the at Raoul Island is unusual and contrasts with subject of several past research efforts are the high levels of genetic diversity found in macroinvertebrates, and in particular the most other Indo-Pacific populations of the urchin species (Schiel et al. 1986, Cole et al. Crown-of-Thorns seastar and Collector 1992, Gardner et al. 2006). Urchins are urchin. This pattern of low genetic diversity renowned for driving community and is consistent with a population founded by ecosystem changes (Ling et al. 2015). At the only a few colonists, after which the Kermadec Islands, several urchin species population has likely been sustained by local exist in very high numbers, and in places reproduction. Our simulations of these species are completely interspersed immigration events confirmed that it is on the reef. During our November 2015 highly unlikely that the patterns of genetic expedition we surveyed the occurrence of variation that we observed could result from these urchin species to quantify niche immigration events (see Liggins et al. 2014). segregation, alternative use of available Most other populations sampled for both resources, and to detect any change in the species also contained haplotypes that were community composition since previous unique (endemic) to their population (Fig. surveys. We hope that analysis of such 2). The lack of unique haplotypes at Raoul structured surveys and behavioural Island likely indicates that these populations observations will provide a glimpse into the are relatively young. The short geological species interactions that will likely structure history (1.8 – 3 million years old, Watt 1975) the reef biodiversity of the Kermadec of the Kermadec Islands supports this notion Archipelago into the future. of recent colonisation.

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A building biodiversity story for the shallow marine biodiversity2 of the Kermadec Archipelago

SUMMARY: New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Marine and FIGURE 2. Map of surveyed Freshwater Research, 35(3): 445-456. locations and their genetic (i.e. haplotypic) composition for • Colonisation of the Kermadec Islands by Duffy, C. A. J., & Ahyong, S. T. (2015). Annotated the Crown-of-Thorns seastar shallow marine species is likely rare and checklist of the marine fauna and flora of the (Acanthaster planci, top) and relatively recent, but it is ongoing. Our Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve and northern Collector urchin (Tripneustes colonisation research uses biological- Kermadec Ridge, New Zealand. Bulletin of gratilla, bottom). Pies indicate oceanographic modelling to infer what Auckland Museum, 20: 19-124. the proportion of individuals that share the haplotype dispersal characteristics have enabled Francis, M. P., & Duffy, C. A. J. (2015). New found in Raoul Island (lightest species to colonise the Kermadec records, checklist and biogeography of Kermadec tone), the proportion of Islands, where they have likely dispersed Islands’ coastal fishes. Bulletin of Auckland individuals that have a from, and therefore what species are Museum, 20: 481-495. haplotype unique to their likely to colonise the Kermadec Islands. population (medium tone), Francis, M. P., Grace, R. V., & Paulin, C. D. (1987). and the proportion of In future, we will extend our modelling Coastal fishes of the Kermadec Islands. New individuals that have a to predict species range extensions and Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater haplotype that is shared colonisations of New Zealand via the Research, 21(1): 1-13. among locations, but not Kermadec Archipelago. Gardner, J. P., Curwen, M. J., Long, J., Williamson, found in Raoul Island (darkest • There is little population connectivity tone). In both species, the R. J., & Wood, A. R. (2006). Benthic community Raoul Island population has between Indo-Pacific reefs and Raoul structure and water column characteristics at two low genetic diversity and no Island for two common, high dispersal sites in the Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve, endemic haplotypes. (Figure echinoderm species based on our New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Marine and modified from Liggins et al genetic survey. Our research continues Freshwater Research, 40(1): 179-194. 2014.) to address population connectivity Liggins, L., Gleeson, L., & Riginos, C. (2014). among the wider Indo-Pacific and the Evaluating edge-of-range genetic patterns for Kermadec Islands, and into New tropical echinoderms, Acanthaster planci and Zealand, using a greater suite of species Tripneustes gratilla, of the Kermadec Islands, and genetic markers. southwest Pacific. Bulletin of Marine Science, • Our future colonisation and connectivity 90(1): 379-397. research will require access to the Ling, S. D., Scheibling, R. E., Rassweiler, A., southern islands of the Kermadec Johnson, C. R., Shears, N., Connell, S. D., ... & Archipelago – Macauley, Curtis, and Clemente, S. (2015). Global regime shift dynamics Cheeseman Islands, and L’Esperance of catastrophic sea urchin overgrazing. and Havre Rocks – to undertake Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of biodiversity surveys to inform models London B: Biological Sciences, 370(1659): 20130269. and to undertake genetic sampling. • Establishment of standardised long-term Richards, Z. T., & Liggins, L. (2015). Scleractinian and regular monitoring of the reef corals and crown-of-thorns seastars of the communities across all the islands of the Kermadec Islands. Bulletin of Auckland Museum, Kermadec Archipelago will be crucial for 20: 337-340. quantifying potential competitive Schiel, D. R., Kingsford, M. J., & Choat, J. H. (1986). interactions (and extinctions) among Depth distribution and abundance of benthic species in the current community of the organisms and fishes at the subtropical Kermadec Kermadec Islands, and to recognise and Islands. New Zealand Journal of Marine and predict future community transitions. Freshwater Research, 20(4): 521-535. Treml, E. A., Roberts, J., Halpin, P. N., Possingham, REFERENCES H. P., & Riginos, C. (2015). The emergent Cole, R. G., Creese, R. G., Grace, R. V., Irving, P., & geography of biophysical dispersal barriers across Jackson, B. R. (1992). Abundance patterns of the Indo‐West Pacific. Diversity and Distributions, subtidal benthic invertebrates and fishes at the 21(4): 465-476. Kermadec Islands. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 82(3): 207-218. Watt, J. C. (1975). A general introduction to terrestrial Arthropoda of the Kermadec Islands. Cole, R. G. (2001). Patterns of abundance and The New Zealand Entomologist, 6(1): 32–45 population size structure of herbivorous fishes at the subtropical Kermadec Islands and in mainland

60 g o : g Doin whatever it takes t gsurvive examinin morphological divergence in highDavid Aguirre-latitude,, Libby Liggins andreef Paul Muir- buildin corals

Despite covering less than 1% of the earth’s Although human-mediated climate change DAVID AGUIRRE, LIBBY surface, coral reefs support 25% of the is proceeding at a rate our planet has never LIGGINS world’s marine biodiversity, as well as experienced, coral reefs have endured large- MASSEY UNIVERSITY, provide food, livelihoods and ecosystem scale climatic changes in the past. During AUCKLAND, NEW ZEALAND. services for hundreds of millions of people. the warm interglacial periods, when regions [email protected] Interestingly, the reef-building corals which at higher latitudes became more favourable are the foundation for these astonishing for coral growth, coral reefs existed at PAUL MUIR ecosystems are themselves the product of a higher latitudes than their current latitudinal MUSEUM OF TROPICAL symbiotic association between two different limits (Greenstein and Pandolfi 2008; QUEENSLAND, , types of organisms: a cnidarian closely Kiessling 2001). This pattern of range QUEENSLAND, AUSTRALIA. related to sea anemones; and a group of expansion and contraction in response to single-celled microalgae called changes in global ocean conditions gives us zooxanthellae. Zooxanthellae live within the some hope that coral reefs may be able to tissues of the cnidarian and contribute endure some level of human-mediated nutrients to the symbiosis as a by-product climate change. Sea temperature however, of photosynthesis. Without their is not the only factor limiting where corals zooxanthellae corals would struggle to can live. At higher latitudes temperature, the survive in nutrient-poor tropical waters. In concentration of aragonite (a chemical turn, the cnidarian captures food from the essential to the formation coral skeletons), water column, like an anemone, and and the amount of light available to the excretes a limestone skeleton that provides zooxanthellae become too extreme for most structural support and protection – it is the corals to endure (Kleypas et al. 1999; Muir et growth of this skeleton that builds coral al. 2015). reefs. Recent studies focusing on the most diverse Corals, and all the biodiversity coral reefs group of reef building corals – the staghorn support, are under the immediate threat of corals – have shown that the amount of light global climate change. Increases in ocean corals receive during winter is the most temperature trigger a cascade of likely factor limiting the depths and latitudes physiological responses that can cause the where corals can survive (Muir et al. 2015). cnidarian to evict the zooxanthellae, giving Climate change is predicted to alter sea corals a characteristic “bleached” temperature and the concentration of appearance (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). For aragonite such that regions nearer the poles example, the 2015-2016 mass coral will become more favourable for coral bleaching event currently affecting the growth; however, climate change is not southern hemisphere has had a dramatic predicted to dramatically affect the amount effect coral reefs on Northern Great barrier of light hitting the ocean surface. Thus, while Reef: an 81% of reefs have suffered severe corals may find some refuge at higher coral bleaching (ARC Centre of Excellence in latitudes, corals will not be able to outrun Coral Reef Studies 2016). Moreover, coral human-mediated climate change reefs in areas such as the Fijian Islands have indefinitely. Eventually, corals may find it recently experienced both, mass coral difficult to colonise high-latitude regions bleaching and severe storm conditions. The because there is insufficient light to sustain synergistic effect of these two climatic their metabolic demands. events can severely limit the potential for reefs to recover. Alarmingly, if current Nevertheless, corals are currently extending climate trends persist, the frequency and their ranges towards both the north and magnitude of extreme climatic events such south poles (Baird et al. 2012; Yamano et al. as ocean warming and severe storms are 2011), implying that corals have not reached predicted to increase in the future (Hoegh- their absolute environmental limit yet. Guldberg and Bruno 2010). Importantly, the corals at the leading edge of this contemporary range expansion are

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in , g Doing whatever it takes to survive: examining morphological divergence high-latitude reef-buildin1 corals

not a random sample of all possible species natural selection for morphological FIGURE 1 A) Individually labelled and photographed of coral. The coral species living at high characters that allow them to tolerate the coral fragments collected from latitudes have morphological and environmental conditions at high latitudes. Raoul Island, Kermadec physiological characteristics that allow them Using these collections we aim to archipelago. B) MicroCT image to survive, and even thrive in conditions too investigate how the morphology of corals of Pocillopora damicornis extreme for other coral species (Sommer et living in this remote, high-latitude location showing internal skeletal structures. These images will al. 2014). Moreover, some coral species differ from populations of these same enable us to visualise and occur in both low and high latitudes. species occurring at lower latitudes as well measure morphological Understanding, why some species can as in other high-latitude locations where features that allow corals to tolerate conditions at high latitudes whereas these corals occur (e.g. ). survive at high latitude others struggle to survive, and how These data will allow us better understand locations such as the Kermadec archipelago. individuals of the same species living in high how reef-building corals have adapted or and low latitudes differ from each other will acclimated to the challenges associated with allow us to calibrate if corals could escape living in high-latitude locations. the increasingly hostile climatic conditions they are likely to face at low latitudes. REFERENCES ARC Centre of Excellence in Coral Reef Studies. The Kermadec archipelago, and the Raoul (2016). Only 7% of the Great Barrier Reef has Island group in particular, is New Zealand’s avoided coral bleaching, reef-building coral capital. In certain parts of http://www.coralcoe.org.au/media-releases/only- 7-of-the-great-barrier-reef-has-avoided-coral- the archipelago, live corals can cover most bleaching. of the available substrate (Brook 1999; Schiel et al. 1986; Wicks et al. 2010), and the Baird, A.H., Sommer, B., Madin, J.S. (2012). Pole- skeletons of dead corals become the ward range expansion of Acropora spp. along the foundation for live corals to establish and east coast of Australia. Coral Reefs 31: 1063-1063. grow. Nevertheless, even for the corals Brook, F.J. (1999). The coastal scleractinian coral capable of colonising this remote fauna of the Kermadec Islands, southwestern archipelago, the marginal conditions for Pacific Ocean. Journal of the Royal Society of coral growth afforded by the island’s unique New Zealand 29:435-460. land and seascapes impose significant Greenstein, B.J., Pandolfi, J.M. (2008). Escaping challenges. Accordingly, the coral fauna of the heat: range shifts of reef coral taxa in coastal the Kermadec archipelago are a collection of Western Australia. Global Change Biology 14: 513- hardy species commonly found at high- 528. latitude, southern-hemisphere locations Hoegh-Guldberg, O. (1999). Climate change, coral (Wicks et al. 2010). During our recent bleaching and the future of the world's coral reefs. expedition to the Kermadec archipelago in Marine and Freshwater Research 50: 839-866. November 2015 we collected over 300 coral Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Bruno, J.F. (2010). The specimens from the shallow reefs (< 30 impact of climate change on the world's marine meters) that surround Raoul Island (Figure ecosystems. Science 328: 1523-1528. 1A). Preliminary analyses of these data suggest that the coral community Kiessling, W. (2001). Paleoclimatic significance of composition and depth distributions of Phanerozoic reefs. Geology 29: 751-754. these corals have remained relatively Kleypas, J.A., McManus, J.W., Menez, L.A.B. (1999). constant over past 30 years (Brook 1999; Environmental limits to coral reef development: Richards and Liggins 2015; Wicks et al. Where do we draw the line? American Zoologist 2010). 39: 146-159. Muir, P.R., Wallace, C.C., Done, T., Aguirre, J.D. In the second phase of our analysis we will (2015). Limited scope for latitudinal extension of collect fine-scale measurements of the reef corals. Science 348: 1135-1138. morphology of the corals we collected Richards, Z.T., Liggins, L. (2015). Scleractinian (Figure 1B). Just as the environment has corals and crown-of-thorns seastars of the filtered the species pool, individuals of the Kermadec Islands. Bulletin of the Auckland same species should exhibit signatures of Museum 20: 337–340.

62 : in , g Doing whatever it takes to survive examining morphological divergence high-latitude reef-buildin corals

The Kermadec archipelago, and the Raoul Island group in particular, is New Zealand’s reef-building coral capital.

Schiel, D.R., Kingsford, M.J., Choat, J.H. (1986). Depth distribution and abundance of benthic organisms and fishes at the subtropical Kermadec Islands. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 20: 521-535. Sommer, B., Harrison, P.L., Beger, M., Pandolfi, J.M. (2014). Trait-mediated environmental filtering drives assembly at biogeographic transition zones. Ecology 95: 1000-1009. Wicks, L.C., Gardner, J.P.A., Davy, S.K. (2010). Spatial patterns and regional affinities of coral communities at the Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve, New Zealand-a marginal high-latitude site. Marine Ecology Progress Series 400: 101-113. Yamano, H., Sugihara, K., Nomura, K. (2011). Rapid poleward range expansion of tropical reef corals in response to rising sea surface temperatures. Geophysical Research Letters 38: L04601.

63 f c

Cephalopod fauna o the Kermade

Islands:Kat Bolstad Much left to learn

KAT BOLSTAD New Zealand waters are home to one of the Of the three shallow-water octopus species INSTITUTE FOR APPLIED highest known diversities of cephalopods encountered by the 2011 Kermadec ECOLOGY NEW ZEALAND, occurring around any country. Our , Biodiscovery Expedition, one was new to AUCKLAND UNIVERSITY OF octopus, and vampire squid taxa are already science (Octopus jollyorum, Fig. 1A) and TECHNOLOGY, AUCKLAND, reported at over 100 species (Spencer et al., another had previously been known from NEW ZEALAND 2014), with many more awaiting formal just a handful of female or immature [email protected] recognition. In several regions in particular, specimens (Reid & Wilson, 2015). including the northern waters of our Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), Scientific efforts to catalogue in the examinations of new material regularly cephalopod fauna of the Kermadecs began reveal new cephalopod taxa and new local just over 100 years ago, with Berry (1914; records, keeping members of the AUT Lab 1916) and Oliver (1915) together reporting a for Cephalopod Ecology and Systematics total of 40 specimens from the region, (ALCES) busy and intrigued. attributed to a remarkable 17 species (six octopuses, nine and two nautiluses) While academic knowledge of our of which several were new to science (e.g., cephalopod diversity has advanced Lampadioteuthis megaleia, Fig. 1B). It should considerably since the first region-specific be noted, however, that the two nautilus scientific publication over 100 years ago, species reputed to reside in the area, N. these animals have also been a legendary pompilius and N. macromphalus, were presence in New Zealand history and both—and remain—reported based only on folklore for far longer. The Polynesian broken shell fragments, which are well navigator Kupe is said to have reached known to drift and should not on their own Aotearoa while in pursuit of a giant wheke be considered conclusive proof of species (octopus) that had been consuming the fish presence in any region (House, 2010). Duffy on which his people relied on for food in & Ahyong (2015) conducted a literature Hawaiki. Kupe’s final battle with this review of the Kermadecs’ marine flora and leviathan (known as Te Wheke O Muturangi) fauna, including cephalopods, updating the is said to have taken place in Cook Strait, number of reported octopus species to 12 where he slew it, leaving only the Brothers and squid to 15, plus the two alleged Islands to represent its remains (the nautiluses. This checklist updated the eyeballs; Whatahoro, 1913). The giant names of some locally occurring taxa to cephalopods—squid in particular—that reflect systematic revisions that had reside in our waters continue to fascinate occurred in the intervening century (e.g., New Zealand’s public and the world on a Onychoteuthis aequimanus replacing the wider stage, with over 130 specimens of recently resolved O. “banksii” species giant squid having been encountered and complex; Bolstad, 2010) and appears to be examined by scientists within the past 25 the most accurate published synopsis of years, providing material for numerous Kermadec cephalopods to date. publications, public talks, and documentaries. However, the vast majority However, much work remains to be done of New Zealand’s cephalopod fauna is before a full understanding of the region’s comprised of smaller (although equally true cephalopod species composition is fascinating) species, many of which dwell in achieved. An uncritical review of the the deep sea. Even the best-sampled species names presently attributed to regions of our EEZ, such as the Chatham Kermadec-sourced cephalopod specimens Rise, continue to reveal novel (undescribed) housed in the Museum of New Zealand Te taxa; specimens encountered the less- Papa Tongarewa (over 200 specimen lots, sampled regions, such as our northern about 6% of the Museum’s cephalopod waters, almost routinely prove to be either holdings) reveals 10 octopus and more than new records for New Zealand or species 30 squid species (double the number that have not yet been formally described. reported by Duffy & Ahyong in 2015)—more

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h t Cephalopod fauna of the Kermadec Islands: 1 Muc lef to learn

than 30% of New Zealand’s presently EEZ, the future discovery of new geographic reported total cephalopod diversity. The records and entirely undescribed species is FIGURE 1: Two cephalopod species first described from majority of the squid specimens among this highly likely. the Kermadec Islands. (A) material were collected by midwater trawls Octopus jollyorum by the RV in the 1970s—some REFERENCES (reproduced from original 40 years ago—with little new material in the Berry, S.S. (1914). Notes on a collection of description in Reid & Wilson, interim. This is not surprising, as few recent cephalopods from the Kermadec Islands. 2015, fig. 38), (B) Lampadioteuthis megaleia fishing or survey activities have been Transactions of the New Zealand Institute. 46: 134–149. (reproduced from original conducted in the area using similar gear, description in Berry, 1916, fig. and these animals are notoriously difficult to Berry, S.S. (1916). Cephalopoda of the Kermadec 4). sample, being active swimmers with good Islands. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural vision, and thus well able to avoid most Sciences of Philadelphia. 68(1): 45–66. other collection methods. Bolstad, K.S.R. (2010). Systematics of the Onychoteuthidae Gray, 1847 (Cephalopoda: A careful and detailed review of this existing ). Zootaxa. 2696: 1–186. material, together with a smaller number of Braid, H.E.; Bolstad, K. (2015). Systematics of the additional specimens contained within the family Mastigoteuthidae (Cephalopoda: invertebrate collections housed at the Oegopsida) in New Zealand waters. New Zealand National Institute for Water and Journal of Zoology. 42: 187–256. Atmospheric Research, Ltd (NIWA), is doi:10.1080/03014223.2015.1063516 needed in order to establish the true Duffy, C.A.J.; Ahyong, S.T. (2015). Annotated cephalopod diversity represented by these checklist of the marine flora and fauna of the holdings, and to provide a good basis for Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve and northern comparison with new material, should any Kermadec Ridge, New Zealand. Bulletin of the become available. As the northern waters Auckland Museum. 20: 19–124. of New Zealand’s EEZ remain among the House, M.R. (2010). Geographic distribution of least-sampled areas, it is fully expected that Nautilus shells. In: Nautilus (pp. 53–64). Springer new local records and undescribed species Netherlands. will be encountered in the Kermadec region in the future. At present, several higher- Oliver, W.R.B. (1915). The Mollusca of the level taxa (genera and even families) are Kermadec Islands. Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute. 47: 509–568. known to occur in the area (pers. obs.) that have not yet been formally added to the Reid, A.L.; Wilson, N.G. 2015 Octopuses of the growing tally of New Zealand’s cephalopod Kermadec Islands: Discovery and description of a taxa. new member of the Octopus ‘vulgaris’ complex (O. jollyorum, sp. nov.) and the first description of a male Callistoctopus kermadecensis (Berry, 1914). In particular, it would be useful to obtain Bulletin of the Auckland Museum. 20: 349–368. tissue samples of any new material that may be encountered from northern waters, for Spencer, H.G., R.C. Willan, B. Marshall & T.J. genetic comparison both with taxa from Murray. 2014. Checklist of the Recent Mollusca elsewhere in New Zealand and from further recorded from the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone. afield. An increasing body of evidence http://www.molluscs.otago.ac.nz/index.html indicates that cephalopod species historically considered to be cosmopolitan Whatahoro, H.T. (1913). Te Matorohanga. Journal or wide ranging often prove, upon closer of the Polynesian Society. 4. inspection, to represent several (or many) distinct, geographically restricted species (e.g., Bolstad, 2010; Braid & Bolstad, 2015). This appears to be particularly true around certain island groups in the Pacific, including New Zealand. Given the unique oceanographic conditions of the Kermadec region compared with other sectors of the

65 i of t c

Terrestrial nvertebrates he Kermade

WarrenIslands Chinn

WARREN CHINN The Kermadec archipelago is part of a linear concentration of knowledge about TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS series of volcano summits produced by Kermadec terrestrial invertebrates (Figure UNIT, DEPARTMENT OF subduction of the Pacific continental plate 1). CONSERVATION, beneath the . The islands, CHRISTCHURCH, NEW which are no older than one million years Since Watt’s visit, invertebrate collecting on ZEALAND above present , support a terrestrial the Kermadecs has been intermittent. In [email protected] biota that has arrived comparatively 2002, Terry Greene (Department of recently via wind, wings and water from Conservation DOC) made mention of neighbouring landmasses including New several beetle and fly species following a Zealand, New Caledonia, Lord Howe and visit to in lieu of a poison Norfolk islands. drop to eradicate rats. The recent May 2011 Bio-discovery expedition provided another Although endemic bird species occur on all opportunity to make collections from the Kermadec islands, endemism is low for several islands in the Kermadec group, the remainder of the biota with only Raoul forming the basis of this work. The Island, the largest of the group at 2938 ha, expedition, led by Dr Tom Trnski (Auckland maintaining several endemic tree species. Museum), resulted in landings on seven of Similarly, the terrestrial invertebrate fauna the 15 Kermadec Islands, including; Raoul, also displays low endemism and is the Meyer pair, North Chanter, Macauley, depauperate in many species of large Cheeseman and L’Esperance Rock. The flightless forms. latter four islands were new collection locations. A BRIEF HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGICAL COLLECTING ON THE KERMADEC A total of 118 invertebrate taxa were ISLANDS collected during the expedition, of which 12 The first concerted scientific expedition to were recognised to genus only and are the Kermadecs was the 1907 ‘Oliver’ potentially new species for the region. New expedition, during which terrestrial location records for 47 species were also invertebrates were collected along with established. Of the un-recognised taxa, many plant species. After a relatively quiet seven were diptera (flies) and, surprisingly, period during the two world wars, from an equal number of families and invertebrate collecting was resumed in the genera. However, the genus to species ratio 1960s with two New Zealand Ornithological for collected fauna was 1:1.07, suggesting Society expeditions in 1964 (curtailed by a limited speciation. Table 1 summarises the volcanic eruption) and in 1966/67. These invertebrate fauna for the islands visited expeditions produced the largest yield of during the 2011 expedition. invertebrate species and subsequent papers to date. Charles Watt, the expedition Species area plots of the invertebrate yield entomologist, summarised the Kermadec demonstrated a characteristic asymptotic insect fauna as fragmentary and with low curve. Insect species dominated the samples endemism. However, at least 17 descriptive from Raoul, Macauley and Cheeseman papers were produced as a result of these islands while L’Esperance Rock produced two expeditions, by far the highest higher numbers of taxa (Figures 2 and 3).

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Terrestrial invertebrates of the 1 Kermadec Islands

TABLE 1. Summary data table of the Kermadec Island terrestrial invertebrate records from the 2011 bio-discovery expedition.

Raoul Meyers North Macauley Cheeseman L’Esperance Chanter Rock Hectares 2938 8 5 308 7.6 5 (km2) (29.38) (0.08) (0.05) (3.08) (0.076) (0.05) Date of visit May 15-16 & 18-19, 2011 May 12-13, 2011 May 16, May 21-23, May 24, 2011 May 26, 2011 2011 2011 Number of days 3 days/16 hrs 4 hrs 2hrs 2 days/8hrs 3hrs 2hrs and/or hours collecting No. of RTU’s 87 13 7 26 11 9 collected per island Number of 7 2 0 1 1 1 potentially Araneae Diptera Psychodidae Fannia sp. Protochelifer sp. new species Hulua sp. () Sphaeroceridae sp. sp. (Fannidae) (Cheliferidae) Diptera Fergusonina sp. Paradasyhelea sp. (Fergusoninidae) (Ceratopogonidae) Achalcus sp. (Dolichopodidae) Hydrellia sp. (Ephydridae) Atherigona sp. (Muscidae) Megaselia sp. (Phoridae) Gastropoda Flammulina sp.(Charopidae) No. of endemic taxa 5 0 0 1 0 ? No. of species with 33 4 7 17 11 8 new location records No. of species with 42 6 1 8 3 3 flightless forms

BIOGEOGRAPHY OBSERVATIONS ‘ecological clean room’, making them FIGURE 1. Relative numbers of The Kermadecs present a model case-study valuable for global monitoring of human Entomological papers of island biogeography. The combination of activities elsewhere. published per expedition to the Kermadec Islands oceanic isolation, a youthful geology and high disturbance is reflected by the The number of invertebrate species on the assemblage of vagrant invertebrates Kermadec islands increased as an arithmetic capable of travelling by wind, water and function in proportion to island area (Figure wings and, more recently, via human 4). This is typical of island biogeographic activity. The islands are also very significant theory and showed that RaouI Island had as a ‘natural laboratory’ for the study of the highest yield of invertebrates (including evolutionary principles (i.e. rates of diversity and biomass) while L’Esperance colonisation, taxonomic composition of Rock the least. Similarly, the relationship colonisers and incipient endemism). between the linear distances between Moreover, the near pristine condition of the islands and the proportion of shared taxa, Kermadec Islands means we have an demonstrated a weak negative correlation (Figure 5).

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Terrestrial invertebrates of the Kermadec Islands 2

While this study found an inverse resilience is one method of measuring this FIGURE 2. Simple species / relationship between taxa shared between ecological filter where the smaller islands area bar plots for the four principle islands visited during islands and linear distance, it is probable may be ecologically unstable in the absence the 2011 bio-discovery that distance is less significant to the faunal of continuous immigration while grading expedition. composition than habitat suitability. For toward increased stability on the larger many groups the diversity of habitats islands. between islands may be a greater impediment to colonisation than crossing This finding has implications for the ocean, the resultant effect being an conservation, and an understanding of this ecological filter. The outcome of this effect type of community structure on the islands could be differential survival of many is probably necessary for management. It is taxonomic groups on a few islands but with also crucial that some form of ecological complete colonisation of a select few taxa monitoring, using a selection of indicator on all islands. taxa (plant and invertebrate), be considered for the terrestrial environments of the ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE Kermadec Islands. Furthermore, the ISLANDS Kermadec Islands not only present a model The subtropical location of the Kermadec of island biogeographic theory; they also Islands means the group are subject to trade offer some tantalising resource partitioning winds and westerly moving ocean gyres. patterns and a datum against which we can Raoul Island is located well within these compare the effects of human activities global systems and is sufficiently large in globally. As it is, the near pristine terrestrial space, persistent in time and with enough ecology of the Kermadec Islands demands ecosystem heterogeneity for some that our scientific and conservation agencies endemism to have arisen (particularly work together, mindfully, to see these amongst ground-dwelling forest taxa). islands protected at a global level. Raoul Island’s coastline and land area are also extensive enough for continuous random immigration to effectively balance chance extinction.

However, the absence of large, flightless invertebrates on the Kermadec Islands (for example, tree weta, carabid beetles, tunnel web and heavy carnivorous snails) is, in the first instance, due to isolation and size. Human-introduced pests (rats, cats, birds and hedgehogs?), no doubt had an impact on the invertebrate fauna and may have driven any large-bodied taxa to extinction (although evidence for ‘hopeful monsters’ is sorely lacking). Blackbirds Turdus merula remain on Raoul Island and are probably still having an impact on the small suite of indigenous fauna.

Observations from this work suggest that an ‘ecological filtering’ effect exists between the islands and may be a function of habitat heterogeneity, island size and human- induced ecological change. Community

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Terrestrial invertebrates of the Kermadec Islands

The islands are also very significant as a ‘natural laboratory’ for the study of evolutionary principles (i.e. rates of colonisation, taxonomic composition of colonisers and incipient endemism). Moreover, the near pristine condition of the Kermadec Islands means we have an ‘ecological clean room’, making them valuable for global monitoring of human activities elsewhere

3 FIGURE 3. Characteristic species area curve for the principle Kermadec islands sampled during the May 2011 expedition.

FIGURE 4. The number of invertebrate species collected on the Kermadec islands increases linearly in proportion to island area

FIGURE 5. The proportion of taxa shared between islands decreases as a weak function of linear distance between islands.

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69 r t a o c i Ra n Seabirds eturn o n ceani sland: oul

Island,Chris P. Gaskin, Mattnorther J. Rayner, Graeme A.Kermadec Taylor, Karen A. Baird, Islands Mark Miller, Stefanie H. Ismar

CHRIS P. GASKIN The 620,000 square kilometres that make give a sense as to the numbers of birds that NORTHERN NEW ZEALAND up the most northerly part of Aotearoa New must have been on Raoul. However, by then TRUST, AUCKLAND, Zealand’s 200 nautical mile Exclusive populations were on the decline to the NEW ZEALAND Economic Zone exists because of the ravages of predators as well as the

[email protected] Kermadec Islands. Remote, truly oceanic, harvesting by settlers and sailors. these islands crown a long submarine ridge MATT J. RAYNER that stretches from the North Island to Only a handful of species remained by the AUCKLAND WAR MEMORIAL Tonga. All volcanic, two of them active, the end of the twentieth century; their numbers MUSEUM, TAMAKI PAENGA islands are home to millions of seabirds: considerably lower than early reports HIRA, AUCKLAND, NEW petrels, shearwaters, storm petrels, indicated. However, there were still birds ZEALAND, tropicbirds, boobies, terns and noddies, a enough in the 1800s for Raoul to offer two sub-tropical-temperate mix of species. Many petrel species new to science: 1) The first GRAEME A. TAYLOR Kermadec petrel was collected by DEPARTMENT OF South Pacific Islands, including New MacGillivray, the naturalist on board the CONSERVATION, Zealand, have experienced population WELLINGTON, NEW declines of birds caused by the introduction HMS Herald, when it visited the Kermadec ZEALAND, of alien predators. A significant example is Islands in 1854. The specimens were Raoul Island; the largest of the Kermadec forgotten until 1863 when it was finally KAREN A. BAIRD Islands (2943 ha, next largest is Macauley described by Schegel – Pterdroma neglecta. FOREST & BIRD/BIRDLIFE Island 324 ha). These declines resulted from In fact, the specimens were not actually INTERNATIONAL, predator introductions following human collected from Raoul itself, but the Meyer WELLINGTON, NEW visitation and settlement from the 1400s, Islands a few kilometres away; something ZEALAND, including human predation of that may have significance for some recent PRESENTING AUTHOR seabirds.. One of the world’s great seabird work. 2) Specimens of White-naped Petrel colonies had been all but annihilated. We (or the Sunday Island Petrel after an early MARK MILLER present on the return of seabirds to Raoul name for Raoul ‘Sunday Island’) were given JAMES COOK UNIVERSITY, Island, from 2004 to the present day. to Cheeseman, director of the Auckland , QUEENSLAND 4870, Museum – who sent them on to Salvin in the AUSTRALIA, Truly oceanic islands are predominantly where it was formerly seabird islands – or should be! Seabirds described. The species was known only from STEFANIE H. ISMAR provide a seamless link between land and Raoul until discovery of its breeding on HELMHOLTZ ZENTRUM FÜR sea. While they breed on land, they are also Macauley Island in the 1974. OZEANFORSCHUNG KIEL truly marine creatures, perfectly adapted for (GEOMAR), KIEL, GERMANY life at sea. The newly announced proposed The 1908 Kermadec Scientific Expedition Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary is their realm – saw a team of five led by W.R.B. Oliver Raoul Island is around 1000kms from the spend a year on Raoul, joining the Bell nearest land mass, New Zealand’s North family who had settled on the island in the Island. We have no idea of how many 1800s. During their ten months on the island seabirds there would have been on Raoul they made collections of the fauna and flora, Island prior to introduction of predators and studied the geology of the island, and made pests – first Pacific rats with Polynesian full meteorological observations. Iredale voyaging and occasional settlement, then - wrote extensively about both birds and cats, Norway rats, goats, pigs and dogs - molluscs and it is from his notes we get a with European visits and settlement. very clear picture on the status of seabirds However, we get a sense of how many birds at the time. He describes arriving on the there might have been by first comparing island, “the first attraction was the multitude Raoul to Macauley Island (150kms to the of birds encircling the tops of tress in every south). In 1988 it was estimated that direction. As night fell, the noise increased Macauley had something like 5.8 million …” birds breeding there. Raoul is almost 10 times the size of Macauley (2938 ha Roy Bell kept a diary after the scientific compared to 315 ha). The accounts from team left until the Bell family left the island visitors in the 19th century and early 20th also for the last time in 1910. His entries relating

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, Seabirds return to an oceanic island: Raoul 1 Island northern Kermadec Islands

to seabirds, while mainly about their A NEW ERA DAWNS harvesting activities also highlighted the In 2002 cats and rats were eradicated from FIGURE 1. A Kermadec petrel declining populations through predation. To Raoul. Goats that had had a devastating chick in its nest, at a coastal quote Bell’s diary: “Short-billed Titis [Black- impact on plant growth and also disturbed site on Raoul Island. winged Petrels] flying about Titi Knob. Saw ground nesting birds and damaged burrows three just killed by cats.” “June 6 – King had already been eradicated in the 1970s. (Roy’s brother) came home through the Luckily, the Meyer and Herald Islands, just a crater reports could not find any black or few kilometres from Raoul were pest and white burrowers. Saw some black burrowers predator free and consequently jam-packed on beach but were freshly dead. White with seabirds – and not only seabirds also burrowers have all been robbed of the eggs parakeet and . It was only a this year so it is hard to tell.” matter of time before birds would make their way back to Raoul and survive without Norway rats made their way onto the island the depredation of rats and cats. via shipwreck in 1921, dramatically increasing The DOC programme manager for the the rate of seabird decline, while cats Kermadecs from 2006-2010 was keen to continued their slaughter. By the time of the see science and monitoring integrated into 1969 Ornithological Society of New Zealand the DOC work plan. Staff reports were expedition to the Kermadec Islands seabird showing a steady increase in birds returning numbers had crashed. Expedition leader to breed on Raoul. Seabird teams were Don Merton wrote that “The extinction of organised for month-long stays in 2007 and the Kermadec Petrel as a breeding species 2008. By 2006 a few pairs of Kermadec “on Raoul is now virtually complete and was petrels were found nesting at two locations predicted by Davison (1938) when in 1937 he (Figure 1). But not all returns were going noted heavy predation by both Norway Rats smoothly. The white-naped or Sunday Island (eggs) and cats (adult birds).” petrels were recorded in February in two consecutive years (2005, 2006), caught by Of black-winged petrels he added: “The what staff on the island dub ‘Velcro grass’ abundance of cat-eaten remains proved growing on the western-most of the that these small petrels were attempting to northern terraces. Burrs caught in their use their ancestral breeding grounds in spite feathers in such numbers the birds were of heavy predation. The largest cat- unable to fly. These two birds were found on "midden" found was on the farm and on the beach below the terrace where the grass 23/1/67 it contained the remains of 44 grows. Staff members managed to rid one Black-winged Petrels within a 10 yard of the birds of the burrs and it was released radius.” safely form the cliff edge near the hostel.

GROUND ZERO FOR SEABIRDS Acoustic attraction is now being used as an th By the end of the 20 Century Raoul was effective means to provide seabirds with a practically devoid of seabirds – all the helping hand. Playback of recordings is used petrels and shearwaters were gone. The to mimic colonies attracting passing birds only species remaining were a few Red- which in time will nest and start to breed. tailed tropicbirds that nested on cliff ledges, The technique is proving very successful, a handful of white terns that nested in trees provided the target species are within range and a few sooty terns persisting on the and can hear the calls. In 2007 DOC’s beaches. Birds continued to try and breed, Technical Support Unit installed three like the black-winged petrels, but they were acoustic attraction systems on Raoul and easy game for the cats and rats. The these have been successful in attracting annihilation of what must have been one of birds to the sites. CG and DOC staff have the World’s great seabird islands was almost recently made some refinements – using complete. new recordings, improving the equipment and also relocating two of the systems based on findings on the ground.

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, Seabirds return to an oceanic island: Raoul Island northern Kermadec Islands 2 3

By 2011 staff and visitors to the island were this one that eradicate mammalian FIGURE 2. Measuring starting to see a rebound, although in terms predators on islands. Kermadec petrel chicks at of numbers, hardly noticeable compared to Wilson’s Point, Raoul Island. the numbers lost. But the lift in species FUTURE DIRECTION OF SEABIRD diversity was much more marked and RESEARCH FIGURE 3. A Kermadec storm signalled that populations would recover 1. Long term monitoring of and support for petrel being monitored. significantly, in time. the recolonisation of seabird populations to Raoul and the restoration process is The results from the first tracking of any essential. Every restoration island has its Kermadec species were staggering. MR own dynamic, in particular the speed trained DOC staff going to Raoul to attach and ways in which species recolonize geolocator loggers onto breeding black- naturally in the wake of the eradication winged petrels. 14 of these were retrieved of pests and predators. by team members the following year and 2. Basic biology of many of Raoul’s species tracking showed birds travelling large are needed including population distances while provisioning chicks – some dynamics, tracking and stable isotope going well to the south of the Chatham studies to understand their relationship Islands, some deep into the Tasman Sea and with their marine environment and the others up amongst the Pacific Islands. They impacts of changes in the marine also spend a lot of time out over the environment including from climate Kermadec Trench and further east. disruption. 3. Phylogenetic studies of red-tailed In October 2015 CG and MM took the tropicbirds, masked booby and the small opportunity to spend two weeks on Raoul Puffinus shearwater complex; Island, with the University of Auckland international collaborations are already whale expedition lead by R. Constantine underway; Status of the Kermadec (Figures 2 and 3). With support from DOC storm petrel – full species or sub- staff on the island they followed up on species? With Kermadec Petrel, recent reports from the Raoul team of birds determine what is the status of the nesting; they checked sites that Gaskin and summer and winter breeding Baird had visited in 2008. They also took the populations and relationship with other opportunity to collect blood and feather Pacific populations – there is a Pacific- samples from winter and summer-breeding wide collaboration underway with a link Kermadec petrels to investigate the to Indian Ocean birds. possibility of two distinct populations. Their timing, by chance, was spot on finding MEETING CHALLENGES winter-breeding chicks close to fledging 1. One of the biggest challenges to seabird stage, and summer-breeding adults just research in the northern Kermadec returning to the islands which were nest Islands, that of finding easily accessible building. Subsequent DNA analysis of these seabirds in numbers sufficient to warrant samples by TS suggests that there is no or study, has been overcome with the limited haplotype sharing between the return of seabirds to Raoul. populations. However, further more in- 2. The seabird research team already depth research is required to follow up on enjoys a good working relationship with this very promising result. DOC – both at management level and with staff on the island. A two way There is no historical record of two of the process, one that we believe can only smallest Kermadec seabirds, the Kermadec strengthen over coming years. Ideally Little Shearwater and Kermadec Storm- we would want to see seabird petrel, breeding on Raoul prior to the final researchers on Raoul for three months, eradication of predators in 2002. Finding six months and year-long postings - these birds on Raoul was evidence of the subject to funding. outstanding success of programmes such as

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, Seabirds return to an oceanic island: Raoul Island northern Kermadec Islands

Seabirds, as marine creatures, have a vital role in helping develop our understanding of the complex marine world of the future Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary.

3. And seabirds which as their name implies, are marine creatures, but must come to land to breed. We are able to study foraging ecology and movement of seabirds within the marine environment – from land. Finally, seabirds, as marine creatures, have a vital role in helping develop our understanding of the complex marine world of the future Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary

73 Kermadec – Discoveries and Connections

Rebecca Priestley

REBECCA PRIESTLEY, For those of you who haven’t just spent a Beneath the waves is a zone of imagination, SCHOOL OF CHEMICAL AND day at the Kermadec Science Symposium, of barnacles, tubeworms, kelps, and starfish. PHYSICAL SCIENCES, I’ll give you a bit of geographic context for Every time scientists visit they discover new VICTORIA UNIVERSITY OF this exhibition. species. WELLINGTON, WELLINGTON, NEW ZEALAND The Kermadec Islands are a northeast While I first heard about the Kermadecs [email protected] trending line of volcanic islands about during my research into New Zealand’s halfway between Auckland and Tonga. The nuclear history – in the 1950s there was a Islands stretch over 2 degrees of latitude, or proposal to use the remote and isolated 250 km. But in recent years, exploration of Kermadecs as a site to test the British the ocean between New Zealand and Tonga hydrogen bombs – I learned about the has revealed that these islands are part of a geography, geology, biology and history of 2500 km chain of mostly underwater the Kermadecs from artists. volcanoes. This line of mountains is the longest underwater volcanic arc on the In 2011, artist Gregory O’Brien, and Bronwen planet and the most hydrothermally active. Golder, New Zealand’s Pew director, asked The volcanoes mark the collision between me to write a chapter for the book the Pacific and Australian Plates. On the east Kermadec, which documented the visit of side of the collision zone is the Kermadec- this group of artists to the Kermadecs on Tonga Trench, a slash in the ocean floor that board the HMNZS Otago. extends 10,800 metres deep. I learned about the geography and the There’s a long history of people visiting volcanology of the islands from Gregory these islands – from Polynesian voyagers, to O’Brien’s paintings, prints and poetry whalers, to European orange farmers, to (Figure 1). today’s meteorological technicians and conservation workers, but there have never I got a different perspective on the Raoul been any permanent inhabitants. Island geology from Phil Dadson’s rock records. Perhaps it’s because the islands are not very hospitable. This line of volcanic islands is I learned about the islands’ vegetation from prone to eruptions and and Elizabeth Thomson’s metal sculptures damaging storms. The seas, though, are (Figure 2). warm and welcoming. The waters around the islands provide a sanctuary for a unique I learned about the colonial and whaling mix of tropical, sub-tropical and temperate histories from Fiona Hall and Robin species of fish. This is a rare ecosystem, White’s tapa cloths and etchings (Figure 3). where large predators rule, untroubled by fishing lines or nets. These waters are home I learned about the wild energy of the ocean to sharks, giant groupers, turtles and 35 from Jason O’Hara’s videos. species of dolphins and migrating whales. I learned about the Kermadec’s Pasifika On Raoul Island, the largest of the Kermadec connections from John Pule’s etchings and Islands, some species are familiar: the island paintings and poems. is home to local species of pukeko, kakariki, pohukutawa and nikau. I learned about invasive species, and flotsam and jetsam encroaching on the islands, from Other species in the region are strange and Bruce Foster’s photographs and videos. exotic, like fish that fly through the air, or seabirds that dive deep into the ocean to catch their prey.

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4 Kermadec – Discoveries and Connections 1 2 3

And I was awakened to the campaign to artists and scientists diving into this new protect the Kermadecs by John ’ environment, each group forearmed with FIGURE 1. Untitled, Gregory playful and provocative installations. copious research, driven by a desire to O’Brien, 2012. discover, to interpret, to see things no one Sunday Island, In 2012, Bruce and I visited the Kermadecs has seen before. In the Kermadecs, art and FIGURE 2. Elizabeth Thomson, 2011. with a group of scientists, including marine science merged when a flying fish that Fiona biologists Rochelle Constantine, Clinton Hall found and photographed (Figure 5) – it FIGURE 3. Scrimshaw, Fiona Duffy and Libby Liggins and geologist Helen jumped onto the ship – was later delivered Hall, 2011. Bostock. to the Auckland Museum and discovered to be new to science. Bronwen chose to sponsor artists to go to the Kermadecs because these were the Sometimes, art and science really merged, people she saw as most likely to be able to like when John Reynolds turned release of a connect and communicate with the public Raoul Island weather balloon into a about this special part of the world. Now, photographed piece of performance art. scientists were sponsored to collect evidence for why this was such a special and As we can see from today’s science unique environment. symposium and exhibition opening, five years after the first Pew-sponsored voyage, We spent six days at anchor off Raoul Island artists and scientists continue to work (Figure 4). together, informing and celebrating each others’ work and each talking about the Rochelle photographed whale flukes and Kermadecs from their different disciplinary chased whales and dolphins with a biopsy perspectives. gun, hoping for skin and blubber samples. For me, the unlikely partner in this Clinton caught and wrestled Galapagos collaboration was not artists or scientists, sharks, weighing, tagging and taking fin but the military. samples. Commander Simon Rooke, who captained Bruce got fixated on the jandals – always the Otago voyage in 2011, said to me “I could the left (?) foot – washed up on the pumice- barely spell art before I took the artists to laden beaches of Raoul Island. the Kermadecs”.

For me, the most exciting thing, was the He said just as he and his crew had some pumice: the enormous pumice raft – satellite preconceived notions about what artists images identified it as the size of a small were like, he also said he was pretty sure the country – we sailed through on our way artists had some preconceived ideas about north, that Richard Wysoczanski and others the military. In Commander Rooke’s words, have since identified as coming from the “both of us kind of met in the middle and Harve underwater volcano, and the biggest learned from each other.” underwater volcanic eruption ever recorded. The same would be true for the voyage I All of us – scientists, artists, writers and was on. The Canterbury's captain, photographers, became – through our Commander Sean Stewart, and all his crew communication, our research, our art – part fully supported the scientific projects, flying of the campaign to protect the Kermadecs us to and from Raoul Island by helicopter, and establish the ocean sanctuary that was driving us around the island in their rigid hull announced late last year. inflatable boats, lowering the back of the ship so we could go shark fishing at night, Science and art might seem, at first glance, and competing to see who could find the to be two different worlds, but in these biggest sample of pumice. islands the disciplines intersect, with both

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5 Kermadec – Discoveries and Connections 4 5

The surprising thing we learned was the FIGURE 4. HMNZS extent to which the New Zealand Navy see Canterbury, anchored at Raoul themselves as guardians of our marine Island in 2012. environment – we were all aligned in our desire to protect the Kermadec region. As FIGURE 5. Artist Fiona Hall Bronwen described them, the Navy were photographs a flying fish “the most passionate advocates for the which landed on the deck of HMNZS Otago on their voyage ocean I’ve ever encountered”. to Raoul Island in 2011. By the end of both voyages, our captains were, like us, advocates for the Kermadecs, and supporters of the campaign to create the Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary.

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6 Poetry, a church pulpit and an ocean sanctuary 11 May 2016

Gregory O’Brien

ONE OF A GROUP OF NINE ARTISTS WHO The second pulpit-text asked a question of GREGORY O’BRIEN, TRAVELLED TO RAOUL ISLAND IN 2011, the sea—just as the sea is always STOUT MEMORIAL FELLOW 2015, VICTORIA UNIVERSITY GREGORY O’BRIEN PAINTED THE PULPIT questioning us: OF WELLINGTON, WHICH WAS INSTALLED ON STAGE Ocean-sound, what is it WELLINGTON, NEW DURING THE KERMADEC SYMPOSIUM. you listen for? ZEALAND. AUTHOR, POET, ARTIST I II gregory.o’[email protected] Whether situated in a church or not, a pulpit What do artists bring back from an is indelibly stamped with a set of beliefs, experience like the 2011 voyage on the aspirations and a vision of how the world HMNZS Otago through the Kermadec might be. It also speaks of lessons both waters and onwards to Tonga? Whereas imparted and learnt. Originally painted a dull scientists might return from such an off-white, the church pulpit was procured expedition with samples, evidence, empirical from a Christchurch emporium in the mid- knowledge and theories, artists bring back a 90s. An austere specimen, probably of store of imagery, nuances and flavours, Salvation Army or Baptist origin, it sat in my juxtapositions, the rhythm and of a studio for nearly two decades, biding its place and of the state of being displaced. time. The challenge facing the Kermadec artists was to make viewers feel the same empathy Early in 2013, I took to it with a paintbrush, with the region which they—myself working up a stylised version of the annual included--now felt, and to allow the public Raoul Island whale survey on its interior to enter that imaginative relationship. The surfaces; the outer panels soon bore a vista objective was to bring the remote, unvisited of Raoul and the motif of the Luck Bird/Holy waters of the Kermadec region into a /Bird of Peace, which I had discovered compelling sense of nearness or intimacy. on Easter Island. When it was first exhibited, at the Sarjeant Gallery Whanganui, late In his 2015 on the environment, 2014, the pulpit was accompanied by a label Laudato Si, Francis spoke appositely of which invited gallery-goers to stand inside it the importance of art in such a context: 'It and hold forth about any topic whatsoever-- cannot be maintained that empirical science as long as it was something they deeply provides a complete explanation of life, the believed in. interplay of all creatures and the whole of reality.’ The purely scientific approach, he At the end of that showing, the work pointed out, left insufficient room ‘for returned to my studio, where it gathered aesthetic sensibility, poetry, or even reason's dust for two further years until, upon the ability to grasp the ultimate meaning and government’s announcement of a Kermadec purpose of things...' sanctuary, it was brought back into commission and I added a few new details. III In the beak of the Luck Bird, on the pulpit’s A few weeks before its appearance at the front, I painted a celebratory ribbon bearing Kermadec Seminar, the pulpit spent a day at the letters K E R M A D E C. On the inside the Beehive in Wellington. In an inspired panels, I added two texts from my poem- piece of staging, choreographed by sequence ‘Whale Years’. The first spoke to Bronwen Golder, the Prime Minister John and of the endangered or compromised Key announced the introduction into ocean: parliament of the Kermadec Bill from within the confines of the pulpit, with a fizzing, Arms and legs of the plundered sea oceanic work by John Reynolds on the wall for whom is it behind (Figure 1). Fittingly, Key and the you dance? other ministers stood, as if at the bridge or prow of a seagoing vessel, while an electric,

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7 Poetry, a church pulpit and an ocean sanctuary 11 May 2016 1 2

oxygenic, life-encompassing blueness work John Reynolds is lending the blue FIGURE 1.Rt Hon , stretched out behind them. It felt like being Kermadec waters the most human and introduces the Kermadec in the middle of a purposeful and timely variable of voices. Ocean Sanctuary Bill into voyage—one that artists like Robin White Parliament., standing and others had been exploring in their art Completed on the day of the sanctuary behind the pulpit. for the past five years or more (Figure 2). announcement in September 2015, my long poem, ‘Ode to the Kermadec Trench’ Small axe, Nous FIGURE 2. IV deposited me back on the aft deck of the sommes la petite hâche, Robin In entering memory, places like the HMNZS Otago, just outside the Rope Room, White 2014 Kermadecs also enter our imaginations. The where naval ratings are taught the language state of the world outside becomes one with of tying knots, of bringing together different innermost being. Whether we are scientists strands—a task not unlike that which we, as or artists (or both), we are simultaneously artists, set ourselves. In my oceanic ode, I blessed and haunted by our experiences of spoke directly to the Trench, as if it was a these powerful, unique places. At an person I knew, or am now coming to know: exhibition opening at the Tauranga Art Gallery, late in 2011, I recall a serious-looking … Under your tutelage visitor introducing himself to me then we are humbled, shaken proceeding to take one shoe off, and then at times pummelled his sock. Immediately, I set to wondering about his state of mind. A moment later, into submission. Yet however, I realised the purpose of this there is nothing manoeuvre: On the instep of his right foot you resolve, at least there was a detailed map of Raoul Island, overlaid with the outline of a turtle. He had not on our terms: been stationed on the island for six Your business is formative months of his life. With the tattoo unfinishing. Or so runs in place, he explained, he would now spend the rest of his life walking on Raoul Island. the wisdom of the Rope Room: the sea has None of us ever quite leave these places no end, only behind. The following year, at an exhibition of Kermadec-related works at the Bowen loose ends. With your nocturnal traffic Galleries in Wellington, a woman visitor told of dog-fish, lamp-post-fish me a story about an ancient groper off taxi-fish, all manner of Fishing Rock, from her time on Raoul Island 20 years earlier. She was clearly haunted by neon fish, lost this fish and the effect it had upon those diamond fish. And Raoul who encountered it. After she told me the is nothing more than story, I too was entranced. And her a traffic island in this recollection of that groper became one of teeming metropolis…. the central threads in my long poem ‘Memory of a Fish’ (which was included in VI Whale Years, AUP 2015). Like others who are involved in the Kermadec project, I’ve spent much of the V past five years sailing around one particular The South Pacific is an ocean of narratives— word--‘sanctuary’--a word which stems real and imagined. It is also an immense from the root, ‘sanctus’, meaning holy reservoir of songs and statements, of lyrical or hallowed. It’s a word we hope will soon flights and impassioned argument—a apply to the waters around the Kermadec medley of voices captured in John Islands. But it’s also a word for which we Reynolds’s installation, which was also on would wish a broader meaning in terms of display during the seminar (Figure 3). In this all the oceans of the world. In that regard,

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and on behalf of the Kermadec artists, I invoke the spirits of Herman Melville and FIGURE 3.BlueTopia, John Walt Whitman, and of William Blake who Reynolds 2015 wrote: ‘Everything that lives is holy’. That all humanity’s endeavours, on sea as on land, might be prefaced by such a statement.

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For artists and scientists, the Kermadec Islands, where birds fly underwater and fish jump into the air, where black smokers spew into the sea and earthquakes shake the land, are a place of imagination and inspiration. For the seabirds, sea creatures and marine mammals that live on and around the islands, they are a safe passage from breeding grounds to feeding grounds and, to many species, home.”

Rebecca Priestley, science historian and writer