Building Boats from Gods Lauren Elizabeth Lippiello

Home , Aker (deity), Aqen, Babi (mythology), Duat, Ha (mythology), Heh (god)

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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

SYMBOLIC PERCEPTIONS OF NEW KINGDOM WATERCRAFT: BUILDING BOATS FROM GODS

LAUREN ELIZABETH LIPPIELLO

A Thesis submitted to the Department of Anthropology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts

Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2004

The members of the Committee approve the Thesis of Lauren Elizabeth Lippiello defended on March 30, 2004.

Cheryl Ward Professor Directing Thesis

Richard H. Wilkinson Outside Committee Member

Michael A. Uzendoski Committee Member

Daniel J. Pullen Committee Member

Approved:

Dean Falk, Chair, Anthropology

Donald Foss, Dean, Arts and Sciences

The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members.

To my family– especially my father. You continually inspire me with your creativity, generosity, and intellect. I love you.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Several individuals assisted me in bringing this thesis to fruition and deserve my gratitude. First and foremost, I am grateful to my committee members. To my advisor and friend Cheryl Ward, whose commitment, enthusiasm, and wisdom guided and inspired me not only while working on my thesis but during my tenure at Florida State University. I hope it was worth the wait. To Richard H. Wilkinson, whose extensive knowledge on ancient Egyptian symbol and ritual proved to be an invaluable resource. Thank you for your insight and flexibility. To Daniel J. Pullen, whose knowledge about ancient Egypt and command of English grammar provided necessary comments and suggestions, thank you for your inexhaustible patience. To Michael A. Uzendoski, whose erudition and experience in the field of cultural anthropology has helped focus my own interests, thank you for your support. I acknowledge the positive influences of Karen J. Meech, Frank Romer, the late Janet Mattei, Mike Mattei, William A. Parkinson, Nicolas A. Hopkins, Shannon Burkes Pinette, and Jon Solomon, as these individuals have encouraged and guided me through the formative years of my academic career. I also thank John W. Olsen for providing my first introduction to archaeology. I offer my appreciation to my fellow graduate students– Claire Nanfro and Kevin Pittle and friends– Bryan Dove and Lindsay St. Romain, your intellect and camaraderie helped me become a better student and person. Finally, my deepest thanks go to my family. To Louis Lippiello for his avid interest and editing skills, Barbara M. Lippiello for her constant encouragement and much needed ego-boosting, Keryl L. Koffler, who is and always will be my role model, and Jenette Lippiello, Gregg Koffler, and Cory Lippiello, for providing welcomed distractions.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures vii List of Abbreviations x Abstract xi

1. INTRODUCTION 1

Significance and Contribution 1 Context 2 Methodology 4

2. ANCIENT EGYTIAN COSMOLOGY: THE MYTHICAL LANDSCAPE 5

Introduction 5 Mythical Geography 6 In the Beginning 7 Cosmology 7 Summary: The Prevalence of Watercraft in the Afterlife 12

3. EGYPTIAN WATERCRAFT: THE MHNT BOAT 16

Introduction 16 Mhnt Boat: Translation and Longevity 16 Characteristic Features of Egyptian Watercraft 19 Repetitive Imagery and Boat Parts Omitted from Spell 99 23 Summary 24

4. BUILDING BOATS FROM GODS 37

Introduction 37 Form: Primary and Secondary Associations 38 Location: Deckline vis-à-vis Mythical Geography 41 Color and Characteristics Relative to the Deckline 43 Repeated Features 44 Conflating Traditions: Solar and Ferry Boats 45 Summary 47

5. THE MAGICAL PROPERTIES OF THE MHNT BOAT: MIMESIS IN ACTION 56

Introduction 56 Identification and Anthropophagy 56 Application of Mimesis 59 What the Mhnt Represents: Liminal Period and Societal Values 60 Summary: The Magical Ferry Boat of Spell 99 65

6. CONCLUSION: FREEDOM IN THE AFTERLIFE 67

Watercraft in the Afterlife: The Mhnt Boat 67 Deckline Model 68 Mimesis and Liminality 69

APPENDICES 71

A CHRONOLOGY 71 B SELECTIONS OF RELEVANT FUNERARY TEXTS 73 C SPELL 99, BOOK OF THE DEAD, PAPYRUS OF NU 86 D BOAT DIAGRAM: MEKET-RE’S TRAVELING BOAT N, XI DYNASTY, ADAPTED FROM WINLOCK (1955: pl. 20) 90 E CATEGORY DEFINITIONS FOR TABLE 4.1 92 F PERONSAL COMMUNICATION: CHERYL WARD 97 G PERSONAL COMMUNICATION: SHANNON BURKES PINETTE 98

GLOSSARY 99

BIBLIOGRAPHY 104

FURTHER READING 109

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 111

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. Nun supporting the sun god’s boat bearing the new-born sun, Papyrus of Ani, XX Dynasty (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 117). 13

Figure 2.2. The sky goddess in bovine form. Nut’s legs, the pillars of the sky, are supported by the eight Heh gods and Shu, from the Outermost shrine of Tutankhamun, XVIII Dynasty photographed by H. Hauser (Hornung, 1999: pl. 92). 13

Figure 2.3. Nut personifying the sky is supported by the god Shu and arches over the god Geb from the Greenfield Papyrus, XXI Dynasty, BM 10554 (Lesko, 1991: pl. 13). 14

Figure 2.4. The Four Rudders of Heaven representing the cardinal directions, XVIII–XIX Dynasties, BM 10471/9 (FBD, 1972 [2001]: 142). 14

Figure 2.5. The sky goddess giving birth to the sun, from the Book of the Day, recovered from the tomb of Ramses VI, XX Dynasty, and photographed by Erich Lessing (Vernus, 1998: 115). 15

Figure 2.6. The Field of Offerings, note that water surrounds all activities of the blessed dead, from the funerary papyrus of Ani, XIX Dynasty, BM 10470 (BD, 1994 [1998]: pl. 34). 15

Figure 3.1. Petroglyph from Wadi el-Atwani in the Eastern Desert, 4th millennium BC (Rohl, 2000: 147, fig. 1). 26

Figure 3.2. Petroglyph from Wadi Barramiya, 4th millennium BC (Rohl, 2000: 45, fig. 10). 26

Figure 3.3. Ma-ha-ef, the Celestial Ferryman, from the funerary papyrus of Ani, XIX Dynasty, BM 10470/17 (BD, 1994 [1998]: pl. 16). 27

Figure 3.4. Inhuretnakht’s funerary stela, First Intermediate period, BM EA 1783 (adapted from Manley and Collier, 1998: 74). 28

Figure 3.5. Baboons worshiping the sun, photographed by Erich Lessing (Vernus, 1998: 42). 29

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Figure 3.6a. Traveling boat model with elongated finials from Tutankhamun’s tomb, XVIII Dynasty, Model Boat, Obj. no 352, photographed by the Cairo Museum (Jones, 1990: pl. 13). 30

Figure 3.6b. Papyriform boat model with papyriform finials from Tutankhamun’s tomb, XVIII Dynasty, Model Boat, Obj. no 311, photographed by Harry Burton, Griffith Institute (Jones, 1990: pl. 29). 30

Figure 3.7. Wooden lashing covers on the stern of Khufu’s royal ship, VI Dynasty (Jenkins, 1980: 101). 31

Figure 3.8a. Qustul incense burner, early Nagada III (adapted from the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, 1998). 32

Figure 3.8b. The only occupant in the far left watercraft, located on the Qustul incense burner, is identified by DeVries (1976: 71–74) as a baboon (Seele, 1974: fig. 21b). 32

Figure 3.8c. The watercraft on the far right of the Qustul incense burner is equipped with a sail and is the earliest datable depiction of a sail associated with ancient Egypt (adapted from Seele, 1974: fig. 21e). 32

Figure 3.9. Traveling boat with bipod mast from Kaemankh’s tomb at Giza, V Dynasty (Landström, 1970: fig. 104). 33

Figure 3.10. Traveling Boat N from Meket-re’s tomb with mast supports, XI Dynasty (Winlock, 1955: pl. 34). 33

Figure 3.11. Rigging from a ferry boat model found in Tutankhamun’s tomb, XVIII Dynasty (adapted from Jones, 1995: fig. 45). 34

Figure 3.12. Interior of the Royal Ship of Cheops, note the carling, stanchions, and frames, IV Dynasty (adapted from Jenkins, 1980: fig. 83). 35

Figure 3.13a. Traveling boat from the tomb of Intefiqer, XII Dynasty, note the stern platform and axial rudder (Jones, 1995: fig. 48). 36

Figure 3.13b. Reconstruction of a traveling boat’s stern platform based on reliefs from Queen Hatshepsut’s temple at Deir el-Bahari, XVIII Dynasty (Landström, 1970: fig. 334). 36

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Figure 4.1. Relationship between deities’ place in mythical geography and the deckline. The deities Seth, Babi, Aker, and Wepwawet are excluded from the graph. Likewise the ambiguous boat part labeled beam is not included. 51

Figure 4.2. Red and white deck pattern on the traveling Boat O from Meketre’s tomb, XI Dynasty, photographed by the Metropolitan Museum of Art Photograph Studio (Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2004). 52

Figure 4.3. Deckline as a means to emphasize particular characteristics of deities. Seth, Babi, Aker, and Wepwawet are included in the graph based upon the location of their respective nautical features. Ambiguous boat parts are excluded from the data. 53

Figure 4.4. Deceased conveys his own body into the afterlife, from Spell 99, Book of the Dead, the papyrus of Nu, XVIII Dynasty (Lapp, 1997: pl. 2). 54

Figure 4.5. The eleventh hour from the Book of Amduat, note the snake-like appearance of the rope used to drag the boat of the sun god through the underworld, burial chamber of Tuthmosis III, XVIII Dynasty (Taylor, 2001: fig. 102). 55

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

BD Faulkner, R. O., 1994 (reprinted 1998), The Egyptian Book of the Dead: The Book of Going Forth by Day. J. Wasserman (ed.). San Francisco.

BM British Museum

FBD Faulkner, R. O., 1972 (reprinted 2001), The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead. C. Andrews (ed.). Austin.

FCT Faulkner, R. O., 1977, The Ancient Egyptian Coffin Texts, Vol. II. Warminster.

FPT Faulkner, R. O., 1969, The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts. Oxford.

Sp. Spell

Utt. Utterance

ABSTRACT

In ancient Egypt a proclivity existed for constructing analogies between divinities or corporeal elements of divinities and earthly objects. This thesis examines the specific relationship between analogous god parts and boat parts in Spell 99 from the Book of Dead. I provide a general discussion on the prevalence of watercraft in cosmology followed by an analysis of the individual elements of the mhnt boat described in Spell 99. I develop a predictive model for the relationship between corporeal elements of the gods and boat parts based upon primary and secondary associations of form, the location of the deity in mythical geography, and the boat part’s placement relative to the deckline. Applying the anthropological theories of mimesis and liminality I attempt to demonstrate the use of sympathetic magic by the deceased to obtain power over that which he fears, in the process revealing core values of ancient Egyptian culture. I determine that the mhnt boat represents a microcosm of the ancient Egyptian cosmos and functions as a source of power for the deceased over impotency, chaos, and mortality.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION1

Significance and Contribution

Jones (1995: 9) states, “No civilization, ancient or modern, has depended more on water transport for its existence and growth than Egypt.” Agriculture, commerce and military activities all depended upon the Nile for both the production of commodities and transportation. Equally prevalent is the conception of and preparation for an afterlife in ancient Egyptian culture, evident from archaeological and textual materials. Texts are particularly important in reference to the afterlife and lend insight to the interpretation of ancient Egyptian ideology. It follows that as principal modes of transportation boats are predominant features in ancient Egyptian religion, specifically the afterlife (Jones, 1995: 9). Yet it is suggested by Ward (2000: 67) that while watercraft are symbolically important, no satisfactory explanation is provided for their presence in Egyptian funerary contexts. I contribute an anthropological perspective to the well attested association between Egyptian watercraft and interment, illuminating the use of symbolic watercraft by the deceased. The Book of the Dead is a collection of incantations and illustrations (vignettes), frequently written on papyri (Hornung, 1999: 13). Versions of the Book of the Dead date from the beginning of the New Kingdom through the Roman era (Hornung, 1999: 13–14). The collection of papyri offered the deceased provisions as well as protection against the dangers of the afterlife (Hornung, 1999: 17). Using Spell 99 from the Book of the Dead as a paradigm, I attempt to demonstrate that through the power of mimesis the boat ameliorates the fears of the deceased

1 The glossary includes both nautical terminology and selected ancient Egyptian terms related to ideology. Appendix A lists the chronological period and date ascribed to each dynasty. These supplemental materials should be consulted throughout the text.

1 during the liminal period, after death but before salvation, exposing the fundamental values of ancient Egyptian culture.

Context

Historically, the established procedure to study Egyptian religion was to analyze it as a system existing independently of culture and developing according to its own rules (Finnestad, 1989a: 74). More current research perceives religion “as a phenomenon belonging to culture…developing in a reciprocally conditioned relationship with the culture in its totality” (Finnestad, 1989a: 74). This thesis studies ancient Egyptian religion from the perspective of an integrated system, more specifically analyzing Spell 99 within the context of ancient Egyptian culture. The Spell for bringing a ferry boat in the Realm of the Dead, commonly known as Spell 99 from the New Kingdom Book of the Dead, concerns the construction of a boat, the mhnt, intended to carry the deceased to the Field of Offerings located in the sky’s western horizon. Through magical properties ascribed to the vessel via a series of analogous relationships between corporeal elements of deities and boat parts, the spell allows the dead freedom in the afterlife by providing them with power over their primary fears and the ability to attain their ardent desires. Spell 99 from the New Kingdom Book of the Dead has precursors in both the Old Kingdom Pyramid Texts and Middle Kingdom Coffin Texts. The Pyramid Texts were written down at the end of the V Dynasty and the VI Dynasty and constitute the oldest body of Egyptian funerary and religious literature (Faulkner, 1969: v). Utterances in the Pyramid Texts reflect the disparity between the pharaoh and non-royalty indicating that “what was proper for the life and death of a king differed from the usages of the private person” (Lichtheim, 1975: 3). Utterance 373 commands the king to stand at gates that exclude common people (Lichtheim, 1975: Utt. 373). This sentiment also is represented in Utterances 270, 359, and 522, potentially precursors to Spell 99 from the Book of the Dead that pertain exclusively to the king and the ascension to the afterlife (Appendix B). Decentralization in economic and political power at the end of the VI Dynasty precedes the democratization of the afterlife, a phenomenon described as the availability of the afterlife to non-royal elites (Lichtheim, 1975:131; Morenz, 1973; Finnestad, 1989b). Sørensen (1988: 114) states,

2 The whole ritual and mythological repertoire of the Pyramid Texts are at the disposal of private coffin owners…the deceased is identified with….gods, imitates mythological roles, and claims knowledge of gods, of mythical events, and names.

Even though the afterlife for non-royal elites is modeled on that of the divine king and functions to assuage the fear of death and longing for immortality, the Coffin Texts also express ordinary concerns, including fears relating to hunger and thirst in the afterlife (Lichtheim, 1975: 131). Parallel to the democratization of the afterlife during the First Intermediate period is a growing emphasis on the judgment of the dead, fully manifested in the New Kingdom Book of the Dead, Spell 125 (Andrews, 2001: 12). During the Middle Kingdom there is a burgeoning skepticism toward the existence of an afterlife, evident in the Harpers’ Songs and Spell 1130 and 1031 from the Coffin Texts (Lichtheim, 1975: 131–133, 193–197). Spells 404 and 405 from the Coffin Texts are Middle Kingdom precursors to Spell 99, providing more discussion on the Field of Rushes than similar spells in either the Pyramid Texts or the Book of the Dead as noted by Milde (1991: 175) (Appendix B). I identify Spells 398, 400, 401, 403, and 409 from the Coffin Texts as also sharing elements with Spell 99 from the Book of the Dead. In particular Spell 398 from the Coffin Texts uses language almost identical to that of Spell 99’s Part I and II from the Book of the Dead. The Book of the Dead is one of several New Kingdom texts providing magical assistance to the deceased (Hornung, 1999). Because a copy of a funerary papyrus, prefabricated or made to order, permits the owner access to the afterlife, multiple copies of the Book of the Dead exist (Lichtheim, 1975: 119; Andrews, 2001: 11). It is within this environment of democratized afterlife for the wealthy, judgment of the dead, and skepticism about the reality of life after death that Spell 99, Book of the Dead functions. For the purposes of this study, I utilize Faulkner’s (1972 [2001) translation of Spell 99 from the funerary papyrus of Nu, “Steward of the Chief Treasurer, Amenhotep and the Lady Sensenb” dating to the XVIII Dynasty (Appendix C) (Andrews, 2001: 9). The constructional elements and their associated gods described in Spell 99, in the papyrus of Neferrenpet (Milde, 1991) differ slightly from those listed in Nu’s Papyrus. The contrast between the constructional elements and their associated deities listed in either papyrus provides an interesting comparison and potentially are based upon the deceased’s gender or geographical location, but a more comprehensive discussion is beyond the scope of this study.

3 Methodology

Using Spell 99 as a paradigm, specifically the symbolic construction of the mhnt boat, I develop a predictive model for the relationship between gods or corporeal elements of the gods and boat components based on 1) primary and secondary associations of form describing boat parts in terms of god parts, including mythical, anatomical, and functional analogies, 2) the god’s absolute location on the mythical landscape, and 3) the boat part’s placement relative to the deckline, centerline, and midships. To facilitate the development of the above model I compiled the data listed in Tables 4.1 and Figures 4.1 and 4.3 from the papyrus of Nu and glossaries pertaining to Egyptian gods and goddesses, most notably those of R. H. Wilkinson (2003) and Hart (1986 [2003]). Applying the concepts of mimesis and liminality as they are defined by Taussig (1993) and V. Turner (1967 [1989]), respectively, I examine how the spell functions to assuage the fears of the deceased during the period after death and before admittance to the afterlife. Emphasis on particular characteristics of divinities incorporated into the watercraft becomes a reflection of underlying societal values.

CHAPTER 2

ANCIENT EGYTIAN COSMOLOGY: THE MYTHICAL LANDSCAPE

Introduction1

Ancient Egyptians utilized several types of watercraft in ritual and secular environments, but almost all known examples of watercraft, including models and artistic representations, are found exclusively in funerary and religious contexts.2 As early as the 4th millennium BC multiple types of watercraft are depicted in petroglyphs, tomb paintings, pottery, and painted textiles (T. Wilkinson, 2003; Case and Crowfoot-Payne, 1962; Crowfoot-Payne, 1973; DeVries, 1976; Seele, 1974; Williams and Logan, 1987). Boat graves and pits dating from the Old Kingdom are considered the most crucial components associated with the funerary complex (Hawass, 1990: 26). Landström (1970), Jones (1995: 36–71), and Ward (2000) provide more discussion on actual Egyptian watercraft. Replacing more expensive full-sized watercraft, model boats represent the largest single category of models recovered from funerary contexts during the Old through Middle Kingdoms, demonstrating their prevalence in Egyptian religious practice (Taylor, 2001: 103). Similarly, 32 vessels referenced in the Pyramid Texts, in addition to other funerary equipment, demonstrate the deceased’s knowledge of the gods’ secrets and thus can act as a passport into the afterlife (see chapter five) (Ward, 2000: 2, 12; Jones, 1995: 13). By the New Kingdom, temple construction reflects “the desire to parade the boat…to the most dramatic advantage” (Kemp, 1989: 185). The “cult of the divine ship” may persist in Egypt, evident from

1 References provided in chapter two represent a small fraction of the available sources on ancient Egyptian cosmogony and cosmology. Additional sources can be found in the bibliographies of the works referenced here.

2 Exceptions include the Mataria boat found in a suburb of Cairo. Ward (2000: 129) notes that “the boat rested on barren sand, suggesting that it was last beached near an old river channel.” Radiocarbon dates the boat remains to the Late period (2450±50 BP). See Ward (2000: 129–135) for more information.

5 ethnographic accounts (Hassan, 1946: 33, n.3). A bronze boat adorns the dome of the Mosque of Imam-el-Shafi’ in Cairo, a boat model is paraded around Luxor Temple for the celebration of the Muslim saint Abu’l Haggag, and small boat models hang in tombs of holy men (Hassan, 1946: 33, n.3; Vinson, 1994: 52; Wachsmann, 2002). From the beginning of Egyptian history boats are forms of supernatural transportation and the most common manner for the gods to traverse the firmament and for the deceased to reach the afterlife, evident from both archaeological remains and textual materials (Jones, 1995: 12–16; T. Wilkinson, 2003: 149, 150, 156; Taylor, 2001: 103). By examining ancient Egyptian cosmogony, the origin of the universe, and cosmology, the nature and structure of the perceived universe, a better understanding of the prominence watercraft plays in funerary and ritual contexts is attained.

Mythical Geography

For ancient Egyptians the reality of the mythical landscape, in particular the underworld, is complementary to the reality of terrestrial geography (R. H. Wilkinson, 1994: 62). The frequency of references to and depictions of water in texts and artistic representations indicate the prevalence of this geographical feature in the world view of the ancient Egyptians. Nevertheless, mythologies referring to the cosmogony and cosmology of the universe are not considered dogmatic and often conflict with one another, due to the nature and longevity of Egyptian polytheism (Goelet, 1994 [1998]: 142; Lesko, 1991: 90). Contrasting information referring to the origin and landscape of the cosmos becomes conflated over time (Lesko, 1991: 90). Based on the multitude of potential locations the deceased could inhabit in the afterlife, Erman (1894 [1971]: 306) concludes, “From the earliest ages it was an article of faith amongst the Egyptians that man existed after death, but where and how he existed was not so clear to their minds.” What is pervasive in Egyptian mythology pertaining to the origin and structure of the cosmos is an “endless duality” exhibited by pairs of gods and goddesses explaining the binary nature observed in the environment (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 74).

6 In the Beginning…

Several different and conflicting accounts describe the creation of the world.3 A common cosmogony refers to four components of nonexistence: water, infinity, darkness, and hiddenness or wind (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 78). Characteristics associated with these elements are chaos, weariness, inertness, and negation (Goelet, 1994 [1998]: 142). From the primordial or primeval waters arise the gods Nun, Heh, Kek, Amun and their associated goddesses in the form of a mound, lotus flower, or cosmic egg (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 78). These gods precede the birth of the sun god (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 78). Iconography depicting Nun holding the solar bark that carries the new-born sun mimics this first creation and exhibits the rejuvenating powers of Nun (Fig. 2.1) (Goelet, 1994 [1998]: 153; R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 117). The negative aspects of Nun are accentuated in cosmic geography. After creation the primordial waters, representing chaos, endure in the persona of the god Nun and are characterized as the “Abyss” in Spell 99 (FBD). These primeval waters encircle the universe, and are located throughout the underworld and below the earth (Goelet, 1994 [1998]: 142, 143). Chaos also can reside in deserts located on earth and throughout the netherworld in general (Goelet, 1994 [1998]: 142). Similarly, any terrestrial body of water can be called Nun (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 117). The world is created from the inert black waters of the abyss, personified by the god Nun, that continue to surround the world after its creation.

Cosmology

For the ancient Egyptians the universe includes everything the sun circles with Egypt at its center, described as a flat oval-shaped landmass bounded by oceans (Lesko, 1991: 117; Goelet, 1994 [1998]: 142; R. H. Wilkinson, 1994: 60). The earth is separated from the waters of Nun by the vault of heaven (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 160–162). The firmament is personified by both zoomorphic (cow and sow) and anthropomorphic forms of the goddesses Nut, and the bovine form of the goddess Hathor (little is known about Hathor in this particular role) (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 140, 160–162). In her bovine form, Nut’s legs, representing the four pillars of the sky, are supported by Shu, the personification of air, and the Heh Ogdoad (Fig. 2.2) (R. H.

3 Different cosmogonies potentially arise from competing politico-religious factions (Lesko, 1991: 91).

7 Wilkinson, 2003: 77, 162).4 In anthropomorphic form Nut is depicted naked, arching over the earth (personified as the god Geb) with her arms and legs touching either the opposing horizons or the four cardinal points (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 162; Lesko, 1991: 117, 121). Shu is depicted supporting Nut’s anthropomorphic body, separating it from the earth god, Geb (Fig. 2.3). Utterance 217, from the Pyramid Texts states, “Who lays claim to the place of the four pillars! Your son comes to you, this Unas comes to you, May you cross the sky united in the dark, May you rise in lightland, the place in which you shine” (in this context “you” refers to Re-Atum) (Lichtheim, 1975: Utt. 217). During the New Kingdom the cardinal directions also can be represented as the Four Rudders of Heaven (Fig. 2.4). Spell 148 states, O Good Power, the good steering-oar of the northern sky; O Wanderer who guides the Two Lands, good steering-oar of the western sky; O Shining One who dwells in the Mansion of Images, good steering-oar of the eastern sky; O Pre-eminent who dwells in the Mansion of the Red Ones, good steering-oar of the southern sky (FBD, Sp. 148).

According to the ancient Egyptians the structure of the celestial sphere consisted of primordial waters of chaos above a sky personified as Nut touching the horizons and representing the pillars of the firmament. Nut is perceived as the mother of heavenly bodies, most notably the sun and stars. Mythology describes of the goddess ingesting the sun god and solar bark every night and giving birth to it every morning, representing a perpetual cycle of death and rebirth (Fig. 2.5) (Lesko, 1991: 118; Wells, 1992, Taylor, 2001: 28, 29; R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 161). Utterance 216 states, “Orion is swallowed up by the Netherworld…Sothis is swallowed up by the Netherworld…[the king] is swallowed up by the Netherworld” (FPT, Utt. 216). The earliest map of the sky, described in the Book of Two Ways, is preserved on the interior of the physician Gua’s coffin from el-Bersheh, XII Dynasty (Lesko, 1991: 119; Taylor, 2001: 32–33). The text describes the sun god’s journey from east to west on a blue waterway (the inner sky or the underside of Nut’s body) and west to east on a black land (the outer sky) (Lesko, 1991: 119). As noted above, the primordial waters of Nun can also flow through the netherworld and may be traveled upon by the sun god and his entourage during the evening hours. The dead could inhabit several mythical geographic locations in the afterlife, including the Field of Reeds (sekhet iaru), the Field of Offerings (sekhet hetep), and the realm of the dead

4 Although controversial, Budge (1960 [1971]: 130–133) also discusses Nut’s various forms in relation to the firmament.

8 (Duat).5 The Field of Reeds, located in the eastern horizon, is regarded initially as a place of purification and later as paradise (Lesko, 1991: 120). Old Kingdom texts refer to the sun bark’s journey across the sky to the horizon where it descended to the Field of Reeds in the eastern side of the sky (Lesko, 1991: 119). Based on Nut’s cosmic iconography, Lesko (1991: 119) suggests that locations associated with the cosmos, for example the Field of Reeds, the Nurse Canal and the Winding Waterway, may refer to female anatomical features. The Field of Offerings (sekhet hetep), also known as the Field of Rushes, is located in the western horizon where the blessed dead reside (R. H. Wilkinson, 1994: 63). During the Old Kingdom, the Field of Offerings may have been considered Osiris’s property where the deceased labor, but in later periods is known as paradise, similar to the Greek’s conception of the Elysian Fields (Fig. 2.6) (Lesko, 1991: 100, n.16, 120). Erman (1894 [1971]: 306) comments, The peasants believed…that he went to the fields of [iaru], where the barley and the spelt grew to the height of seven cubits; that here he would plough the land and reap the harvests, and when tired in the evening, he would sit under his sycamore, and play draughts with his companions.

From the New Kingdom, Spell 110 describes similar activities engaged in by the deceased, “Here begins the spells of the Field of Offerings…ploughing therein, reaping and eating therein, drinking therein, copulating therein, and doing everything that used to be done on earth” (FBD, Sp. 110). The deceased is able to attain an ideal lifestyle upon reaching the Field of Reeds and the Field of Offerings, associated with opposing horizons of the celestial sphere. The realm of the dead can be located within the body of the sky goddess and below the earth in the Lower Sky (Taylor, 2001: 32). During the Old Kingdom the realm of the dead is located exclusively in the sky, evident from utterances in the Pyramid Texts. Upon ascending to the sky the deceased king lives among the gods and travels on the sun god’s bark (Taylor, 2001: 32). The oldest version of the deceased’s voyage with Re comes from the Pyramid Texts, Utterance 263, The sky’s reed-floats are launched for Unas, That he may cross on them to lightland, to Re. Flooded are the Fields of Rushes That Unas may cross on the Winding Water: Ferried is this Unas to the eastern side of lightland, Ferried is this Unas to the eastern side of the sky (Lichtheim, 1975: Utt. 263).

5 Kraus (1997) examines the astronomical reality of these mythical geographic features.

9 Utterances 264 and 265 convey similar meanings and are considered variants of the above. Similarly, Utterance 407 states, “Teti will take his seat in the bow of Re’s bark: The sailors who row Re, they shall row Teti! The sailors who convey Re about lightland, They shall convey Teti about lightland!” (Lichtheim, 1975: Utt. 407). These utterances allude to another potential fate of the deceased, becoming either an imperishable star, referring to circumpolar stars located in the northern portion of the sky, or diurnal star, stars that are perceived as rotating around the earth (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 161; Erman, 1894 [1971]: 306; Goelet, 1994 [1998]: 143). Utterance 248 suggests the king is a brilliant and far-traveling star (FPT, Utt. 248). Likewise, Utterance 442 states, “You shall rise with Orion in the eastern sky, You shall set with Orion in the western sky… [Sothis] is your guide on the sky’s good paths, In the Field of Rushes” (Lichtheim, 1975: 442). During the Middle Kingdom perceptions of the afterlife experience two fundamental changes: the realm of the dead shifts from a celestial to an underworld location and the afterlife becomes more accessible to the middle class (R. H. Wilkinson, 1994: 62–63). The Coffin Texts describe this complementary chthonic underworld, identified as the kingdom of Osiris (Taylor, 2001: 32). To reach the realm of the dead safely the deceased required “special knowledge” including the names of the inhabitants of the underworld, the locality of paths, waterways, and gates, and the proper incantations that would allow him access (Taylor, 2001: 32). With the democratization of the afterlife, evident from both Middle and New Kingdom texts, any justified dead could accompany Re (Taylor, 2001: 29, 30). Book of the Dead Spells 64–129 include descriptions of the deceased’s voyage with Re on the solar barks as one of the blessed dead (Goelet, 1994 [1998]: 141). Similarly, Spells 130–189 describe the deceased as a deity and again refer to the deceased’s voyage with the sun god (Goelet, 1994 [1998]: 141). The topography and divine inhabitants of the chthonic underworld and the celestial sphere receive additional clarification during the New Kingdom (Hornung, 1982: 228). The afterlife is envisioned as a mirror image of Egypt, “a long river valley crossed by the sun on its nightly journey under the earth, and bordered by endless rows of desert hills which were the dark and lonely regions of the damned” (R. H. Wilkinson, 1994: 62). Following the years of Akhenaten’s (XVIII Dynasty) rulership locations associated with the deceased’s constituent elements have a strict placement; the ba resides in the sky, the image on earth, and the corpse in the underworld (Hornung, 1982: 228). Every night the ba is reunited with the body paralleling

10 the sun god’s reunion the mummified god Osiris (Hornung, 1982: 228; Taylor, 2001: 29). In this manner both the ba of the deceased and the sun god are rejuvenated (Taylor, 2001: 29). The Book of Two Ways commonly found on Middle Kingdom coffins provides precise descriptions of the various paths, both terrestrial and aquatic, the deceased can use to reach the afterlife. During the New Kingdom, the Book of the Underworld provides the most detail, describing the nightly journey of the sun in the subterranean Duat and the various tortures of the damned. In their most utilitarian function some deities that inhabit the underworld serve as units of time (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 79). The Book of Amduat and the Book of Gates, both dating from the New Kingdom, describe the underworld as divided into twelve regions, corresponding to each hour of the night, and personified by a god (Hornung, 1999: 27, 55; Taylor, 2001: 28, 33; R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 83). Similarly, each hour of the day is personified as a god and represents an existent region the sun god must travel though (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 83). Furthermore, the underworld is perceived as having multiple barriers, such as gates, portals, and pylons guarded by gate deities (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 81). In order to pass into the afterlife the deceased is required to know the secret names of these gods (see chapter five) (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 81). The Ramesside funerary complexes at Thebes are equipped with guidebooks concerning the night guardians and gates the deceased encounters on his voyage with Re (Lesko, 1991: 109; R. H. Wilkinson, 2003). In addition to gate gods the deceased also contends with demi-gods or demons that inhabit entrances to the underworld (caves, pits, tombs, and bodies of water), punishing the wicked and protecting the justified (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 80, 81). The development of punishment for the wicked appears to parallel increasing afterlife democratization. With origins in the Pyramid Texts, the “Negative Confession” or “Declaration of Innocence” is a vital element in the New Kingdom Book of the Dead, where the deceased proclaims his innocence for the 42 gods in the Hall of the Two Truths (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 84). If the deceased is unable to prove his worthiness he dies a second death by being drown in the waters of Nun, consumed by the creatures Ammut, decapitated, or treated as a sacrificial animal (Goelet, 1994 [1998]: 154).

11 Summary: The Prevalence of Watercraft in the Afterlife

Despite modifications to mythical topography the presence of water, existing outside the known universe, on earth, and within the underworld, remains a constant geographical feature, making watercraft a necessary piece of equipment for the deceased. To travel to the fields of the blessed and in the afterlife in general, the deceased must be ferried across the Winding or Shifting Waterway, tentatively identified as the ecliptic, the apparent path of the sun, moon, and planets through the celestial sphere (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 104). Upon reaching the afterlife and being judged worthy the deceased can accompany the sun god along with his consort of gods and goddesses across the firmament and through the underworld via watercraft (Jones, 1995: 14– 15). Due to the central role of water in Egyptian cosmology boats, hold a unique and prominent position in burials and religious ceremonies from the beginning of Egyptian history through the present.

Figure 2.1. Nun supporting the sun god’s boat bearing the new-born sun, Papyrus of Ani, XX Dynasty (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 117).

Figure 2.2. The sky goddess in bovine form. Nut’s legs, the pillars of the sky, are supported by the eight Heh gods and Shu, from the Outermost shrine of Tutankhamun, XVIII Dynasty, photographed by H. Hauser (Hornung, 1999: pl. 92).

Figure 2.3. Nut personifying the sky is supported by the god Shu and arches over the god Geb from the Greenfield Papyrus, XXI Dynasty, BM 10554 (Lesko, 1991: pl. 13).

Figure 2.4. The Four Rudders of Heaven representing the cardinal directions, XVIII–XIX Dynasties, BM 10471/9 (FBD, 1972 [2001]: 142).

Figure 2.5. The sky goddess giving birth to the sun, from the Book of the Day, recovered from the tomb of Ramses VI, XX Dynasty, and photographed by Erich Lessing (Vernus, 1998: 115).

Figure 2.6. The Field of Offerings, note that water surrounds all activities of the blessed dead, from the funerary papyrus of Ani, XIX Dynasty, BM 10470 (BD, 1994 [1998]: pl. 34).

CHAPTER 3

EGYPTIAN WATERCRAFT: THE MHNT BOAT

Introduction

From the discussion on cosmology in chapter two, it appears that the landscape of the afterlife is composed almost entirely of water. It follows that to avoid being stranded without a vessel becomes a predominant concern of the deceased. Spell 99 functions to assuage the deceased’s uncertainties by constructing a vessel through a series of symbolic associations between corporeal elements of deities and characteristic features of watercraft. The boat the deceased constructs functions to bear him along the Power of the Earth to the Field of Rushes located in the western side of the sky (FBD, Sp. 99). Spell 99 specifically names the mhnt boat as the vehicle by which the deceased gains access to the afterlife. I define the secular form and function of Spell 99’s watercraft, by detailing the historical prevalence of the mhnt boat and comparing attributes described in the spell with characteristic features associated with different types of Egyptian watercraft.1 The following discussion identifies the mhnt boat with traveling vessels as well as highlighting nautical features perceived as necessary for a successful passage into the afterlife.

Mhnt Boat: Translation and Longevity

Mhnt is translated by Faulkner (1962 [1996]: 115) as a “ferry-boat” and by Jones (1988: 139) as a “ferry-boat… secular [or] religious.” Likewise, both authors translate mhnty as

1 The following discussion is intended only as a brief overview and purposely is restricted to those features which have a direct bearing on Spell 99. Supplemental material is highlighted throughout the text.

16 “ferryman” (Faulkner, 1962 [1996]: 115; Jones, 1988: 76). Ferry boat usually implies a type of riverine traveling vessel, used for short journeys across the Nile. The majority of representations from the Old Kingdom depict members of the government bureaucracy and royalty using traveling vessels (Landström, 1970: 35). Landström (1970: 56) notes that papyriform boats also can function as traveling vessels, potentially indicating “mythical travels, voyages in the life after death.” At best the translations are ambiguous and require a more thorough examination of construction features described in Spell 99 to better determine what type of watercraft the deceased wishes to transport him across the celestial river. Despite the vague translation, the mhnt watercraft has chronological permanence evidenced by pictorial depiction of the celestial ferry boat during the 4th millennium BC and specific Old Kingdom deities associated with the celestial watercraft. From Wadi el-Atwani in the Eastern Desert a petroglyph depicts a watercraft with an upright stem and sickle-shaped stern navigated by a figure in the stern (Fig. 3.1). T. Wilkinson (2003: 154) comments on the close association of the petroglyph and tomb scenes from the Valley of the Kings which illustrates “a divine boat, presided over by a god, ferrying the reborn king to the afterlife.” The “god” points in a westerly direction, toward the afterlife; however, the “god” and “king” do not display typical characteristics. A petroglyph from Wadi Barramiya exhibits characteristics commonly associated with deities and royalty (Fig. 3.2). Two ostrich plumes adorn the head of the god, who also points in a westerly direction. The deceased is located under the covering possibly in a second watercraft. Whether or not this particular petroglyph represents symbolic beliefs identical to the mhnt boat as displayed in New Kingdom tombs, the central content appears to be similar, a boat commanded by a god, ferrying the dead. Deities specifically associated with the mhnt boat appear in Old Kingdom funerary texts. The Celestial Ferryman, Ma-ha-ef or Her-ef-ha-ef, “He whose sight is behind him,” is associated with the cosmic mhnt boat from the Old through New Kingdoms (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 104).2 Ma-ha-ef commands the ferry boat in the Pyramid Texts, transporting the deceased across the Shifting or Winding Waterway to “the abode of Re” or “the Field of Offerings” (Fig. 3.3) (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 104). For example, in Faulkner’s (1969) translation of Utterance 359 from the Pyramid Texts, the deceased states,

2 For more information on the celestial ferryman see Ogdon (1977).

17 O Ra commend me to [Ma-ha-ef], the ferryman of the Winding Waterway, so that he may bring me his ferry-boat which belongs to the Winding Waterway, in which he ferries the gods to yonder side of the Winding Waterway to the eastern side of the sky.

The deceased calls upon the celestial ferryman to bear him across the Winding Waterway, possibly the ecliptic, into heaven (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 104). With the beginning of afterlife democratization during the First Intermediate period the deceased no longer relies on the gods, yet maintains traditions associated with ferry boats. On his funerary stela, BM EA 1783, Inhuretnakht states, iw rdi.n(=i) t n Hqr Hbsw n HAy iw dA.n(=i) iww mhnt(=i) ds(=i) iw ir.n(=i) kA(w) 100 m irt.n(=i) ds(=i) (Fig. 3.4). I translate the following as, “I gave bread to the hungry and clothes to the naked. I ferried the boatless in my own ferry. I acquired 100 bulls through what I did myself.” Inhuretnakht uses formulaic offerings commonly associated with those imparted to the deceased by the gods or provided by living offering bearers. Inhuretnakht’s word choice and boasting supercedes the gods and suggests that he takes on the role of ferryman. With the resurgence of state religion in the New Kingdom Ma-ha-ef is again called upon to perform duties associated with the mhnt boat (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 104). For example, in Spell 99, Ma-ha-ef is asked to awaken Aqen, the ferry boat keeper, “O [Ma-ha-ef], as you are endowed with life, awaken Aqen for me, for see, I have come” (FBD, Sp. 99). And later in the Spell 99 the deceased commands, “O you who bring the ferry-boat of the Abyss to this difficult bank, bring me the ferry-boat, make fast the warp for me in peace, in peace” (FBD, Sp. 99). Whether ferried by Ma-ha-ef or by the deceased’s own efforts, passage over the Shifting Waterway is of prime importance throughout Egyptian religious history. Ma-ha-ef’s role in the Old Kingdom Pyramid Texts as well as the appearance of a ferry boat god in the Predynastic Eastern Desert petroglyphs indicates prolonged use of the celestial mhnt boat. Ma-ha-ef is not the sole deity indicative of the mhnt boat; the deity Babi or Babai also shares a direct link with the celestial vessel. Babi is typically known as “A fiercely aggressive baboon god known from [the] Old Kingdom…as the powerful guardian of the sky” (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 196). Babi’s power is associated with his “sexual potency and aggression” and considered both the “doorbolt by which the sky is opened or closed, and…the mast of the underworld ferryboat” (Fig. 3.5) (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 196). In Spell 99 Ma-ha-ef states, “The weather is windy and she has no mast,” and the deceased replies, “Bring this phallus of

18 [Babi] which creates children and begets calves” (FBD, Sp. 99). It is evident that the deceased constructs the mast of the vessel which carries him to the afterlife from the phallus of the Old Kingdom deity Babi. Baboons appear to be associated with watercraft from an early period. The animal placed in the third boat on the Qustul incense burner (early Nagada III) is identified by DeVries (1976: 71–74) as a baboon (Fig. 3.8a and b). Potentially as early as the 4th millennium BC and definitely by the Old Kingdom the dead utilize the celestial ferryman and his watercraft to bear them across the Shifting Waterway into the afterlife.

Characteristic Features of Egyptian Watercraft

Now that the historical use of the mhnt boat is established, I briefly describe different types of Egyptian watercraft identified by nautical archaeologists and Egyptologists in order to better understand the characteristic features of the mhnt boat. Papyrus rafts, papyriform boats, traveling, cargo, sea-going vessels, and warships are the six types commonly referred to. Structural elements described in Spell 99 indicate that the vessels most identifiable with the mhnt watercraft are traveling boats, yet characteristic features of other types of Egyptian watercraft are apparent.3 Not to be overlooked are three potential challenges in this approach. In all likelihood the above categories would not be recognized by ancient Egyptians. Distinctions exist between different types of watercraft, possibly based on form and/or function. In addition, Ward (2000: 80) notes the potential problem of identifying “characteristic features of real vessels and vessels that existed only in the spiritual realm.” Indeed the celestial ferry boat most certainly retains magico-religious properties and outdated characteristics from a variety of watercraft. Finally, disparities between Egyptological versus nautical perspectives can make it difficult to determine to what aspect of the boat the translator is referring. To ameliorate the challenges posed by translation I use Faulkner’s (1972 [2001]) word choice with the most likely nautical interpretation in brackets. Despite problems with semantics, the mhnt boat is revealed by utilizing known characteristic features of boats and comparing them with the functional descriptions of watercraft components featured in Spell 99.

3 See Reisner (1913), Landström (1970) and Jones (1995) for more comprehensive discussions on types of ancient Egyptian watercraft and their attributes.

19 In the first of Spell 99’s three parts, the deceased is questioned by the Ferryman concerning the construction of the vessel. Ma-ha-ef states that the boat “is in pieces and stored in the dockyard” (FBD, Sp. 99). The first good indication that the deceased is constructing a boat rather than a papyrus raft appears in the deceased’s response to the god, “Take her larboard side and fix it to the stern; take her starboard side and fix it to the bow” (FBD, Sp. 99). The vessel’s built-up sides categorize it as a wooden boat (Landström, 1970: 19). Next, Ma-ha-ef inquires about the missing planks, end-pieces [finials], rubbing-pieces [lashing covers], oar-loops, cable, and gunwales [bulwarks] (Appendix D). Planks are obvious characteristics detailed on boat models and in artistic representations of traveling watercraft during the Old Kingdom as noted by Jones (1995: 36). End-pieces most likely refer to decorative finials fitted on the stem and stern; however, the style of the finial is difficult to determine. Finials may be either the elongated variety found in representations as early as the Predynastic and used through the New Kingdom (Fig. 3.6a). Finials may also be shaped like papyriform ends identified on papyriform boats throughout Egyptian history. A model boat from Tutankhamun’s (XVIII Dynasty) tomb displays papyriform ends and is identified by Jones (1995: 33) as a celestial papyriform boat (Fig. 3.6b). The function of rubbing-pieces is less obvious. Fenders located on the bow of traveling boats as early as the Old Kingdom may be comparable to rubbing-pieces (Jones, 1995: 39, 69). Another possible interpretation of rubbing- pieces is provided by Khufu’s royal ship. Lashing covers located at the stem and stern function as protection and covering for lashings that bind the papyriform finial to hull planking (Fig. 3.7) (Jenkins, 1980: 101; Lipke, 1985: 23). Oar-loops do not appear on watercraft until the V Dynasty and only on traveling vessels as noted by Landström (1970: 36). Faulkner’s (1972 [2001]) use of the term gunwale is anachronistic. Gunwale usually refers to the upper edge of the bulwark that guns rest on, coined during the 1400’s AD (Robinson and Davidson, 1996 [2000]: 598). Bulwarks are noted on traveling boats in the Old Kingdom by Jones (1995: 36). The Ferryman inquires about the absence of the boat’s cable. The deceased replies that the cable should be stowed in the vessel’s bilge. Winlock (1955: 46) notes that storage below deck on Meket-re’s XI Dynasty models is restricted to “little more than rope.” The above set of features mentioned in Spell 99, then, is visible on either traveling or ritual boats by the late Old Kingdom. The next set of missing items noted by the Ferryman pertains to the mast and rigging and, like oar-loops, provides good correlation between the mhnt boat and traveling watercraft. In Part

20 I of Spell 99, Ma-ha-ef comments on the lack of a sail, mast and something to “make [the mast] fast,” indicating rope trusses, a mast-step located in the hull, or mast support located on the deck (FBD, Sp. 99). Despite recent publications on petroglyphs of the Eastern Desert the earliest datable depiction of a sail appears on the Qustul incense burner (early Nagada III period) (Fig. 3.8c) (personal communication Cheryl Ward). In the case of Spell 99, I identify the sail and mast as associated with a traveling vessel, either riverine or sea-going, since papyriform boats almost always are depicted as being dragged, carried, or towed (Jones, 1995: 19, 20, 58). Initially, tall and narrow (high aspect) sails are used, but over time sail shape changes to be wider than tall, with a slight increase in area, and a position higher above the deck (Jones, 1995: 36–40, 45). Old Kingdom traveling boats possess a forward stepped bipod mast that can be unstepped and stored on a crotch. During the IV Dynasty stays are secured between a rung located near the top of the bipod mast and a deck cross-beam (Fig. 3.9). By the VI Dynasty the pole-mast appears on models, completely replacing the bipod mast during the Middle Kingdom. The pole mast is supported by a mast support located on deck and vertical stanchions (replacing rope trusses) attached to either side of the mast. The construction feature alluded to in Part I, as something to “make [the mast] fast” and described by the deceased as “the thighs which open out the shanks” most likely represents the mast support (FBD, Sp. 99). Similarly, in Part III of Spell 99 Faulkner (1972 [2001]) translates the boat part described by the body of an earth god, Aker, as the mast-step, referring to the arrangement of three joined knee pieces that support the mast at deck level evident on models and artistic representations (Fig. 3.10). It is important to note that the “Earth-god” described in Spell 99 may refer to Geb rather than Aker; however, the syncretization of solar and ferry boat traditions (see below) in addition to the explicit reference to Aker in Spell 404 from the Coffin Texts as stated by Faulkner (1977: 52 n. 35) indicate that “Earth-god” refers to Aker (Akr) in Spell 99. It is clear that the above attributes are characteristic of a traveling or sea-going vessel. In the second section of the spell, the boat keeper Aqen, awakes and questions the deceased, “Have you power over what I have no brought to you, magician, that is to say this boat? She has no…” and the list of necessary watercraft components continues, including a bailer, spars, beams, rigging, mooring-post, warps, and cable (FBD, Sp. 99). The bailer is an item not discussed in conjunction with constructional features, but rather may be considered standard sailing equipment, similar to the mooring post and mallet. All 16 of the model boats

21 recovered from Queen Neith’s funerary complex came equipped with bailers, mallets, and mooring-posts in addition to tilled rudders, oars, and landing planks (Jones, 1995: 28). Spars are indicative of the upper and lower yards to which the sail is bent and appear in conjunction with the mast and sail (Jones, 1995: 37). Beams may refer to transverse timbers located at deck level and are a common feature of most Egyptian watercraft. Beams serve a dual function, as transverse supports and individual seats for rowers. The Khufu I boat, Dashur boats, and Meketre’s models all have transverse beams. A second interpretation for the translated word beams is possible. Aqen states, “She has no spars. She has no beams, she has no rigging…” (FBD, Sp. 99). Providing the spell builds the mhnt boat according to logical stages of construction, beams may refer to components of the rigging. Rigging also refers to those ropes attached to the spars or beams and sails; changes in rigging pattern coincide with changes in the form of the mast and sail (Fig. 3.11). The mooring-post is noted as early as the Old Kingdom with the warp or bow-warp functioning to moor the boat to land (Jones, 1995: 39; Paasch, 1977 [1890]: 195). A rudimentary bow-warp is apparent on some Eastern Desert boat petroglyphs (T. Wilkinson, 2003: 151, 188–189). The function of the warp in Spell 99 is evidenced by the deceased’s command “O you who bring the ferry-boat of the Abyss to this difficult bank, bring me the ferry-boat, make fast the warp for me in peace, in peace!” Spell 99’s phrasing is reminiscent of Utterance 359 from the Pyramid Texts, again attesting to the longevity of the spell, Awake in peace, O [Ma-ha-ef], in peace! O [Re], commend me to [Ma-ha-ef], the ferryman of the Winding Waterway, so that he may bring me his ferry-boat which belongs to the Winding Waterway, in which he ferries the gods to yonder side of the Winding Waterway to the eastern side of the sky… (FPT, Utt. 359).

Part II of Spell 99 is predominantly concerned with activities generally associated with traveling vessels, in particular sailing and rowing. In the final section of Spell 99 the individual boat components ask the deceased to name them: the mooring-post, mallet, bow-warp, steering-post, mast-step, mast, halyards, mast-head, sail, oar-loops, oars, bailer, “ribs which are in her timbers” [frames], hogging-beam [carling], rowing bench, and steering-oar [axial rudder] (FBD, Sp. 99). Of the above constructional features several are referenced in Part I and II of Spell 99 and are discussed above, such as the mooring-post, bow-warp, mast-step, mast, sail, oar-loops, bailer, and rowing bench. Like the bailer, a mallet can be considered standard sailing equipment and the mention of the two items in

22 ritual context may indicate how important they are to operating a watercraft along the Nile. Interestingly, the steering-post and rudder are translated in the singular, indicating an axial rudder mounted in the stern characteristic of smaller vessels from as early as the VI Dynasty and used through the New Kingdom. Halyards are recognized as early as the Middle Kingdom on Model N from Meketre’s tomb. A true mast-head appears in the IV Dynasty and by the Middle Kingdom can be covered in copper (Fig. 3.11). The top of the bipod mast serves as a rudimentary mast-head in the Old Kingdom accommodating lines for rigging (Fig. 3.9). The frames referred to in Spell 99 are indicative of many Egyptian boats, for example the widely published papyriform boat, Khufu’s royal ship, has internal framing components (Fig. 3.12) (Ward, 2000: 46, 54). Like transverse beams and frames, the carling is a characteristic feature of Egyptian watercraft. The term rowing bench has two distinct interpretations. Either the term refers to transverse beams used by individual rowers (see above) or more likely to the bench the helmsman could sit on. The deceased is asked to name the deity associated with the rudder after he names the god that describes the rowing bench, indicating use by the helmsman. Additional translation of the original Egyptian text may help to discern the intended function. It is apparent that structural elements of the mhnt boat, as described in Spell 99, are closely associated with traveling boats, although elements from other types of watercraft, most notably papyriform boats, also are evident.

Repetitive Imagery and Boat Parts Omitted from Spell 99

From the repeated reference to or absence of particular watercraft features one can determine those elements considered vital versus insignificant. Boat parts emphasized through repeated reference are the mooring-post, mast, oar-loops, bailer, and cable. Similarly, some elements are more clearly defined in later portions of the spell, such as the bow-warp, initially referred to as warps, the mast support as the element which the mast is “made fast to,” halyards as rigging, and possibly the rowing-bench as transverse beams. Why these components are emphasized can only be guessed; however, each of the above components is central to specific nautical activities. For example, the mooring post and bow-warp are the most important features when mooring a vessel; likewise the mast is necessary when sailing and oar-loops and transverse beams when rowing. Watercraft components considered vital by the ancient Egyptians for a

23 successful passage into the afterlife pertain to mooring, sailing, and rowing, and are most closely associated with traveling vessels. The obvious boat part attributes omitted from Spell 99, including deck structure and platforms, are not structurally important but are common features on most New Kingdom traveling boats. The omission of these components may indicate that the spell predates a time when they were common, that these structures are unnecessary on mythical vessels, or that these structures are assumed to be located on the boat. The third option is less likely, since the deceased goes to the trouble of listing several features both structurally important and equipment related. Deck structures are a common but superfluous nautical feature during the Predynastic period through the Middle Kingdom and it is only in the New Kingdom that almost all traveling boats have a deck structure or cabin. Similarly, the forward platform appears in the Middle Kingdom and by the New Kingdom platforms at both stem and stern are present on traveling boats (Fig. 3.13a and b). Prior to the New Kingdom, platforms are present but not common features on traveling watercraft. Those elements omitted from Spell 99, deck structures and platforms, are seemingly inconsequential for hull integrity and may indicate that Spell 99 predates the New Kingdom.

Summary

Chapter three has established three important concepts related to the historical longevity, form, and function of the mhnt boat. I demonstrate that the ferry boat has an extensive history, recognizable as early as the 4th millennium BC and prominent in funerary beliefs through the New Kingdom. Archaeological materials and Old Kingdom deities Ma-ha-ef and Babi testify to the longevity of and belief in the celestial ferry boat. I determine that while characteristic features of riverine traveling boats are the most predominant and repeated attributes associated with Spell 99’s watercraft, most notably the mast, sail, and oar assemblages, characteristic features from other vessels are present, as well, notably, the papyriform finials featured on papyriform boats. The mhnt boat is not a vessel with a rigid form, rather the magical ferry boat adopts characteristics from multiple types of tangible watercraft, adopting properties commonly associated with other types of vessels (see chapter four). The celestial ferry boat functions to transport the deceased across the Shifting Waterway that otherwise bars him/her from the

24 afterlife. Further investigation of construction features pronounces specific nautical activities, such as sailing, rowing, and mooring. A better understanding of the history, characteristic features, and function of the New Kingdom mhnt boat, as featured in Spell 99, facilitates discussion on the magical properties of the watercraft in chapter four.

Figure 3.1. Petroglyph from Wadi el-Atwani in the Eastern Desert, 4th millennium BC (Rohl, 2000: 147, fig. 1).

Figure 3.2. Petroglyph from Wadi Barramiya, 4th millennium BC (Rohl, 2000: 45, fig. 10).

Figure 3.3. Ma-ha-ef, the Celestial Ferryman, from the funerary papyrus of Ani, XIX Dynasty, BM 10470/17 (BD, 1994 [1998]: pl. 16).

Figure 3.4. Inhuretnakht’s funerary stela, First Intermediate period, BM EA 1783 (adapted from Manley and Collier, 1998: 74).

Figure 3.5. Baboons worshiping the sun, photographed by Erich Lessing (Vernus, 1998: 42).

Figure 3.6a. Traveling boat model with elongated finials from Tutankhamun’s tomb, XVIII Dynasty, Model Boat, Obj. no 352, photographed by the Cairo Museum (Jones, 1990: pl. 13).

Figure 3.6b. Papyriform boat model with papyriform finials from Tutankhamun’s tomb, XVIII Dynasty, Model Boat, Obj. no 311, photographed by Harry Burton, Griffith Institute (Jones, 1990: pl. 29).

Figure 3.7. Wooden lashing covers on the stern of Khufu’s royal ship, VI Dynasty (Jenkins, 1980: 101).

Figure 3.8a. Qustul incense burner, early Nagada III (adapted from the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, 1998).

Figure 3.8b. The only occupant in the far left watercraft, located on the Qustul incense burner, is identified by DeVries (1976: 71–74) as a baboon (Seele, 1974: fig. 21b).

Figure 3.9. Traveling boat with bipod mast from Kaemankh’s tomb at Giza, V Dynasty (Landström, 1970: fig. 104).

Figure 3.10. Traveling Boat N from Meket-re’s tomb with mast supports, XI Dynasty (Winlock, 1955: pl. 34).

Figure 3.11. Rigging from a ferry boat model found in Tutankhamun’s tomb, XVIII Dynasty (adapted from Jones, 1995: fig. 45).

Figure 3.12. Interior of the Royal Ship of Cheops, note the carling, stanchions, and frames, IV Dynasty (adapted from Jenkins, 1980: fig. 83).

Figure 3.13a. Traveling boat from the tomb of Intefiqer, XII Dynasty, note the stern platform and axial rudder (Jones, 1995: fig. 48).

Figure 3.13b. Reconstruction of a traveling boat’s stern platform based on reliefs from Queen Hatshepsut’s temple at Deir el-Bahari, XVIII Dynasty (Landström, 1970: fig. 334).

CHAPTER 4

BUILDING BOATS FROM GODS

Introduction

The deceased constructs the magical mhnt vessel by equating corporeal elements of the gods with specific nautical features. The use of body imagery is suggested by T. Turner (1995: 147) as a “basic technique for appropriating and [co-opting] the natural forces and changes of the body to [produce] social relations.” The body has become a dominant category in cultural and societal theory as demonstrated by T. Turner’s (1995) case study on the Kayapo culture located in central Brazil. Similarly, Csordas (1990) develops an embodiment paradigm providing a framework for the study of embodiment as it relates to religious beliefs. Proceeding in logical stages of construction, Nu builds the mhnt boat based on symbolic relationships defined according to secondary and primary associations of form and absolute and relative location in order to gain power over his fears and redefine his social status. Table 4.1 and Appendix E describe the categories I consider relevant to the following discussion and should be referred to throughout the text. Occupations associated with the vessel as well as the wind, water, river bank, and ground have the same symbolic importance as the nautical features of the celestial ferry boat; however, I evaluate sections of Spell 99 that do not directly pertain to nautical features for their contextual merit only, providing more background for the relationship between boat parts and deities. By analyzing the specific analogic relationship between the deity and associated boat component, a better understanding of the ancient Egyptian conception of ritual watercraft is obtained.

37 Form: Primary and Secondary Associations

Ancient Egyptians have a proclivity for ascribing symbolic importance to form (R. H. Wilkinson, 1994: 16). The two ways in which symbolic forms can be expressed in ancient Egypt, primary and secondary association, are described by R. H. Wilkinson (1994: 16–17). Primary association “suggests concepts, ideas, or identities with which the object is directly related.” In other words objects affiliated with a deity function for, and thus imply, the god or goddess. For example, the djed pillar functions as Osiris’s backbone and therefore can be substituted for the deity in artistic representations (djed pillar with arms). Similarly, the first hieroglyph in the name for the god’s cult center of Djedu is the djed pillar (Collier and Manley, 1998: 161). Secondary association occurs when the “form of an object suggests another, different, form which has its own symbolic significance. These kinds of visual relationships… [transcend] the purely coincidental” (R. H. Wilkinson, 1994: 17, 18). R. H. Wilkinson (1994: 17) provides the example of the cowrie shells, whose form is suggestive of female pudenda thereby symbolizing sexuality and fertility. Cowrie shells and female genitalia do not function in a comparable manner, but their similar appearance allows a metaphorical relationship between the two objects. Both primary and secondary associations of form pertain to Spell 99’s mhnt boat. Primary or direct association is used when referring to the boat as a whole and individual mythical construction features. The mhnt boat is named “the boat of Khnum from the Lake of Feet” and the “[ferry boat] of the Abyss” (FBD, Sp. 99). These names are primary associations, since it is the function and not the form of the vessel that suggests a connection with divinity. Like the backbone is related to Osiris so the ferry boat is related to the underworld, it is an intrinsic part of the landscape of the afterlife. Similarly, the tetwy-animal and tail of the senemty-animal have a mythical function, guarding the stem and stern, respectively. The stem and stern guards are the only mythical boat parts mentioned in Spell 99 and the only primary associations between deities and boat components. It is the protective function of the deities and the similar manner in which they are used on the vessel that indicates primary association.1

1 A potential exception to the primary function related only to mythical boat parts is the rudder called Accurate. In Spell 99 the rudder personifies itself and therefore can be considered a primary association, but because no god is affiliated with the rudder the rule of primary or secondary association does not apply.

38 Secondary association, including mythological, anatomical, and functional analogies, is used to name the boat as well as to discuss constructional features, rigging, and equipment. For example, the ferry boat is referred to as the “wings of the tetwy-animal” and the “leg of Isis which Re cut off with a knife in order to bring blood to the Night-bark” (FBD, Sp. 99). Rather than an analogy through function (primary association) the boat is affiliated with divinity according to form (secondary association). All boat parts that I classify as material, meaning they can be identified as performing a utilitarian purpose, share a secondary association with divinity. For example, Babi’s phallus refers to the mast. The corporeal element and construction feature have different functions but similar forms. For many boat parts only the divinity is named with no reference to body components. For instance, no corporeal element of Imsety is mentioned with respect to the frames. The lack of named corporeal elements implies either the body of the god is meant or the relationship between nautical features and divinity is an unspecified secondary association. On occasion different forms can indicate similar significance (R. H. Wilkinson, 1994: 19). Oar-loops are constructed from the hands of the female counterpart of Horus in Part I and from both the hide of the Mnervis-bull and the tendons of Seth in Part III. In general, secondary association implying the form of the boat part mimics that of the corporeal element. Within the framework of secondary association I identify three subsidiary analogies, mythological, anatomical, and functional providing a more comprehensive explanation for the manner by which gods are related to boat components. Mythological affiliations occur when deities are affiliated with each other in other aspects of Egyptian religion and also are associated with complementary nautical elements. Aker is both the opener of the door to the sky and the socket for the mast of the mhnt boat. Babi’s phallus functions as the doorbolt of the sky and the mast of the mhnt boat. The deities are associated with each other in contexts separate from that of the Spell 99 and have associated boat elements on the underworld ferry boat. Mythological analogies also include deities represented in a similar cosmological framework. Apophis is used as a cable stretched between the Netherworld and the Field of Rushes, paralleling his most infamous mythological reference, the attack on the sun-god’s boat as it emerges from its journey through the underworld to the celestial sphere. Anatomical analogies are secondary associations (similar forms with different functions) describing contiguous boat parts associated with god parts that can be joined in an anatomical

39 fashion. The mast as the phallus of Babi is supported by or socketed in the mast support likened to thighs, probably also those of Babi. Similarly, the phallic mast is topped by the masthead described as the throat of Imsety, one of the four sons of Horus, possibly representing a homosexual union. Conversely, the sail is described as the body of Nut supported by the phallus of Babi, representing a union of fertility. This follows a general pattern in Spell 99, the juxtaposition of characteristics and symbolic relationships, discussed in detail in chapter five. Functional analogies include boat parts that share a similar form and function with a specified divinity. The bailer is described as “the hand of Isis which swabs up the blood from the Eye of Horus,” a symbol of kingship and order (FBD, Sp. 99). Similarly, the bailer functions to dispel the waters of chaos from boats, combating chaos and establishing order. The importance of the bailer from the First Intermediate period is illustrated in the first part of the Autobiography of Ankhtifi, “His w'r will take water like a boat” (Lichtheim, 1975: 86). Lichtheim (1975: 86) notes that “’bailing water’ is used metaphorically for struggling against troubles.” The bailer and Isis’s hand with respect to Horus’s eye both function to repulse chaos and maintain order. Likewise the mooring-post, represented by “Horus with whom is a seal ring” (FBD, Sp. 99), stabilizes the mhnt boat in the chaotic waterway of the underworld just as Horus provides stability in his role as king. Several references in Spell 99 attest to this. The deceased calls, “O you who bring the [ferry boat] of the Abyss to this difficult bank, bring me the [ferry boat], make fast the warp for me in peace, in peace” and “bring me the [ferry boat] knot the warp for me” (FBD, Sp. 99). Similarly, Ineni refers to Queen Hatshepsut (XVIII Dynasty) as the “bow-rope of the South, the mooring-stake [mooring post] of the Southerners; the excellent stern-rope of the Northland” attesting to the attributes ancient Egyptians perceived in these nautical features, namely the power to restrain chaos and rule effectively (Jones citing Breasted, 1995: 3). The form of a divinity’s corporeal element is central to the selection of represented boat parts, but there are several aspects of divinity that do not appear to encumber the selection process. There is no obvious correlation between the god and technological association of the boat part. There is a relation between the god’s location within mythical geography and the placement of the boat part relative to the deckline, but this relationship is not dictated by the technological aspect of nautical features (see below). Likewise, there is no apparent correlation

40 between the sex, taxonomic affiliation, and overall appearance of the deity vis-à-vis boat part. See Appendix E for details.

Location: Deckline vis-à-vis Mythical Geography

Like form, location, both absolute and relative, is a predominant aspect of ancient Egyptian symbolic systems, but as R. H. Wilkinson (1994: 60) states, “it is one which frequently goes unnoticed in all but its most blatant expressions.” For the purposes of this study, absolute position is defined as “the actual location of an object or structure” within the environment of mythical geography (R. H. Wilkinson, 1994: 60). Conversely, relative placement is defined as “the placement of the thing or individual elements within it relative to some other feature, area, or direction” (R. H. Wilkinson, 1994: 60). The absolute position of the god on the cosmological landscape as well as the relative placement of the boat part in reference to the deckline is considered when developing a model for the relationship between boat parts and corporeal elements of deities.2 Deities that have both a celestial and underworld aspect are associated with features located at or above the deckline (Fig. 4.1). Exceptions include the god Khnum and possibly the deities Babi and Aker. Khnum has both a celestial and an underworld aspect yet is associated with the bailer that is placed specifically below the deck. Aqen states “She has no bailer,” to which Nu replies, “Bring that … of Khnum through which I am made alive, and put it in [the vessel]” (FBD, Sp. 99). There is no obvious explanation for this particular association. Like Khnum, Babi has both underworld and celestial affiliations. He is the guardian of the sky and his phallus represents both the doorbolt of the sky and the mast of the underworld ferry boat (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 196). It is difficult to determine if ancient Egyptians perceived of the mast as below, at, or above the line of the deck. Based on archaeological evidence (see below) I determine that the mast is located both at and above the deckline. In Spell 99 Babi is also associated with the planks. Planking is located primarily below the deckline, but could refer to the deck itself. Babi’s “thighs which open out the shanks” and Aker’s body describe

2 Physical geography, meaning cult centers and possible geographical locations of origin, affiliated with divinity is not discussed due to the tenuous associations most deities have with real locations, but more study on this subject may prove valuable.

41 construction features that adhere to the mast (FBD, Sp. 99). In chapter three I determine that these specific references to Babi and Aker indicate the knee-like pieces that support the mast at deck level. As stated above, it is difficult to determine how ancient Egyptians viewed these constructional features. Archaeologists have yet to uncover an ancient Egyptian watercraft with a more conventional mast-step (stepped in the hull). With notably exceptions, most models of watercraft have solid hulls (Jones, 1995; Winlock, 1955).3 The only indication of features potentially concealed by deck planking is the characteristic painted red and white check pattern visible on models until the New Kingdom, most likely indicating transverse beams and a carling (Fig. 4.2) (Jones, 1995: 49). Therefore, I determine that the mast support is located at the deckline. With the exception of the god Khnum, deities with celestial and underworld aspects are associated with features at or above the line of the deck. All deities predominantly associated with the underworld have corresponding boat parts below the deckline. Anubis’s lock of hair, a reference to the god’s embalming craft, and its relation to the bow-warp presents the only challenge to the above rule. As is the case with cable mentioned in Spell 99, the bow-warp may be stowed under the deck. Underworld deities are associated with boat features located below the deck, with the potential exception of Anubis. Similarly, all deities with a predominant celestial aspect are associated with boat components found at or above the deckline. The sail and rigging especially are associated with celestial deities, namely Nut and Horus. Exceptions to the above rule include the bailer associated with Isis, four frames associated with the sons of Horus, and possibly the beams associated with Horus. The active use of Isis’s hand swabbing up the blood from Horus’s injured eye may represent the active use of the bailer against the waters of chaos when it is taken out of storage below deck. The sons of Horus are associated with the boat’s frames but are celestial deities; however, they may serve as a balance to the underworld demons or cavern deities also placed in the hull as frames. There are three potential interpretations of “beam.” “Beam” may refer to any piece of timber on the ship and therefore is not restricted to nautical features found below the deckline as I have classified them here. If beams refer to deck beams and the carling they may be considered at the deckline instead of under it, recalling the

3 Some Predynastic models have open hulls (Petrie, 1920). Likewise, the eight models found in Nomarch Niankh- Pepy-Kem’s tomb at Meir have open hulls with transverse beams (Jones, 1995: 27–28). Similarly, one of the model boats from Lisht is constructed from 1-cm-thick planks fastened with edge mortise-and-tenon joints (Ward, 2000: 103).

42 characteristic red and white pattern painted on the deck of model boats (personal communication Cheryl Ward). It is also possible that beams refer to timbers that are part of the rigging. As discussed in chapter three, beams appear in Part II of Spell 99 and are named after spars and before rigging. Deities found in the celestial portion of the cosmological map are associated with nautical features located at or above deck with the possible exception of Isis, the sons of Horus, and Horus (Fig. 4.3). While the deckline appears to represent an important distinction, acting as the partition between the celestial world and the underworld, there is no apparent Egyptian significance ascribed to the centerline or midships. Transverse features located above and below the deckline, such as the mast, sail, rigging, and frames, cross the centerline and are both fore and aft of midships. Associations between boat features and the centerline and midships have significance only in reference to their position to the line of the deck. A strong correlation exits between the gods’ cosmic geographical affiliation and the location of the boat part with which they are associated. Deities associated with the celestial sphere generally appear above the deck; conversely deities that are affiliated with the underworld describe boat components located below the line of the deck, with few notable exceptions.

Color and Characteristics Relative to the Deckline

Both the absolute placement of the god on the cosmological map and the relative placement of the boat part to the deckline help to determine what god is associated with what boat part; however, as a result of the above relationship large areas of the boat delineated by the deckline are associated with particular colors and characteristics indicative of celestial and underworld deities. V. Turner (1967 [1989]: 90) comments that in many cultures, colors can represent “‘forces’ or ‘strands of life’… [and] in a ritual context, men may have felt that they could domesticate or control these forces for social ends.” In ancient Egypt color is used often for purely aesthetic means, but can carry a more symbolic meaning, depicting the essential nature of objects and beings (R. H. Wilkinson, 1994: 104–105). R. H. Wilkinson (1994: 114) states, “The color of any object or being [is] virtually synonymous with its essential nature” and “becomes an important way of adding life and individuality to an image.” Indeed, in addition to meaning color, the word iwen can be translated as nature, being, character, or disposition (R. H.

43 Wilkinson, 1994: 104). Many of the deities and by extension boat parts discussed in Spell 99 are either directly or indirectly related to the colors red and blue. Red (desher) commonly is associated with fire, blood, and chaos signifying destruction, anger, death, and evil although the color also can represent life and regeneration (R. H. Wilkinson, 1994: 106). Deities from Spell 99 associated with the color red, most notably Seth, Apophis, and Babi, often personify chaos (Seth, Apophis) or exhibit aggression commonly linked with sexual tendencies (in Seth’s case, homosexual desires). Conversely, Seth and Babi are apotropaic deities and are equated with fertility (Babi) and the repulsion of chaos (Seth wards off Apophis from the sun-god’s barque). Seth, Babi, and Apophis are all principally underworld deities and their associated boat parts typically appear at or below the deckline (see above). Blue (irtiu and khesbedj) represents the heavens, primeval flood, the Nile, and characteristics associated with life, rebirth, and fertility (R. H. Wilkinson, 1994: 107). Deities from Spell 99 associated with the color blue, most notably Thoth’s animal (tetwy), Khnum, Osiris/Orion, and Horus, exhibit qualities such as protection, medicinal properties, fertility/creation, rulership, and the restraint of chaos, but these deities can also exhibit aggressive behavior. Thoth, Khnum, Osiris/Orion, and Horus are celestial deities whose associated boat parts usually appear at or above the deckline. There is also a general trend regarding the repetition of rebirth and rulership themes. Multiple references are made to the New Year, invoking imagery associated with rebirth. References to the continual battle for rulership between Seth and Horus indicate the suppression of chaos. While there appears to be no direct correlation between the location of a boat feature and the characteristics with which it is associated via the divinity, there is a general trend equating chaotic deities associated with the color red with below-deckline features and gods associated with the color blue and characteristics involving sovereignty and the suppression of chaos above the deckline (Fig. 4.1 and 4.3).

Repeated Features

Recall from chapter three that repeated features may demonstrate the importance of and are central to actions associated with the ferry boat, but other than as insurance there appears to be no symbolic purpose for the repetition of particular features. Generally, features that are

44 repeated have both a solar and underworld aspect, including the sail, frames, and oar-loops. The sail is associated with both Nut and Seth, the frames with the sons of Horus and either cavern deities or underworld demons, the oar-loops with Hathor, the Mnervis-bull, and Seth. In addition, multiple descriptions for features such as the oar-loops may be due to the secondary association on one hand and the material used to construct it on the other. For example the hands of Hathor have a secondary affiliation with oar-loops but the hide of the Mnervis-bull or tendons of Seth could represent the material with which they are made. This is most likely a coincidence since the association does not appear in any other repeated features. Deities named in relation to repeated features, such as the halyards, mast support, and mooring-post, are associated with each other in other mythos. For example, Horus and Hathor are both associated with the mooring- post and are featured together in mythology as husband and wife or mother and son, but mythological analogies are not restricted to repeated features. Likewise, dominant characteristics associated with repeated features, such as restraint of chaos, aggression, protection, medicinal benefits, and sexual aggression, desire, or unusual impulses, are common among other deities associated with features only mentioned once. Aside from the use of both a celestial and underworld deity to represent repeated features there is no apparent mythological correlation for the repetition of features.

Conflating Traditions: Solar and Ferry Boats

Concerning Spell 99 from the Papyrus of Neferrenpet, Milde (1991: 175) comments the ferry boat is “mixed up with notions concerning the sun-bark.” Indeed, the same confusion or conflation of ideas persists in Spell 99 from the Papyrus of Nu, evident in the use of deities typically associated with the sun god’s boat, notably Horus, Aker, the tetwy-animal, Seth, and Apophis. The watercraft featured in Spell 99 is associated directly with Horus, a sky and solar deity. The deceased asks that the vessel be brought to him specifying “this which was brought to Horus on account of his eye” (FBD, Sp. 99). The deceased describes the boat as “built by the Eye of Horus, who shall steer [the boat to him]” (FBD, Sp. 99). Horus and the sons of Horus bring the boat to the deceased, and Horus is specifically named as the one who stands on and commands the vessel. The explicit associations between Horus and the ferry boat imply a connection with the solar tradition. In addition, the deceased is confused with the deity Ma-ha-

45 ef, evident from the depiction of the deceased acting as ferryman conveying his own deceased body from the papyrus of Nu (Fig. 4.4) (Milde 1991: 176). In Spell 99 an earth god, Aker, is identified as the mast-step. Aker also is associated with the construction feature that holds the mast in place on the deck of the sun-god’s boat (R.H Wilkinson, 2003: 176). Additional iconography solidifies the link between Aker and the solar tradition. The god is depicted either as a strip of land with two anthropomorphic heads, representing the entrance and exit of the underworld, or as two sphinxes “joined back to back,” representing the horizons (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 176). In either case, the god’s conjoined bodies form a socket that the sun-god travels across during the night journey through the underworld (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 176; Hart, 1986 [2003]: 1). Most notably, Aker’s association with the mast support of the ferry and solar boats represents the fusing of traditions. From Spell 99 the tetwy-animal, affiliated with the god Thoth, is placed in the bow and helps to steer the boat to the deceased. The wings of the tetwy-animal are used to refer to the whole vessel. Ma-ha-ef asks, “What is [the boat]?” and the deceased answers, “She is the wings of the tetwy-animal” (FBD, Sp. 99). The above references are directly related to Thoth’s position in solar theology. In the Pyramid Texts Thoth is one of the two companions who cross the sky with the sun god (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 215). Similarly, gods travel on Thoth’s wings over the Winding Waterway or river in the heavens (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 215). The wings of Thoth typically carry the solar barque and not the underworld ferry boat; however, with regard to the king, “the wing of Thoth will carry the king over the celestial river” replacing the reluctant ferryman (Hart, 1986 [2003]: 214). Utterance 270 from the Pyramid Texts states, “If [the ferryman fails] to ferry Unas, He will leap and sit on the wing of Thoth, Then he will ferry Unas to that side” (Lichtheim, 1975: 35). Similarly, Griffith (1960: 3) notes that in Utterances 595a– 596c, O ye who ferry over on the wing of Thoth, to that side of the winding canal(?), to the east side of the heaven, to intercede with Seth for the eye of Horus: may the King ferry over with you on the wing of Thoth, to that side of the winding canal(?), to the east side of the heaven. May the King intercede with Seth for that eye of Horus.

Spell 99 utilizes Thoth in his role as consort to the sun-god, ferrying the deceased on the wings of the tetwy-animal over the Winding Waterway to the eastern side of the sky. In Spell 99 Seth is linked to nautical features above the deckline, thus emphasizing his celestial affiliation. Particularly reminiscent of Seth’s role in solar tradition is the explicit use of

46 the senemty-animal. The deceased states that the tail of the senemty-animal is placed in the stern “that will guard [the boat]” (FBD, Sp. 99). During the Middle Kingdom Seth is incorporated into solar theology as the guardian of the solar boat, a consolation prize for losing the kingship of Egypt to Horus (Hart, 1986 [2003]: 194–197). Standing in the bow, Seth repels the “cosmic serpent Apophis,” a manifestation of chaos, as the boat emerges from the underworld and is attacked by the serpent (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 197). After prevailing over Apophis, Seth gains the title “great of strength in the barque of millions” (Hart, 1986 [2003]: 197). Seth animals also are depicted pulling the sun-god’s barque (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 198). The similar use of Seth imagery on the mhnt boat and solar-barque emphasizes both Seth’s solar association and the mixing of the two watercraft traditions. The reference to Apophis as cable in the hands of Hemen and Anubis also invokes solar imagery. In Spell 99 the deceased names the cable as the snake stretched across the waterway between the two cities, identified as the Netherworld and the Field of Rushes. This most likely is a reference to Apophis used as a cable to drag the sun god’s boat through the underworld, illustrated in the Book of Amduat from the burial chamber of Tuthmosis III (XVIII Dynasty) (Fig. 4.5). By the New Kingdom merging traditions identified with the type of vessel used by the deceased to cross the Shifting Waterway and the type used by the sun-god to cross the firmament result in the association of solar gods with underworld ferry boat features.

Summary

Ancient Egyptians were not the only culture to create microcosms from utilitarian structures. 4 In the ancient Egyptian world view the relationship between boat parts and corporeal elements of the gods described in Spell 99 is modeled upon the primary and secondary associations of form, the absolute position of the divinity on the mythical landscape, and the relative position of nautical features to the deckline. Deities associated with mythical boat features share a primary association, most notably the tetwy-animal and the tail of the senemty- animal. Conversely, deities and their corporeal elements that describe material nautical features are based upon secondary associations of form, whether mythological, anatomical, or functional.

4 Notably, Guss (1989) discusses the creation of a Yekuana houses, gardens, and basketry as illustrative of the visible structure of the culture’s invisible world view.

47 The boat element a deity represents is prescribed by the location of the nautical feature relative to the deckline and the deity’s absolute location in mythical geography. With few exceptions, deities with both a celestial and underworld aspect are associated with structures at or above the deckline, underworld deities with structures below the deckline, and celestial deities with features at or above the deckline, creating a microcosm of the ancient Egyptian universe. The deckline serves as the demarcation between the celestial firmament and the underworld, but more careful translation of the original spell is necessary to better understand indistinct boat parts. Nautical features that are repeated often have an association to both a celestial and an underworld deity. No value judgment can be made as to which of the above criteria affects the selection of divinities more, but the absolute and relative location as well as secondary association of form plays a greater role in determining which god and by extension corporeal element will symbolize the watercraft’s components. An interesting parallel exists between color, the god’s characteristics, their place in mythical geography, and the location of the boat part relative to the deckline. With few exceptions, boat features found below the deckline are equated with characteristics of underworld deities, including the color red, aggression, chaos, and unnatural or aggressive sexual desires. Conversely, boat parts located above the deckline, including rigging, tend to be associated with characteristics of celestial deities, namely the color blue, rulership and the restraint or repulsion of chaos. The deckline becomes a way to emphasize characteristics of the gods. For example, Seth is typically associated with the underworld, but in Spell 99 all nautical features associated with the god are located above the deckline. Similarly the god’s animal guards the stern of the vessel, again invoking celestial imagery, the defeat of the Apophis snake by Seth on the sun-god’s barque. The expression of Seth’s celestial characteristics also may be attributed to the conflation of concepts concerning the underworld mhnt boat and the celestial solar barque by the New Kingdom. The same gods, namely Horus, Aker, the tetwy-animal, Seth, and Apophis are associated with similar boat parts on the watercraft that bears the deceased across the Shifting Waterway and the papyriform boat used by the sun-god to cross the firmament. By analyzing the relationship between the deity and associated boat component, a better understanding is reached of how ancient Egyptians divided the watercraft according to mythical geography and ascribed deities to represent particular features of ritual watercraft.

48 I ) ut ｯＨ､｣｡ｵ｣ｾＩ＠ (a ObJCC • iC grour 1z1 ll (u) (maml f hu; lll.t ｡ｮ＠ (rC ｾ｣Ｉ＠ ') ol"ll l) l) ｨ l Of11 ;llll l1 m) (a' Ｑｬ＼ｾ tt '\\Orld i ttn lll Ｇ＠ i ｮＱＱ (Jlll lb lllltan moal ) ｴｲ｜ＨＧｾ b• ｭ｡ undt IUO ll\111.11 gd gd fC fc ccksua ;tmhroromotphac makt .toomorphic I hc 1 S . drC>t. prtk med rn rul. J an sex sex sex sex sex. liCX. sex. sex. mcd . rut , v •); >): nt scri h, h, 0 h. h. en. -h. -h. han li liv i med. sto sex. sex. bir hi hi PI'Ot ｾ＠ rb. reb. rc rch. II rc proc prot. b prot. mcd med cc or ｾ＠ med mcd mcd cos cos p . , h str r: tn un . h, rc ud t prot. prot. prot prot. prot. prot, nro1. th. ' fer. I, prot rul, rcr. mcdi. fc.r, fer. fer. hC1r. hC1r. ｵｲｯｾ＠ n:.h. rch. rch. rb re , h , pro1, pro1, , . prot. prot prot. . , i (Apo (Apop •. . ﾷｾ＠ •. .. . h. h. h. h. ｾ＠ I'Ol.C: ld ｜Ｇｃｾ＠ rt IS IS ior ｲｵｬＮｾｨＮｭ｣､＠ Ul.!l!, rut. rul. rc war rul. sob. OlS. c fer ch. soh soh. so ill!!!. reb. soh rued. ｡ｾｾＮ＠｡ｾｾＮ＠ n1l th. ch. a • a ch, • a • a ch a • ch a • • • a ere. ｬｮ､Ｎｾ＼ＺｨＮ＠ u.n nn nn un . m Pa ), ). n lish s. man), man ma lioness fi·o rie n) n) and and and and bovine) n) n) , ma scrpcm. ｭ［Ｎｾｮ＠ ego ma t e. kite n (baboon inc) and cunine canine canine z crocodile. '· crOCOWoon) (lxlboo ( (falcon). (cw (baboon) (can (f (f (baboon) 1. $ Ｈｾｵｴｩｵ｣ｴ＠ n. n. oo. ｾＨｦ｡ bi t(i' w WI w,, t t(s z. z.(bovinc) z(fu z(s z z(bovi z an. crocodi on on a t an an. an, bi z z z z z z z z an, z an a ca m uti nuun tnatn ｾ＠ "' Na ·d · information m 3lll am d,an, •d •d •d •d •d •d ·d.nn. 1d,n.n.mn mam m WI W1. ino on on av 111 ;u, mam lUI liD ma ed ed f f f r tail m m m Ill Ill m m m m m m m lm lll lll IUJdlm re de re be be s) Associated Associated mo or) h Horu r ut .n ( .n fo (H and s) ine Hcmc Anubis .. Goddc:ssaftcrs hi s g"' • x E . shr ｮｧｾ＠ of of Ｎ ?) Horu ｮｮｾﾷ＠ ring" Ｍ - hc 1 Gmu brou ndi /mr ands ands in •al'dcns ｳ｣｡ｬﾷｲｩｳ｣｡ｬ scal·nn sca1·rmg seal mc,n ( mc,n h h God the s r ha.,. a a 11 s!Au hc ｌｾ＠ t.s a t.s the i.ll i,s a i,s as as 1 he uri ove ofHc ｲｯ｢ｾｲｶ＠ Land .t .t Appe bock in in t htmsdf s) bv (On .s) ,vha to 4.1. bi whom whom whom whom whom hand hand T"'o DS phi preside!: ilh hci tnkcs the awav brough er er scc5 the u.nh u wuh whh wrth y-animal ｵｵＺｦ＠ t in onirnal (Apo (Apop s s v fn.r of II s lll - - l who ru who who who who ke ke cm rt Ref th th § ｾｯｵｵｮ n ut ar1 " nake 1 Table N Nut been ｍｮ｣ｶｩｳｾ｢ｵｬｬ＠ｏ Akcr Aoeurut.e Anubi.s Plunderer He Wcnwowc1 He He He P11n P Ludv lsi.s Ochchs<:nucf lmscr lmsct• liaov Soni!SU

49 ' d. e ntinu Co , Dead (d) e (cl) nurc th fc;; ) ° t hnc yJ I' ｮ＠ (cq) \d (2 ll v) IC ' i• J of (lll;tt) b (f, l "-"<:Oildttl) "ft lll)1hica 1 I ｣ｯ at CqUi Bo , 99 Spell lH, and I, I, U, rt - Pa s. from rie ego t ca on Features Features l Nautica information ted detailed ssocia A more r fo and x E ndi Gods pe Ap 4.1. to Refer 1 Table

50 25

0 Celestial Deities Above the Deckline Celestial Deities Below the Deckline Underworld Dieties Above the Underworld Dieties Below the Deckline Deckline Figure 4.1. Relationship between deities’ place in mythical geography and the deckline. The deities Seth, Babi, Aker, and Wepwawet are excluded from the graph. Likewise the ambiguous boat part labeled beam is not included.

Figure 4.2. Red and white deck pattern on the traveling Boat O from Meketre’s tomb, XI Dynasty, photographed by the Metropolitan Museum of Art Photograph Studio (Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2004).

52 25

0 Celestial Deities Above the Deckline Celestial Deities Below the Deckline Underworld Dieties Above the Underworld Dieties Below the Deckline Deckline

Figure 4.4. Deceased conveys his own body into the afterlife, from Spell 99, Book of the Dead, the papyrus of Nu, XVIII Dynasty (Lapp, 1997: pl. 2).

CHAPTER 5

THE MAGICAL PROPERTIES OF THE MHNT BOAT: MIMESIS IN ACTION

Introduction

T. Wilkinson (2003: 149, 156) and several other authors have commented that the boat is the most common way to reach the afterlife and therefore often found in ritual contexts, in particular funerary remains. How does this particular vehicle enable the deceased to reach the afterlife? What properties of the mhnt’s boat allow the deceased to be reborn? Does the watercraft hold a greater significance than as just transportation? Utilizing the theories of mimesis and liminality, defined by Taussig (1993) and V. Turner (1967 [1989]), respectively, I demonstrate that the mhnt boat functions not only to bear the deceased into the afterlife, but also empowers the deceased with direct control over the gods and illustrates the fundamental values of the ancient Egyptian culture (power over impotency, chaos, and death).

Identification and Anthropophagy

There exists an Egyptian proclivity for applying supernatural characteristics to inanimate objects. Multiple authors have noted the importance of a deity’s name in ancient Egyptian magic. Morenz (1973: 22, 24) states, the “name served to define and differentiate [gods] in the same way as their form did. The gods are…defined and characterized by their form and their name.” The name is considered an “essential element of the gods’ personality… [these] names by their very existence, testify to the personal character of the deities…and thereby to their innermost nature” (Morenz, 1973: 21). Goelet (1994 [1998]: 151) writes, “Knowing the name of

56 someone or something gives one a certain amount of control and power.” Jacq (1985: 49) comments, “Knowledge of the name is true power. To pronounce the name is to fashion a spiritual image, to reveal the essence of a being. By naming one creates. By knowing the true names which are hidden from profane men, mastery is achieved.” Referring specifically to Spell 99, Griffith (1960: 28) says, “Here, as often, to know the name of a thing is to have power over it.” The true name of a divinity is considered sacred knowledge due to the power one is able to attain. There are several examples of names representative of a deity’s power in ancient Egyptian texts. In the Memphite version of the creation myth the gods are called into being based solely upon the knowledge of their names. Lesko (1991: 96) writes, “Ptah creates…the Ennead by pronouncing their names.” From the Turin Papyrus Griffiths (1960: 51) relates an interaction between Seth and Horus, where Seth is bitten by a snake and Horus “must know Seth’s proper name, according to the well-attested principle of the power of the name in magic” (Griffiths, 1960: 51). Horus says, “One works magic for a man through his name; a god is greater than his reputation. Tell me thy name, that one may work magic for thee” (Griffiths, 1960: 51). In a similar myth, Re is stung by a venomous creature (either a scorpion or a snake) and implores Isis to cure him (Jacq, 1985: 50–51; Hart, 1986 [2003]: 104). Isis is called “more clever than a million gods” and possesses infinite power upon discovering Re’s secret name (Hart, 1986 [2003]: 104). Isis passes Re’s secret name to her son, whereby Horus achieves “power no other god can rival” (Hart, 1986 [2003]: 105). The power of names is not restricted to the gods; in the New Kingdom the deceased uses the names of the gods in order to achieve power in the afterlife. In the Book of the Ways, and other New Kingdom books concerning the afterlife, the deceased must travel on paths that are “beset by demons whose names and features had to be known if one was to pass the obstacles/gateways they guarded” (Lesko, 1991: 119). The components of the body can also be identified with gods, emphasizing the body’s divine character and eternal quality (Jacq, 1985; Taylor, 2001: 17). Taylor (2001: 17) translates, “My hair is Nun; my face is Ra; my eyes are Hathor; my ears are Wepwawet…” Similarly, deities are named in conjunction with inanimate objects. In the Negative Confession the deceased must name components of the door to the Hall of Justice before he can enter. The door-posts state, “We will not let you enter by us…unless you tell my name” (FBD, Sp. 125). The deceased replies, “Plummet of Truth is your name”

57 (FBD, Sp. 125). After all the components of the door are named, as well as the floor and the door-keeper, the deceased is allowed to enter the Hall of Justice. Likewise, Spell 153A and 153B from the Book of the Dead have a similar formulaic expression. In the Spell for escaping from the net the deceased states, “I know the reel in it; it is the middle finger of Sokar, I know the guard-beam in it; it is the shank of Shemu” (FBD, Sp. 153A). The deceased is able to escape from being caught in the net, unlike the “inert ones,” referring to the dead, because he knows the names of the deities analogous to the various constructional features (FBD, Sp. 153A). As discussed in chapters three and four, Spell 99 is written in a similar formulaic manner, namely the deceased makes an analogy between an inanimate object and a god or body part of a god. The ancient Egyptians also infused properties of the divine into geography. Abydos is identified as the location of Osiris’s interment as well as his cult center in Upper Egypt (R. H. Wilkinson, 1994: 61). Similarly, the First Cataract at Aswan is identified as both the source of the Nile and the dwelling place Hapi, the god of the Nile (R. H. Wilkinson, 1994: 62). The site of Esna is Khnum’s sanctuary and thus where the mound first appeared from the primordial waters (R. H. Wilkinson, 1994: 62). Just as gods give certain locations associated with the power of symbolic significance and vice versa so too do boat components sustain certain properties from the gods with which they are associated. The procurement of power through use of a name is an aspect of sympathetic magic, known as the Law of Similarities (see below). Another relevant aspect of sympathetic magic is the Law of Contagion. Frazer’s (1922 [1996]: 13, 45) Law of Contagion states, “Things which have once been in contact with each other continue to act on each other at a distance after the physical contact has been severed.” During the Old Kingdom the deceased obtains properties of divinity through ingestion. Utterance 273–274, known as the Cannibalism Hymn, describes the deceased, Unas, participating in anthropophagy in order to obtain the magic/power of the gods. Unas is the bull of heaven Who rages in his heart, Who lives on the being of every god, Who eats their entrails When they come, their bodies full of magic from the Isle of Flame…Unas is he who eats men, feeds on gods…Unas eats [the gods’] magic, swallows their spirits…The dignities of Unas will not be taken from him, For he has swallowed the knowledge of every god (Lichtheim, 1975: Utt. 273–274).

Utterance 273–274 is unique to the Old Kingdom; no similar passage is attested in later periods. The practice of ingesting the gods to obtain their power (Law of Contagion) is less common and

58 seems to be replaced by the use of the god’s secret name (Law of Similarity) with the gradual development of religious ideology.1

Application of Mimesis

Frazer’s (1922 [1996]: 13) Law of Similarity states, “The magician infers that he can produce any effect he desires merely by imitating it,” in other words, like produces like. This is one aspect of mimesis. Taussig (1993: 2) defines mimesis as “the magical power of replication, the image affecting what it is an image of, wherein the representation shares in or takes power from the represented.”2 In the truest form of sympathetic magic this implies a physical object, like a voodoo doll or a model boat, but in Spell 99 like affecting like is manifested in a different manner. The secondary associations used by the deceased to build the vessel are based on a relationship of similar forms; the boat part has the same appearance and in some cases function, as the god part. This then is the first application of mimesis: like god parts produce like boat parts, endowing them with the characteristics of particular divinities. Taussig (1993: 47–48) summarizes, “This notion of the copy, in magical practice, affect[s] the original to such a degree that the representation shares in or acquires the properties of the represented.” Indeed, through carefully constructed analogies by the deceased the boat part becomes the representation of and therefore acquires the properties of the represented god/god part. The power of mimesis goes much further than like affecting like. Another aspect of mimesis refers not to a physical representation but to a psychological image. Taussig (1993: 61) writes, “Here there is no embodiment of image, carved figurine or body paint, but the ephemera of a memory of a purely mental image reminding us that even so, such an image counts as an entity.” In this second application of mimesis the deceased becomes the perceiver and is able to “enter into the picture and become one with it, so that the self is moved by the representation into

1 See Morenz (1973: 249) for more specific information concerning the taboo nature of anthropophagy during the later periods of Egyptian history.

2 Goelet (1994 [1998]: 147) identifies the mimesis utilized by the ancient Egyptian as “image magic,” most likely based on Frazer’s (1922 [1996]: 13) term Imitative magic. The terminology refers specifically to the Law of Similarities under the branch of Homeopathic magic. Frazer (1922 [1996]: 13) prefers the term Homeopathic over Imitative or Mimetic, since they “[suggest], if...not imply, a conscious agent who imitates, thereby limiting the scope of magic too narrowly.”

59 the represented” (Taussig, 1993: 61). Taussig (1993: 61) labels this “active yielding of the perceiver in the perceived.” If the deceased acts as the perceiver, than the mhnt boat is the perceived. In Spell 99 the deceased is an active participant on the watercraft, as shown by one of the question and answer sessions with Ma-ha-ef. The Ferryman asks, “What have you done to her?” and the deceased responds, I have trodden on her back, I have guided her…aright. My right side was at her starboard, my front was towards her bow, my left side was at her larboard, my back was towards her stern. At night her bulls were slaughtered and her geese cut up (FBD, Sp. 99).

The deceased describes himself standing on the deck, steering, and consecrating the watercraft. Moreover the purpose of the ephemeral vessel is to carry the deceased across the firmament to the eastern side of the sky. Taussig (1993: 64) refers to the process of active yielding as “a narrative journey of images,” in other words, the deceased participates in the image that he creates. In regards to Spell 99, mimesis serves two functions, to infuse boat parts with characteristics of the divine (discussed above) and to provide the deceased with power. This second effect of mimesis, the procurement of power, is described by Taussig (1993: 62), What is faithfully captured is a power…invested in a montage of abutted likenesses…this power on can be captured only be means of an image, and better still by entering into the image. The image is more powerful than what it is an image of.

By actively yielding the deceased is able to achieve power over that which he creates, the mhnt boat and all its endowed supernatural properties. The deceased now is equipped to travel over the Winding Waterway into the realm of the gods.

What the Mhnt Boat Represents: Liminal Period and Societal Values

Aspects of mimesis discussed above include the use of images that imitate both danger and protection (Taussig, 1993: 45). By constructing the mhnt boat from both beneficial and harmful qualities manifested in divinity the deceased is able to dominate that which he fears. I attempt to determine what values are of the greatest concern to the deceased and indeed to ancient Egyptian society in general by relating V. Turner’s (1967 [1989]) application of liminality and conception of the dominant symbol to Spell 99.

60 For ancient Egyptians, as in most cultures, death and, more specifically, the period after death (separation and detachment) and before transformation in the afterlife (aggregation), is a marginal or liminal period (V. Turner, 1967 [1989]: 94–95; Goelet, 1994 [1998]: 142). V. Turner (1967 [1989]: 167) defines liminality as “a time and place of withdrawal from normal modes of social action” during which “the central values and axioms of the culture” are scrutinized. Several qualities characterize the liminal period, such as sacred poverty, impotency, infertility, and complete submission of neophytes to authority figures (V. Turner, 1967 [1989]: 99). I identify the above attributes in the ancient Egyptian perception of death during the New Kingdom. The dead are in a state of sacred poverty, they must demand sustenance. In Spell 99 the deceased makes continual references to food items, “there will be given to him a cake, a jug of beer…a loaf…[and] an aurora of land with barley and emmer” (FBD, Sp. 99). The dead are considered impotent and infertile evident from the continual use of sexual imagery used to construct the mhnt boat (see below). Deities have absolute authority over the dead until they are initiated as divine beings in the afterlife, apparent from the continual references to the judgment of souls and the horrors of second death throughout the Book of the Dead. Ultimately, the liminal period functions as a stage for the acquisition of knowledge facilitating the neophytes’ change in status (V. Turner, 1967 [1989]: 102). For the ancient Egyptians knowledge of a divinity’s names represented power and therefore is infused into the construction of the mhnt boat to facilitate the deceased’s change in status (immortality) and aggregation into the afterlife. The simplification or nullification of social structure during liminal periods elucidates a culture’s fundamental values. Often these self-evident values are expressed with what V. Turner (1967 [1989]: 20) refers to as dominant symbols. In Ndembu culture, the milk tree, otherwise known as the “tree of a mother and her child” is identified by V. Turner (1967 [1989]: 20–21) as the dominant symbol representing the act of breast feeding, the social bond between mother and child, matriliny, and thus the order and structure on which Ndembu society is built. In Spell 99 the mhnt boat serves as the dominant symbol incorporating fundamental principles of ancient Egyptian society. Ancient Egyptians conceptualized death as the transformation “from the cessation of life into a mirror image of life wherein the deceased had the same material requirements and desires” (Goelet, 1994 [1998]: 143; Brewer and Teeter, 1999 [2000]: 84). The deceased wants to continue in a similar manner in death as in life and therefore infuses qualities

61 into the boat (that he has power over) to ensure his continued lifestyle and values, namely sexual potency, the restraint of chaos, and triumph over death. The deceased seeks power, specifically over homosexual acts through his selection of deities and how they are articulated on the mhnt boat. The ancient Egyptians’ concern with fertility and infertility, as well as power relationships, is expressed in the mythology surrounding Seth and Horus’s contest for kingship. The god Seth is described as being humiliated through exposure of a homosexual act, referring to the episode where the god ejaculates between Horus’s legs and is later castrated (Griffith, 1960: 34–35; Hart, 1986 [2003]: 198). Lesko (1991: 93) writes, “On one level of meaning, the struggle between Osiris [Horus’s father] and Seth represents a conflict of nature– between the fertile Nile Valley (kemet, the black land) and the infertile desert (deshret, the red land).” In addition, the homosexual encounter between Horus and Seth may be viewed not as a sexual act but as a demonstration of power. Griffith (1960: 43– 44) states, “Seth’s homosexual treatment of Horus seems to fall in…with the idea of the ignominy inflicted on an enemy” thus rendering the enemy powerless. A similar analogy is made between Babi’s phallus as the mast and Imsety’s throat as the mast head in Spell 99. A potential reference to Ma-ha-ef from Spell 125, Book of the Dead, indicates the ferryman also has a connection with homosexuality. In Spell 125 the deceased states, “O You whose face is behind him who came forth from the Cavern of Wrong, I have neither misconducted myself nor copulated with a boy” (FBD, Sp. 125). Similarly, the deceased achieves power over impotency and infertility by using divinities and corporeal elements of divinities specifically associated with the sex act. The goddess Hathor is associated with sexual love. As Hart (1986 [2003]: 80) notes, “The turmoil or ecstasy which can result from physical desire are reflected in the conflicting forces of Hathor's personality as a goddess of destruction...or a goddess of heavenly charm.” The phallus of the sexually aggressive baboon god, Babi, is associated with the mast (see chapter three) and is directly related to fertility. Spell 99 states, “Bring this phallus of [Babi] which creates children and begets calves” (FBD, Sp. 99). Additional analogies involving fertility themes are discussed above, notably Babi’s phallus, the mast, and its relationship to Nut’s body, the sail. Using mimesis, the deceased obtains power over homosexual and heterosexual sex acts and by extension over power relationships, infertility, and impotency.

62 The juxtaposition of chaos and the power to suppress chaos also is embodied in the image of the boat. With notable exceptions, Seth, Apophis, Babi, and four gods known only by epithets are the anthropomorphic and zoomorphic manifestations of chaos. I categorize these four gods, which represent the boat’s frames, as underworld deities on the basis of their resemblance to deities that are part of the tribunal that judge the deceased in the Hall of Justice from Spell 125, Book of the Dead. By incorporating gods’ associated with chaos into the mhnt boat the deceased achieves power over them. Conversely, the gods Isis, Horus, Hathor, and the sons of Horus represent rulership. More specifically, gods/god parts associated with the bailer, mooring-post and the boat itself (built and steered by the Eye of Horus) function as a suppression of chaos, as discussed in chapter four. Myths referred to in Spell 99 are also indicative of the battle waged between order and chaos. For example, the Eye of Horus refers to one of the gruesome battles for kingship between the gods Seth and Horus, where Seth tears out and ingests Horus’s right eye (Griffiths, 1960: 38). Griffith (1960: 40), citing Frankfort, comments that Horus and Seth are “the mythological symbols for all conflict,” Seth is subdued by Horus but never destroyed; both gods are wounded but eventually reconcile, thus establishing cosmic equilibrium. The restored Eye of Horus, often depicted on the sides of funerary boats, is a direct reference to a state of soundness or perfection (Hart 1986 [2003]: 92). Lesko (1991: 93) describes the conflict between the gods as symbolic of the regular inundation of the Nile versus the irregular storm. In later periods, the battle for mythical kingship is representative of the struggle between Egyptian rulers in the north and south (Lesko, 1991: 93). Juxtaposed to Seth’s affiliation with chaos, the senemty-animal is placed in the stern for protection indicating Seth’s role as protector of the solar barque when he fights off the serpent Apophis, the reptilian embodiment of chaos. Water can be seen as a form of chaos in addition to its role as a creative or regenerative force. The first part of the Autobiography of Ankhtifi states, “I found the House of Khuu inundated like a marsh” (Lichtheim, 1975: 85–86). Lichtheim (1975: 86, n.1) comments that the nome of Edfu, referred to as the House of Khuu, is not inundated with water but with troubles. From the same text comes, “His w’r will take on water like a boat” again referring to water as a form of chaos (see chapter four) (Lichtheim, 1975: 86). Similarly, the Prophecies of Neferti (Middle Kingdom) indirectly refer to water as the personification of chaos, “With field-circler in his fist, oar in his grasp.” Lichtheim (1975: 145) comments that these are objects carried by the

63 pharaoh during ritual dances performed for the gods. Based upon the context of the passage and the previous examples from the first part of the Autobiography of Ankhtifi, I interpret the oar as a metaphor for the king’s dominance over the waters of chaos. Like the deceased’s compulsion to dominate chaos he wishes to be dominant over his own mortality. Spell 99 provides the deceased with the opportunity for everlasting life. Ma-ha- ef and Aqen both ask the deceased, “Have you healed the limbs?” to which the deceased replies, “I have healed the limbs. They are the arm and the leg” (FBD, Sp. 99). When prompted, the deceased also refers to himself as complete and equipped. A similar passage is preserved in the Pyramid Texts, “Take your head, Collect your bones, Gather your limbs, Shake the earth from your flesh! Rise up, O, [King] you shall not die!” (Lichtheim, 1975: Utt. 373). These exchanges may refer to burial practices prior to the craft of mummification where extraneous limbs gradually fell away from the body during decomposition (personal communication Shannon Burkes Pinette). Utterance 1500a from the Pyramid Texts conveys a similar message of immortality, “Sleep is his abomination, he hates fatigue. The King has not corrupted, he has not putrified” (Griffith, 1960: 6). Immortality is the result of the deceased’s power. Spell 404 from the Coffin Texts states, “my power is life, prosperity and health” (FCT, Sp. 404). Similarly, in Part III of Spell 99, Book of the Dead, the deceased states, “the gifts due to me are life, welfare and health.” It is the deceased’s fervent desire that his body not decompose, but rather that he may rise up, gather and heal his limbs, and attain immortality. In Spell 99 references to the New Year also beckon images of rebirth and renewal. The sail is described as the “cloth which came out of Sutyu [Seth] when Horus and the Ombite [Seth] kissed on New Year’s Day” (FBD, Sp. 99). Similarly, the bulwark is associated with “the sinews of Him whom all these fear. It is he who lives in the night which precedes the New Year” (FBD, Sp. 99). This most likely is a reference to Osiris as Orion. The constellation precedes the heliacal rising of Sothis (Sirus) signaling the opening of the year, dating back to the I Dynasty (Wainwright, 1951: 124).3 The first day of the first month, New Year's Day, is concerned with renewal and rebirth (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 44). Based on textual and ethnographic material Wainwright (1940) suggests that fertility sacrifices, synonymous with human sacrifices, are

3 Spalinger (1998: 254, 257–258) suggests that Egyptian festivals are controlled by temples and while major festivals derived from natural phenomena, the state-organized Civil Calendar that predicted when events occurred rarely aligned with the actual phenomenological event. Spalinger (1998: 258) states “any original linkage was lost between the reason for the festival and the calendrical date of its occurrence.” Also, see Nicklin (1900).

64 performed at the time of the Egyptian New Year. The deceased uses the imagery of rebirth connected to the New Year so that he might have power over the renewal of life. Taussig (1993: 46–47) comments, “…the early magician signifies…not merely ‘a yielding attitude to things,’ but the threshold of history where mimesis as a practice for living with nature blurs with the transformation of mimesis into an instrument for dominating nature.” Indeed, the deceased seeks domination over his own mortality and the vices that accompany it (impotency, death, and chaos). Applying V. Turner’s (1967 [1989]) conception of the liminal period and the dominant symbol, I identify values that the ancient Egyptians considered both fundamental and self-evident. Spell 99 functions to ameliorate the disparity between life and death, order and chaos by giving the deceased power over his environment through mimesis. Mimesis is a way “to manipulate reality by means of its image” (Taussig, 1993: 57). Using mimesis, the deceased achieves a new status, one of immortality, and incorporates himself in the phenomenon of the afterlife. Mimesis and liminality are mutually exclusive, but in Spell 99 mimesis acts as the cure for the deceased’s liminal state.

Summary: The Magical Ferry Boat of Spell 99

The mhnt boat from Spell 99 is constructed by the mimetical properties of analogy between gods/corporeal elements of gods and boat parts. Part of the magic of mimesis is in semantics, “for the name not only specifies but does so by superimposing the symbolic with the ontic essence of the person, the referential, we might say, with the actual – in the sense that…the person is the name” [Taussig’s emphasis] (Taussig, 1993: 56). The names of the god empower the boat with the divinity’s particular characteristics, good and bad. By knowing the gods’ names the deceased is able to incorporate their power into the mhnt boat via mimesis. Two aspects of mimesis operate in Spell 99, like influences like and active yielding. First, if god parts are the represented then the boat parts are the representer, the boat is infused with the power of the gods. Second, if the image of the boat is the perceived then the deceased is the perceiver. The deceased is able to possess the power of the gods by actively yielding, placing himself in the representation he creates and participating in the journey of narrative images. R. H. Wilkinson (1994: 180) states,

65 …most religions consist of myth, supported by ritual, aimed at what has been called ‘transformation of state’– the manipulation of reality for human benefit, such as the curbing of evil or malevolent forces and the elicitation of positive forces and material blessings.

The deceased selects the deities used in magical mimesis based on their characteristics that are representative of the central values of the ancient Egyptian culture. Wallace (1966: vii) states that magic “…is an important part of one or more processes by which human wants are gratified.” It is not only the wants but the fears as well that are gratified through the magical process. Through mimesis, ancient Egyptians obtain the power to ameliorate the disparities between fertility and impotency, life and death, order and chaos.

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION: FREEDOM IN THE AFTERLIFE

Wherever we want to go, we go. That’s what a ship is, you know. It’s not just a keel and hull and a deck and sails. That’s what a ship needs. But what a ship is…is freedom. –Captain Jack Sparrow, Pirates of the Caribbean

As for him who knows this spell, he will go out into the Field of Rushes, and there will be given to him a cake, a jug of beer and a loaf from upon the altar of the Great God, an aroura of land with barley and emmer by the Followers of Horus, who will reap them for him. He will consume this barley and emmer and will rub his body with them, his body will be like these gods, and he will go out into the Field of Rushes in any shape in which he desires to go out. A matter a million times true. –Spell 99, Book of the Dead

Watercraft in the Afterlife: The Mhnt Boat

Watercraft are dominant symbols in Egyptian religion as demonstrated by their prevalence in cosmology. Subsequently watercraft often are identified in mortuary contexts and textual references, including the Pyramid Texts, Coffin Texts, and Book of the Dead. The topography of the afterlife is virtually flooded by the primordial waters of chaos personified by the god Nun. The deceased must be ferried into the afterlife and then on subsequent diurnal and nocturnal voyages with the sun god through the celestial firmament and potentially chthonic underworld. The mhnt boat described in Spell 99 provides the deceased with the ability to control properties associated with the primordial waters, namely fertility, rebirth, and chaos. The mhnt boat is attested from the 4th millennium BC through the New Kingdom. Translated as ferry boat, the mhnt is the watercraft featured in Spell 99 and functions to transport

67 the deceased across the Winding or Shifting Waterway (that otherwise bars him from the afterlife) to the Field of Offerings. The mhnt boat exhibits features predominantly associated with riverine traveling boats, including a mast, sail, and oar assemblage, but features exist that are indicative of papyriform vessels, namely upright finials. Similarly, divinities typically associated with watercraft other than the mhnt boat are used in Spell 99 to describe components of the boat, in particular Horus, Aker, the tetwy-animal, Seth and Apophis. Repeated nautical features reveal specific activities regarded as essential by the deceased, including sailing, rowing, and mooring. As a mythical boat the mhnt does not retain a rigid form, but adopts characteristics from other watercraft.

Deckline Model

The mhnt boat is constructed from a series of associations between the corporeal elements of deities and in some cases the deities themselves and boat parts. The relationship between the god and the boat part is based upon the primary and secondary associations of form (mythical, anatomical, and functional), the absolute location of the god in mythical geography (celestial or underworld), and the location of the boat part relative to the deckline. Boat parts that have no apparent function aside from a symbolic one, namely animals identified with the gods Thoth and Seth, represent themselves on the vessel and therefore are regarded as primary associations. Secondary associations of form exist between god parts and boat parts that are not otherwise related. These boat components serve a utilitarian function and are identified predominantly on models and representations of traveling boats. Within the context of Spell 99, secondary associations come in three varieties, mythical, anatomical, and functional. When gods associated with each other in other religious contexts are affiliated with contiguous boat parts, I classify these analogies as mythological. If the imagery describing two god parts associated with contiguous boat parts describes a realistic physical union, I explain the analogy as anatomical. I regard god parts and boat parts that share both a similar form and function as functional analogies. In addition to primary and secondary associations, the absolute location of the god in cosmology and the position of the boat part relative to the deckline predict the god’s relationship to the specified boat component. In general, deities associated exclusively with the celestial

68 sphere and with both the celestial realm and underworld are affiliated with nautical features located above the deckline. Deities associated with features above the deckline lend their characteristics to their specific boat part, including the color blue, rulership, and the restraint or repulsion of chaos. Conversely, deities with primarily underworld affiliations are associated with features located below the line of the deck, infusing their characteristics into the boat parts, including the color red, aggression, chaos, and unnatural or aggressive sexual desires. Boat components mentioned more than once in Spell 99 often are associated with both a celestial deity and an underworld deity. The deckline serves as the demarcation between the celestial sphere and the underworld.

Mimesis and Liminality

This thesis applies anthropological concepts to the well attested phenomena of boats in funerary contexts by examining the utilization of mimesis in the New Kingdom through the symbolic construction of the mhnt boat from Spell 99, Book of the Dead. Mimesis functions in two distinct manners in Spell 99. By possessing the knowledge of a deity’s name the deceased is able to incorporate the god’s specific attributes into an associated boat part, illustrating the principal like influences like. The boat part becomes a representation of the god it represents (the represented). The deceased as perceiver is able to obtain the power of the representation (the perceived) by actively yielding to a narrative journey of images, evident in his active participation on board the watercraft. The image of the boat created by the deceased is now more powerful than the reality of the boat. The purpose of the boat image is understood through the concept of liminality. Goelet (1994 [1998]: 154) notes, “One of the more disturbing aspects of the next world was the constant presence of the irrational, which meant that the afterlife was threatened by an element of caprice and randomness.” During the liminal period, specifically between death and the deceased’s admittance into the afterlife, the characteristics the deceased chooses to incorporate in the construction of the mhnt boat (the vessel that serves as transportation during the liminal phase) equip the deceased with esoteric knowledge required to endure the uncertainty of the afterlife and in so doing reveal the fundamental values of Egyptian culture. The celestial mhnt boat

69 allows the deceased spiritual freedom, providing him with sexual potency, immortality, and the ability to defeat chaos.

APPENDIX A

CHRONOLOGY

Ancient Egyptian chronology is a debated issue. Dates provided below for the Predynastic period are adapted from Midant-Reynes (2002) survey of Egyptian Prehistory. Similarly, dates for the Dynastic period are adapted from R. H. Wilkinson’s (2003) comprehensive chronology based on the individual reigns of the Egyptian kings and the scholarly efforts of J. Baines and J. Málek (1980).

Predynastic Nagada Period c. 4000 – 3000 BC Nagada I (Amratian) c. 4000–3500 Nagada II (Gerzean) 3500–3200 Nagada III 3200–3000

Early Dynastic Period 2920–2575 I Dynasty 2920–2770 II Dynasty 2770–2649 III Dynasty 2649–2575

Dynastic Period, Old Kingdom 2575–2134 IV Dynasty 2575–2465 V Dynasty 2465–2323 VI Dynasty 2323–2150 VII/VIII Dynasty 2150–2134

First Intermediate Period 2134–2040 IX/X Dynasty 2134–2040 XI Dynasty (Theban area) 2134–2040

Middle Kingdom 2040–1640 XI Dynasty (all Egypt) 2040–1991 XII Dynasty 1991–1783 XIII Dynasty 1783–1640

71 XIV Dynasty (probably contemporary with the XIII or XV Dynasty)

Second Intermediate Period 1640–1532 XV Dynasty (Hyksos) XVI Dynasty (contemporary with the XV Dynasty) XVII Dynasty 1640–1532

New Kingdom 1550–1070 XVIII Dynasty 1550–1307 XIX Dynasty 1307–1196 XX Dynasty 1196–1070

Third Intermediate Period 1070–712 XXI Dynasty 1070–945 XXII Dynasty 945–712 XXIII Dynasty c. 1070–712 XXIV Dynasty c. 724–712 XXV Dynasty 770–712 (Nubian and Theban areas)

Late Period 712–332 XXV Dynasty 712–657 XXVI Dynasty 664–525 XXVII Dynasty 525–404 XXVIII Dynasty 404–399 XXIX Dynasty 399–380 XXX Dynasty 380–343

Graeco-Roman Period 332 BC–AD 395 Macedonian Dynasty 332–304 Ptolemaic Dynasty 304–30 Roman Era 30 BC–AD 337

APPENDIX B

SELECTIONS OF RELEVANT FUNERARY TEXTS

Notes to Readers

Square brackets [ ] indicate a restored passage. Square brackets with dots […] indicate a lacuna. A series of dots … indicate an illegible or incomprehensible word or passage. Angle brackets < > indicate words or suffixes omitted in the original. Parens ( ) indicate English words supplied to bring out the sense.

Utterance 270, Pyramid Texts

A summons to the celestial ferryman Awake in peace, you of back-turned face, in peace, You who looks backward, in peace, Sky’s ferryman, in peace, Nut’s ferryman, in peace, Ferryman of gods, in peace! That you may ferry him in this boat in which you ferry the gods. Unas has come to his side as a god comes to his side, Unas has come to his shore as a god comes to his shore. No one alive accuses Unas; No dead accuses Unas; No goose accuses Unas. If you fail to ferry Unas, He will leap and sit on the wing of Thoth, Then he will ferry Unas to that side! –Utt. 270, Lichtheim, 1975

73 Utterance 359, Pyramid Texts

The king crosses to the Beyond Horus has cried out because of his Eye, Seth has cried out because of his testicles, and there leaps up the Eye of Horus, who had fallen on yonder side of the Winding Waterway, so that it may protect itself from Seth. Thoth saw it on yonder side of the Winding Waterway when the Eye of Horus leapt up on yonder side of the Winding Waterway and fell on Thoth’s wing on yonder side of the Winding Waterway. O you gods who cross over on the wing of Thoth to yonder side of the Winding Waterway, to the eastern side of the sky, in order to dispute with Seth about this Eye of Horus: I will cross with you upon the wing of Thoth to yonder side of the Winding Waterway, to the eastern side of the sky, and I will dispute with Seth about this Eye of Horus. Awake in peace, O MA-HA.f, in peace! Awake in peace, O you who are in the sky, in peace! O Ferryman of the Winding Waterway, tell my name to Rēa, announce me to Rēa, for I am bound for yonder distant castle of the owners of doubles who worship Rēa there in the Mounds of Horus and the Mounds of Seth as their god of those who have gone to their doubles. O Rēa, commend me to MA-HA.f, the ferryman of the Winding Waterway, so that he may bring me his ferry-boat which belongs to the Winding Waterway, to the eastern side of the sky, so that he may ferry me over to yonder side of the Winding Waterway, to the eastern side of the sky, for I am seeking the endangered Eye of Horus, I am bound for the numbering of fingers. My face is washed by the gods, male and female, Imsety, Hapy, Duamūtef, and QebHsenuf are my right side, on which is Horus who smote Dndrw in front of his two pillars, Nephthys and Vnt-n-irty are my left side, on which is Seth. I am recognized by my throne, my oar has remembered me; I have found my throne empty in the hold of the golden bark of Rēa. –Utt. 359, FPT

Utterance 522, Pyramid Texts

A ‘ferryman’ and other short texts O MA-HA.f, O Hr.f-HA-.f, behold, I have come and have brought to you this re-knit Eye of Horus which was in the Field of Strife; bring me this boat which Khnum built. O Hapy, Imsety, Duamūtef, QebHsenuf, bring me this boat which Khnum built, which is in this waterway of the Htm-bird. O Swallower, open the way for me! O storm-snake(?), open the way for me! O Vulture, open the way for me!

74 Hail to you, Beautiful, in peace! If you love me, I will love you. I rebuff you, O Evil; if you avoid me, I will avoid you. –Utt. 522, FPT

Spell 404, Coffin Texts

Spell for arriving at the first portal of the Field of Rushes. What is to be said to the gate-keeper ‘Open, O Gšgš, for your name is Gšgš.’ Hail to you, You of the Netherworld, my lord; make ready your place for me.’ ‘Come, be a spirit, my brother; proceed to the place of which you know.’ He will arrive at another portal. He will find the Sisterly standing there; they will say to him: ‘Come, that we may kiss you,’ and they will cut off the nose and lips of whoever does not know their names. When he reaches [them], the man shall say: ‘Hail to you, Sisterly Companions who comfort the Well-beloved! I have between you with my magic, I am he who shines in the Night-bark, I am Horus son of Isis, I have come to see my father Osiris.’ ‘Come, be a spirit, my brother; proceed to the place of which you know.’ He will arrive at another portal by which the air enters and is cut off. It shall be said to it: Hail to you, Runner, whose name is “Son of a Runner!”’ ‘Come, be a spirit, my brother; proceed to the place of which you know.’ He will arrive at another portal; he will find its gate-keeper standing with the satchel of a corn-measurer and with a corn-measure in his hand, wherewith to measure a man’s excrement. The man shall say to him: ‘Hail to you, Twt, whose name is Twt! “What is to be filled” is the name of your corn-measure.’ ‘Come, be a spirit, my brother; proceed to the place of which you know.’ ‘Hail to you, Striker of the pillar-amulet, whose name is “Striker of the pillar-amulet.”’ ‘Come, be a spirit, my brother; proceed to the place of which you know. ‘Hail to you, you two throwsticks, whose name is <”Throwsticks”>’ ‘Come, be a spirit, my brother; proceed to the place of which you know.’ He will arrive at these grounds and these grounds will say to him: ‘We will not let you tread on us.’ He shall say to them: ‘Hail to you, you backbone of Rēa which repels the Serpent, which Neith sends down to the crocodiles.’ ‘Come, be a soul, my brother; proceed to the place which you know.’ What is to be said to the ferryman of the Field of Rushes so that his regard may be on these gods who are on yonder side of the river. He shall say to [them] when he calls: ‘O Cut Rush, Tongue of Rēa …, leader of the Two Lands, do not go back to them; O Power in the sky who reveals the sun disk, O Rēa, Lord of the dawn-red, bring to me, do not leave me boatless.’ ‘Tell my name’ says the bow-war. ‘O Braided tress of Isis which Anubis has affixed by means of the craft of the embalmer.’

75 ‘Tell my name’ says the mooring-post. ‘Your name is “Lady of the Two Lands in the Shrine.”’ The name of the mallet is ‘Buttock on the Bull of the Wind.’ The name of the steering-post is ‘Reeds of the Field of God.’ The name of the hull(?) is ‘Earth-god.’ The name of the mast is ‘He who fetched the Great Lady after she had been far away.’ The name of the mhnnw is ‘Standard of Wepwawet.’ The name of the yards(?) is ‘The staffs of Rēa which are in Unu.’ The name of the dbHw is ‘The staffs of Rēa which are in Unu.’ The sail: ‘Your name is Nūt.’ The lacings(?), halliards(?) and iwt: ‘Someone has made you from the skin of the Mnevis bull and the sinews of the Ombite.’ The name of the oars is ‘The fingers of Horus the Elder.’ The bailer is ‘The hand of Isis when she swabbed up the blood from the Eye of Horus.’ The bailer (sic) is ‘The gullet of Imsety. The ribs(?) in her hull are Imsety, Hapy, Duamūtef and QebHsenuf, (that is to say) “He who plunders, He who acts as a robber, He who sees his father, and He who makes his own name.”’ The hogging-beam(?): Your name is “She who presides over the gardens.”’ The butt(?) (of the steering-oar): ‘Your name is mrw-wood.’ The steering-oar: ‘Your name is “Accurate,” and the name of your blade is “Sunshine which cuts through the water.”’ The name of the loom(?) is ‘Nose of Ptah.’ The name of the boat is ‘Leg of Isis which Rēa cut off with a knife when she brought the Night-bark to him.’ The name of the skipper: His name is… The name of the pilot(?): His name is… The name of the helmsman: His name is ‘Two Baboons.’ The name of the wind is ‘North-wind which came forth from Atum to the nose of the Foremost of the Westerners, the Lord of Abydos. ‘Tell my name’ says the river. ‘Your name is “Those who see their lord.”’ ‘Tell my name says the riverbank. ‘Give me your hand, O lips of Isis, on the day of the supper-festival; “He who eats putrefaction in darkness,” and “She who puts an end to him who would extend his hand against the waters.”’ What should be said to those gods who are in the writing; ‘Hail to you, you whose attributes are good, your lords of possessions. who will exist for ever and ever! I shine for you that you may please me and that you may put truth in this mouth of mine for me so that I may speak with it. My bread is in Pe, my beer in Dep, my cake is baked, and my seat is spacious in the presence of the great god; I know the name of that god for whom provision is placed before him, his name is Tkm. He opens up the western horizon, he knows the eastern horizon, and his name is Tkm. If he depart, then will I depart when he is expelled from his msqt. Those who rebel will have no power over this flesh of mine, for my bread

76 is in Pe and my beer in Dep, and this power of mine belongs to me. My power is bread and beer, my power is life, prosperity and health. Going out into the day in any shape that I may desire, and going out thence into the Field of Rushes. As for anyone who knows this spell, he will go down into the Field of Rushes, and there will be given to him a šns-loaf, a beer- jug, a psn-cake and an aroura of land, with barley of seven cubits and likewise of emmer, and it is the Followers of Horus who will reap it. He shall chew this barley and this emmer and he shall rub his flesh with it, and his body will be [hale] like that of these gods, and he shall go out into the Field of Rushes in any shape that he wishes to assume. –Sp. 404, FCT

Spell 405, Coffin Texts

‘Open, O …. Gšgš! Open, O Gšgš! Hail to you, Imsety, my lord; make ready your place for me.’ ‘Come, be a spirit, my brother; proceed to the place of which you know.’ ‘Hail to you, Sisterly Companions who comfort the Well-beloved; I have come between you in the Night-bark.’ ‘Come, be a spirit, my brother; proceed to the place of which you know.’ ‘Hail to you, District of the Runner: “District of the Runner” is you exact name.’ ‘Come, be a spirit, my brother; proceed to the place of which you know.’ ‘O Cut Rush, Tongue of Rēa,…, Leader of the Two Lands in Nekheb, do not go back them. O Great Power who reveals the sun-disk with Rēa, who is in charge of the dawn-red, grant that the ferry-boat be ferried across for this spirit, for see, he has come clothed and put together; may he go down to the river-bank as a messenger of the great god; grant that the ferry-boat be ferried across for the sprit, for see, here he is.’ The skipper of the ferry-boat of the District in Khemennu shall say: ‘If the one there be indeed this spirit, let him pronounce the name of the ground on which he has arrived.’ This spirit shall say to the skipper of the ferry-boat of the District in Khemennu: ‘I know the name of the ground [on which] I have arrived; its name is “Backbone of Gēb and ribs of Isis on which are the repellers of the Serpent, Destroyer with outstretched arm in the Pure Place.”’ The skipper of the ferry-boat of the District of Khemennu shall says: ‘If he go aboard at the bow of the ferry-boat, his soul will destroy him, but if he [go aboard] at the stern of the ferry-boat, this spirit will be one of them;’ and the skipper of the ferry-boat of the District of Khemennu shall say: ‘Pronounce the name of this boat when you go aboard her.’ This spirit shall say to the skipper of the ferry-boat of the District of Khemennu; ‘I know the name of this entire boat, and I know the name of her

77 bow-warp; its name is “Braided tress of Isis which Anubis has affixed by means of the craft of the embalmer.” ‘I know the name of her mooring-post; its name is “Mistress of the Land in the shrine.” ‘I know the name of her mallet; its name is “Buttock of TAw-sp.f.” ‘I know the name of her steering-post(?); they are “Serpents of the Field of God.” ‘I know the name of her oars; they are “Fingers of Horus the Elder.” ‘I know the name of her bailer; it is “The hand of Isis which swabbed up the blood from the Eye of Horus.” ‘I know the name of [her] ribs(?); their names are Hapy and Duamūtef.” ‘I know the name of her mast; its name is “He who fetched the Great One after she had been far away.” ‘I know the name of her mast-head: it is “Gullet of Imsety.” ‘I know the name of her mhy; it is ‘Back of […] who passed by.” ‘I know the name of her lacings(?), her halliyards and her […]; they are “It has been made from the skin of the Mnevis-bull and from the sinews [of the Ombite].” ‘I know the name of her yards(?); it is “[…] lands of the Field of the God which is in Unu.” ‘I [know] the name of her sail; its name is Nūt. ‘I know the name of [her…]; it is , Hapy, Duamūtef and ; their names are “He who acts as a robber, He who makes his own name, He who plunders, and He who sees his father.” ‘I know the name of butt(?) (of her steering-oar); its name is “Mistress of the Land in the garden.” ‘I know the name of her steering-oar; [its name is] “Accurate,” and the name of its blade is “Sunshine which cuts through the water.” I know the name of the whole boat; it is “Buttock of Isis which Rēa cut off with a knife for his Eye on his own behalf in the Bark of […].”’ The skipper of the ferry-boat of the District in Khemennu shall say: ‘Pronounce the name of the river, since you (pl.!) go down to it.’ This spirit shall say to the skipper of the ferry-boat of the District in Khemennu: ‘Its name is “He who looks at them.”’ The skipper of the ferry-boat of the District in Khemennu shall say: ‘Pronounce the name of the wind, since you sail by means of it.’ ‘Its name is “The north-wind which went forth from Khemennu to the nose of the Foremost of the Westerners, the Lord of Abydos.”’ The skipper of the ferry-boat of the District in Khemennu shall say: ‘Pronounce the name of the river-bank, since you go down on to it.’ ‘Its name is “Backbone of Gēb and ribs of Isis which repel the Serpent from it.”’ It means going forth into the presence of the Great Ennead which is in Ōn, which comes joyfully to meet this spirit. This spirit shall be prostrate on his belly among them, and he shall say to them: ‘I have come here to greet you, you lords of possessions who are [in] eternity, (who are within) the limits of everlasting. [I

78 have] moored(?), my cake is baked, my bread is in Pe, my beer is in Dep, I possess offerings, and my offerings are bread and beer, life, welfare, health and a clear character; (also) going forth in any shape which I desire within the Field of Rushes.’ The Great Ennead which is in the Field of Rushes shall say: ‘Give him a šns-cake, a beer-jug, and a portion [of meat], and he shall eat of it, and he shall not go forth for ever and ever.’ The [Great] Tribunal which is in the Field of Rushes shall say: ‘Give him an aroura [of land] with barley three cubits [tall]. The Followers of Horus shall cut it for him for the first year, and he shall chew on it and rub his body with it, and his body will be hale like all of them.’ The Great Tribunal which is in the Field (of Rushes) shall say: ‘Give him the… of a washerman and a washerwoman; let drink water at the eddy and grant that he achieve orgasm.’ The Great Tribunal which is in the Field (of Rushes) shall say: ‘Let him sing and dance and receive ornaments, let him play draughts with those who are on earth, may his voice be heard even though he is not seen; let him go to his house and inspect his children for ever and ever.’ This spirit shall say: ‘I have come here in order to inspect my children and to receive for myself the garment(?), for I am the Biter in his coil; I am the Baboon with the strong name; I am the….which fights stubbornly(?) and fells the confederacy of Seth. I have come here speaking and reciting the Book of the Divine Words.’ –Sp. 405, FCT

Spell 99, Book of the Dead

Spell for bringing a ferry-boat in the realm of the dead I O Ferryman, bring me this which was brought to Horus on account of his Eye and which was brought to Seth on account of his testicles; there leaps up the Eye of Horus which fell in the eastern side of the sky so that it may protect itself from Seth. O Mahaf, as you are provided with life, awaken Aqen for me, for see, I have come. Who are you who comes? I am beloved of my father, one greatly loves his father, and I am he who awakens his sleeping father. O Mahaf, as you are endowed with life, awaken Aqen for me, for see, I have come. Do you say that you would cross to the eastern side of the sky? If you cross what will you do?

79 I will raise up his head, I will lift up his brow, and he shall make a decree in your favour, and the decree which he shall make for you shall not perish nor become void in land for ever. O Mahaf, as you are endowed with life, awaken Aqen for me, for see, I have come. Why should I awaken Aqen for you? That he may bring me the built-up boat of Khnum for the Lake of Feet. But she is in pieces and stored in the dockyard. Take her larboard side and fix it to the stern; take her starboard side and fix it to the bow. But she has no planks, she has no end-pieces, she has no rubbing-pieces, she has no oar-loops. Her planks are the drops of moisture which are on the lips of Babai; her end-pieces are the hair which is under the tail of Seth; her rubbing-pieces are the sweat which is on the ribs of Babai; her oar-loops are the hands of the female counterpart of Horus. She is built by the Eye of Horus, who shall steer her to me. O Mahaf, as you are endowed with life, awaken Aqen for me, for see, I have come. Who will guard this boat? Bring the tail of the senemty-animal and put it in her stern; that will guard her. O Mahaf, as you are endowed with life, awaken Aqen for me, for see, I have come. Who will bring her to you and to me? Bring her to me with the best of the gods and his offspring, namely Imsety, Hapy, Duamutef and Qebehsenuef; he will command her, the tetwy-animal being placed at her bow, and he will steer her to the place where you are. What is she? She is the wings of the tetwy-animal. The weather is windy and she has no mast. Bring this phallus of Babai which creates children and begets calves. To what shall I make it fast? To the thighs which open out the shanks. What about her cable? Bring this snake which is in the hand of Hemen. Where shall I stow it? You shall stow it in the bilge. What about her sail? It is the cloth which came out of Sutyu when Horus and the Ombite kissed on New Year’s Day. What about the gunwales? They are the sinews of Him whom all these fear. Who is he whom all these fear? It is he who lives in the night which precedes the New Year. O Mahaf, as you are endowed with life, awaken Aqen for me, for see, I have come.

80 Who are you who comes? I am a magician. How have you come and how have you gone up? I have gone up on this… What have you done to her? I have trodden on her back, I have guided her…aright. What else have you done to her? My right side was at her starboard, my front was towards her bow, my left side was at her larboard, my back was towards her stern. What else have you done to her? At night her bulls were slaughtered and her geese cut up. Who stands on her? Horus of the Rulers. Who takes her cordage? The Foremost One, the Ruler, the Oldest One. Who controls her bowls? The Foremost One, the Ruler, Baty. What else have you done to her? I went to Min of Coptos and Anubis the Commander of the Two Lands, and I found them celebrating their festivals and reaping their emmer in bundles of ears with their sickles between their thighs, from which you have made cakes. The god who ascends led me to the goddess who ascends, and the Lady of Pe led me to the Lady of Netjeru. Now as for the gods of Pe who are in front of their houses, I found them washing their head-cloths. They will come bearing the cakes of the gods, and they will make cakes for you when going downstream and bread when going upstream. O Mahaf as you are endowed with life, awaken Aqen for me, for see, I have come. Who are you who comes? I am a magician. Are you complete? I am complete. Are you equipped? I am equipped. Have you healed the limbs? I have healed the limbs. What are those limbs, magician? They are the arm and the leg. Take care! Do you say that you would cross to the east side of the sky? If you cross, what will you do? I will govern the towns, I will rule the villages, I will know the rich and give to the poor, I will prepare cakes for you when going downstream and bread when going upstream. O Mahaf, as you are endowed with life, awaken Aqen for me, for see, I have come. Do you know the road on which you must go, magician?

81 I know the road on which I must go. Which is the road on which you must go? It is ‘Power of Earth,’ and I shall go to the Field of Rushes. Who will guide you ? The Royal Twins will guide me. Who will tell your name to this august god? He who is content, the elder brother of Sokar. O Mahaf, as you are endowed with life, awaken Aqen for me, for see, I have come. He does not wake for me. You shall say: O Vulture-god who rebuilds a courtyard, I will break you box, I will smash your pens, I will tear up your books because of Him who is in the Abyss. If I see, Shu will see; if I hear, Shu will hear; I will give orders to the Imperishable Stars, and it will be well with me on earth. II ‘What is it?’ says Aqen; ‘I was asleep.’ O Aqen, as you are endowed with life, bring me this, for see, I have come. Who are you who comes? I am a magician. Are you complete? I am complete. Are you equipped? I am equipped. Have you taken care of the two limbs? I have taken care of the two limbs. What are the tow limbs, magician? They are the arm and the leg.\ O Aqen, as you are endowed with life, bring me this, for see, I have come. Have you power over what I have not brought to you, magician, that is to say this boat? She has no bailer. Bring that…of Khnum through which I am made alive, and put it in her. O Aqen, as you are endowed with life, bring me this, for see, I have come. Have you power over what I have not brought to you, magician, that is to say this boat? She has no spars. What is missing from her? She has no beams, she has no rigging, she has no mooring-post, she has no warps. Go to the god who knows you and all that you would mention to him in respect of her spars; what he has given to you will come. Who is that god who knows me and all that I would mention to him in respect of her spars, so that what he has given to me will come? He is Horus with whom is a seal-ring. O Aqen, as you are endowed with life, bring me this, for see, I have come. Have you power over what I have not brought to you, magician, that is to say this boat? She has no cable.

82 Bring that snake which is in the hands of Hemen and of Anubis the Controller of the Two Lands, and put it in her, with its head in your hands and its tail in my hands, and we must pull it tight between us (in) its name of ‘Pain’…the waterways which are between those two cities; the river is in good order and the Lake of Offerings which connects with that river is in good order. O Aqen, as you are endowed with life, bring me this, for see, I have come. What are those two cities, magician? They are the horizon and the malachite-region, or so I believe. Do you know those two cities, magician? I know them, What are those two cities, magician? They are the Netherworld and the Field of Rushes. O Aqen, as you are endowed with life, bring me this, for see, I have come. Have you power over what I have not brought to you, magician? That august god will say: ‘Have you ferried over to me a man who does not know the number of his fingers?’ I know how to count my fingers; take one, take the second, quench it, remove it, give it to me, be friendly towards me; do not let go of it; have no pity on it; make the Eye bright; give the Eye to me. III O you who bring the ferry-boat of the Abyss to this difficult bank, bring me the ferry-boat, make fast the warp for me in peace, in peace! Come, come; hurry, hurry, for I have come in order to see my father Osiris. O Lord of Red Cloth, who is mighty through joy; O Lord of Storm, the Male who navigates; O You who navigate over this sandbank of Apep; O You who bind on heads and make necks firm when escaping from wounds; O You who are in charge of the mysterious ferry-boat, who ward off Apep, bring me the ferry-boat, knot the warp for me, in order to escape from that evil land in which the stars fall upside down upon their faces and are unable to raise themselves up. O Henswa who is the tongue of Re; O Indebu who governs the Two Lands; O Mengeb their helmsman; O Power who reveals the solar disc, who is in charge of redness, fetch me, do not let me be boatless, for there comes a spirit, my brother, who will fetch me over to the place I know of. ‘Tell me my name.’ says the mooring-post. ‘Lady of the Two Lands in the shrine’ is your name. ‘Tell me my name,’ says the mallet ‘Shank of Apis’ is your name. ‘Tell me my name,’ says the bow-warp. ‘Lock of hair of the mooring-post of Anubis in the craft of embalming’ is your name. ‘Tell me my name,’ says the steering-post. ‘Pillars of the realm of the dead’ is your name. ‘Tell me my name,’ says the mast-step. ‘Earth-god’ is your name. ‘Tell me my name,’ says the mast.

83 ‘He who brought back the Great Goddess after she had been far away’ is your name. ‘Tell me my name,’ say the halyards. ‘Standard of Wepwawet’ is your name. ‘Tell me my name,’ says the mast-head. ‘Throat of Imsety’ is your name. ‘Tell me my name,’ says the sail. ‘Nut’ is your name. ‘Tell me my name,’ say the oar-loops. ‘You have been made with the hide of the Mnevis-bull and the tendons of Seth’ is your name. ‘Tell me my name,’ say the oars. ‘The fingers of Horus the Elder’ are your names. ‘Tell me my name,’ says the bailer, ‘The hand of Isis which swabs up the blood from the Eye of Horus’ is your name. ‘Tell me my name,’ say the ribs which are in her timbers. ‘Imsety, Hapy, Duamutef and Qebehsenuef, Plunderer, He who takes by robbery, He who sees what he has brought, He who helps himself’ are your names. ‘Tell me my name,’ says the hogging-beam. ‘She who presides over gardens’ is your name. ‘Tell me my name,’ says the rowing bench. ‘Songstress’ is your name. ‘Tell me my name,’ says the steering-oar. ‘Accurate’ is your name. ‘That which rises from the water, whose blade is limited (in movement)’ is your name. ‘Tell me my name,’ says the boat. ‘That leg of Isis which Re cut off with a knife in order to bring blood to the Night-bark’ is your name. ‘Tell me my name,’ says the skipper. ‘Rebuffer’ is your name. ‘Tell me my name,’ says the wind, ‘since you are carried thereby.’ ‘North wind which went forth from Atum to the nose of the Foremost of the Westerners’ is your name. ‘Tell me my name,’ says the river, ‘since you ferry over on me.’ ‘He who sees them’ is your name. ‘Tell me my name,’ says the bank of the river. ‘Destroyer of those who stretch out the arm in the pure place’ is your name. ‘Tell me my name,’ says the ground, ‘since you tread on me.’ ‘Nose of the sky which goes out from the Embalmer who is in the Field of Rushes, for which one goes out in joy’ is your name. What is to be said to them: Hail to you, you whose natures are king, possessors of offerings who live for ever and ever! I have penetrated to you so that you may give me a funeral meal for my mouth with which I speak, namely

84 the cake which Isis baked in the presence of the Great God, for I know that Great God to whose nose you present provisions, whose name is Tjekem. He reveals himself in the eastern horizon of the sky, he travels in the western horizon of the sky. When he departs, I will depart; when he is hale, I will be hale. You shall not repel me from the Milky Way, and those who are rebellious will not have power over this flesh of mine. My bread is in Pe, my beer is in Dep, your gifts of today shall be given to me, and the gifts due to me are barley and emmer, the gifts due to me are myrrh and clothing, the gifts due to me are life, welfare and health, the gifts due to me are what are issued by day in any shape in which I desire to go out to the Field of Rushes. As for him who knows this spell, he will go out into the Field of Rushes, and there will be given to him a cake, a jug of beer and a loaf from upon the altar of the Great God, an aroura of land with barley and emmer by the Followers of Horus, who will reap them for him. He will consume this barley and emmer and will rub his body with them, his boy will be life these gods, and he will go out into the Field of Rushes in any shape in which he desires to go out. A matter a million times true. –Sp. 99, papyrus of Nu, FBD

APPENDIX C

SPELL 99, BOOK OF THE DEAD, PAPYRUS OF NU

The papyrus of Nu is the considered the most complete version from the remaining XVIII Dynasty Books of the Dead (Lapp, 1997: 15). Lapp (1997) provides the most accurate and comprehensive account to date superseding the importance of similar publications by Budge in the late 19th and early 20th century and should be consulted for specific information on the technical and literary aspects of the papyrus of Nu. The following figures are from Lapp (1997) adapted from plate 62, plate 63, and after plate 64, respectively.

APPENDIX D

BOAT DIAGRAM: MEKET-RE’S TRAVELING BOAT N, XI DYNASTY, ADAPTED FROM WINLOCK (1955: pl. 20)

90 1. 0 50 4 0 30 ALE SC 20 10 0 5 s hip • s mid upport st st s ma Plan Plan .,, Sheer Half-Breadth Half-Breadth

APPENDIX E

CATEGORY DEFINITIONS FOR TABLE 4.1

Characteristics and Associations Concerning God Parts Discussed in Spell 99

God The category God refers to the name of the deity as it appears in the spell. If the title of the deity is obscure the god most readily associated with epithet is in parentheses immediately following the name. It is common for different aspects of the same deity to be emphasized, such as “Horus the Elder” and “Horus with whom is a seal ring” (FBD, Sp. 99). Deities repeatedly named are potentially the oldest in Egypt. References to Nut, Seth, and Horus date from the Predynastic period or early I Dynasty (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 161, 197, 200). The earliest references to Babi and the sons of Horus date from the Old Kingdom (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 88, 196). Sex The category titled Sex refers to gender distinction between male (m) and female (f) deities. No androgynous gods are featured in this version of Spell 99. A predominant number of male deities are associated with boat parts; indeed, 34 of the 43 individual boat components are ascribed to male gods. The sex of two gods is not defined. Accurate most likely personifies the axial rudder and Plunderer probably is one of the underworld demons, but no definite sex can be ascribed. Taxonomy Taxonomy refers to the R. H. Wilkinson’s (2003) classification of the gods into the following categories: amphibious (amp), anthropomorphic (an), avian (av), fish (fi), invertebrate (inv), insect (ins), mammalian (mam), and reptilian (rep). The categories follow Sir Allen

92 Gardiner’s Middle Egyptian Grammar (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 72). These categories delineate the general Linnaean taxonomic classification to which the deity belongs. Non-taxonomic groups include groups of deities (gd) and inanimate object (ino). Groups of deities refer to the sons of Horus that can also be defined as anthropomorphic and mammalian and the underworld deities, to which no other taxonomic category can be ascribed. Inanimate object refers only to the rudder which personifies itself and is not described by any deity. There is no obvious relationship between the taxonomy of the animal and the boat part it is associated, a good indication of etic categories. Appearance The category Appearance refers to the form of the deity. Extremely old, cosmic, and geographic gods as well as deified humans usually take human or anthropomorphic (an) form. Zoomorphic (z) or animal forms often are associated with male and female. For example, male zoomorphs often take to form of a bull, falcon, lion, or ram and female zoomorphs the form of the cobra, cow, lioness, or vulture (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 26). Bimorphic (bi) describes deities represented as part animal and part human. Composite (c) deities are formed from both zoomorphic and anthropomorphic deities; multiple gods often make-up one composite deity (R. H. Wilkinson, 2003: 26–28). Many gods exhibit more than one of the above forms. In regards to Spell 99, there does not appear to be any correlation between the appearance of the god and boat part that it is associated. While it is true that all jackal or canine zoomorphs correspond to deities above the line of the deck this is most likely a coincidence since no other zoomorph follows a similar pattern of location, above or below the deckline. Male deities featured in Spell 99 that have a zoomorphic aspect are associated with a falcon, baboon, canine, or snake. All goddesses that are identified, namely Isis, Nut, and Hathor, have both an anthropomorphic appearance and taxonomic distinction. Furthermore, all the identified goddesses’ zoomorphic appearance share, but are not limited to, a bovine aspect. Similarly, all the goddesses have a ferocious aspect, and are associated with celestial geography. The goddesses share a secondary association with constructional features considered essential in the fight against chaos. Characteristics Characteristics refer to those characteristics most frequently associated with the deity. The following abbreviations are used: aggression (agg), connected to birthing rituals (bir), chaos

93 (ch), cosmic refers specifically to Nut’s primary role in the mythical landscape (cos), creative power (cre), Elder refers specifically to Horus after he attains kingship (eld), embalming refers specifically to Anubis (emb), fertility (fer), heir to the throne (heir), hunter (hun), intestines (int), instrument of Re (ior), judge of the souls of the dead (jud), liver (liv), lungs (lun), mediator (medi), opens the sky (ots), protection (prot), precedes the king during rituals (prtk), rebirth (rb), restraint of chaos (rch), refers to Horus as the ruler of Egypt (rul), scribe (scri), sexual desire (sex), homosexual tendencies, aggressive sexual behavior, one of the four sons of Horus (soh), stomach (sto), strength (str), trained singer (ts), vegetation deity (veg), primordial water or storm (wa), and warrior (war). Much of Spell 99’s imagery is associated with rebirth, evident in the continual mention of the New Year, and the suppression of chaos, evident from references to Seth and Horus’s battle for rulership. Color The category Color refers to the hue most closely associated with the deity: black (b), blue (bl), grey (g), red (r), and purple (p). Geography Geography refers to the absolute location on the mythical landscape with which the deity usually is associated, celestial (c) and underworld (u). In many cases a god’s mythical geographic location changes over time as the god increases or declines in prominence, resulting in the association of several deities with both the celestial realm and underworld. God Part The category God Part pertains to the specific part from Spell 99 named in reference to a boat part. In the case of “the pillars of the realm of the dead” (FBD, Sp. 99), referring to the rudder stanchion, I interpret the epithet as a reference to the legs of Nut. It is common for different corporeal elements of a deity to be accentuated. For example the tendons of Seth and the hair beneath the tail of the senemty-animal represent two different boat parts but belong to the same god.

94 Characteristics and Associations of Boat Parts Discussed in Spell 99

Boat Part The category Boat Part includes parts of the boat discussed in Spell 99. Some nautical features are indistinct and can be interpreted as other boat parts. For example, the mast-step most likely refers to the knee-piece that secures the mast to the deck, thus mast-step [knee-piece] is the entry. Similarly, gunwales are considered a reference to bulwarks, since ancient Egyptian watercraft do not have gunwales, thus gunwales [bulwarks]. Alternate translations making use of Jones’s (1988) pioneering work on Egyptian nautical terms may help to better define ambiguous boat components. The spell proceeds in logical stages of construction. In Part I planks are constructed first with end-pieces [finials] and rubbing-pieces [lashing covers] added next. Oar-loops, apotropaic guardians in the stem and stern, mast assemblage, sail, and bulwark follow. Part II includes equipment and rigging essentials and Part III restates and specifies construction, rigging, and equipment components. Boat Part Function (BPF) Boat Part Function refers to the function of a particular boat part. Material (mat) implies that the part of the boat is utilized in manner central to the construction or performance of the vessel, including sailing, steering, rowing, or hull integrity. Mythical (my) indicates that the boat part described functions in a ritual or magical manner, such as a figurehead. Form The category titled “Form” refers to either a primary (1°) or secondary (2°) association. Primary association is defined as “concepts, ideas, or identities with which the object is directly related” (R. H. Wilkinson, 1994: 16). An object with a primary association can function in place of the god/goddess that it is associated. Secondary association occurs when the “form of an object suggests another, different, form which has its own symbolic significance” (R. H. Wilkinson, 1994: 17). Although not presented in the table, I define three types of secondary association exhibited in Spell 99, mythological, anatomical, and functional analogies (see chapter four for definitions). Technology Technology refers to the type of nautical features listed in Spell 99 including: construction features (cf), mythical (my), equipment (eq), or rigging (rig).

95 Deckline, Centerline, Midships To explore the relative position of watercraft features on the mhnt boat I utilize three important nautical distinctions, the deckline, centerline, and midships. Features relative to the deckline are described as above (abv), below (bel), or at the line of the deck (at). Features relative to the centerline are described as right (r), left (l) or on the centerline (cl). Features relative to midships are described as fore (fwd), aft (aft) or at midships (at).

APPENDIX F

PERSONAL COMMUNICATION: CHERYL WARD

Dear Ms. Lippiello, 20 March 2004

You have my permission to cite our discussion about Egyptian boats in your M.A. thesis.

Cheryl Ward Assistant Professor, Nautical Archaeology Department of Anthropology Florida State University Tallahassee, FL 32306.7772

Tel. 850.644.8152 [email protected] Fax 850.645.0032

APPENDIX G

PERSONAL COMMUNICATION: SHANNON BURKES PINETTE

Dear Lauren, 7 April 2004

You're welcome to cite me as indicated. The idea is…not discovered by me; Egyptologists have commented on the interesting implications of this kind of language in the past, and I condensed the discussion for the [Egyptian Religion and Language class] lecture. But I don't mind if you want to leave your paragraph as it is with my lecture as the source.

Shannon Burkes Pinette

GLOSSARY1

Aft. At or toward the stern of a vessel. Amidships. In the middle of the vessel, either longitudinally or transversely. Axial rudder. A single oar used to steer a vessel, located in a groove cut into the stern. Back-stay. A rope used to brace the mast against oblique pressures and usually secured to the stern or later to the main deck in front of the rudder stanchions. Bailer (baler). Shallow container used to remove water from a boat. Batten. A thin plank or strip of wood used cover lashings or plank seams. Beam. Transverse timber, mounted perpendicular to the carling, providing lateral strength and rigidity to the hull. If deck planking is removed beams can serve as thwarts, functioning as seats for individual rowers. Bolt rope. Rope sewn to the top of a square sail for reinforcement. Boom. The lower yard to which is fitted the bottom of the sail. Bow. Forward end of the vessel pointing in the direction of travel, specifically located from the point where the sides begin to curve inward from the stem. Bow-warp. See mooring rope. Bulwark. The side of a vessel above its upper deck. This term properly replaces the anachronistic use of gunwales. Cable. Thick cordage. Carling. A fore-and-aft timber at, or near, deck level, set between the beams to stiffen and support them. The carling is a principal hull component in ancient Egyptian vessels and translated as hogging-beam in Spell 99 (FBD, Sp. 99).

1 Definitions are based upon Chambers 21st century Dictionary (1996 [2000]) and nautical glossaries found in Steffy (1994), Jones (1995), and Ward (2000).

99 Crotch. Similar to a stanchion, the Y- or V-shaped upright timber holds unstepped bi-pod masts from the Old Kingdom and pole masts from the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms. Deck beams. See beams. Deck structure. Any superstructure located on top of the deck, including cabins and canopies. Ferry boat. Used in a secular context to travel distances along the Nile, and religious context to bear the deceased across the Winding or Shifting Waterway to the abode of Re in the eastern side of the sky. Field of Offerings (Field of Rushes). The Field of Offerings (sekhet hetep), also known as the Field of Rushes, is located in the western horizon and is the residence of the blessed dead. During the Old Kingdom, the Field of Offerings may have been considered Osiris’s property where the deceased labor, but in later periods it is known as paradise, similar to the Greek’s conception of the Elysian Fields. Field of Reeds. The Field of Reeds (sekhet iaru) is located in the eastern horizon. During the Old Kingdom the Field of Reeds is regarded as a place of purification and in later periods it is considered paradise. Old Kingdom texts refer to the sun bark’s journey across the sky to the horizon where it descended to the Field of Reeds in the eastern side of the sky. Based on Nut’s cosmic iconography, Lesko (1991: 119) suggests that locations associated with the cosmos, for example the Field of Reeds, the Nurse Canal, and the Winding Waterway, may refer to female anatomical features. Finial (end-pieces). Wooden extensions fitted to the stem and stern of the vessel. Fore. At or toward to the bow of a vessel. Fore-stay. Rope running from the mast-head and secured to the bow to support the mast. Frame. A transverse timber that supports hull planking. Funerary boat. Functions as a vehicle for both the living and the lifeless to make pilgrimages or for bearing the deceased’s body and grave goods to the mortuary complex. Halyard. Rope used to raise and lower the sail or yard. Halyards are passed through the mast- head and yard. Hull. The shell or body of the vessel. Knee. The term refer to the angular pieces of timber usually cut from compass timber, such as an intersection between a trunk and branch, and functioning to connect two surfaces of different planes (see mast support).

100 Larboard. The left hand side of the vessel when facing the bow, also known as port side. Leech rope. A rope sewn to the sides of a square sail for reinforcement. Length to beam ratio. Abbreviated L:B and calculated by dividing the length by the width. The ratio provides a rough description of hull shape; the higher the ratio, the longer and narrower the hull. Lifts. Rope used to support the upper yard and boom and secured them to the mast, functioning to prevent the ends of the yards from sagging. Mallet. Used to strike or pound in objects. At least two types are identified in shipbuilding scenes. Mast. Heavy, wooden, vertical, spar shaped from a tree, functioning to support the sail and yards. In ancient Egyptian boats masts are attached to the deck via knee-like mast supports. Mast-step. A mortise cut into the top of a floor timber or an assembly of blocks mounted on the floor timbers into which the heel of the mast is placed. Mast support. Much debate surrounds the terminology referring to the angular pieces of timber supporting the mast at deck level. The common use of the term mast-step refers to a mortise cut into the top of a keelson or large floor timber, or a mortised wooden block or assembly of blocks mounted on the floor timbers or keelson, into which the tenoned heel of the mast was seated. It is not clear whether Egyptian vessels have a construction feature that supports the mast in the hull. Since the joined knee timbers form a socket and function to support the mast at deck level, I have chosen to follow Landström’s (1970: 72) terminology and refer to this construction features as a mast support. Mast-head. Upper part of the mast sometimes covered in copper, which rigging runs through or attaches to. Midships. The broadest part of the vessel. Mooring post. An upright wooden timber that is pounded into a bank. Utilizing a mooring- rope the boat is moored to the bank. Mooring rope. A rope extending from the bow to a fixed point on land. Mortise. A cavity cut into a timber to receive a tenon or cover lashings. Oar. Long light spar shaped at one end in the form of a blade, propelled by using the hands. Oar-loom. Shaft of the oar.

101 Oar-loops. A piece of rope, leather, or linen looped around and attached to the bulwark of a vessel to hold the oar in place while rowing. Occasionally holes were cut into the bulwark to serve as oar-loops. Platform. A short raised deck located in the stern or bow. Plank. Long flat pieces of timber that comprise strakes. Pole mast. See mast. Prow. See bow. Quarter rudders. Two oars used to steer a vessel, located on the either side of the stern (the stern quarters). Rigging. The assemblage of spars, sails, and system of ropes that function to support and control a watercraft’s mast and sail. Rowing bench. See beams. Rubbing-pieces. This is likely to be a hull component designed to offer protection from abrasion by contact with docks, etc. It may well be what Lipke (1985) refers to as a lashing cover on the Khufu royal ship. Rudder. A timber that can be rotated about an axis to control the direction of travel of a vessel underway. Rudder stanchion. A deck-level, upright support located in the stern supporting the loom of the rudder. Sail. A sheet of canvas or linen spread to catch the wind as a means of propelling a watercraft. Shrouds. Part of the standing rigging of a sailing vessel that gives a mast its lateral support. Solar boat. Functions as a magico-symbolic vessel designed as a vehicle for the gods or to provide the deceased with the ability to accompany the sun-god, Re, on his journey through the firmament. Spar. A shaped piece timber on a watercraft, including the mast, and yards. Stanchion. An upright post used to support another member, including beams, fore-and-aft timbers, rudders, and quarter rudders. Starboard. The right hand side of a vessel when facing the bow. Steering-oar. See rudder and quarter rudders. Stem. Upward curving timber or assemblage of timbers, joined to the end of the central plank and to which the sides of the bow are joined.

102 Stern. The aft end of the vessel, opposite the direction of travel. Strake. A continuous line of planking extending from stem to stern. Stringer. A fore-and-aft timber for longitudinal reinforcement. Tack rope. Attached to the four corners of a square sail and wound around two spars, functioning to spread out the area of the sail. Tiller. Handle for maneuvering the rudder that hung from the loom of the oar. The tiller first appears during the Middle Kingdom. Transverse beams. See beam. Warp. A length of rope used for mooring a vessel or any other purpose. Yard. A length of timber, also known as a spar, slung by its center in front of the mast, which serves to support and to top and bottom edge of a square sail. The bottom yard is also referred to as a boom.

103

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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