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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. KEEPING UP APPEARANCES FURNI8HINGS OF AMERICAN EMBASSIES IN EUROPE, 1778-1825

Juliet B. Chase

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of the University of Delaware in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Early American Culture

Spring 1996

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 138147 5

UMI Microform 1381475 Copyright 1996, by UMI Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. KEEPING UP APPEARANCES FURNISHINGS OF AMERICAN EMBASSIES IN EUROPE, 1778-1825

Juliet B. Chase

A p proved: Gre^onen T. Buggeln,i, P h . D. ' v Professor in charge of thesis on behalf of the Advisory Committee

A p proved: r______Japfes a. Curtis, Ph.D. Director, Winterthur Program in Early American Ciklti

Ap proved: Cavanaugh, Ph.D./ Associate Provost for Graduate Studies

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank the staff of the Library of

Congress, State Department, Adams National Historic Site

and my adviser, Gretchen Buggeln for their assistance and

interest.

Quotations from the 1782-84 inventory of the Adams

Papers are from the microfilm edition, by permission of

the Massachusetts Historical Society.

iii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ...... V

ABSTRACT ...... vii

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Chapter 2 FINANCES ...... 11

chapter 3 LIFESTYLES OF DIPLOMATS ...... 21

Chapter 4 THOMAS JEFFERSON AND JOHN ADAMS ...... 46

Chapter 5 CONCLUSION ...... 89

APPENDIX INVENTORY OF JOHN ADAMS' RESIDENCE IN THE HAGUE, 1782-1784 ...... 94

ENGLISH VERSION ...... 108

NOTES ...... 121

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 133

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1 Five chairs most likely from the set of sixteen sidechairs and two armchairs in the Louis XV style, c.1755-75; probably made in the Netherlands...... 52

Fig. 2 One of the six chairs 'without cushions' from the Grand Salon c.1760-7 5, originally upholstered in red damask . . . 53

Fig. 3 The marquetry secretary from Adams' bedchamber in the Hague ...... 55

Fig. 4 The marquetry secretary closed ...... 56

Fig. 5 Detail of marquetry on side of secretary . 57

Fig. 6 Bombe bureau from Adams' bedchamber in typical Dutch style c. 1770-80 61

Fig. 7 Detail of neoclassical carving and ball and claw foot of bombe bureau ...... 62

Fig. 8 Marble top table in Italianate style but of unknown manufacture, probably Dutch or French ...... 70

Fig. 9 Set of three Dutch porcelain cache-pots . .71

Fig. 10 An 1817 plan of the Hctel de Langeac and gardens...... 76

Fig. 11 French rounded mirror in gilt frame, C. 1785 81

Fig. 12 French rectangular mirror in gilt frame, C. 1785 ...... 82

Fig. 13 Venus with Cupid ...... 8 3

Fig. 14 Hope with C u p i d ...... 84

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 15 Armchair, c. 1785 attributed to George Jacob ...... 87

Fig. 16 Two armchairs, c.1785 ...... 88

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ABSTRACT

During the early federal period the United States

struggled to establish a strong government and culture.

The first generation of American diplomats were sent to

Europe to represent the federal government in these

matters. This study examines manuscripts and objects that

reflect the material culture of American diplomacy from

1778 to 1825. Documents in the Library of Congress and

those available on microfilm form the bulk of the evidence

examined.

The group of diplomats examined expressed their

culture and their position in their material surroundings.

What they purchased for their temporary homes and the

lifestyles they led demonstrated their interest in fitting

into the diplomatic and foreign societies around them.

Large amounts of federal and personal money were expended

on their residences. Many of these ambassadors were

conscious of the importance of their image as Americans

abroad in conducting their business.

A more intensive examination of the documents and

objects pertaining to the embassies of Thomas Jefferson

vii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. and John Adams provides an in-depth look at how two

American diplomats were living during the 1780s. Both men

lived in elegant surroundings that were not obviously

American in appearance. Yet there are strong similarities

between the two houses that may indicate patterns of

behavior and purchasing which distinguished these

residences from other homes in Europe.

viii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chapter I INTRODUCTION

During the early national period, Americans

struggled to create a sense of national identity. This

necessitated a cultural separation from Europe,

particularly England, which had had the strongest

political and broadest cultural ties with the colonies.

Subtle yet deliberate changes in spelling helped create

American English, for example.1 That sense of a separate

identity was harder to establish with objects, many of

which were being imported in large numbers from England

and other European countries. The task of expressing

national identity was especially difficult for American

ambassadors who were buying their material possessions

once they were located at their foreign post. By

examining the furnishings of early American embassies much

can be learned about not only those embassies themselves,

but the formation of an American culture.

Nationalism is ultimately the product of

conceiving of oneself as a full member of a community

which exists only in the imagination.2 Richard Rush

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. reproduction Further prohibited without permission. (Minister to Great Britain, 1817-1825) expressed a sense

of the different qualities of the American nation that, as

he perceived, distinguished him from diplomats of other

countries. On July 14, 1818 he wrote to his mother:

The American Minister at this court must be a man of business, if he executes faithfully all the twists placed in his hands, more frequently than a man of show; and the lenown simplicity of the institutions of his country, will be taken as the excuse for the frugality of his domicil. It is true, that his allowance is excessively small compared to the wealth of those with whom he associates in this vast metropolis, but I am happy to add, that the plain mode of life which this necessarily superinduces does not, from any thing I have yet seen, deprive him of those attentions and respect from the highest sources, which his rank guarantees.3

Rush recognized that as America struggled to establish

itself as an independent country, diplomats and their

surroundings were important portrayers of the character of

the United States abroad. To Rush America's reputation

for institutional simplicity excused a material frugality

of her diplomats abroad.

American embassies in Europe, generally the same

as the ambassador's residence, served a number of

functions both public and private. Whatever the occasion,

the material culture of an embassy reflected back on the

nation. Benjamin Franklin (Minister to France, 1778-1781)

vocalized these sentiments in 1785.

. . . for I cannot conceive that the Congress, after promising a Minister 2500E a Year; and

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. when he has thereby been encouraged to engage in a Way of Living for their Honour [italics mine] which only that Salary can Support, . . .4

Franklin's use of the word "honour" did not refer to

personal virtues such as honesty and integrity. Rather,

Franklin was talking about homage paid to a government

through material goods. The aspects of a diplomat's way

of life which required expenditures included his

residence, personal adornment, and entertaining. That

these things were perceived as tangible expressions of

Congress' honor abroad demonstrates their importance.

Franklin was not the only individual to recognize

the diplomatic function performed by buildings and their

furnishings. The concept of space and objects

representing the United States was understood and

expressed in 1818 by James Monroe when he described the

furnishings of the White House as representing the

American people to foreign visitors to Washington, D.C.

The furniture in its kind and extent is thought to be an object, not less deserving attention than the building for which it is intended. Both being national objects, each seems to have an equal claim to legislative sanction. . . . For a building so extensive intended for a purpose exclusively national, in which, in the furniture provided for it, a mingled regard is due to the simplicity and purity of our institutions and to the character of the people who are represented in it . . .5

Monroe gave objects equal stature with the architecture in

portraying the values, taste and purchasing power of the

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. new country. He echoed the sentiments of Richard Rush in

describing the character of the United States as simple

and pure. If the White House was considered to illustrate

what America stood for to foreign visitors, then what

roles did the newly established American embassies play in

expressing what America stood for within a foreign

country? It could be argued that ordinary Americans living

abroad would be equally important in establishing

America's image. Diplomats however, lived with certain

circumstances and privileges that did not extend to other

American citizens. Unlike Americans taking the Grand Tour

who might spend a few years in Europe but were still

moving from one locale to another, the Ministers were

usually fixed in one location for a length of time with

only occasional business trips to other places.

Ambassadors had access to the Royal Courts and the elite

circles of European society.6 Diplomats from America

also became part of the culturally diverse diplomatic

community, interacting both politically and socially with

diplomats from other countries.

The association of American diplomats with high

placed individuals of foreign countries meant that these

men were exposed daily to high style architecture and

objects. It also meant that high placed Europeans were

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. looking at and interacting with Americans with whom they

might otherwise never have come in contact. American

diplomats were conscious of that scrutiny and very quickly

became aware that what passed for great wealth in the

United States could not begin to compare with that of the

established aristocracy of Europe.

The State Department did not establish a policy of

permanent sites for embassies until the twentieth century.

Because the majority of structures were borrowed or

rented, the architecture of the early embassies will not

be considered here in great depth. As tenants the

diplomats were not necessarily free to make desired

changes or to erect new structures.7 However, the

individuals were free to redecorate and to furnish their

residences as they saw fit within their monetary

constraints.

Limitations of study

Formal diplomatic relations for America began when

Benjamin Franklin became the sole Minister to France in

1778.® New embassies with attached diplomats were

established in quick succession. This study deals with

the furnishings of American embassies within a European

context from 1778-1825. In this period precedents were

set and protocol established. There are more surviving

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. papers in the Library of Congress archives for the

diplomats of this period than for subsequent decades. This

is possibly because, like four of the first six Presidents

of the United States (1789-1829) who were appointed

Ministers to nations in Europe prior to being elected

President, many of them held other federal government

positions.9

Due to time limitations, it was not possible to

visit all collections of manuscripts pertaining to

individual diplomats. Because the Library of Congress and

the National Archives have extensive manuscript

collections and are not regionally biased in their

collections policies, I concentrated on those diplomats

whose papers were at the Library of Congress or available

on microfilm. Although historic State Department records

are housed in the National Archives, the holdings for the

period 1778-1825 are extremely limited and I could not

locate any documentation for that period which referred to

furnishings.

Identifying extant objects that were used in early

American embassies is even more difficult than locating

manuscripts. The provenance of any object can be easily

obscured over time. When it is critical to identify not

only the historic owner but also the time frame of

acquisition and use, the search is made more complex.10

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The extant objects included in this study were restricted

to those belonging to John Adams (Minister to the

Netherlands, 1780-1784) and Thomas Jefferson (Minister to

France, 1785-1789) because of strong object provenance and

related manuscripts. Only a portion of those diplomats whose papers

were examined are included in this study because much of

the documentation did not include any references to

material culture. For some individuals, the collections

contained only a few documents while for others they were

more extensive. The survival of documents or objects

often says as much about what later generations deemed

important enough to save as it does about the original

participants. There are extensive papers for some

diplomats, however, which still do not make reference to

their material world. It is possible that this is due to

a form of modesty on the part of certain individuals who

may not have been comfortable discussing their material

possessions in diaries or letters home. Others may simply

not have been interested in these matters.

Definition of Terms

I am defining "European" as including Great

Britain and Russia as well as those countries with mutual

borders on that continent. Because of the intermarriage

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of royal houses and the interaction of royal courts,

Russia was grouped with the European nations rather than

Asia.11 It should be noted that the United States did

establish relations with governments in Asia and South

America in the early nineteenth century, but the

differences in culture and diplomatic goals require that

those regions be dealt with at a different time. During

this period America focused its diplomatic strength on

Europe in an attempt to acquire much needed loans as much

as to define sovereign rights.12

In the twentieth century, there are clear

differences between the Embassy where diplomatic business

is conducted, and the Residence of the ambassador where

official entertaining may or may not take place. In the

eighteenth and early nineteenth century, the ambassador's

residence was usually also his place of business. Unless

otherwise stated, the use of the word ••embassy" here is

referring to the building or apartments where the

ambassador and his family lived. Maintaining an office

separate from his home led to difficulties for Richard

Rush. Noted on a auction catalog in his papers was,

"outrage upon the office of the Legation-August 1823." An

explanation of the outrage followed. It "consisted in an

attempt to ceiz upon the furniture of the office for rent

due from a person who lived in another part of the House.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The matter was arranged."13 In addition to the

frustration of the situation, this event suggests that

maintaining a separate office may have had inherent

security problems.

This paper looks at the furnishings of American

Ministers, men who were appointed by the President,

approved by the Senate and recognized by the receiving

foreign government. The use of the word "ambassador" is

used here to define a diplomatic agent rather than an

official rank. The United States did not use Ambassador

as a title until 1893 because it carried connotations of

monarchy.14 Treaty commissioners, charges d'affaires and

consuls are not considered here. Treaty commissioners

were sent for a specific diplomatic purpose and for

usually a relatively short period of time. Consulates

were, during the early nineteenth century, run by

Americans who bonded themselves to the government but who

also could potentially make a profit for themselves by

trading, and who interacted with a very different level of

society than the Ministers did.15 Charges d'affaires

interacted with the same socially elevated group and often

served the function of the Minister when one was not in

residence. They were however, secondary in rank and one

individual might serve as charge d'affaires under several

different Ministers in the same country. Consequently the

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. furnishings of the Minister would have been perceived very

differently from those of lesser ranked diplomats.

Many of the diplomats examined whose papers do

contain evidence of their surroundings demonstrated an

awareness that, in their material surroundings, they

represented America abroad. The types of objects chosen

and how they were perceived by their owners says a great

deal about how these diplomats viewed their roles as

private individuals living in a foreign society and as

representatives of their country. Despite similarities in

their problems, diplomats had unique personalities and

they found different solutions to those common grievances

of lack of funds and being in the public eye.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chapter II FINANCES

Taxes have always been a sensitive issue for

Americans. The need to use tax money to establish

embassies and pay diplomats' salaries created new ethical

questions for the fledgling American federal government.

Questions of what were appropriate expenditures for

government funds or what should be paid for by the

diplomats were key to the formation of the diplomatic

corps and ultimately affected the material culture of the

embassies. Although the first generation of American

ambassadors existed in a world with fewer bureaucratic

rules than their successors, they did face ethical and

financial dilemmas. It is difficult to stress adequately

the desperate financial straits of the young Republic.

Many of the early diplomats were sent on their missions in

order to secure loans to pay off the cost of the war and

to begin to establish a structured economy.16 It may

have been difficult to justify the huge expense of

outfitting and supporting an American in Europe whc..

America was so cash and credit poor.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Benjamin Franklin found himself firmly in the

middle of this moral dilemma as the first American

Minister, recognized as Minister Plenipotentiary to France

in 1778. Franklin was accused by John Adams of

squandering federal funds in order to live in quarters at

the Hotel de Valentinois, the Passy residence of Jacques

Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont.17 Although Franklin was

evidently under the impression that he was a guest of de

Chaumont, he ultimately did pay rent for five years of

residence at the Hotel de Valentinois.18 He does not

appear to have been overly concerned with the federal

government's financial health. In 1782 after Congress

complained of the high diplomatic expenditures, Franklin

defended his position to John Jay (Minister to Spain,

1779— ?).

I wish not to be burthensome to our country and having myself no expensive habits, having besides no wife, or family to bring up and living out of Paris, perhaps I should be as little incommoded by a reduction of some of these charges as any of my brethren; but as we are to establish precedents, I would not have them as may be oppressive to another, or to a successor differently circumstanced. 9

Franklin was quite right that once precedent was set it

would be hard to break. While the rules were still

flexible he included his coffee house bill, carriage hire,

court mourning and table linens on his expense account,

all things that future diplomats were not allowed to claim

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. for reimbursement. Whether or not the government actually

reimbursed Franklin for these expenses is not clear since

the account was left for Jefferson to submit after

Franklin had left France.20

Although many of the first American diplomats seem

to have been truly committed to the concept of public

service, they were also interested in preserving their

personal financial status. They rarely complained of the

giving of their time and energies but were more hesitant

to donate money. Jefferson brought up this dilemma in a

letter to Abigail Adams in 1785.

In stating my accounts with the United States, I am at a loss whether to charge house rent or not. It has always been allowed to Dr. Franklin. Does Mr. Adams mean to charge this for Auteuil and London? Because if he does, I certainly will, being convinced by experience that my expenses here will otherwise exceed my allowance. 1

This sort of question must have been arising more and more

often as new embassies were established and more demands

were put on the Department of State's budget. Diplomats

could never be sure what portions of their expenditures

would be considered valid use of public monies. If the

United States government had not deposited money in a

foreign bank or arranged for credit, the diplomats were

expected to have the money for the initial expenditure.

Benjamin Franklin dealt with the resulting confusion in a

letter presumably to the Secretary of State.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. But the article of Salary with all the Rest of my Account will be submitted to the judgement of Congress, together with some other considerable Articles I have not charged, but on which I shall expect from their Equity some Consideration of for want of Knowing precisely the Intention of Congress, what Expences should be deem'd Public and what not Public, I have charg'd any article to the Public which should be defray'd by me, their Banker has my order as soon as the Pleasure of Congress shall be made known to him, to rectify the Error by transfering the Amount to my private account and discharging by so much that of the Public.22

If the auditors determined that any requests were not

suitable use of public funds then the diplomat would bear

permanently the burden of those expenses. American

diplomats could not utilize all of the financial

manipulations available to Europeans with similar

financial problems. They lacked the credit and status of

the poorer aristocracy who could maintain an elegant

lifestyle by living in debt.23

These grey financial areas that Jefferson, Adams

and Franklin faced were quickly put into black and white

by the Department of State. A pay scale was derived based

on the status of the diplomats and which daily

expenditures would be reimbursed were carefully spelled

out. For most of the diplomats discussed here, as

Ministers Plenipotentiary, an annual salary of $9,000 was

paid along with an initial one time outfit allowance of

$9,000 and a one time return amount of $2,2 50. For

diplomats of lower ranks the ratio remained the same.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. They would receive an outfit equal to one year's salary

and a return allowance of one quarter's salary.24 Only

those expenses directly tied to the business of the

embassy would be reimbursed by the government. The

majority of the accounts submitted by diplomats and

scrutinized by the Auditor's department show payments of

sealing wax, stationary, candles, translations, postage

and other such mundane day to day expenses. Furniture or

other furnishings do not appear on these accounts and

would have fallen under the expenditure of the outfit.25

As America began to establish its own identity and

bureaucracy, it was examining the customs of other

countries for precedent. The diplomats themselves were

especially conscious of what their colleagues from other

nations were receiving and where they were living.26

Although there is no direct evidence that the Department

of State was copying the established custom of the

Netherlands, there are close parallels between the two

governments in that Dutch ambassadors were expected to

find their own lodgings while British ambassadors were

either provided with a house or an extra housing

allowance.27

American diplomats were somewhat self-conscious as

a group. Their European counterparts usually had

aristocratic titles, thus bestowing honor on the country

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. receiving the diplomat, and as a rule they had more

political and financial clout behind them. So when

Elbridge Gerry (treaty commissioner) remarked ina letter

to his wife in 1797 from Paris that the rooms he was

renting had been occupied by the British Ambassador, Sir

Robert Does, he would appear to be indicating that the

former occupant put the seal of approval on the apartment

as appropriate for a diplomat.28

For the early nineteenth century, $9,000 for a

salary and an outfit was a considerable amount of money.

There does not, however, appear to be any records of any

American diplomat who found the amount adequate for his

needs. It was a select group of American men in the late

eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries that could

obtain the education and political sophistication

necessary to conduct diplomacy on the international level.

These men represented the concept of a natural aristocracy

where intelligence and ability were presumed to advance an

individual.29 That any one who could achieve that was

also required to possess a personal fortune and to use it

on behalf of his country must have been galling to many

Americans' sense of republicanism and to the diplomats

themselves. John Quincy Adams (Minister to the

Netherlands 1794-1797, Minister to Prussia, 1797-1801,

Minister to Russia, 1809-1811, Minister to Great Britain,

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1815-1817) detailed his expenditures carefully, and with

the exception of 1811, he outspent his salary every year

of his various terms, exceeding $13,000 in 1816.30 The

quickly established federal bureaucracy was not overly

flexible. The salary of $9,000 was not adjusted for

inflation or cost of living at any time during this period

nor was the variable cost of living of different countries

taken into consideration.

The issue of court mourning gives an excellent

demonstration of the universal financial stress placed on

American diplomats. When the courts of Europe went into

official mourning, it was expected that visiting diplomats

would comply out of courtesy even if, like America, their

government had no family ties with the deceased. Richard

Rush in his published memoirs remarked in his entry for

February 10, 1820:

At an informal assemblage of some of the diplomatic corps at the Saxon minister's, it was agreed that their servants, more especially their coachmen and footmen, should all be put in black for the late King. It was understood that the members of the corps not present, would all concur. The venerable Saxon minister remarked, that as it would be "an extra expense, of course, our courts would make a suitable allowance for it!" The American minister, who was at the meeting, made no objection to the step, and put his servants in black accordingly; but as to his "court," at Washington, it is certain that he never brought forward any such item of expense against it.31

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Richard Rush himself had to bear considerable cost of

court mourning while Minister to Great Britain. While it

is difficult to say whether the term he served was during

particularly lethal years for European royalty, based on

the number of mourning announcements that Rush saved and

that then became part of the collection of his papers,

Rush was spending considerable amounts of money on his

costume for court mourning. While he was an ambassador

the British court went into mourning for such a distant

relation as the Princess of Saxe Hilbourghausen, niece of

her Majesty the Queen. When Queen Charlotte died in 1818,

several changes of mourning were decreed by the Court

Chamberlain over a period of several months. While her

death engendered the greatest number of mourning changes

and extremes of visual grief, it is unlikely from the

specified requirements that one could make do with

articles of a normal wardrobe during official periods of

mourning. The mourning instructions were structured so

that the aristocracy would continue to spend money on

clothing. In Britain the Court Chamberlain protected the

textile industry from business losses during mourning

periods by ordering several changes of mourning and

requiring textile types that were manufactured in

Britain.32 A portion of the mourning regalia for Queen

Charlotte follows:

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Orders for the Court's going into Mourning, on Sunday next, the 22d Instant, for Her late Majesty, of blessed Memory, viz.

The Ladies to wear Black Bombazines, Plain Muslin or Long lawn Linen, Crape Hoods, Shamay Shoes & Gloves and Crape Fans.

The Gentlemen to wear Black Cloth without buttons on the Sleeves and Pockets, Plain Muslin or Long Lawn Cravats and Weepers, Shamay Shoes and Gloves, Crape Hatbands, and Black Swords and Buckles.

For the second stage of mourning decreed on Dec 8th, 1818:

The Ladies to wear Black Silk, fringed or plain Linen or Muslin, White Gloves, Black or White Shoes, Fans and Tippets, White Necklaces and Ear-rings, no Diamonds.

The Gentlemen to wear Black, full-trimmed plain or fringed Linen, Black Swords and Buckles.

The Court to Change the Mourning further, on Sunday the 24th of January 1819: viz.-

The Ladies to wear Black Silk or Velvet, coloured Ribbons, Fans, and Tippets.

The Gentlemen to continue in Black and to wear coloured Swords and Buckles.

And on Sunday the 14th of February, the Court to go out of Mourning.33

Each change of mourning required a different type of

textile and accessories. It is important to remember that

fashion was still a consideration; mourning styles changed

in keeping with contemporary fashions so that it is

unlikely that articles could be used after a season or

so.34 The expense of all this was enough to make Richard

Rush remark rather wistfully in 1817:

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I am in deep black, however, for the Princess Charlotte. Pray, ought not the government here to pay our taylors upon these occasions? It seems to me, that it would be quite possible to make out something of an argument upon this point. But as nobody would listen to me, the only course is to submit.35

Diplomats faced expenses like official mourning that they

did not have to bear at home in the United States. The

exorbitant cost of being a diplomat limited the potential

pool of applicants and must have contributed to decisions

of what family unit would travel to Europe.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chapter III LIFESTYLES OF DIPLOMATS

American diplomats left the United States not

knowing how long they would be apart from their homes,

friends, and family. Once in Europe they had to find

lodgings and furnishings in addition to conducting their

diplomatic business. As Americans they went with limited

incomes and a cultural background of customs and

aesthetics that was different from the societies they

encountered. They entered diverse cultures and

established societies with greater purchasing power. The

choices they made in setting up house reflected their own

culture and that of the society in which they were

temporarily living. Foreign friends and connections

presented the opportunity for the diplomats to have access

to private, knowledgeable advice about local fashion and

its implied statements of status and taste.

Where They Lived

One cannot really discuss furnishings adequately

without giving some account of the spaces in which they

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. were used. The character of the diplomatic living and

office spaces naturally affected the quantity and types of

furnishings being purchased or rented. The number of

rooms, their size and primary functions would all have

been factors in purchasing items or assessing rented,

furnished rooms.

Because American diplomats were responsible for

finding their own residences, those dwellings varied in

size, elegance, and location depending on a number of

racLors. Many of the diplomats studied rented furnished

residences and consequently saved the expense as well as

the time involved in furnishing the home. This may have

been a difficult decision to make for the majority of

diplomats who had no real idea of the time they would be

abroad at the inception of their missions. If they were

going to be in one location only for a short period of

time renting furnishings made sense. Few missions

extended beyond four years and many lasted less than a

year due to diplomatic changes at home or abroad. When

Jefferson went to Paris he decided that purchasing items

was the more prudent choice.36 The size of the

ambassador's family abroad did not play a significant role

in determining the size of the residence. Some diplomats

were bachelors, others were married but left their

families in the United States. A fewer number of

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ambassadors brought their entire families to Europe. Both

John Adams in the Netherlands and Jefferson in Paris went

to Europe without their wives and yet occupied entire

houses. Franklin essentially boarded with a family, while

others merely occupied suites of rooms in larger

establishments. Benjamin Franklin was not hampered by his

living arrangements: he did much of his official

entertaining at Versailles where facilities were available

for a price.37

The most obvious and logical explanation for the

size and location of residences was the cost in relation

to diplomatic income. Both Adams' and Jefferson's

missions date to before the formalization of outfit

expenditures by the Department of State. William Crawford

(Minister to France, 1813-1815) also maintained a bachelor

residence in Paris; his wife stayed in America. In August

of 1813, he rented apartments at 600 francs per month.

"The apartments consisted of an Antechamber, a dining

Room, a Salon or Hall, two bedrooms, and a room for an

office."38 This is probably more typical of the size of

apartments diplomats were renting after their salaries

were fixed.

It is difficult to ascertain the material

lifestyle of diplomats renting furnished quarters because

of lack of surviving documentation such as accounts or

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. inventories. Although there is little information

available for those diplomats living in furnished rooms,

it is important to remember that those rooms most likely

fit into the surrounding environment fairly well.

Therefore, one can assume that they were not overtly

American in furnishings.

Because the majority of diplomats were renting

their quarters, there was no natural continuity from one

ambassador to the next. No particular structure or

section of a city was specifically identified as

pertaining to the United States legation for any extended

period of time. This affected not only the material

culture but the way in which the residences were viewed.

There does not appear to have been any concept of the

diplomatic space being separate from the ambassador. John

Adams may have been attempting to start a tradition of

national identity by renaming his house in the Hague,

L'Hotel des Etats-Unis. But there does not appear to be

any evidence that any other American diplomat occupied

this house which was torn down sometime in the 1820s.39

A Sense of Community

Diplomatic circles in the eighteenth and early

nineteenth centuries were extremely small. Diplomats and

government officials tended to know each other personally

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. as well as officially, judging by their correspondence.

These associations made it easier for the second wave of

American diplomats to find lodgings, furnishings and other

aspects of life in a foreign city. As previously

mentioned some houses were first rented by British

diplomats, then American and it is not surprising that

occasionally houses did serve more than one term as the

residence of an American Minister. In 1815, for example,

John Quincy Adams rented furnished lodgings previously

rented by William Crawford in London.40 While this may

seem to establish a pattern of continuity in diplomatic

space, it does not appear to have been viewed as anything

more than convenient for the parties concerned.

American ambassadors abroad did not exist in a

personal vacuum. They had foreign friends and networks

that may have directed many of them to specific shops and

craftsmen. While in Europe, Gouverneur Morris (Minister to

Great Britain, 1790-1791, Minister to France, 1792-1794)

conducted a long-term affair with the married Madame de

Flahaut (who, incidentally, also had an on and off again

affair with Tallyrand). The intricacies of this affair

occupied most of Morris' attention in his diary and thus

the influence of Madame de Flahaut, referred to usually as

Madame F or simply 'my friend', can not be dismissed

lightly.41 Madame Flahaut lived at the Louvre where

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Morris often visited her and she clearly played a role in

the selection of Morris' residence and its subsequent

furnishings. In April of 1792 Morris recorded in his

diary, "go with Madame F to look for houses," and again in

June, "I take my friend to the Upholsterers where I buy

furniture for the salon."42 Morris did record several

shopping expeditions for furniture and china when Madame

Flahaut was evidently not along but generally speaking, he

records the affair in courtly terms that give the

impression that her preferences would have been

acknowledged.

John Adams' residence was also influenced by a

non-American, his housekeeper Madame Dumas, while he was

serving as the ambassador to the Netherlands. She

detailed some of her role in the house in her addendum to

the inventory. She records the silver candlestick that

she gave to Monsieur Adams and the decanters that she

bought.43 Whether she meant that she bought them at the

behest of Adams or whether they were hers but being used

in the Adams household is unclear. Their inclusion in the

inventory suggests that they were Adams' property.

Adams' son, John Quincy Adams, met and married his

wife, Louisa Catherine, in London. Although her father

was an American, she was raised in England and France and

did not live in America until after the completion of

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Adams' foreign missions.44 She may or may not have

considered herself an American in her youth. But she was

clearly exposed to European taste and interiors and that

cannot but have affected her later decisions regarding her

own home, especially before she actually resided in the

United States. Since John Quincy Adams appears to have

been the record keeper in the family and he did not

differentiate in his records who actually did the

selecting of goods, her exact role in the furnishings of

the pertinent embassies is unknown.45

These American diplomats abroad were doing more

than just helping each other find accommodations. They

were also helping each other furnish their homes with the

best and/or cheapest that Europe had to offer. Certain

countries had specific high-fashion items that were either

unavailable elsewhere in the preferred style or much less

expensive. Dining table plateaux and accompanying

figurines from France were much sought after in the late

eighteenth century.46 Jefferson made the purchase

arrangements for one on the reguest of Abigail Adams, then

living in London.47 Their correspondence shows that

Abigail Adams and Jefferson exchanged purchases over a

long period of time. Each took advantage of the other's

location in order to purchase wanted items. Consequently,

Abigail and her daughter Abigail had silk shoes from Paris

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. as well as lace and other small items, while Jefferson

received shirts and table linens from London.48

Gouverneur Morris, living in Paris prior to his

appointment as Minister to France, bought one plateau with

figurines to send to George Washington for the New York

President's House and shopped for one on the request of

Thomas Pinckney (Minister to Great Britain, 1792-1796).

Morris employed agents to shop for other items that

Pinckney requested.

Your list is receiv'd and I will set about procuring the articles immediately. In regard to ornamental China with the plateauxs of Glass, mine cost me seventy-five guineas and a Sett which I sent out to General Washington about three years ago cost about an hundred Guineas. I do not think that any thing can be got worth while under the Price I paid or perhaps two or three hundred Guineas more or less. You roust judge I can say nothing about the Glasses 'till I see the man I employ for that kind of Business. And note also that I cannot estimate the Cost of Transportation so that you must still be at some Risque of Price on that A c c o u n t .49

Whether Pinckney actually decided to buy one is unclear.

A subsequent letter from Morris to Pinckney related his

p r o g r e s s .

With omission of the ornamental China I have procurred everything you asked for except the wine. . . . Glasses such as you described could not be bought for the money at which you limited them. I therefore employ'd a man to attend the Sales and to get Glasses as near as possible to those sizes. He has succeeded and having received his account I agree to pay for the two including the Charges on them to Havre eighty pounds Sterling. The dimensions are English 89

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1/2 Inches by 55 1/3 and 80 7/10Inches by 48 nearly You have them in frames which save considerably even in the packages and b enables you to put them up in other frames at a far inferior expense. I have employed in like manner a person to run about Pais and purchase your other articles.50

Without knowing anything else about the appearance of

Pinckney's residence, the two grand French mirrors

indicate the level of his furnishings and expenditures.

It seems clear from the expense, both of the objects and

of the shipping, that the mirrors were either unavailable

or unaffordable in Lcndon. The size of the mirrors

indicates the society Pinckney encountered and the high-

style furnishings of his residence or at least those of

his public spaces. Morris' use of agents to shop for and

purchase items was the method that many of these diplomats

likely employed for the bulk of their purchases.

Rufus King (Minister to Great Britain, 1796-1803)

acquired many of his goods from Paris. Through agents in

Paris he ordered china, urns, vases, ornamental figurines

and mirrors for his home in London.51 The components

were clearly already in place for this type of long

distance purchasing.

Americans and cultural Preferences

The early generations of American diplomats

clearly reflected the Anglocentric background of the

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ruling American class. There were a few important

exceptions: Gallatin (Minister to France, 1816-1823) was

born and raised in Switzerland and Gouverneur Morris was

educated in Montreal. Whether or not their early

experiences with cultural diversity affected their later

sojourns in Europe is impossible to state. The majority

of the diplomats studied were at least second generation

Americans and primarily of British descent.

There are a few references from ambassadors that

suggest that for some, an English way of life and style of

furnishings were both familiar and culturally comforting.

In 1783, John Adams while on a trip to England was staying

in a London hotel, more expensive than those in Paris but

preferable. "The Rooms and Furniture are more to my Taste

than in Paris, because they are more like what I have been

used to in America."52 He did not place a value

judgement on the rooms but merely stated his preference

based on his cultural background. He was probably not the

only ambassador who was subconsciously drawn to objects

and styles which were familiar. For the eighteenth

century and the early years of the nineteenth century,

"familiar" to an American meant a preponderance of English

made or inspired objects.

William Crawford condemned Parisian culture in his

diary entry of August 26, 1813. After visiting two

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Parisian formal gardens, the garden of the Luxembourg and

the Tuileries, he commented:

Throughout both gardens, you find a great number of naked statues. I am not pleased with these nudities. If I was supreme legislator of the United States I would prohibit the importation & even the manufacture of naked people, in marble, plaster or paper.53

These sentiments were apparently shared by many English

consumers. Wedgwood found it necessary to 'improve'

classical images by clothing the naked figures in order to

sell his wares.54 Within that context Crawford's

observations are not particularly surprising. They do

however, reveal more than just one individual's attitudes

towards naked statuary. It is plausible to conclude from

this passage that Crawford was not purchasing candelabra,

furniture, or other objects featuring unclad classical

figures, which appeared so often during that period in

French decorative arts.55 Despite the implied preference

for American or English taste there is no evidence that

American diplomats brought American furnishings with them

beyond what was required on shipboard during this period.

Of all diplomatic sites, the geography of the

Netherlands made it ideal for the transmission of objects

and styles. The country's power and prosperity has been

linked to its level of international trade.56 Having

both many ports and many close neighbors, it is not

surprising that both John Adams and William Eustis as

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ministers to the Hague purchased items from other

countries. During the mid-eighteenth century, the

Netherlands experienced a period of strong English

influence in the decorative arts.57 Therefore the

significance of John Adams' inventory of 1782 listing

several English carpets, English drinking glasses and a

large service of Queen's Ware may be demonstrating Adams'

adherence to local fashion rather than deviating from it.

The French influence was seen in his residence with a set

of imported chairs and an extensive use of toile for

d r a p e r y .

The Papers of William Eustis (Minister to the

Netherlands, 1815-1818) are not as extensive as Adams'.

There are however, receipts and correspondence dealing

with his coach and cutlery purchased in London. The bill

of sale for his cutlery and an undated shopping list

indicates that he purchased: three dozen table knives, one

dozen two-pronged table forks, two dozen dessert knives

without forks, and two carving knives with forks, all with

white ivory handles. The heading of the bill of sale

states that "Eddwd stammers" was "Manufacturing Cutler

Wholesale, Retail and for Exportation."58 The reference

to exportation certainly suggests that English cutlery had

a solid demand outside England.59 By the 1770s in Great

Britain, merchandising was far enough advanced that

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. manufacturers sent out pattern cards to shopkeepers who

could then place orders.60

Eustis did make particular arrangements to import

a used English coach. George Jay wrote from London and

described the carriage in detail that he had purchased on

behalf of Eustis in August of 1815.

I have your favor of the 1st and have purchased a Carriage that I think will suit you. It is a fashionable, yellow-bodied, light Landeau, with stronger wheels than the Roads of this country require but very light in comparison with those used in France. . . . It is as the fashion requires, without Arms or other ornaments, and if it pass in equal condition, as at present, will require neither paint nor other repair for immediate use.61

Fashion and construction appear to have played equal roles

in the decision to buy this particular vehicle. The two

references to fashion in Jay's description imply that this

may have been an important consideration for Eustis. That

the coach was purchased used and probably at a

considerable discount should not be overlooked.

From the evidence mentioned above, London and

Paris were the primary centers of exportation for those

American diplomats buying objects outside of their

countries of residence in Europe. These shopping

preferences were not unique to Americans. As implied on

the cutler's bill of sale, exportation and importation of

goods between European countries was not uncommon.

England was the only supplier of cream wares (Queen's

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ware), and through Wedgwood's innovative marketing

strategies there was a high demand for these ceramics as

far away as Russia by the 1770s.62 France dominated the

high-style furniture market in the mid-eighteenth century

and exported pieces to numerous European courts.63

London and Paris were the largest cities in Europe during

the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries so it is not

surprising that frequent references were made to purchases

from these cities.64 That Adams, Jefferson, Eustis, and

King imported items from other European countries would

not have marked them as unusual in the societies with

which they were interacting.

In contrast to the diplomats residing in western

Europe, John Quincy Adams displayed a very different

buying pattern when living in Russia from 1809-1811. The

majority of items which did not originate in Russia were

acquired from the more eastern European cities. In 1810

he purchased a piano forte from Vienna and in 1812 two

different lots of porcelain from Berlin.65 During the

eighteenth century the courts of Russia were looking

towards France for style, importing Parisian silver, silks

and porcelain in addition to furniture. There was a

marked decline of imports from France after 1770 as the

Russian craftsmen gained experience and, together with

expatriate French cabinetmakers, began to satisfy the

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. market demands.66 The cost of shipping from a greater

distance was probably an important factor in his

purchasing decisions. He did however, purchase a Wedgwood

teapot while in St. Petersburg.67 On his way through

France in 1815 to England where he was to be Minister,

John Quincy Adams purchased silver spoons and forks from

Odiot in Paris.68 This silver purchase suggests a

preference for French silver or Odiot's workmanship since

he could just as easily have waited until he arrived in

London.69

Most of the diplomats being considered appear to

have been very conscious of the differences between

European and American societies. For the most part, they

took the attitude of 'when in Rome . . .'. Although many

of these diplomats used the occasion of furnishing their

embassies to obtain items for their permanent homes in the

America, at the same time some objects they were living

with were perceived as inappropriate for the United

States.

Gouverneur Morris was quite explicit on the

differences between English and French material culture in

the late eighteenth century, and clearly viewed most

French furniture as both more expensive and less

transferrable to America. In a letter written in 1792 to

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Thomas Pinckney, ambassador to Great Britain, he records

these sentiments:

In respect to Furniture there is no doubt but that rich and elegant Furniture can be had in this Town for much less than London, but plain and neat Furniture can be had rather cheaper and a great deal better with you. The Stile of living in the two Countries is so different that I have found myself as it were oblig'd to lay out a great Deal of money in Furniture which I should hardly know what to do with in America, Whereas you can in London get Articles which will answer well to take with you. -So much for general observation. But after that if you will let me know the size of your Rooms the number of windows and what you want I will exert myself to supply you as well and as cheap as may be-Another thing however to be considered is the Coal Smoke which ruins everything that cannot be wash'd and tarnishes Gilding- Chamber clocks are made much better here than elsewhere.70

Morris implies that the choice between English or French

styles goes beyond merely personal taste. That he

considered ornate furniture inappropriate for America

suggests that the choices made about objects both at home

and abroad involved considerably more than accessibility

and taste. Maintaining a sense of fashion was clearly

important to many of these diplomats. Morris implies

however, that standing out too much was not something to

be desired.

Uniquely American

The interaction of a young republican government

with the monarchical societies of Europe created problems

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. on both sides of the Atlantic. Not only did the American

diplomats lack titles, they lacked the great wealth that

supported the lifestyles of those with which they were

interacting. The first American ambassador to Great

Britain, John Adams (1785-1788), and his wife, felt

themselves to be the recipients of a great deal of British

animosity.71 This must have affected their perceptions

of their status and of how they wished their material

surroundings to be perceived. In 1785, Abigail Adams

requested Jefferson to buy her a plateaux and figures in

Paris for her dining table. Her reasons for requesting

certain figures are unclear but that she had a preference

among the numerous classical figures available is not

insignificant. Jefferson in his letter of reply, is quite

specific in the meanings he assigns to the figures.

I have also procured for you three plateaux de dessert with a silvered balustrade round them, and four figures of Biscuit. The former cost 192+, the latter 12+ each, making together 24 0 livres or 10. Louis. . . . With respect to the figures I could only find three of those you named, matched in size. These were Minerva, Diana, and Apollo. I was obliged to add a fourth, unguided by your choice. They offered me a fine Venus; but I thought it out of taste to have two at table at the same time. Paris and Helen were presented. I conceived it would be cruel to remove them from their peculiar shrine. When they shall pass the Atlantic, it will be to sing a requiem over our freedom & happiness. At length a fine Mars was offered, calm, bold, his fulchion not drawn, but ready to be drawn. This will do, thinks I, for the table of the American Minister in London, where those whom it may concern may look and

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. learn that though Wisdom is our guide, and the Song and Chase our supreme delight, yet we offer adoration to that tutelar god also who rocked the cradle of our birth, who has accepted our infant offerings, & has shewn himself the patron of our rights and avenger of our wrongs, the groupe was closed, and your party formed. Envy and malice will never be quiet.7*

Although much of this could be interpreted as intellectual

rhetoric, Jefferson was clearly expecting people to note

the attributes of the figures and piece together his

unspoken message. His letter suggests that the Adams'

residence was perceived as an American space rather than

English rooms occupied by Americans.

Classical iconography was present in the

decorative arts throughout Europe and America. The depth

of understanding of the symbolism could vary widely within

a group of individuals, depending on their education.

Displaying these figurines not only illustrated knowledge

of classical mythology but evidently cast political

overtones onto objects that by themselves expressed no

national identity in their iconography. There is little

significance placed on the plateaux being of French

manufacture, but rather their cultural importance occurred

once they were in the home of an American. There they

became conveyors of American culture and beliefs.

Although there is no evidence that any American diplomat

during this period was concerned with expressing identity

through objects of American manufacture, there was a

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. consciousness of national identity and its expression in

the material culture.

Keeping Costs Down

As previously mentioned, American ambassadors

faced a heavy personal financial burden in maintaining

their residences. Some of the diplomats considered here

reduced the financial strain slightly by purchasing

second-hand goods. This had a number of advantages

besides cost. Purchasing used items generally meant that

they were ready to use. For many diplomats time was an

important factor especially in a period that was dependent

on custom orders. In Gouverneur Morris' diary entry for

April 24, 1792 he records, "Call at cabinetmakers who

still puts off a trifle which should have been completed

long ago."73 By buying some used things they could set

up housekeeping that much faster. It is unclear if buying

used furniture could damage one's social image, implying

that the individual did not have the available resources

to buy new. Used furniture was certainly widely available

and could be acquired from different sources. In England

for example, used goods could be found at street markets

or from upholsterers who also rented furniture.74

Auctions were another source for second-hand items.75

Purchased items might need to be reupholstered or

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. repainted but the time factor was still less than placing

an order and waiting for the craftsman to complete it.

Large ticket items like William Eustis' coach previously

discussed could be had for much less than if purchased

new.

High-style furnishings became more affordable when

they were second-hand and slightly out of the current

fashion. John Adams' house in the Hague demonstrates this

admirably. The majority of surviving furnishings from

that house stylistically predate his residence there by

approximately twenty years. Yet they were well-made and

did not incorporate inferior materials.

John Quincy Adams resorted to renting furniture

either for reasons of time or perhaps a large social

gathering that required more extensive furnishings. He

also continued his father's practice and probably

incorporated used furniture and furnishings into his

embassies, primarily the one in St. Petersburg. On

December 31, 1800, when he was Minister to Prussia, he

recorded hiring furniture.76 Several other references in

his expense accounts list purchasing items at auction.

While that could refer to new items being auctioned off by

the craftsman for a variety of reasons such as the

commissioner's failure to take the piece, it is more

likely that these were estate sales or other types of

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. resale. In St. Petersburg on March 1 and June 16, 1810 he

purchased a total of 1016 rubles of furniture at auction

and again on June 24 a lustre (40 rubles) and five chests

of drawers(42.5 rubles each). On July 5 of that year he

again purchased furniture at auction, (87.9 rubles). The

majority of J.Q. Adams' furnishings continued to be

recycled as he recorded selling a large amount of it in

1815.77

Gouverneur Morris, having the unenviable position

of being present in Paris during the Terror, had access to

a series of nobles' estate sales and those surviving

aristocrats who were desperate to raise cash. It is

believed that he made purchases at some of these sales but

exactly what pieces and whether he used the items in his

residency or stored them for shipment to America or return

to their original owners is unknown.78 Morris ceased his

diary in 1793 because he believed it too dangerous to his

friends and acquaintances.79 It is known that in 1792 he

purchased items at the estate sale of the French

Ambassador to Great Britain in London: plated ware, two

orders of Cincinnatus and a steel watch chain.80 This

certainly suggests that Morris did not perceive any social

stigma attached to previously owned items.

When Abigail Adams purchased linens for Jefferson

she "took the precaution of having them made & marked to

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. secure them against the custom House,".81 If any of

these diplomats had actually been attempting to circumvent

duties and importation laws illegally, they were not so

unwise as to write it down. At least one diplomat of

unknown nationality found the temptation too great in

1790. On June 1 of that year the London Times reported:

"On Thursday last a seizure of lace, and other contraband

goods, to an immense amount, was made in the house of a

Foreign Ambassador, by Tankard, the Revenue Officer."82

The ambassador was probably from a country known for lace

and the other contraband goods. The incident hints at the

level of interest in certain products whether on the legal

or black market and suggests that Americans were not the

only diplomats with financial problems.

Richard Rush was one of the most verbose diplomats

identified for this period, even publishing his memoirs in

several different editions. His complaints, especially in

letters home to his mother, were particularly specific

grumblings and are therefore invaluable in understanding

the life of early American diplomats. He found social

conditions so different in London from what he expected

that he apparently felt it necessary to renege on some

earlier resolutions. In a letter home to his mother,

Julia Stockton Rush, on January 26, 1818, he explained the

social cachet of servants.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. It may surprise you to hear, after all my resolutions, that I have three man servants, all finely dressed up in clothes of my purchasing, about my house. They are the very fewest possible that I can have. The worst of it is, that they do not, with four women to help them, relieve ray wife from any of the labor, while they multiply all her anxiety of housekeeping.83

Clearly these servants are there for status, at least in

Rush's mind. That he felt that image was important enough

to pay for out of his own pocket says a great deal about

the importance of fitting in.

Understanding the significance of American

ambassadors' material purchases and their social

obligations can be difficult. The line between what was

unusual for an American, but perhaps more standard for a

European, and what was expected of an ambassador

representing America in Europe is sometimes blurry. That

American diplomats were faced with entertaining and

material requirements that exceeded those of most

Europeans is clearly defined in the matter of tables and

table linens in the written discussions between Abigail

Adams and Jefferson.

. . . Be assured sir that I felt myself Honored by your commands, tho I have only in part executed them. For I could not find at any store table cloths of the dimensions you directed, the width is as you wisht, but they assure me that four yds, three quarters are the largest size ever used here which will cover a table for 18 persons. To these cloths there are only 18 Napkins, & to the smaller size only twelve. I was the more ready to credit what

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. they said, knowing that I had been obliged to have a set of tables made on purpose for me in order to dine 16 or 18 persons. Their rooms in general are not calculated to hold more and it is only upon extraordinary occasions that you meet with that number at the tables here. The Marquis of Carmarthan who occasionally dines the Foreign Ministers, & has a House furnishd him by his Majesty, cannot entertain more than 15 at once, & upon their Majesties Birth Days, he is obliged to dine his company at his Fathers the Duke of Leedes.84

It is evident that the Adams' in London were entertaining

on a greater scale than most Englishmen, otherwise larger

linens would be more readily available, and on something

of an equal scale with English nobility. Unlike the

Marquis of Carmarthan, the Adams' had no close relatives

to assist them in their entertaining needs. Their

political position had social obligations and their lack

of local connections forced them to custom order items

that they quite clearly felt were necessary.

The size of his residence and the length of the

diplomat's stay were key factors in the amount of material

possessions he and his family managed to accumulate. It

is impossible to state with certainty whether those

diplomats who purchased little felt their surroundings

were adequate, or if those diplomats who made more

extensive acquisitions did so solely for their image as

diplomats. Status and image were not concepts restricted

to the European societies. So many of these early

American diplomats had important images, both in terms of

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. family and politics, to maintain in the United States.

Consequently, it becomes difficult to determine how many

of these purchases were deemed necessary for their

immediate diplomatic situation and how many things were

purchased because of the availability of goods but

intended primarily for their American homes.

Convenience, price, personal preference, and

fashion were all factors in purchasing decisions. In

broad terms, keeping the price down and the fashion level

high seems to have been important. It is more accurate to

say that all four factors contributed to the ambassadors'

decisions in varying amounts.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chapter IV

THOMAS JEFFERSON AND JOHN ADAMS

The political differences between John Adams and

Thomas Jefferson are well known. But, although the two

men held different political views and had different

visions for the United States, their lifestyles as

American ambassadors in major European cities had much in

common. Thomas Jefferson replaced Benjamin Franklin as

the American ambassador to France in 1785 and served until

1789. In Adams' first term as a diplomat he went to the

Netherlands (1780-1784) without his wife, so both he and

Jefferson were without wives to act as hostesses. In the

papers examined, the house inventory for John Adams and

the packing list for Jefferson are the best evidence of

the extensive furnishings required to support an

appropriate lifestyle for an American diplomat. Because

the two documents were executed within ten years of each

other, it is possible to compare the two establishments

and reach some useful conclusions on many different

levels. Comparisons of these documents in particular are

aided further by surviving objects at the Adams National

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Historic Site and at Monticello. The two European

residences were by no means identical, but there are some

significant similarities in the descriptions of

furnishings which can begin to establish a context for

viewing other embassies for which such extensive records

have not survived.

Although John Adams was appointed Minister to the

Hague by the U.S. Congress in 1780, he resided in

Amsterdam for two years before he was recognized as an

ambassador by the Dutch government. The official

recognition was given in 1782 and immediately Adams

removed from rented lodgings in Amsterdam to his new house

in the Hague.

John Adams is often portrayed as the

quintessential New England conservative. The image of his

surroundings that emerges from the inventories of his

residence in the Netherlands is very different.

Restrained European elegance best describes the textiles

and furniture of that house. The Hotel des Etats-Unis in

the Hague is often characterized as the first official

United States ambassadorial residence because it was

actually purchased with government funds. This was an

historical aberration since the building was no longer

standing by the early nineteenth century and the State

Department did not begin to acquire properties regularly

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. until the twentieth century.85 Since Adams presumably

was responsible for furnishing the house and brought many

of the items back to Massachusetts, his situation did not

differ greatly from that of other diplomats living in

unfurnished, rental properties.

The inventory that exists from Adams' Hague

embassy is in two parts, the first recorded by Mr.

Thaxter, his Secretary of Legation, in 1782 and the second

consisting of corrections and addendum by Mme. Dumas in

1784 (see Appendix). The first section possibly

represents the removal of items from Adams' residence in

Amsterdam to the house in the Hague.86 The exact purpose

for this inventory is unclear.87 In addition to having

close personal ties to the Adams family John Thaxter, was

John Adams' Secretary of Legation in the Netherlands.

Mme. Dumas served as Adams' housekeeper and resided in the

embassy with her husband, who worked for Adams, and their

daughter. John Thaxter in a letter to Abigail Adams

described the new domestic arrangements.

You will see by the Date of this, that We are removed from Amsterdam here into the Hotel des Etats-Unis. Madame Dumas takes exceeding good Care of the House and I hope will save much Expence. She is a great (Economist. Her daughter is a very pretty young Lady of about 16 or 17.88

Thaxter's inventory is concerned only with small, moveable

objects such as porcelain, bedding, and draperies, and

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. makes no mention of furniture. It may be that Adams'

rented Amsterdam residence was a furnished one and the

items that were moved to the Hague represented the extras

that he had purchased to augment the furnishings in the

previous house. Mme. Dumas' inventory includes large

amounts of furniture and paints a very detailed picture of

the furnishings room by room.89 The first three rooms on the Dumas portion of the

inventory are the antechamber, the grand salon and the

dining room. There are no real indications of the floor

plan but a logical method of conducting an inventory from

room to room and the inclusion of the antechamber suggests

that these rooms were in close proximity to each other and

probably on the first main living floor. The furniture of

the antechamber set the tone for the rest of the house:

16 chairs of green damask with their covers 2 armchairs dito with their covers 1 new Turkish carpet 2 drapes of grey toile 2 drapes of gauze with two rods of brass90

The chairs in the antechamber (see Fig. 1) are the only

ones mentioned with slipcovers, suggesting that this was a

less formal space where visibility of the damask was not

critical. Although slipcovers could be used in formal

spaces in order to cover worn upholstery, the repetition

of green damask in Adams' residence implies that the

upholstery was new. The chairs are of Dutch manufacture

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. inspired by the French Louis XVI style. The backs of the

chair frames were open with a single vertical support.

This required that additional fabric be used to upholster

both sides of the chair back. The antechamber is the most

likely space to have served as a waiting roomfor those

individuals who were not of a sufficient rank to be

directed into more restricted areas of the house.

The mostly highly ranked individuals would have

likely gained access to the Grand Salon, the most elegant

entertaining space both in its furnishings and its name.

The inventory lists:

1 large new Turkish carpet 2 large pieces dito added on to the large carpet at the corner of the chimney 1 settee and cushion of red damask 6 armchairs dito with their cushions of down 6 armchairs dito without cushions 4 drapes of damask with their two irons 8 [ ] with their cords 1 grand mirror with a gilt frame 1 marble table and its base91

Dumas describes what is essentially wall to wall

carpeting, a large turkish carpet with two large pieces

added to it to fit around the chimney. Fitted carpeting

on the floor appeared in other Dutch homes.92 The room

was furnished with imported second-hand, French furniture

stamped by Delauney (see Fig. 2) upholstered in red

damask, a richly colored, expensive textile.93 A settee,

six ladies' armchairs, and six regular armchairs made up

the set.94 The ladies' chairs were upholstered over the

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. rail without the cushioning. The fabric merely acted as a

support for the large, loose, down cushion which raised

the level of the seat considerably. These chairs and

settee were brought back to the United States and remain

in the house in Quincy, Massachusetts. The pieces are not

heavily ornamented; the carving is limited to small

bunches of two to three flowers on the crest and seat

rails and the knees and the serpentine curves of the

frame. The original finish of the wood is unknown. The

chair and settee forms and their decoration are among the

standard types of French seating furniture for the third

quarter of the eighteenth century.95

The dining room furnishings bear a marked

similarity to those of the antechamber;

2 Turkish carpets attached together 1 gilt round mirror 2 large drapes of grey toile 2 drapes of gauze with their brass rods 12 chairs of green trip 2 armchairs dito96

The dining room, which had not yet become a standard room

in the United States, was a designated space in the

inventory. Its use is ambiguous however, because of the

obvious lack of tables, desks or other furniture forms

besides chairs. The chairs were upholstered in a slightly

less luxurious textile than the Grand Salon; trip is a

wool pile velveteen.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 1 Five chairs most likely from the set of sixteen sidechairs and two armchairs in the Louis XV style, c.1755-70; probably made in the Netherlands. Walnut, 38 3/4" X 20" X 16 1/2" (Adams National Historic Site, photograph: author)

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 2 One of the six chairs 'without cushions' from the Grand Salon c.1760-75, originally upholstered in red damask. Upholstery and paint date to the early twentieth century. France J. Delauney Beech, 35 1/2" x 23" x 19 3/4" (Adams National Historic Site, photograph: author)

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Either the dining room or the antechamber probably

functioned as the waiting room for individuals seeking

Adams in his official duties. The lack of a dining table

does not indicate that this room was never used in that

capacity. There were several large tables, some with

removable leaves, in other rooms.97 Presumably, if the

occasion demanded the appropriate furniture was moved into

the dining room. These three rooms that appear first on

the inventory are also the most clearly differentiated by

the furniture they contain as public spaces.

The other major space where visitors were likely

to have gone was John Adams' bed chamber. It was either

an excessively large room by New England standards or was

actually a connecting suite of rooms if it were to have

even held even the large case pieces mentioned. The

furniture recorded in the rocm follows:

3 mahogany bureaux with three drawers each 1 mahogany secretary with a locked drawer 1 marquetry secretary with a drawer 1 mahogany cabinet with three drawers 2 small mahogany tables with a drawer each 1 very large mahogany table with a drawer and a green carpet cover 6 chairs of green trip with the backs of same 1 large mirror with a gilt frame 2 dressing mirrors with three drawers each 1 brown thing for washing with two drawers, a bowl and pitcher of yellow porcelain and a hand towel 2 mahogany tables containing 17 large boards and 12 small 1 mahogany ladder that opens98

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 3 The marquetry secretary from Adams' bedchamber the Hague. Made in France or the Netherlands in the French style of Louis XVI, c.1770-1780. Oak with various veneers including satinwood, rosewood, tulipwood and ebony. 58 3/4" x 21 1/2" x 41 1/16"99 (Adams National Historic Site, photograph: author)

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 4 The marquetry secretary closed. (Adams National Historic Site, photograph: author)

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 5 Detail of marquetry on side of secretary. (Adams National Historic Site, photograph: author)

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. It is interesting to note that Mme. Dumas did not have a

single word for a washstand. The descriptive entry for it

here was repeated for other bedrooms so presumably that

form was not part of her cultural world.

The marquetry secretary in the French style of

Louis XVI is a representative example of the style that

was current and fashionable at the time Adams was an

ambassador to the Netherlands. The Netherlands balance of

trade with France grew from 1750 tc 17C9 as the demand for

French goods increased.100 Because French fashions and

craftsmen were in such demand throughout Europe, and the

craftsmen in Amsterdam began to imitate French marquetry

by 1760 with considerable skill, it is impossible to state

the desk's origins with certainty.101

The room or suite of rooms did have a bed which

was the most richly dressed of any in the house. The

expense of the textiles used not only paid tribute to

Adams' status as the head of the household but may also

indicate that the room was more public than other bed

ch ambers.

1 mahogany camp bed furnished with green damask drapes and the headcloth of same [ ] with the ceiling trimmed in fringe 2 straw mattresses 1 mattress green and white 1 feather bed 1 bolster 1 cushion 2 sheets marked IA 10 1 canopy marked IA 3 3

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 wool cover embroidered at the four corners red and yellow 1 cotton pique cover white ground and red flowers 1 bed cover of green damask doubled in taffeta102

Like the salon, which was discussed earlier, there were "3

Turkish carpets attached together". The two windows had

drapes of grey toile although there is no mention of gauze

drapes and brass rods as there was for the

antechamber.103 This room is one of the few with any

description of paintings or ornament. Here, there were

three portraits of family members:

the portrait of J.E. Adams with a gilt frame the portrait of J.Q. Adams with a gilt frame the portrait of Mr. C. Adams with a gilt frame104

Many of the pieces that eventually made their way to

Massachusetts, such as the marquetry secretary, one of the

bureaus, and the salon set, are stylistically dated

earlier than the 1780's. This may indicate that much of

this furniture was purchased used. The furniture that

survives in Massachusetts is anything but drab or worn,

even after two centuries. The large Dutch bureau (see

Figs. 6-7) is an excellent example of the bombe form

popular in the Low Countries for most of the eighteenth

century. Although the scale and curves of the piece are

most typical of the 1770's, the growing influence of the

neoclassical can be seen in the ram's head carving on the

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. corners and the acanthus leaves that curve over the

knuckles of the ball and claw feet.105 Without a

detailed bill of sale or reference in accounts it is

impossible to definitively state that Adam's purchased

this as a second hand item as it stylistically dates to

within ten years of Adams' arrival.

It is unclear where Adams or his agents acquired

those pieces which were not made in the Netherlands. It

is conceivable that such items were recycled among the

diplomatic community living in the Netherlands or they may

have been brought in from their place of origin by agents

that specialized in international purchasing like those

employed by Morris and King. In Mme. Dumas' introduction

to the inventory she mentioned that she purchased many of

the items but it is unclear how many or where those items

were acquired.106

The room listed as Adams' bedchamber was clearly

functioning as Adams' office as well. And, judging by the

nu m b e r of tables, it may also have served as the informal

sitting room and dining area. The remaining principle

rooms in the house were bedrooms for John Quincy Adams,

Mr. Thaxter, and one room containing only a furnished bed

and a trunk.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 6 Bombe bureau from Adams' bedchamber in typical Dutch style c.1770-80. Mahogany and Oak, 37 3/4" x 73" x 25" (Adams National Historic Site, photograph: author)

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 cushion 2 sheets marked IA II i canopy marked IA 3 3 1 wool cover marked in the 4 corners red, black and green 1 dito of cotton pique white and red ground with flowers 1 coffer of black leather with a drawer

Chamber of Mr. J.Q. Adams 1 red flowered English carpet 1 round gilt mirror 1 dressing mirror with three drawers 1 mahogany bureau with four locked drawers 1 portrait of M. Washington with a gilt frame 1 small locked casket for writing 1 brown thing with two drawers for washing with a bowl and pitcher of yellow porcelain and a handtowel 1 complete grille 1 [balet] 1 tongs 1 brown oak table with two locked drawers with a desk above of green sheets also locked 1 complete secretary D'Etaing 6 chairs of red trip 3 locked coffers 1 small heartshaped box where I keep my seals, stamps 1 round painted table 1 armoire with the [Luives] 1 armoire 1 armoire with the clothes 1 upright mahogany bed 2 small straw mattresses 1 mattress green and white 1 feather bed 1 bolster 1 cushion 2 sheets marked IA 41 1 canopy marked IA 3 3 1 wool cover marked in the 4 corners yellow, black, green 1 cotton cover red ground and blue and white flowers 1 chamber pot of yellow porcelain 1 small silver candlestick that I gave to his Excellence Mr. Adams107

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Among the items particularly worth noting are the six

chairs in Thaxter's chamber which were upholstered in the

same material as those in Adams' chamber. Presumably all

of these chairs could be gathered together if an occasion

warranted. That the upholstery colors in the bedrooms

continue to echo those of the clearly public rooms seems

anything but accidental. Six additional chairs

upholstered in red trip were in J.Q. Adams' chamber along

with a portrait of Washington in a gilt frame. It would

be satisfying to be able to state the presence of

Washington's portrait was an early expression of American

patriotism and nationalism but the fact that it was hung

in J.Q. Adams' bedroom suggests that the reasons for its

presence were more personal. Both of these bedrooms had

English flowered carpets on the floor and there was no

mention of window hangings. The bed hangings are

described only in terms of their laundry markings,

indicating that they were not considered exceptional.108

The list of furnishings contains many identical

items that would not have been required to match from room

to room. That they do may indicate large bulk purchasing

and the necessity of completely furnishing a house

quickly. The three fully furnished bedchambers have

washbowls and chamber pots of yellow porcelain and all of

the beds in these rooms (five total) have a wool cover

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. embroidered in the four corners and a quilted cotton cover

with a flowered ground or backing.109 Only John Adams'

bed had the additional damask cover.

There is a notable lack of ornaments on furniture

surfaces or the walls throughout the house. This is one

of the clearest differences between the residences of

Adams and Jefferson. Although the Adams inventory

describes a small number of portraits in various rooms,

Jefferson's packing list records at least sixty-five

pictures, four white porcelain vases, a plaster vestal

virgin, a glass figurine, five porcelain figurines and a

figurine from the mantle of the salon.110 Differences in

personality, differences between Paris and the Hague, or

simply the matter of available time may all have been

factors that contributed to the sharp contrast between the

two houses. It is also unclear what built-in forms of

decoration may have existed in either home. Elements such

as wallpaper, decorative plaster work, or tiles could have

significantly contributed to the decorative impact of

Adams' residence without being mentioned on the inventory

since they would not have been moveable.

Thaxter's section of the inventory dealt

extensively with the glass and ceramics of the household.

Here, too, is a large variety of wares which are

suggestive of elegance and expensive taste. English

Reproduced with permission of the copyrightowner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Queen's Ware formed the largest and least expensive

service and may have been the everyday dishes.

Queen's Ware 3 Doz & 9 Queens Ware soop Plates- 9 wanting 8 doz et 3 dito flat plates- 12 wanting 6 great round dishes 3 dito round dishes 8 dito 2 dito oval 3 dito round and deep- 1 broken 2 dito round Je. 1 Turen and its plate 4 baskets with their plates for strawberries 5 butter boats 2 wanting 2 three cornered plates 3 [jous] bowls 2 [fait a coeur] 4 cal 14 little dessert plates -1 wanting 2 Trowels111

At this point a line drawn on the inventory separates this

group from a further listing of serving pieces but there

is no indication if these items are a continuation of the

Queen's Ware or if they are of miscellaneous materials.

There was also a full service of blue porcelain which

could have served a large number of people.

Porcelain Blue Service 4 great dishes deep 4 dito flat- 1 broken 8 dito flat 7 small 8 small dito 4 Degoutieres 4 Turens with their tops 47 soop plates 9 doz and 8 plates flat- 5 wanting 2 3 little deep plates 12 sallad plates 8 butter boats 8 salt sellers112

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The wealth of porcelain continued with two tea services.

One had a tea pot with saucer, canister, cream pot with

saucer, bowl with saucer, sugar pot with saucer, six

coffee cups, twelve tea cups and twelve saucers. The

other set contained a tea pot, cream pot, two sugar pots,

a bowl with saucer, twelve tea cups with saucers and

twelve coffee cups with saucers. A third tea set lists

only a tea pot, cream pot, bowl and twelve cups and

saucers with no mention of their material or

appearance.113 What the differences were between the

sets besides the number of pieces is unclear. Whether the

use of saucers for the larger objects was indicative of

style or use is impossible to determine. All three sets

could serve at least twelve people which is a respectable

crowd. The size of the tea sets may pertain to local

custom or to how they were sold by merchants. It is

interesting to note that there is only one punchbowl on

the inventory so it would appear that that was a less

important beverage.114

There is no indication of where the porcelain was

coming from or what sort of decoration it may have had

outside of the generic "blue" for the one service. The

notation regarding glass ware is equally ambiguous and

equally suggestive of elegance. Besides the variety of

drinking glasses, some of which are differentiated as

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. English or Rhenish, there were "chrstal" compotes with and

without covers.115

The inventory of the American Embassy at the Hague

lists an eclectic mixture of European furnishings. Some

of the furniture is French, some of Dutch manufacture but

in French or Italian styles, and some more reflective of

Dutch styles. It is likely that much of the furniture was

purchased used since the objects reflect at least two

different style periods. Buying second hand would have

cut down on the cost, the time factor for receiving the

goods and perhaps coincidentally presented a stylistically

conservative appearance.

Besides the Dutch and French objects, there were

English ceramics and English glassware listed with

porcelain and glass from other regions. Considering where

the Netherlands is located in relation to the major

industrial centers of Europe, it is really no surprise

that a variety of objects from different regions were

being imported. Rather than giving the impression of a

mismatched collection of second-hand goods the items

listed on the inventory suggest a range of furnishings

that blended into a cohesive whole.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 8 Marble top table in Italianate style but of unknown manufacture, probably Dutch or French. May possibly be the marble topped table listed in the Grand Salon. 34 1/2" X 29 1/2" X 68" (Adams National Historic Site, photograph: author)

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 9 Set of three Dutch porcelain cache-pots. These do not appear as an identifiable item on the inventory. They may have been listed under a generic term or have been purchased to bring back to America. (Adams National Historic Site, photograph: author)

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Although there is excellent documentation of the

furnishings of the house there is very little documentary

evidence for the official entertaining that may have taken

place there. This was due in part to the relatively short

period of time that Adams actually resided in the house.

John Adams also noted a difference in the local customs that

restricted entertaining.

The Foreign Ministers here all herd together, and keep no other Company, but at Court and with a few in this Way. - It is not from Choice but necessity. There is no Family, but Mr. Boreel that ever invites any of them to breakfast, dine or sup. Nor do any of the Members of the States General, the States of Holland, Bleiswick, Fagel any of the Lords of Admiralty, Gecommitteerde Raaden, Council of State, high Council of War, or any Body, ever invite Strangers or one Another. Hospitality and Sociability are no Characteristicks here.116

While this diary entry gives a partial explanation for the

lack of entries describing entertainments, it also

suggests the wide variety of foreign ambassadors that

Adams was socializing with. This passage also reveals one

of the primary differences between American diplomats and

private American citizens abroad. Adams was part of the

diplomatic community which included representatives from

many different nations. Understanding the protocol and

interaction of diplomats, both personally and

professionally, cannot have been easy for any member of

that first wave of American Ambassadors. As British

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. subjects, Americans had had no political rights to send or

receive diplomats so there was little or no prior

experience upon which these men might draw.

In a letter to Abigail Adams John Thaxter

described one formal entertainment that may have taken

place at the Hotel des Etats-Unis.

Your dearest Friend is much better in Health here than at Amsterdam. Dines to day with the Spanish Minister, a great friend-sups this Evening at Court, and tomorrow gives an Entertainment to the French Ambassador and some Members of the States General.117

This is the greatest level of detail related for the

entertainments Adams gave. Although it is not revealing

about the house and furnishings, it further supports

Adams' comment regarding the constant social interaction

of the foreign diplomatic community. The relatively

extensive documentation for the Hotel des Etats-Unis

provides a context for comparison when less information is

known about other embassies. When Adams' embassy

interiors are compared with those of Thomas Jefferson

there are several significant similarities that begin to

establish implied standards for American Embassies.

Jefferson's term as Minister to France is one of

the most widely recognized and revisited chapters in

diplomatic history. The furnishings of his embassy have

been less studied, in part due to the lack of

documentation and the near illegibility of the documents

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. that do exist. Outside of a handful of surviving objects

with provenances tying them to the embassy in France, the

major piece of documentation is a packing inventory of the

items shipped from France to the United States. Not

surprisingly, the itemized list is by box and not by the

rooms of the house. Furthermore, some care must be taken

in interpreting the packing list since it contained some

items that had not been in use in the embassy but were

intended for use in America.118 Also, some items are

known to have been sold in France and others may have been

left behind as well, giving an incomplete picture of the

Paris interiors.119

Jefferson did not feel it necessary to bring

everything back that he had purchased in Paris. At the

time of his return to the United States he had been under

the impression that he was returning to France.

Consequently, when he did not return to Paris all

arrangements for packing and shipping his belongings had

to be done by mail.120 In one letter to William Short,

who had served as his secretary and oversaw the removal of

Jefferson's things, he implied that the availability or

cost of replacement was the deciding factor in what was

s h i p p e d .

Flag and cane bottomed chairs not worth sending, nor tables of common wood. Probably there are other things, which I cannot recollect, and which are not worth sending. This I leave to be

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. decided by your knowledge of this country. The two great iron stoves, made at Paris, not worth sending here.121

'Knowledge of this country' is an ambiguous phrase at

best. In the context it was used it suggests merely cost

but it may also refer to the areas of taste and regional

style. That items such as the brass lock for Jefferson's

bedroom door, kitchen basins, and servants' aprons were

included in the eighty-six packing cases suggests that

very little was left behind.122 The brief descriptions

of the items being packed give tantalizing hints of the

richness and elegance of Jefferson's apartments.

His first year in Paris Jefferson lived in the

cul-de-sac Taitbout. He moved to the Hotel de Langeac in

1785 and remained there until he returned to the United

States in 1789. This house was relatively new, having been

begun around 17 68. Among its architectural decorations

was a ceiling painted by Berthelemy. Because of the

site's location at the intersections of the Champs-Elysees

and the Rue de Barry the house and some rooms were

trapezoidal in plan (see Fig. 10). Extensive gardens were

one of the advantages of living on the edge of town and it

was here that Jefferson introduced American culture in the

form of imported plants, rather than decorative arts in

the interior.123

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PLEASE NOTE

Materials in this document have not been filmed at the request of the author. They are available for consultation, however, in the author's university library.

Page 76

UMI

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. One of the clearest images to emerge from the

inventory is that of Jefferson as a well-educated and

scholarly individual. The first fifteen packing cases

contained books while tools for surveying and equipment

for scientific experiments were sprinkled through other

boxes.124 How much exposure these items would have had

to visitors is uncertain but it seems likely that in that

age of philosophical discussion and literary salons in

Paris that people would have been aware of them.

In the eighteenth century upholstered furniture

was an expression of status and expense because of the

significant cost of textiles. In inventories upholstery

is one of few areas in which color is mentioned. The

large amount of upholstered items in Jefferson's packing

list not only indicates the social status of his

furnishings but also gives some idea of the visual

appearance of the rooms. There is a notable decorative

scheme to Jefferson's residence when the upholstered

pieces of furniture are grouped together. A list of the

packed upholstered objects follows:

Case Item 18 6 large crimson armchairs 19 6 blue chairs 20 6 red morocco armchairs 21 4 large blue armchairs 6 large blue damask curtains 8 ? curtains of blue damask 22 6 chairs of D'Utrecht velvet 23 6 chairs of crimson D'Utrecht 24 2 large blue armchairs

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 crimson easy chairs with cushion 8 crimson cords and tassels 2 cushions for crimson settee 33 2 crimson armchairs 2 blue easy chairs with cushions 44 blue silk ottoman and cushion 45 red morocco ottoman and cushion 46 blue daybed and cushions 2 crimson armchairs125

When the color of upholstery was mentioned it was either

red or blue. When Jefferson's choice of upholsteries is

compared with Adams' some striking similarities emerge.

That John Adams had only three colors of textiles: red,

green, and grey while Jefferson had red and blue may be a

result of buying everything at once instead of over an

extended period of time when textile availability and

fashions could change. That both men had only two

upholstery colors also allowed them to combine furniture

to suit the specific need of the event while still having

everything match and thereby giving an impression of

extensive furnishings to visitors. All of these colors

appear to have been popular ones based on period paintings

of European interiors.126 Whether it was aesthetically

acceptable to mix red and blue or red and green in the

same room is unclear. The obvious division of color in

Jefferson's list with duplication of forms in each color

and the separation of red and green in Adams' room-

specific inventory suggests that they were kept separate.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Although the shipping boxes were not packed

according to the room of origin there are a few references

to objects belonging to the dining room, the salon and

Jefferson's bedroom. One of these is to nine pictures

from the dining room .127 Even if it was a large room,

this gives some indication of a room with well-decorated

walls. There are other hints that suggest that the

furnishings of Jefferson's embassy were not spartan and in

fact were keeping up with the current fashions. He had at

least one piece of furniture, a meridien, with decorative

brass mounts. There were four marble topped tables with

gilt borders on the marble as well as large mirrors in

gilt frames (see figs. 11-12 ) .128 The mirror frames are

constructed of thin, simple moldings that do not draw the

eye directly. The viewer's eye is allowed to focus on the

reflection. Jefferson also evidently had had the time,

money and interest to add strictly decorative touches such

as paintings and figurines. There are mentions of

figurines including a plaster vestal virgin with a

covering glass, figurines from the mantle of the salon as

well as figures for a dining table plateau (see Figs. 13-

14).129 Although the paintings mentioned previously are

the only ones that were mentioned in conjunction with a

specific room, many boxes contained pictures or groups of

paintings including ten large enough to be mentioned as

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. grand, fourteen of various sizes and a trunk containing

thirty pictures .130 There is further evidence that certain groups of

furniture were kept separate in the style of the French

chairs surviving at Monticello. The deceptively simple

set of arm chairs attributed to George Jacob (see Fig. 15)

anticipates the later Directoire style in the saber legs,

minimal carving and ornamental mounts. Seven of these

chairs survive at Monticello and have been linked with the

set of ten armchairs and two easy chairs upholstered in

c r i m s o n .131 When this design is compared with the more

typical Louis XVI armchairs (see Fig. 16) there is a

noticeably different aesthetic. These chairs of painted

beach were most likely among those upholstered in blue,

separated from the mahogany set by color as well as

s t y l e .132

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PLEASE NOTE

Materials in this document have not been filmed at the request of the author. They are available for consultation, however, in the author's university library.

Pages 81 -84

UMI

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The ceramics in the packing list are the best

indicators that Jefferson was prepared to entertain large

numbers of guests. Unfortunately they were not broken

down into distinctive sets or even described in

appearance.

Case Object 3 5 4 porcelain radish dishes 4 porcelain salt cellars 51 10 dozen porcelain plates 2 large porcelain soup tureens 52 2 mustard pots large porcelain platter 4 large oval platters 42 cups and 39 saucers 54 2 porcelain soup tureens and covers

With the exception of an earthenware teapot in case 3 5

there are no references to other services of earthenware

or stoneware .133 If he had them and they were left

behind because they were insignificant or inferior to what

he owned at Monticello is unclear. It doesn't seem likely

that his servants would be eating off of porcelain, and

there is evidence that it was customary for house servants

to eat at a public dining hall .134

Jefferson has developed an historic reputation as

a whole-hearted Francophile who was quick to adopt French

ways and things. The similarities between his residence

in Paris and Adams' in the Hague suggests that Jefferson

may not have been quite as deviant from 'American' culture

as is sometimes implied. Rather Adams and Jefferson, who

were resident in Europe during the same period, may have

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. been following the same set of unwritten rules. Both

maintained limited color schemes within the embassy,

possibly intentionally to allow for recombining rooms of

furniture or perhaps simply symptomatic of large

purchasing within a limited amount of time. Both men, in

terms of furniture and ceramics, were prepared to

entertain large numbers of people and in surroundings

that, while ornate, can be considered restrained compared

to other high-style European interiors.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PLEASE NOTE

Materials in this document have not been filmed at the request of the author. They are available for consultation, however, in the author's university library.

Pages 87-88

UMI

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chapter V CONCLUSION

The furnishings of the diplomats studied here were

all purchased in Europe. This is not too surprising

because America was importing large amounts of decorative

arts during this period. These diplomats did not however,

simply live abroad for period of time and then return to

their American homes as they had left them. Those

diplomats who purchased items demonstrated a tendency to

bring back many of those purchases to the United States.

The federal government would appear to have been

expecting that pattern. Ministers Plenipotentiaries were

allowed $2,250 for the costs of their return home. This,

like the outfit allowance, was probably not sufficient but

seems more than adequate for passage and personal baggage.

Richard Rush paid £205 sterling for passage for himself,

his wife and four children in 182 5 .135 That these

diplomatic families felt it was important enough to

further invest in these furnishings by shipping them home

suggests that this was either cheaper than buying a

comparable object in the United States or that such

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. objects were simply not available. Thomas Pinckney summed

all of these problems up in a letter to his sister Fanny

just prior to his return to America from London.

that I shall bring with me my furniture and carriage; by seeing them and some drawings of carriages which I mean also to bring out you will be able to choose such as may suit you & I will so arrange matters both with the Coach maker & upholsterer that what you may choose shall be got ready and sent to you without delay. I shall adopt the same plan reflecting the Piano Forte for the Girls, as your Bill is protested & the two months expenses I must suffer here without salary & the heavy expenses of the voyage will render it inconvenient for me to pay for another at this time .136

Despite the high costs of shipping, and living in Europe

while awaiting a ship home, Pinckney still felt the need

to bring his furniture and carriage back to the United

States. He, and probably other diplomats, also took the

opportunity to obtain sketches of European styles which

could then be used for placing orders in America.

Considerations of what got brought or sent home

continued to be a sensitive area into the nineteenth

century. The inadvisability of possessing more objects or

more stylish things than one's neighbors was delineated in

a letter among the Gallatin papers. Frances Gallatin

accompanied her parents to France when her father became

the ambassador. On July 13, 1822 she wrote to her brother

Albert who stayed in the United States on the family

properties in western Pennsylvania.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. . . . Mama speaks very seriously of sending you a new suit from Paris - I suppose however you should not wear them, for I understand you intend being a very popular character, and I do not know that a Parisian coat would be the best means of courting popularity.137

That a fashionable coat could cost a young man his

popularity in the local community makes a strong statement

about the significance of possessions. Such feelings may

well have entered into diplomats' decisions of what to

bring back with them. If the equation worked both ways it

may explain why individuals who maintained a plainer

lifestyle in America apparently felt it necessary to

imitate their more ornate European neighbors in their

embassies.

That diplomats like Adams and Jefferson felt

comfortable bringing European styles back to such

different communities as Quincy, Massachusetts and

Charlottesville, Virginia suggests that European furniture

and objects were both more common and more popular in

America than is often acknowledged. These imported

objects were mixed in with American furnishings in their

homes to present an overall eclectic combination of forms,

materials and styles.

The expense of coming home and the expense of

living in Europe was a universal theme among this group of

diplomats. The need to keep up appearances contributed

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. greatly to the immense expense of being a diplomat. It is

sometimes difficult to interpret whether complaints of

great expense are directly linked to ambassadorial duties

or whether these diplomats would have laid out the money

and complained if they had been private citizens going

abroad for other reasons. Certainly ambassadors had

entertaining and image responsibilities closely tied to

their careers.

The period 1778-1825 is only the first chapter in

the study of diplomatic furnishings. Although this was

the period when the State Department was established and

setting up the bureaucratic structures that would

influence latter generations, the customs and furnishings

of these early embassies bear little resemblance to those

of the late twentieth century. Further research in this

area in the later decades of the nineteenth and early

twentieth centuries would contribute greatly to what was

found in this study. Research into diplomatic furnishings

of other countries would also help define in what ways

American diplomats resembled or deviated from their

foreign counterparts.

Tremendous amounts of money, both federal and

private, went to furnish the embassies of early American

ambassadors. The willingness to spend the money indicates

the level of support and the recognition of the importance

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of maintaining a certain lifestyle in Europe. There is no

indication that there was anything obviously American in

any of these early residences. The priority for these

diplomats was to furnish their embassies with elegant

objects in order to make a visual statement of the

American character, thereby giving honor to Congress and

the American people they represented.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix INVENTORY 07 JOHN ADAMS' RESIDENCE IN THE HAGUE, 1782-1784

This inventory, written by John Thaxter and Marie

Dumas, is copied in its original spelling and language as

it appears in the Adams Papers of the Massachusetts

Historical Society. In the second half of the appendix

the inventory is repeated with the French words translated

to the best of my ability.

A true copy Inventory 14 may 1782 of the Inventory 16 oct 1782 made by Mr John Thaxter— 12 chafing Dishes ------30 Bocale goblets 2 broken ------4 salt sellers, ghrystal ------22 English wine Glasses flat-- 10wanting ------9 Dozen & 2 wine glasses small 14 gone ------4 Decanters ------11 dito flat ------2 3 wine glasses bought by Mad:dumas ------19 Rhenish glasses ------12 small Decanters bought byMad: Dumas ------2 Castors ------12 Liqueur Glasses bot by Mad: Dumas ------1 Lantern ------5 Beer Glasses this received in good order ------(was signed) Lotter

------8 yellow metal candlesticks ------4 Weights of Copper ------3 little Bells

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ------12 water plates ------1 pair scales ------3 wash Basons, Queens Ware ------6 Blue spitting pots

Queens Ware ------3 Doz & 9 queens waresoop Plates 9 wanting ------8 Doz et dito flat plates------12 w a nting ------6 Great round Dishes ------3 dito round Dishes ------2 dito ------2 dito oval ------3 dito round and Deep------1 broken ------2 dito round & ------1 Turen & its Plate

Queens Ware 4 panniers avec leur assiettes for strawberries 5 butter boats 2 wanting 2 Three cornered plates 3 jous coup 2 fait a coeur 4 cal 14 little dessert plates ------1 wanting 2 Trowels this Articles received in good order (was signed) Lotter

1 fairo soupe 3 Doz et 9 small Bowls ------5 wa n t i n g 5 Doz Plates for the Bowls------6 wa n t i n g 5 Bowls for chocolate 13 Sugar Pots 4 Doz and 8 large cups 5 Doz saucers and 2 -3 Doz and 8 ordinary Tea cups----- 11 wanting ~4 Doz and 4 saucers------2 wa n t i n g -10 Tea pots------3 little broken -5 mugs -6 cream Pots -2 Larger Sorts Pots a creme -9 pieds aux oeufs— Egg Pots -8 pepper Pots -5 salt sellers -4 mustard pots -1 coffee pot------broken -2 sallad Plates received this above articles in good Order (was signed), Lotter

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3) Porcelains Blue service ------4 great Dishes deep ------4 dito flat------1 broken ------8 dito flat ------7 small ------8 small dito ------4 Degoutieres ------4 Turens with their tops ------47 soop plates ------9 Doz and 8 plates flat------5 wanting ------23 little flat plates ------22 little deep plates ------12 sallad plates ------8 butter boats ------8 salt sellers the full content of this received in good order (was signed) T. Lotter

Porcelaine de saxe. ------1 Tea pot and its saucer ------1 tea canister ------1 cream pot with its saucer ------1 Bowl with its saucer ------1 sugar pot with its saucer ------6 coffee cups ------12 Tea cups ------12 saucers

another set of porcelaine 1 tea pot 1 cream pot 2 sugar pots ------12 tea cups ------12 saucers ------12 coffee cups ------12 saucers 1 Bowl with its saucer

1 tea pot 1 cream pot 1 bowl 12 cups 12 saucers

1 Punch Bowl this I have received in good order (was signed) Lotter

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4) Blue porcelaine

----- 1 tea pot with its saucer ----- 1 tea canister ----- 1 Bowl with its saucer ----- 1 sugar pot with its dito ----- 11 cups one broken ----- 8 saucers this Articles received in good order

2 oval affairs for wine glasses 2 round dito for Tea 6 plattes for Bottles ------17 dito for wine glasses ------16 Blac. this 5 articles received in good order (was signed) Lotter

Bought by Madam Dumas

------3 grand compots — chrystal ------6 dito avec leurs couvertes ------4 dito sans sans couverts ------2 Pots de moutarde avec Leurs cuilleres received this Articles in a good in a good order (was signed) T. Lotter

5) Mr A

1 Feather Bed Mr T

------3 Feather Beds ------2 Feather Beds chamber opposite ------1 little chamber ------1 good Feather ------2 for servants

Mr A 1 mattress 3 little chamber Mr T. 2---

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Bolsters ------1--- chamber ------3 little chamber Mr T.

Mr A. 1------2 servants

pillows 8 little chamber 2 Mr T 1 Mr A 4 servants

strawbeds Mr A 2 2 M r T 4 servants

Blankets — 1 Mr a — 5 little chamber — 1 little chamber — 3 Mr T

— 4 Jacob & john — 2 girls

coverlids — 1 chamber — 1 Mr A . — — 2 Mr T chamber — 1 little chamber — 1 girls + C. Alle the Bedding received as in the Lyst mentioned (was signed) T Lotter

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6) o2 Drapes 13 nappes fines 5 nappes pour la cuisine 59 serviettes fines dito 3 more 11 essuimains 3 petits dito 19 toits de lits 4 tablier pour LesDomestiques 34 grosse serviettes (au nest passur l'inventaire des Mr T Thaxter) 7 [tiugsin sCoopen] 6 white waiscoats and 3 pair of breeches Received all well (was signed) T. Lotter

7) Inventoires de tout ce qui appartient a son Excellence Monsieur Adams Ecuyer & & tant, ce que j'ai rue D'amsterdam que ce que j'ai acchette pour ordre de son Excellence Monsieur Adams. Come ausse ce que j'ai achette, qui effort absoluement necessaire dans son Hotel, plusieurs articles qui ne se rouveront point sur les inventoires de Monsieur Thaxter, come chaises, tables, tapis, de tout Espere miroirs. lits de camp et fournitures de plusieurs articles que effort necessaire pour 1 'usage du minage. Fait par moi Marie Dumas a la staie le 22e juin 1784

meubles De L'antichambre— 16 chaises de damas Verd avec leurs couvertures ------2 fauteuils dito avec leurs couvertures ------1 tapis neuf de turquie ------2 rideau de toile gris ------2 rideau de gaze avec deux barres de cuivre

Grand Salon-- 1 grand tapis neuf de turquie ------2 grand morceau dito ajoute au grand tapis au coin de la cheminee ------1 canape et coussin de damas rouge ------6 fauteuils dito avec leurs coussins de duvet ------6 fauteuils dito sans coussins ------4 rideau de damas avec leurs deux fers ------8 kwast avec leurs cordes

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ------1 grand miroir avec un quadre Dore ------1 table de marbre et son pied tout entier

Sale a Manger-2 tapis du turquie attache ensemble ------1 miroir rond dore ------2 grand rideau de toile grise ------2 rideau de gaze avec leurs deux barres de cuivre ------12 chaises vertes de trip ------2 fauteuils dito

8) Chambre en haut que Mr. Thaxter a occupes------1 grand tapis D'angletterre a fleurs rouge 2 Lit de camp de mahony monte ------1 miroir rond dore ------1 table de chaine brun avec deux tiroirs ------1 bureau de mahony avec trois tiroirs ------1 miroir de toilette avec trois tiroirs et une clef ------6 chaises de trip vertes avec le dos de meme ------1 chose brune avec deux tiroirs pour mettre L'eau et ce quil faut pour se laver avec un Essuimaine ------1 Ecuille jaune de porcelaine le Lit prepare 1 matelat bleu et blanc ------1 lit de plume ------1 traversin ------1 cousin 2 Draps marque I.A. 41 ------1 toits de lits marque I.A.33 ------1 couverte de laine brodee au 4 coins, rouge & jaune ------1 dito de coton piquee fond rouge a fleurs 2d Lit prepare 1 matelat bleu et blanc ------1 n t de plume ------1 traversin ------1 cousin ------1 Draps marque I.A. 41 ------1 Draps marque I.A. II ------1 toits de lits marque I.A. 33 ------1 couverte de laine brodee au 4 coins rouge & j aune ------1 dito de coton piquee fond rouge a fleur

100

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ------1 grille de fer ------1 pincette chambre du Balcon— 1 lit de camp de mahony monte ------1 matelat bleu et blanc ------1 lit de plume ------1 traversin ------1 cousin ------2 Draps marque I.A. II ------1 toits de lit marqueI.A. 3 3 ------1 couverte de laine marquee au 4 coins rouge, noir & verde ------1 dito de coton piquee fond blanc et rouge avec les fleurs ------1 coffre de cuir noir avec un tiroir

9) chambre de Mr. J.Q. Adams 1 tapis de d'angletterre a fleurs rouge ------1 miroir rond dore ------1 miroir de toilette avec troistiroirs ------1 bureau de mahony avec 4 tiroirs fermee ------1 Portrait de M. Washington avec un quadre dore ------1 petite cassette pour ecrire ferme ------1 chose brune avec deux tiroirs pour se laver avec une Ecuille et une cruche de porcelaine jaune et un Essuimains ------1 grille complette ------un balet ------une pincette ------1 table bois de chaine brun, avec deux tiroirs ferme avec un pupitre dessus de draps verd aussi ferme ------1 ecritoire complet D'Etaing ------6 chaisses de trip rouge ------3 coffres ferme ------1 petit coffret conde ou j'ai pose mon cachet ------1 table ronde peinte ------une armoire avec des Livres, et la liste auperes dont j'ai copie ------une armoire avec la liste de ce quelle [ven] ferme dont j'ai copie ------une armoire avec des habits ou il y a la liste dont j'ai copie ------1 Lit de mahony dresse ------2 petites paillasses ------1 matelat verd & blanc ------1 Lit de plume ------1 traversin

101

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ------1 cousin ------2 Draps marques I.A. 41 ------1 toits de lits marque I. A 33 ------1 couverte de laine marquee au 4 coins jaune noir & verd ------1 couverte de coton fond rouge, et fleur bleue et blanche ------1 pot de chambre de porcelaine jaune ------1 petit chandelliers d'argent que j'ai remis a son Excellence Monsieur Adams.

10) chambre de son Excellence Monsieur Adams 3 tapis de turquie attache Ensemble ------3 bureaux de mahony avec trois tiroirs chacun ------1 secretaire marquette avec un tiroir ferme ------1 cabinet de mahonny avec 3 tiroirs ------2 petites tables de mahonny avec un tiroir chacune ------1 table de mahony plus grande avec un tiroir et un tapis de draps verd ------1 grand miroir avec un quadre dore ------2 miroirs de toilette avec 3 tiroirs chacun ------Le Portrait de J. E. monsieur adams avec un quadre dore ------Le Portrait de monsieur J.Q. Adams avec un quadre dore ------Le Portrait de monsieur C Adams avec un quadre dore ------1 chose brune pour se laver avec deux tiroirs une Ecuille et une cruche jaune de porcelaine et un Essuimains ------2 tablas de mahony contenant 17 grandes planches et 12 petites ------1 Echelle de mahony qui s'ouvre ------1 boite a the de mahony avec 3 boites de cuivre ------1 boite a tabac de mahony ------1 boite pour les razoirs de mahony ------1 boite de fer blanc peinte ------1 coffre de cuir noir entourne de cloux ------6 chaise de trip vertes avec le dos de meme ------1 thermometre ------1 grille, 1 pincette, et un balet ------1 petite caisse blanche

102

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ------1 Epee d ' argent, et un badine garnee en argent ------1 fouet et deux chapeause ------1 lit de camp de mahony monte avec le rideau de damas Verd et le rabas de meme 10 kwast avec le ciel garne in frange. ------2 paillasse ------1 matelat verd et blanc ------1 lit de plume ------1 traversin ------1 cousin ------2 Oraps marques I. A. 10 ------1 toits de lit marques I. A. 33 ------1 couverte de laine brodee au 4 coins rouge & jaune ------1 couverte de coton piquee fond blanc et fleurs rouge ------1 couverture de lit de damas verd doublee en tafetas ------2 rideau de toile grise au finetres ------1 pot de chambre de porcelaine jaune All this Articles I have found so as they are cited here (was signed) J. Lotter

11) dans la chambre de Provision 2 Verres montes pour le dessert avec des fleurs ------4 dito sans fleurs ------2 bouteiteilles de [corniction] ------1 dito de capres ------1 bouteille Liqueur de marosquin ------1 dito a la fleur D'orange ------2 Lanternes pour durant la maison ------2 couvertes dito verd & Dore ------3 tapis D'angletterre ------1 petit morceau dito ------2 petit morceau de turquie ------2 chause pieds de fer ------1 rechaud dito ------1 panier de piper ------2 rideau de gaze verd [cousi] ensemble avec une barre de cuivre ------2 tapis rouge de table pour la chambre de S. Excellence

Vestibule------1 lanterne peinte en verd & dore avec une planche ------1 morceau de mahonny de la table de mahony ------1 tapis noir

103

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Sur les Clegres-3 tapis D'angletterre ------29 barres de cuivre pour les attacher ------58 cuillet de cuivreattache au Degre

dans Lallee----- 2 Banis Verds ------3 mattes

Received these articles in good order

12) Cuisine 1 pot pour Le Savon 3 0 formes de fer blanc 1 grande table avec deux tiroirs 1 chaudron de fer blanc pour boullir l'eau 1 table ronde avec un tiroir 1 chaudron de fer blanc pour monsieur pour prendre le the 2 grande caisse blanche 1 [vloot?] pour hacher les legumes 1 planche dito pour hacher les Legumes 1 grand poele avec son pied 6 tamis une perse avec trois tiroirs 1 boite de fer blanc peinte en rouge & fleurs jaune 1 pot de greve 1 serinque pour les fenitres 1 forme pour les Podings 6 batons pour prendre le linge 1 soufflet 2 lanternes pour les Domestiques 1 tourneau verd avec les bandes de fers 2 spitzes

dans la 2de chambre de Provission— 1 lit de camp ------1 coffre ou est le linge

chambre a cote-1 pupitre en drap verd, un escritoire, et une sonnette

chambre de la servante ------2 paillasse ------1 lit de plume ------1 traversin ------1 cousin ------2 Draps marque I. A 41 ------1 toits de lits marque I.A. 8 ------2 couvertes de lain marque au quatre coins

104

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ------1 couverte de coton fond rouge & fleurs blanche

Lit des domestiques 2 paillasse ------1 lit de plume ------1 traversin ------2 cousins ------2 Draps marques I.A 41 ------1 toits de lits marques I.A. 8 ------2 couvertes de laine marques au quatre coins received the same

Lit du Cuisinier ------1 lit de plume ------1 traversin ------1 cousin ------2 Draps marques I. A 41 ------1 toits de lits maurques I. A. 8 ------2 couvertes de laine received as stands here mentioned (was signed) T. Lotter

13)Inventoires de la batterie de cuisine, selon que je l'ai de Monsieur John Thaxter et come son Excellence Monsieur Adams, pourra tojours voir sur le compte du ferblantier que n tout Etainne la dite Batterie du cuisine selon L' accord que l'on avoit fait avec lui les comptes ont Ete Livres a son Excellence Monsieur Adams dans L'annee 1782

12 casseroles 12 couvertes ---2 rond d'une tartiere ---2 tartierres ---2 couvertes ---1 degoutiere profonde ---1 dito platte ---3 marmittes ---3 couvertes ---1 grande avec son couvertes ---1 placque ou l'on cuit le poisson dans le chaudron ---2 grand chaudron avec leurs deux couvertes _ 1 dito sans couverte ---2 Ecumoir de fer blanc ---1 chocolatiere ---1 cafetierre

105

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 Etouffoir avec deux couvertes 1 couverte de cuivre 1 chaudron pour L'eau 2 chaines 1 grille avec un trift 2 petites cuillieres D'Etaing 3 trepieds 3 blaakers de cuivre 1 dito de fer blanc 1 Lechefrite de cuivre 2 fers pour mettre devant le tourne broche 1 tournebroche avec son appareil 4 blakers peint 1 mantin a caffe 2 balance de cuivre le [ ] dito 1 1 rol plank et un [ ]uleau 2 fer pour la viandde au tournebroche 1 couteau pour hacher 1 pot de fer pour les cendres 1 secau pour aller au manche 2 Ba[ ] mahonny pour couvrir la table 7 cuillieres D'Etaing. All this articles found in good order (was signed) T. Lotter

14)

A true Copy of What is Wanting

1 green carpet of the table 1 oval affair for wine glasses 1 blue flat Dish broken 1 Wine glass of the 9 Dozen Wanting 2 Decanter of the 11 Wanting 2 Bowls of 3 Dozen 9 wanting 1 saucer of 5 Doz. and 2 wanting 3 cups of 3 Doz and 8 wanting 7 saucers of 4 Doz and 2 wanting 1 sugar pot of 13 wants 1 milk pot of 6 wants 1 mustard pot of the 4 wants 1 salt seller of 5 wants 1 Koffy pot of madame Dumas 2 little dessert plates of 13 wants 3 butter boats of 5 wants 1 round Dish of 8 wants 3 [ ] 2 plates of 7 Doz and 3 wanting amongst 3 Defect 10 soup plates of 3 Doz wants 1 saucer to the Bowl wants 1 saucer of the sugar pot wants

106

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 blue cups of 10 wants 1 round looking glass Je certifie moi marie Dumas, que ce que Monsieur Lotter a mentionne a dessus est vrai en foi de quoi je lui signe ceci pour lui servir pour sa justification louiquil levra vendre les [Yfets] , quil a declare parsa signature avoir recu de moi

Fait a la Staie Le 24 juin 1784 (ettoit signe) Marie Dumas

107

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. English Version Translated by author

A true copy Inventory 14 may 1782 of the Inventory 16 oct 1782 made by Mr John Thaxter— 12 chafing Dishes ------30 Bocale goblets 2 broken ------4 salt sellers, ghrystal ------22 English Wine Glasses flat 10 wanting ------9 Dozen & 2 wine glasses small 14 gone ------4 Decanters ------11 dito flat ------23 wine glasses bought by Mad: dumas ------19 Rhenish glasses ------12 small Decanters bought byMad: Dumas ------2 Castors ------12 Liqueur Glasses bot by Mad: Dumas ------1 Lantern ------5 Beer Glasses this received in good order (was signed) Lotter

------8 yellow metal candlesticks ------4 Weights of Copper ------3 little Bells ------12 water plates ------1 pair scales ------3 wash Basons, Queens Ware ------6 Blue spitting pots

Queens Ware 3 Doz & 9 queens ware soop Plates 9 wanting ------8 Doz et dito flat plates------12 wanting ------6 Great round Dishes 3 dito round Dishes ------2 dito ------2 dito oval ------3 dito round and Deep------■1 broken ------2 dito round & ------1 Turen & its Plate 2 ) Queens Ware ------4 baskets with their plates for strawberries ------5 butter boats 2 wanting ------2 Three cornered plates ------3 [ ] [ ]

108

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ------2 heart shaped ------4 cai ------14 little dessert plates------1 wanting ------2 Trowels this Articles received in good order ----- (was signed) Lotter

------1 [ ] soup ------3 Doz et 9 small Bowls ------5 wanting ------5 Doz Plates for the Bowls------6 wanting ------5 Bowls for chocolate ------13 Sugar Pots ------4 Doz and 8 large cups ------5 Doz saucers and 2 ------3 Doz and 8 ordinary Teacups 11 wanting ------4 Doz and 4 saucers------2 wanting ------10 Tea p o t s ------3 little broken ------5 mugs ------6 cream Pots ------2 Larger Sorts Pots a creme ------9 Egg Pots ------8 pepper Pots ------5 salt sellers ------4 mustard pots ------1 coffee pot------broken ------2 sallad Plates received this above articles in good Order (was signed), Lotter

3) Porcelains Blue service ------4 great Dishes deep ------4 dito flat------1 broken ------8 dito flat ------7 small ------8 small dito ------4 drip pans ------4 Turens with their tops ------47 soop plates ------9 Doz and 8 plates flat------5 wanting ------23 little flat plates ------22 little deep plates ------12 sallad plates ------8 butter boats ------8 salt sellers the full content of this received in good order (was signed) T. Lotter

Porcelaine de saxe. ------1 Tea pot and its saucer ------1 tea canister

109

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 cream pot with its saucer 1 Bowl with its saucer 1 sugar pot with its saucer 6 coffee cups 12 Tea cups 12 saucers

another set of porcelaine 1 tea pot 1 cream pot 2 sugar pots ----- 12 tea cups ----- 12 saucers ----- 12 coffee cups ----- 12 saucers 1 Bowl with its saucer

1 tea pot 1 cream pot 1 bowl 12 cups 12 saucers

1 Punch Bowl this I have received in good order (was signed) Lotter

Blue porcelaine

1 tea pot with its saucer 1 tea canister ----- 1 Bowl with its saucer 1 sugar pot with its dito ----- 11 cups one broken ----- 8 saucers this Articles received in good order

2 oval affairs for wine glasses 2 round dito for Tea 6 plattes for Bottles 17 dito for wine glasses ----- 16 Blac. this 5 articles received in good order (was signed) Lotter

Bought by Madam Dumas

------3 large compotes — chrystal ------6 dito with their covers

110

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ------4 dito without covers ------2 mustard pots with their spoons received this Articles in a good in a good order (was signed) T. Lotter

5) Mr A

1 Feather Bed Mr T

3 Feather Beds 2 Feather Beds chamber opposite 1 little chamber 1 good Feather 2 for servants

Mr A 1 mattress 3 little chamber Mr T. 2---

Bolsters ------1--- chamber ------3 little chamber Mr T. 2---- Mr A.

------2 servants

pillows 8 little chamber 2 Mr T 1 Mr A 4 servants

strawbeds Mr A 2

111

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ------2 Mr T ------4 servants

Blankets 1 M r a ------5 little chamber ------1 little chamber ------3 Mr T

------4 Jacob & john ------2 girls

coverlids ------1 chamber ------1 Mr A . — ------2 Mr T chamber ------1 little chamber ------1 girls + C. Alle the Bedding received as in the Lyst mentioned (was signed) T Lotter

6) ------52 Drapes ------13 fine tableclothes ------5 table clothes for the kitchen ------59 fine napkins dito3 more ------11 handtowels ------3 small dito ------19 bed canopies ------4 aprons for the servants ------34 large napkins ------7[ j c ] ------6 white waiscoats and 3 pair of breeches Received all well (was signed) T. Lotter

7) Inventory of all that belongs to his Excellency Mr. Adams, esquire & & Much of that I have [ ] rue D'Amsterdam that I bought by the order of his Excellence, Mr Adams. [ ] also that I bought that were absolutely necessary in his house. Several articles which are not found on the inventories of

112

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Mr. Thaxter, like chairs, tables, rugs, all of Espere mirrors, camp beds and supplies of many articles that were necessary for the use of the household. Made by roe Marie Dumas the 22nd June 1784

furniture of the antichamber— 16 side chairs of green damask with their covers ------2 armchairs dito with theircovers ------1 new turkish carpet ------2 curtains of grey toile ------2 curtains fo gauze with two bars of brass

Grand Salon 1 large new turkish carpet ------2 large pieces dito joined to large carpet at the corners of the chimney ------1 settee and cushion of red damask ------6 armchairs dito with their cushions of down

------6 armchairs dito without cushions ------4 curtains of damask with their two irons ------8 [ ] with their cords ------1 large mirror with a gilt frame ------1 marble table and its base all together

Dining Room 2 turkish carpets attached together ------1 round gilt mirror ------2 large curtains of grey toile ------2 curtains of gauze with their two bars of brass ------12 side chairs of green trip ------2 armchairs dito

8 ) high chamber occupied by Mr. Thaxter ------1 large red flowered English carpet 2 camp bed of mounted mahogany ------1 round gilt mirror ------1 brown oak table with two drawers ------1 mahogany bureau with three drawers ------1 dressing mirror with three drawers and a key ------6 side chairs of green trip with the backs of same ------1 brown thing with two drawers for putting water is used for washing with a handtowel ------1 yellow porcelain bowl

113

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1st bed prepared 1 blue and white mattress ------1 feather bed ------1 bolster ------1 cushion 2 sheets marked I.A. 4? ------1 bed canopy marked I.A. 3 3 1 wool cover embroidered at 4 corners red & yellow ------1 dito of cotton pique red flowered ground

2nd bed prepared 1 blue and white mattress ------1 feather bed ------1 bolster ------1 cushion ------1 sheet marked I.A. 41 ------1 sheet marked I.A. II ------1 bed canopy marked I.A. 3 3 ------1 wool cover embroidered at 4 corners red & yellow ------1 dito of cotton pique red flowered ground ------1 iron grille ------1 tongs

Balcony chamber — 1 camp bed of mounted mahogany ------1 blue and white mattress ------1 feather bed ------1 bolster ------1 cushion ------2 sheets marked I.A. II ------1 bed canopy marked I.A. 33 ------1 wool cover marked at 4 corners red, black and green ------1 dito of cotton pique white and red ground with flowers ------1 black leather coffer with a drawer

9) chamber of Mr. J.Q. Adams 1 red flowered English carpet ------1 round gilt mirror ------1 dressing mirror with three drawers ------1 mahogany bureau with 4 locked drawers ------1 Portrait of M. Washington with a gilt frame ------1 small writing case, locked ------1 brown thing with two drawers for washing with a bowl and pitcher of yellow porcelain and a handtowel

114

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. -1 grille complete •a [ ] ■tongs •1 brown oak table with two drawers with a desk above of green drapes also locked -1 complete secretary D'Etaing -6 side chairs of red trip -3 locked coffers -1 small heart shaped box where I keep my seals ■1 round painted table - an armoir with the book [cases] where the list is that I copied -an armoir with the list of what I have copied ■an armoir with the clothes where there is the list that I have copied -1 mahogany bed prepared -2 small pallates -1 green and white mattress -1 feather bed -1 bolster -1 cushion -2 sheets marked I.A. 41 -1 bed canopy marked I.A 3 3 -1 wool cover marked in 4 corners yellow, black & green -1 cotton cover red ground and blue and white flowers ■1 yellow porcelain chamber pots -1 small silver candelstick that I gave to his Excellency Hr. Adams

10) chamber of his Excellence M r Adams------3 turkish carpets attached together

3 mahogany bureaus with three drawers each ------1 marquettry secretary with a drawer ------1 mahogany cabinet with three drawers ------2 small mahogany tables with a drawer each ------1 very large mahogany table with a drawer and a green carpet cover ------1 large mirror with a gilt frame 2 dressing mirrors with 3 drawers each

115

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ------the Portrait of J. E. Mr. Adams with a gilt frame ------the Portrait de Mr. J.Q. Adams with a gilt frame ------the Portrait de Mr. C Adams with a gilt frame ------1 brown thing for washing with two drawers a bowl and pitcher of yellow porcelain and a handtowel ------2 mahogany table containing 17 large boards and 12 small ------1 ladder of mahogany that opens ------1 mahogany tea box with 3 copper boxes ------1 mahogany tabacco box ------1 mahogany box for razors ------1 painted tin box ------1 black leather coffer covered in nails ------6 side chairs of green trip with the backs of same ------1 thermometer ------1 grille, 1 tongs and a [ ] ------1 small white case ------1 silver Epee, and a scabard trimmed in silver ------1 whip and two hats ------1 camp bed of mounted mahogany with the curtains of green damask and the head cloth of same [ ] with the ceiling trimmed in fringe ------2 straw mattress ------1 green and white mattress ------1 feather bed ------1 bolster ------1 cushion ------2 sheets marked I.A. 10 ----—— ---- 1 bed canopy marked I. A. 33 ------1 wool cover embroidered at 4 corners red & yellow ------1 cover of cotton pique white ground with red flowers ------1 bed cover of green damask doubled in taffeta ------2 curtains of grey toile at the windows ------1 chamber pot of yellow porcelain All this Articles I have found so as they are cited here (was signed) T. Lotter

116

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 11) in the Provision room------2 glasses mounted for the dessert with flowers ------4 dito without flowers ------2 bottles of [ ] ------1 dito [ ] ------1 bottle of Liqueur de marosquin ------1 dito of orange flower ------2 Lanterns for throughout the house ------2 covers dito green and gilt ------3 English carpets ------1 small piece dito ------2 small pieces of turkish ------2 iron heater bases ------1 warmer dito ------1 basket of [ ] ------2 curtains of green gauze [ ] together with a bar of brass ------2 red table carpets for the chamber of his Excellence Vestibule------1 lantern painted in green and gilt with a board ------1 piece of mahogany for the mahogany table ------1 black carpet

on the stairs--- 3 English carpets ------29 brass bars for attaching ------58 brass clips attached to the stair

in the alley---- 2 [ ] green ------3 mats

Received these articles in good order

12) Kitchen------1 pot for the soap ------30 forms of tin ------1 large table with two drawers ------1 tin kettle for boiling water ------1 round table with a drawer ------1 tin kettle for monsieur to take tea ------2 large white cases ------1 [ ] for mincing vegatables ------1 board for mincing vegatables ------1 large stove with its base ------6 sieves ------a [ ] with three drawers

117

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ------1 box of painted tin with red and yellow flowers ------1 pot of [ ] ------1 [ ] for the windows ------1 form for the puddings ------6 sticks for taking the linen ------1 souffle 2 lanterns for the servants ------1 green cask with iron bands 2 spitzes

in the 2nd Provision room ------1 camp bed ------1 coffer where the linens are side chamber 1 desk with green [cover] a secretary and a bell servants chamber 2 straw mattresses ------1 feather bed ------1 bolster ------1 cushion 2 sheets marked I.A 41 ------1 bed canopy marked I.A. 8 2 wool covers marked in four corners ------1 cotton cover red ground and white flowers

servants ' bed 2 straw mattresses ------1 feather bed ------1 bolster 2 cushions 2 sheets marked I.A 41 ------— 1 bed canopy marked I.A. 8 2 wool covers marked in four corners

received the same Cook's bed ------1 feather bed ------1 bolster ------1 cushion 2 sheets marked I. A 41 ------1 bed canopy marked I. A. 8 received as 2 wool covers stands here mentioned (was signed) T. Lotter

13)Inventories of the kitchen utensils, according to that I have [ ] from Mr. John Thaxter and like his Excellence

118

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Mr. Adams, will be able to see on the count of tinware that all tin of the said kitchen utensils according to the agreement that was made with the counts made by him of books to his Excellence Mr. Adams in the year 17 82

12 casseroles 12 covers 2 rounds of pie pans 2 pie pans 2 covers 1 deep drip pan 1 dito plate 3 cooking pots 3 covers 1 large with its covers 1 placque for the fish inthe kettle 2 large kettles with their two covers 1 dito without cover 2 skimmer of tin 1 chocolate pot 1 coffee pot 1 steamer with two covers 1 cover of copper or brass 1 kettle for water 2 chains 1 grille with a [ ] 2 small spoons D'Etaing 3 tripods 3 [ ] of copper or brass 1 dito of tin 1 baster of copper 2 irons for the roasting spit 1 roasting spit with its apparatus 4 [ ] painted 1 [ ] for coffee 2 scales of brass or copper [ ] dito 1 [ ] and a [ ] 2 irons for the viands on the roasting spit 1 knife for mincing 1 iron pot for the cinders 1 [ ] 2 Ba[ ] mahogany for covering the table 7 spoons D'Etaing. All this articles found in good order (was signed) T. Lotter

14) A true Copy of What is Wanting

1 green carpet of the table

119

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 oval affair for wine glasses 1 blue flat Dish broken 1 Wine glass of the 9 Dozen Wanting 2 Decanter of the 11 Wanting 2 Bowls of 3 Dozen 9 wanting 1 saucer of 5 Doz. and 2 wanting 3 cups of 3 Doz and 8 wanting 7 saucers of 4 Doz and 2 wanting 1 sugar pot of 13 wants 1 milk pot of 6 wants 1 mustard pot of the 4 wants 1 salt seller of 5 wants 1 Koffy pot of madame Dumas 2 little dessert plates of 13 wants 3 butter boats of 5 wants 1 round Dish of 8 wants 3 [sic] 2 plates of 7 Doz and 3 wanting amongst 3 Defect 10 soup plates of 3 Doz wants 1 saucer to the Bowl wants 1 saucer of the sugar pot wants 2 blue cups of 10 wants 1 round looking glass I certify I, marie Dumas, that what Mr. Lotter mentioned above is true in faith of that I sign this for him to serve for his justification [ ] the [ ] that declared by his signature seen and accepted from me

the 24th June 1784 (was signed) Marie Dumas

120

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. NOTES

’George Philip Kraap, The English Language in America. vol. 1 (New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co. 1925), 328-350.

2Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities, rev. ed. (London: Verso, 1991), 7.

Richard Rush to Julia Stockton Rush, 14 July 1818, Rush Family Papers, Princeton University Library, (microfilm, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress).

4Benjamin Franklin to unstated recipient, 19 June 1785, copy in Thomas Jefferson Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.

5James Monroe, Message from the President upon the subject of the Furniture necessary for the Presidents House (Washington, DC: U.S. Government, 1818).

^he Travellers Club in London was open to all members of foreign diplomatic corps. see Richard Rush, Memoranda of a Residence at the Court of London (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 184 5).

7Jefferson did make structural changes to the Hotel de Langeac in Paris but at his own expense. William Howard Adams, ed., The Eve of Thomas Jefferson (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1976), 129.

®Franklin went to Paris in 1776 as part of a commission to negotiate a treaty with France. Because that position was strictly treaty related, I have chosen 1778, the year he was named the sole Minister to France, as the beginning for this study.

9George Washington and James Madison were the two exceptions.

121

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 10Curators at the Smithsonian Institution and the White House, two of the largest collections of politically related decorative arts, could not identify objects in those collections that are known to have been used by diplomats abroad.

11Antoine Cheneviere, Russian Furniture, the Golden Aae 1780-1840 (New York: the Vendome Press, 1988), 24.

12Laurence S. Kaplan, Entangling Alliances with None (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1987), 35-37.

13Dawson and Cafe, Auction Catalogue, 5 Aug. 182 3, Rush Family Papers, Princeton University Library (microfilm, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress).

uRanks and titles of diplomatic officials were established at the 1814 Congress of Vienna and the 1818 Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. John Findling, Dictionary of American Diplomatic History (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980), 104.

15,,The consul of the United-States is nominated by the president, by an with the advice and consent of the Senate. Age is not a qualification. Before he receives his commission from the president, he takes an oath of office, and gives a renewable bond, to the amount of two thousand dollars in which he is joined by two respectable merchants, for the faithful discharge of his duties according to law. This instrument of writing is deposited at the department of State." D.B. Warden, On the Origin. Nature. Progress and Influence of Consular Establishments (Paris: printed and sold by Smith, 1813), 1.

16see Findling, Dictionary of American Diplomacy.

17Meredith Martindale, "Benjamin Franklin's residence in France," Antigues. 112, no. 2 (1977): 262.

18Ibid. , 262-263.

19Beckles Wilson, American Ambassadors to France. 1777-1927 (London: John Murray, 1928), 11-12.

20Expense Account of Benjamin Franklin, copy in Thomas Jefferson Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Co n g r e s s .

122

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 21Thomas Jefferson to Abigail Adams, 21 June 1785, Adams Family Correspondence, vol. 6, edited by Richard Alan Ryerson (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1993), 180.

22Benjamin Franklin to unstated recipient, 19 June 1785, copy in Thomas Jefferson Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.

^Daniel A. Baugh, Aristocratic Government and Society in Eighteenth-Centurv England (New York: New Viewpoints, 1975), 106.

24Excerpt from Instructions of the Secretary of State 1817. included in Fifth Auditor's Accounts (pertaining to Richard Rush), National Archives and Record Service (microfilm, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress).

25Richard Rush maintained an office outside of his residence and the government reimbursed him for the rent. Ibid. 26Rush, Memoranda of a Residence at the Court of London. 204-5.

27 Arjen J. van den Berg, Third Secretary Press and Cultural Affairs, Royal Netherlands Embassy, 1995: personal communication. William Crawford to James Monroe, 5 Apr. 1816, copy in Gallatin Family Papers, New York Historical Society (microfilm, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress).

28Elbridge Gerry to his wife, 25 Nov. 1797, Russell W. Knight, ed., Elbridae Gerrv's Letterbook. Paris 1797- 1798 (Salem, MA: Essex Institute, 1966), 22-25.

^Edward S. Morgan, Inventing the People (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1988), 249-52.

30Accounts and Miscellany, Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society (microfilm, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress).

51Richard Rush, Residence at the Court of London. 251.

32Lou Taylor, Mourning Dress. A Costume and Social History (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1983), 107.

123

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 330rders for Mourning from Lord Chamberlain's Office, 19 Nov. and 8 Dec. 1818, Rush Family Papers, Princeton University Library (microfilm, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress).

^See Repository of arts, literature, commerce, manufacture, fashions and politics (London: R. Ackermann, 1809-1828).

35Richard Rush to William Crawford, 26 Dec. 1817, William Harris Crawford Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.

^Susan Stein, The Worlds of Thomas Jefferson at Monticello (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1993), 23.

37Accounts submitted by Franklin to Congress, 19 June 1785, copy in Thomas Jefferson Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.

“william Crawford Journal, 4 Aug. 1813, William Harris Crawford Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of C o ngress.

39Piarv and Autobiography of John Adams, vol. 3, edited by L.H. Butterfield (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1961), ix.

;0Accounts and Miscellany, Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society (microfilm, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress).

‘1Gouverneur Morris Diary, Gouverneur Morris Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.

42April and June, 1792, Ibid., Morris dated his diary with a running calendar in the left margin and often wrote summaries instead of individual entries making a specific date difficult to ascertain.

431782—84 Inventory, Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society (microfilm, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress). Hereafter referenced as 'Adams Inventory', see Appendix.

^Henry Adams, 2nd., The Adams Mansion. 2nd ed. (Quincy, MA: Adams Memorial Society, 1935), 31.

124

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 45There are references in the accounts to money and objects given to her. Accounts and Miscellany, Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society (microfilm, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress).

^Louise Conway Belden, The Festive Tradition: Table Decoration and Desserts in America. 1650-1900 (New York: W.W. Norton, 1983), 63.

47Thomas Jefferson to Abigail Adams, 25 Sep. 1785, Adams Family Correspondence, vol. 6, edited by Richard Alan Ryerson (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1993), 390-92.

^Ibid., 390-92. Abigail Adams to Thomas Jefferson, 11 Feb. 1786, 23 July 1786, 5 Dec. 1787, The Adams- Jefferson Letters vol. 1, edited by Lester J. Cappon (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959), 119-20, 145-46, 213.

w Gouverneur Morris to Thomas Pinckney, 5 Nov. 1792, Gouverneur Morris Letterbook, Gouverneur Morris Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.

50Gouverneur Morris to Thomas Pinckney, 29 Nov. 1792, Gouverneur Morris Letterbook, Gouverneur Morris Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.

51Robert Ernst, Rufus Kina American Federalist (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968), 220. 5226 Oct. 1783, Diarv and Autobiography of John Adams, vol. 3, edited by L.H. Butterfield, 148.

5326 Aug. 1813, William Crawford Diary, William Harris Crawford Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of C o n g r e s s .

54Elizabeth Bryding Adams, The Dwiaht and Lucille Beeson Wedcrwood Collection at the Birmingham Museum of Art (Birmingham, AL: Birmingham Museum of Art, 1992), 91.

55see Peter Thornton, Authentic Decor. The Domestic Interior 1620-1920 fNew York: Crescent Books, 1984). Jean-Marie Pingon and Olivier Gaube duGers, Odiot 1 'Orfevre (Paris: Sous Le Vent, 1990).

56C.B.A. Behrens, Society. Government and the Enliahtenment (Thames and Hudson, 1985), 117.

125

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 57Noel Riley, ed., World Furniture (New York: Mayflower Books, Inc., 1980), 90-91.

58Bill of Sale, William Eustis Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.

59Charles More, The Industrial Age. Economy and Society in Britain 1750-1985 (New York: Longman Inc., 1989), 30-31. “Hoh-Cheung Mui and Lorna H. Mui, Shops and Shopkeeping in Eiahteenth-Centurv England (Kingston, Ontario: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1989), 14.

61Aug. 1815, George Jay to William Eustis, William Eustis Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.

“ Bryding, The Dwight and Lucille Beeson Wedgwood Collection. 45. a See Pierre Verlet, French Furniture of the Eighteenth Century, trans. Penelope Hunter-Stiebel (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1991). and Cheneviere, Russian Furniture.

“ Baugh, Aristocratic Government and Society. 62.

^Accounts and Miscellany, Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society (microfilm, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress).

“ Cheneviere, Russian Furniture. 26.

67Accounts and Miscellany, Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society (microfilm, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress).

“ ibid.

69Ibid.

^Gouverneur Morris to Thomas Pinckney, 23 Aug. 1792, Gouverneur Morris Letterbook, Gouverneur Morris Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress. 71Beckles Wilson, American Ambassadors to England. 1785-1928 (London: John Murray, 1928), 1-19.

126

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ^Thomas Jefferson to Abigail Adams, 25 Sep. 1785, Adams Family Correspondence, vol. 6, edited by Richard Alan Ryerson, 390-91.

^24, Apr. 1792, Gouverneur Morris Diary, Gouverneur Morris Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.

74David Alexander, Retailing in England during the Industrial Revolution. (London: Athlone Press, 1970), 147, 157.

^For example, see Dawson and Cafe, Auction Catalogue, 5 Aug. 1823, Rush Family Papers, Princeton University Library (microfilm, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress).

76Accounts and Miscellany, Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society (microfilm, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress).

^Ibid.

^Louis Schreider III, "Gouverneur Morris: Connoisseur of French Art", Apollo. 93, no. 112 (1971): 481.

^5 Jan. 1793, Gouverneur Morris Diary, Gouverneur Morris Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.

80[29] Jan. 1792, Ibid.

81 Abigail Adams to Thomas Jefferson, 7, Oct. 178 5, Adams Family Correspondence, vol. 6, edited by Richard Alan Ryerson, 414.

^ London Times. 21 Jan. 1793.

^Richard Rush to Julia Stockton Rush, 26 Jan. 1818, Rush Family Papers, Princeton University Library (microfilm, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress).

^Abigail Adams to Thomas Jefferson, 7 Oct. 1785, Thomas Jefferson Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.

85There are no known images of the house or floorplan.

127

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ^Adams Family Correspondence, vol. 4, edited by L.H. Butterfield and Marc Friedlaender, (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1973), 324n.

87John Adams left the Hague in 1784. The Adams returned to the United States from England in 1788. Whether the objects from the Netherlands embassy were taken to France and then England or stored in the Hague is unclear. The object records at the Adams National Historic Site make reference to a packing inventory. The Adams Papers collection has no record for any other inventory for this period. Much of the Adams National Historic Site's information on these objects is based on family recollection and Paige Smith's two volume work John Adams (New York: Doubleday and Co. Inc., 1962). I was unable to reach many of his conclusions based on the evidence presented.

MJohn Thaxter to Abigail Adams, 27 July 1782, Adams Family Correspondence, vol. 4, edited by Butterfield and Friedlaender, 355.

89Adams I nventory.

^Ibid.

91Ibid.

92Family portrait showing interior of house, Leiden c.1775, Thornton, Authentic Decor, fig. 198.

^Delauney was a little known Parisian cabinetmaker who died in 1778. Verlet, French Furniture of the Eighteenth C e n t u r y . 83.

^Adams Inventory.

^See F. Lewis Hinckly, A Directory of Antique French Furniture 1735-1800 (New York: Crown Publishers, Inc. , 1967) .

^Adams Inventory.

97Ibid.

98Ibid.

128

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "According to the files of the Adams National Historic Site, Richard Randall examined the desk and found an inscription SCHLo-z or SCHE-ze in the upper case beneath the drawer. This has been identified as possibly Fidelis Schey, Paris (master 1777) but this cannot be solidly attributed to that craftsman. The style of the marquetry and of the furniture form is definitely French in inspiration but was copied very closely in the Low Countries.

100Charles Wilson and Geoffrey Parker, eds., An Introduction to the Sources of European Economic History 1500-1800 (Ithaca. NY: Cornell University Press, 1977), 94.

101Reinier Baarsen, De Amsterdamse Meubelloteriien (Amsterdam: Gemeentearchief Amsterdam, 1992), 87.

102Adams Inventory.

103Ibid.

,04Ibid.

105See W. Vogelsang, Hollandische Mobel und Raumkunst von 1650-1780 (Stuttgart: Verlag von Julius Hoffman).

106Adams Inventory.

107Ibid.

108Ibid.

109Ibid.

ii°1790 packing List, William Short Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress. Hereafter this document will be referenced as 'Packing List'.

111 Adams Inventory.

112Ibid.

113Ibid.

114Ibid.

115Ibid.

129

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 11614 Sep. 1782, Diarv and Autobiography of John Adams. vol. 3, edited by L.H. Butterfield, 8.

117John Thaxter to Abigail Adams, 3 Sep. 1782, Adams Family Correspondence, vol. 4, edited by Butterfield and Friedlaender, 375. An error occurred in the editing process of the Adams Papers. The word "point" was substituted for "friend" in the published work.

118Enclosure, Thomas Jefferson to William Short, 6 Apr. 1790, The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 16, edited by Julian P. Boyd (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961), 321-24.

m Ibid.

120Thomas Jefferson to William Short, 12 Mar. 1790, Ibid., 228-30. 121Thomas Jefferson to William Short, 6 Apr. 1790, Ibid., 321-24.

122Packing List.

123William Howard Adams, ed., The Eve of Thomas Jefferson. 170.

124Packing List.

125Ibid., Caisse 18 six grand fateuille 19 six chaisse bleus 2 0 six fateuille de maroqian rouje 21 quatre grand fateuille bleux six grand ridaux de damas bleux huit Moyeut [sic] rideaux de damat bleux 22 six chaisse de velour dutrecque 2 3 six chaize de velour dutrec cramoizy 24 deux grand fateuille bleux deux bergerre Cramoizy avec leur cousin huit cordout et glaud cramoizy deux coussin du canape cramoizy 3 3 deux fateuille cramoizy deux bergerre bleux et leur cousin 44 une otomanne de soij bleu et sou coussin 45 une otomanne de maroquie rouje et sou coussin 46 un lit de repotre et sou coussin de stoffe bleux deux fateuille cramoizy

130

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 126See Charles Saumarez-Smith, Eiahteenth-Centurv Decoration. Design and Domestic Interior in England (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1993). and Thornton, Authentic Decor.

127Packing List. Caisse 25 neuf tablaux de la Salle a Manger

128Ibid. , Caisse 47 quatre desses de marbre de table avec bordure doree 48 quatre glasses a parquet et bordure dore 56 un Meridien garuy la cuivre

129Ibid., Caisse 42 une caisse coutenant une avec vestalle de platre une caisse pour sou verre 55 la figure du Salon une caisse poure quatre figure de porcelain 56 une caisse pour une figure quis etait de le[ ] da Salone et talbot

130Ibid. , Caisse 26 quatre grand tableaux 27 six grand tableaux 49 quatorze tableaux de different grandeur 60 une malle coutenant trent tablaux

131Stein, The Worlds of Thomas Jefferson. 304.

132Ibid. , 302.

133Packing List, Caisse 35 quatre ravierre quatre Salierre de porceleine une theierre de terre 51 dix douzenne tassiette deporceleine deux grande soupieur de porceleine 52 deux cluche de moutarde un grand plat de porceleine quatre grand plat ovalle quarant deux tasse et trant neuf Sacoiyer de porceleine 54 deux caisse coutenant chaquine soupiere et leur couvecque de porceleine

131

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 134Thomas Jefferson to William Short, 12 Mar. 1790, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 16, edited by Boyd, 229

135Miscellaneous Account, 182 5, Rush Family Papers, Princeton University Library (microfilm, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress).

136Thomas Pinckney to sister Fanny, 1 Aug. 1796, Thomas Pinckney Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.

137Frances Gallatin to Albert Gallatin, 13 July 1822 Gallatin Family Papers, New York Historical Society (microfilm, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress).

132

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adams, William Howard, ed. The Eve of Thomas Jefferson. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1976.

Adams, Elizabeth Bryding. The Dwight and Lucille Beeson Wedawood Collection at the Birmingham Museum of Art. Birmingham, AL: Birmingham Museum of Art, 1992.

Adams, Henry, 2nd. The Adams Mansion. 2d ed. Quincy, MA: Adams Memorial Society, 193 5.

Alexander, David. Retailing in England during the Industrial Revolution. London: Athlone Press, 1970.

Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities, rev. ed. London: Verso, 1991.

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MICROFORM EDITIONS

The Adams Papers. Microfilm ed. Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society.

The Letters and Papers of Richard Rush. edited by Anthony Brescia. Microfilm ed. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources Inc., 1980.

London Times. Microfilm ed.

Microfilm Edition of the Papers of Albert Gallatin. Philadelphia: Rhistoric Publications, 1970.

MANUSCRIPT COLLECTIONS

William Harris Crawford Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.

William Eustis Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of C o ngress.

John Forsyth Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of C o ngress.

Thomas Jefferson Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.

Gouverneur Morris Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress. William Short Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of C o ngress.

Thomas Pinckney Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of C o ngress.

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