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REVIEW published: 08 July 2020 doi: 10.3389/fmars.2020.00541

Coral Reefs of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates: Analysis of Management Approaches in Light of International Best Practices and a Changing Climate

Haïfa Ben-Romdhane1*, Rima W. Jabado2,3, Edwin Mark Grandcourt2, Richard John Obrien Perry4, Ayesha Yousef Al Blooshi2,5, Prashanth Reddy Marpu6, Taha B. M. J. Ouarda7 and Hosni Ghedira1

1 Department of Civil Infrastructure and Environmental Engineering, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2 Terrestrial and Marine Biodiversity, Environment Agency, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 3 Gulf Elasmo Project, Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 4 Management Support Office, Environment Agency, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 5 Chairman’s Office, Department of Education and Knowledge, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 6 Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 7 Research Centre on Water, Earth, and the Edited by: Environment, National Institute of Scientific Research, Quebec City, QC, Canada Hajime Kayanne, The University of Tokyo, Japan Reviewed by: The coasts and islands that flank Abu Dhabi, the United Arab Emirates (UAE)’s largest Douglas Fenner, emirate, host the country’s most significant coastal and marine habitats including coral Independent Researcher, Pago Pago, American Samoa reefs. These reefs, although subject to a variety of pressures from urban and industrial David Andrew Feary, encroachment and climate change, exhibit the highest thresholds for coral bleaching MRAG Ltd., United Kingdom and mortality in the world. By reviewing and benchmarking global, regional and local *Correspondence: coral reef conservation efforts, this study highlights the ecological importance and Haïfa Ben-Romdhane [email protected] economic uniqueness of the UAE corals in light of the changing climate. The analysis provides a set of recommendations for coral reef management that includes an adapted Specialty section: This article was submitted to institutional framework bringing together stakeholders, scientists, and managers. These Coral Reef Research, recommendations are provided to guide coral reef conservation efforts regionally and in a section of the journal jurisdictions with comparable environmental challenges. Frontiers in Marine Science Received: 08 May 2019 Keywords: coral reefs, United Arab Emirates (UAE), Abu Dhabi, practices, management Accepted: 15 June 2020 Published: 08 July 2020 Citation: INTRODUCTION Ben-Romdhane H, Jabado RW, Grandcourt EM, Perry RJO, Coral reefs rank among the most productive and biologically diverse ecosystems on the planet, Al Blooshi AY, Marpu PR, supporting a quarter of all known marine species (Reaka-Kudla et al., 1996; van Oppen and Lough, Ouarda TBMJ and Ghedira H (2020) 2018; Woodhead et al., 2019). Occurring in over 100 countries and territories, including more Coral Reefs of Abu Dhabi, United than 80 developing countries (Spalding et al., 2001, 2017), coral reefs are also among the most Arab Emirates: Analysis economically valuable ecosystems (Barton, 1994; Pascal et al., 2016; Spalding et al., 2017; Spurgeon, of Management Approaches in Light of International Best Practices 2019). They contribute social, economic and environmental benefits to millions of people through and a Changing Climate. a range of services, such as the provision of livelihoods and food security through fisheries, revenue Front. Mar. Sci. 7:541. from tourism, as well as shoreline erosion prevention and protection from extreme weather events doi: 10.3389/fmars.2020.00541 (Moberg and Folke, 1999).

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However, due to numerous localized and global pressures, reef conservation efforts regionally and in jurisdictions with coral reefs are facing a rapid decline (Bellwood et al., 2004). comparable environmental challenges. Direct anthropogenic threats include over-exploitation, urban development and pollution; while indirect and acute threats include bleaching events, storms, predatory outbreaks and IMPORTANCE AND UNIQUENESS OF epizootics (Guinotte and Buddemeier, 2008; Maina et al., 2008; UAE CORALS IN LIGHT OF THE Anthony et al., 2015). The pressures are exacerbated (e.g., ocean CHANGING CLIMATE warming) or caused (e.g., ocean acidification) by increasing greenhouse gas concentrations resulting from the human The coasts and islands that flank Abu Dhabi, the UAE’s largest combustion of fossil fuels (Nyström et al., 2000). Recurring emirate, host the nation’s most significant coastal and marine coral bleaching in consonance with El Niño events in 1982–1983 habitats including coral reefs (Abed and Hellyer, 2001; Al-Cibahy (Glynn, 1984; Glynn and De Weerdt, 1991), 1997–1998 (Bruno et al., 2012). The UAE has coastlines along the Gulf of Oman et al., 2001; McClanahan, 2008), 2002–2003 (Liu et al., 2003), 2005 and the Arabian Gulf and ranks 38th in the world in terms (Wilkinson and Souter, 2008; Eakin et al., 2010), and 2010 (Kim of coral reef size (Spalding et al., 2001). It hosts large areas of et al., 2011) has resulted in widespread mortality of the world’s coral reef assemblages of approximately 1,190 km2, the majority corals. The latest 2015–2016 El Niño was the strongest on record of which are located within Abu Dhabi waters (Spalding et al., (NOAA-CRW, 2016) and caused, in line with continued human- 2001). The UAE’s local coral species diversity is among the driven climate change, massive coral bleaching in many regions richest in the Arabian Gulf, counting around 34 hard coral around the world (Normile, 2016). Some studies measuring the species (Riegl, 1999; Riegl and Purkis, 2012), although very low extent of coral bleaching in Australia’s iconic Great Barrier Reef in comparison to the Indian Ocean (ca. 300 species) (Gischler, (GBR) branded the reef’s problem as “extreme” claiming as much 2011) and the Indo-Pacific (ca. 670 species) (Veron, 2000). These as 81% bleaching of its northern sector (Baird and Hughes, UAE reefs are subject to pressures from urban and industrial 2016). The GBR is managed through extensive conservation encroachment such as dredging and oil exploration activities, as practices that are comprehensive and adaptive (McCook et al., well as climate change (Rezai et al., 2004). However, they also 2010). Despite the existence of sound management actions, GBR possess, along with a few other reefs such as the corals in adjacent corals were not exempt from being affected by extreme climatic back reef pools in Ofu Island, Samoa (Palumbi et al., 2014), events. Therefore, conservation plans should include strong and the highest thresholds of bleaching and mortality in the world timely actions to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions such (Riegl et al., 2012; Hume et al., 2015). as carbon dioxide (CO2) from the burning of fossil fuels (coal, Recently, corals that host Symbiodinium thermophilum, a oil and natural gas), agriculture and land clearing. Conservation thermo-tolerant microalgae, were found to be prevalent among plans should, also, integrate early-warning systems and rapid UAE coral reefs and were reported to be resistant to extremes assessments from the scientific community to reef managers as in salinity and sea-surface temperatures (SST) (Hume et al., part of a holistic approach on both local and regional scales. This 2013, 2015, 2016; Shuail et al., 2016; Ben-Romdhane et al., 2018, holistic approach should explore the key factors contributing to 2020). These studies highlight the potential of Abu Dhabi coral any extreme event and highlight the ensuing effects and response reefs to thrive at molecular, physiological, and ecological levels, operations in all the concerned and affected countries. even in these extreme conditions. Such findings about tolerance Only recently have a few local-regional management to environmental extremes and, given the high frequency of initiatives approached the topic of climatic disaster risk reduction disturbances, about adaptability, imply that the UAE, and Abu to facilitate the sharing by countries of their experiences and Dhabi corals in particular, are of considerable interest to scientists lessons identified and learned (Glantz, 2017). Scientists and and managers concerned with the status and sustainability of managers, jointly, need to define a set of priorities for reef coral in other regions of the world (Riegl and Purkis, 2012; Coles conservation and restoration, since coping with the impacts of and Riegl, 2013; D’angelo et al., 2015), especially in the face of extreme events, such as El Niños, is not the same as vulnerability growing anthropogenic pressure (Hoegh-Guldberg, 2011) and reduction, though actions on either could inform the other rapid climate change (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007). (Glantz, 2017). However, bringing scientists and managers together through an integrated ecosystem assessment process is often a complicated procedure (Rose and Parsons, 2015). CORAL REEF PROTECTION AND This study considers the example of coral in the United CONSERVATION: GLOBALLY AND Arab Emirates (UAE) and emphasizes their ecological and REGIONALLY economic uniqueness and importance in relation to rapid climate change. It also highlights the importance of coral While looking at the local setting, the global and regional reef monitoring, management and protection at the local and practices are reviewed. Due to the biological and economic global scales. Moreover, it reviews management approaches for significance of the reefs, it is important to address their protection the protection and sustainability of UAE corals in light of and conservation through efficient management practices. international practices; and makes recommendations to each Globally and regionally, several coordinated international actions of the parties involved in the institutional framework for have taken place such as environmental agreements and UAE coral reefs. These recommendations may also guide coral programs, as well as international partnerships and networks

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(Salvat et al., 2002). Global initiatives have been aimed at United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization the conservation and sustainability of the global coral reefs (UNESCO) targeted the marine and coastal environment and among other important habitats (e.g., seagrass beds) (Figure 1). covered coral reefs (Singh, 2010). Gjerden(2008) identified Examples of this include the Ramsar Convention signed in 1971 regulatory and governance gaps for most of these initiatives in (Matthews, 1993); the Convention on International Trade in the international regime for the conservation and sustainable use Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) which was of marine biodiversity. Identified regulatory gaps are substantive, enforced in 1975 (Cites-Secretariat, 1995); and the Convention and include the lack of effective compliance and enforcement on Biological Diversity (CBD) finalized in 1992 (Bell, 1992). mechanisms for human activities and measures. Also in 1992, the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Despite all these international efforts, there are still Development (CSD) was established to ensure effective follow- improvements to management that can take place, such as up of the United Nations Conference on Environment and close governance gaps. Identified governance gaps in the Development (UNCED), also known as the Earth Summit, international institutional framework include the absence of which took place in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (Summit, 1992). mechanisms to ensure coordination and cooperation within In 2000, a significant global initiative, the International Coral and across sectors, states and institutions. In 2005, the World Reef Action Network (ICRAN) was launched to respond to Heritage Centre’s Marine Programme was launched as part of the the challenges faced by the world’s coral reefs; the United UNESCO’s activities specifically to address the special needs and Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the UNEP World importance of marine areas (Singh, 2010). Forty-seven World Conservation Monitoring Centre joined with other partners to Heritage sites were inscribed on the World Heritage list, with take actions to reverse the decline in coral reefs (UNEP, 2004). coral reefs being well represented among them (Abdulla et al., Some activities conducted by specialized agencies such as the 2013). In 2010, as part of the International Coral Reef Initiative

FIGURE 1 | The global coverage of marine protected areas in 2019. GIS data credit: UNEP-WCMC and IUCN(2019). Protected Planet: The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) [On-Line], May 2019, Cambridge, United Kingdom: UNEP-WCMC. GIS data are available at www.protectedplanet.net. In 2000, the area covered by MPAs was approximately 2 million km2 (or 0.7% of the Ocean), since then there has been over a 10-fold increase in MPA coverage with 23 million km2 (or 7.59%) of the ocean being covered by MPAs (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN, 2019).

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(ICRI)’s resolutions, the UNGA adopted resolution 65/150 on education, capacity building and knowledge transfer toward the “Protection of coral reefs for sustainable livelihoods and the conservation and sustainable management of coral reefs. It development” at its 65th session (UNGA, 2011). The resolution also encourages integrated, ecosystem-based and comprehensive urged states to take all practical steps at various levels to approaches including partnerships with industry. protect coral reefs and related ecosystems to ensure sustainable Regionally, the UAE is a member state of the Regional livelihoods and development. Its main recommendations Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment included immediate and concerted global, regional and local (ROPME), and also acts as the Secretariat for the Kuwait actions to respond to the challenges faced by coral reefs, such as Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine climate change and ocean acidification. In addition, the General Environment and Coastal Areas, the underlying legal instrument Assembly appealed to states to formulate, adopt and implement binding each member state to coordinate activities toward integrated and comprehensive approaches for the management the protection of their shared marine environment within the of coral reefs and related ecosystems (UNGA, 2011). Moreover, Arabian Gulf (Linden et al., 1990; Van Lavieren and Klaus, 2010 was declared the International Year of Biodiversity by 2013)(Figure 2). While ROPME provides essential regional the CBD Secretariat. In addition, a protocol was adopted by framework legislation, local enforcement capacity and strategic countries meeting during the CBD 10th Conference of Parties environmental planning are required within member nations. (COP-10) in 2010 to represent a supplementary agreement. COP- Conservation and management of coral reefs at the country 10 came up with two sets of resolutions; the Nagoya Protocol on level are crucial even with the existence of regional or global Genetic Resources and the Aichi Targets for biodiversity. During initiatives. In fact, the absence of protective measures, ranging COP-10, parties agreed that previous biodiversity protection from conventional wisdom and practices to policies and laws, targets had not been achieved, and new plans and targets were has had dramatic repercussions on coral reefs in several places set. A short-term plan, officially known as the “Strategic Plan for around the world, such as the South China Sea, where land Biodiversity 2011–2020,” represented a 10-year framework for reclamation for construction of artificial islands by dredging action by all countries to save biodiversity and provided a set of reefs for materials to make concrete and dredging to collect twenty ambitious yet achievable targets, collectively known as giant clam shells for carving, have led to the disappearance of the Aichi Targets. Aichi biodiversity target 10 was for coral reefs the coral reef ecosystem (Madin, 2015; Watkins, 2015; Mora and closely associated ecosystems. To achieve Aichi target 10, et al., 2016; Lyons et al., 2018). Well-designed conservation the concerned parties should develop national coral reef action and management plans of coastal and marine environments strategies, or similar policies, strategies, plans or programs, require efficient monitoring systems that include mapping to consolidate existing national initiatives as platforms to the extent and location of significant habitats. These plans mobilize inter-agency and cross-sectoral partnerships. They were also require a nuanced understanding of the status of these also advised to develop close coordination among national and habitats and their trends over time (Garza-Pérez et al., 2004; subnational governments and indigenous and local communities, Green et al., 2005; Hayes et al., 2019). However, even when with national strategies complemented by regional strategies plans and systems are implemented to assess and monitor the to address common stressors. Leadley et al.(2014) provided a understanding and knowledge about these environments, the mid-term assessment of progress toward the implementation challenges quite often are poor inter-institutional coordination of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 and the Aichi and lack of political will to make difficult and unpopular decisions Biodiversity Targets. Their technical study concluded that there (Gerhardinger et al., 2011; Sanders et al., 2013; Beyer et al., are many uncertainties in projecting the future biodiversity and 2018; Williams et al., 2019). Often, government policies and functioning of coral reefs under this plan. The uncertainties expenditures rely on public support. Public support requires described were at many levels in regard to the level of stress public awareness of the problems, public trust (co-existing with experienced by reefs and the response of reefs and organisms the lack of corruption), and public realizations of the effectiveness to a changing environment. Uncertainties arose due to the of environmental policy instruments (Wingqvist et al., 2012; long-term nature of the forecast window of many physiological Kulin and Johansson Sevä, 2019). studies of climate change response use treatments that simulate These political, economic, social and environmental environments (far into the future), rendering the response of challenges, often, have substantial implications for climatic animals and plants to conditions expected in 2020 and 2050 change (Hedberg, 2018). The scientific evidence for climate difficult to evaluate. Uncertainties also arose due to habitat change is intelligible (Zheng et al., 2019). The correlation complexity and unpredictable shifts in coral species composition. between high SSTs and global bleaching is well supported by To enhance those actions taken and to ensure the long evidence (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007; Thompson and Van term sustainability of such actions, the need for education and Woesik, 2009; Pandolfi et al., 2011; IPCC, 2013; Hughes et al., capacity building has been recognized. In 2016, Resolution 2/12 2018; Sully et al., 2019) and the correlation between climate on sustainable coral reefs management (EA/2/12) was adopted at change and SSTs is well established (Sabin and Pisias, 1996; the second session of the United Nations Environment Assembly Nurhati et al., 2011; Dutheil et al., 2019; Lee and Park, 2019; (UNEA-2). The resolution provides direction for coral reef Hand et al., 2020). The control variable that precedes the climate policy and management in the context of the 2030 development change and rises in SSTs in a causal sequence is the global agenda and has implications for UNEP’s coral reef work (UNEP, emissions and the rise of CO2. Global emitters need to reduce 2016). Amongst others, the resolution recognizes the role of and stop the growth of greenhouse gas emissions, mainly from

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FIGURE 2 | The regional coverage of marine protected areas in 2019. GIS data credit: UNEP-WCMC and IUCN (2019). Protected Planet: The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) [On-Line], May 2019, Cambridge, United Kingdom: UNEP-WCMC. GIS data are available at www.protectedplanet.net. The region is known to be under exponential stress due to the high concentration of fossil fuel-related activities; large numbers of offshore installations; tanker loading terminals and exceptionally high oil tanker traffic. Additional over-arching issues facing the region: the introduction of pollutants, physical alteration and destruction of habitats, invasive species and over-exploitation of marine resources (Habib-Mintz, 2009).

burning fossil fuels. Political will, initially, and then enforcement between the first oil exploration and the 1990s are few, such as capabilities are key once plans are developed and Marine the use of corals in vernacular architecture and masonry mix Protected Areas (MPA)s are established. along with limestone, sea stone, mud and mortar derived from seashells stone (Hawker, 2008; Rashdan and Mhatre, 2019). The earliest initiatives on record to monitor, assumably to ultimately REVIEW OF INITIATIVES AND POLICIES protect and restore, reefs date to the early 1990s. The Dubai ON UAE CORALS Municipality has maintained a coral reef monitoring program in the Jebel Ali Marine Sanctuary (24◦5502200N, 54◦550100E) The history of initiatives and policies, such as surveys around since 1995 (Riegl, 2002). Study sites were situated between the reefs of UAE, helped providing an excellent understanding Jebel Ali port and Ras Hasyan and were studied annually and basis for detecting and monitoring change, e.g., bleaching between 1995 and 2002; however, not all sites were repeatedly events as well as preparation of management plans, e.g., visited. These surveys enabled the assessment of the two major protected areas, regulations, etc. Prior to the 1960s in the UAE, bleaching events described above (1996 and 1998 episodes) in before oil exploration and related activities (Butt, 2001), it is addition to the 2002 bleaching episodes (Riegl, 2002). Maps believed that the impact of local communities activities on coral have been produced for management and monitoring purposes, reefs (primarily traditional fishing and pearling) was, relatively, and mortality patterns were mainly attributed to oceanographic not acute due to limited population and low consumption. conditions: temperature extremes, wind, water column mixing Information on activities related to coral reefs during the period and depth (Riegl, 2003). Three very large land reclamation

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projects had begun in UAE in 2001: Palm Island; Palm II; and impacts of the repetitive temperature anomalies: (1) the massive the World Island. Rezai et al.(2004) described the impact of reduction in live coral cover and (2) a modification to the the Palm II, being built over the Jebal Ali Marine Sanctuary, species composition with dramatic reductions in the abundance the Palm and the World Island to have been particularly of the framework building but less resilient branching corals destructive to the coastal environment in the presence of minimal (Family: Acroporidae). The common conclusion among all of environmental management attempted to mitigate the negative these initiatives targeting the conservation, management and impacts. Rezai et al.(2004) also reported the release of large sustainability of coral ecosystems is that despite the marked volumes of suspended sediments into the coastal environment thermal anomalies of 1996, 1998, 2002, and 2010; and the following the maintenance dredging and expansion of Jebal Ali associated coral mass mortality and overall depressed coral Port. Management of the sanctuary has, then, been provided biodiversity; the reefs were not entirely dead and showed active to the Palm Island Development Corporation (Rezai et al., signs of regeneration. Accordingly, appropriate and effective 2004). Burt et al.(2008), later, stated that these projects had action plans are required. the effect of creating artificial reefs that should not, however, Moreover, as part of Abu Dhabi’s national commitment be considered as substitutes for natural hard-bottom habitats in to the conservation of natural resources, ecosystems, wildlife Dubai. In 1996, the Natural History Museum (NHM) in London, and habitats; specific locations and habitats have, as of 2012, United Kingdom, carried out a marine biotope monitoring been designated by EAD as MPAs and account for an area program in select areas of Abu Dhabi sponsored by the Abu of over 6,500 km2. Six main protected areas support some Dhabi National Oil Company Onshore (ADNOC Onshore) of the most important marine habitats and significant species (George and John, 1999). The 5-year survey studied the intertidal populations in Abu Dhabi. These include: the Marawah UNESCO and subtidal biotopes and covered the two major bleaching Marine Biosphere Reserve, Al Yasat MPA, Bul Syayeef MPA, events of 1996 and 1998 which were associated with prolonged Saadiyat Marine National Park, Ras Ghanada MPA and Mangrove positive seawater temperature anomalies (George and John, Marine National Park (Al-Dhaheri et al., 2017). The Eastern 1999; Riegl, 2002). The early 2000s witnessed more research Mangrove Lagoon National Park is the first of five national parks initiatives and conservation action plans, especially after the identified for establishment in Abu Dhabi Plan 2030 (DPM, establishment of the Environment Agency – Abu Dhabi (EAD) 2007). These protected areas recognize, and balance, the needs as an independent juridical entity (Soorae, 2010). The Marine of local communities with the requirements of conservation Biodiversity Division of EAD conducted a survey of the marine (Hornby, 2012; Figure 3). area between the islands of Abu Al Abyad and Bu Tinah off the The above initiatives were launched in the UAE by institutions coast of Abu Dhabi in 2000 (EAD, 2013). The objectives of the that have mandates for coral reef conservation. These include synoptic field survey were to identify critical habitats of high federal governmental institutions such as the Ministry of Climate conservation value. The survey was not specifically dedicated to Change and Environment (MOCCAE); local authorities such as coral monitoring; rather, it recorded habitat types and provided EAD, Abu Dhabi Municipality and Dubai Municipality; non- additional data of relevance to reef monitoring that included governmental organizations such as Emirates Nature-WWF; oil pollution and overexploitation pressures on habitats. Another and gas companies such as Abu Dhabi National Oil Company significant initiative was the declaration of the Marawah MPA (ADNOC); and universities such as Khalifa University of Science in 2001 (Van Lavieren and Klaus, 2013), and its management and Technology, New York University - Abu Dhabi, and United by EAD (Rezai et al., 2004). Subsequently, a significant project Arab Emirates University. Finally, this institutional framework was the synoptic survey of the Marawah MPA that revealed also includes regional institutions such as ROPME and the Gulf the characterization of corals, in terms of distribution and Cooperation Council. species composition, over a larger area off the coast of Abu The initiatives launched by these institutions were supported Dhabi. The survey was implemented to ascertain areas of high and enforced by conservation and management policies, federal conservation value as part of the initial effort to designate the laws, local laws, Emiri decrees, and international conventions. MPA (Al-Cibahy et al., 2009). Table 1 summaries these policies. Policies and legislations can More recently, in 2005, the Coral Reef Investigation in the be downloaded from the MOCCAE’s website at https://www. Emirate of Abu Dhabi and the Eastern Coast of Qatar project moccae.gov.ae/en/open-data.aspx. was completed. The project, sponsored by Dolphin Energy and Despite the existence and variety of these initiatives, there managed by EAD and Emirates Nature in association with exists two major deficiencies. Firstly, it seems that the reviewed the World Wildlife Fund (Emirates Nature-WWF), formerly initiatives were sporadic and did not represent comprehensive Emirates Wildlife Society (EWS-WWF), aimed to promote the and long-term monitoring programs. Most initiatives were conservation, management and sustainable use of coral reefs and independent of each other and were short to mid-term programs associated habitats in Abu Dhabi and Qatar waters. The project (1–3 years), possibly due to challenges related to human capital, objectives were more specific and aimed to determine adapted budget or their time-restricted nature, as is the case with monitoring and assessment approaches to the environment and any environmental impact assessment. This deficit might have coral reef habitats of Abu Dhabi through the provision of prevented decision-makers from defining the level of stresses that accurate biological, ecological and socio-economic information exist now and in the future, as well as the trends in those levels. (Al Kendi, 2008; Grandcourt et al., 2008). At the completion of Secondly, there is a lack of integration of planning, research this project, Grandcourt et al.(2008) highlighted two significant and management in the coastal zone. The coupled roles of

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FIGURE 3 | The local coverage of marine protected areas in 2019. GIS data credit: Ead-EnviroPortal(2019). EAD Enviroportal [On-Line], May 2019, Abu Dhabi, UAE. GIS data are available at https://enviroportal.ead.ae/geoportal/. The emirate of Abu Dhabi hosts six main protected areas including the largest marine biosphere reserve in the region; Marawah Marine Biosphere Reserve (4,255 km2) constituting a significant amount of marine protected areas in the UAE (Al-Dhaheri et al., 2017). The site includes seagrass beds (3 species), coral reef communities (more than 18 species), macro-algae outcrops (more than 15 species) and mangrove vegetation (mono-stands of Avicennia marina)(Al-Dhaheri et al., 2017). Marawah Biosphere reserve is also of global importance as a shelter and feeding ground for the Vulnerable dugongs (Dugong dugon)(Al-Dhaheri et al., 2017).

TABLE 1 | Summary of conservation and management policies in the UAE.

Policies*

Federal Law No. (23) of 1999 Concerning the Exploitation, Conservation, and Development of Living Aquatic Resources in the United Arab Emirates and its Bylaw Ministerial Decree No. (302) of 2001 Law No. (24) of 1999 Concerning Protection and Development of the Environment as amended by Law No. (11) of 2006 Local Waste Management Law No. (21) of 2005 Managing Solid Wastes in Abu Dhabi Emirate Law No. (17) of 2008 Concerning the establishment of Centre for Waste Management Law No. (6) of 2006 Controlling and Regulating Drilling of Water Wells and its Executive Order issued by EAD Governing Board No. (6) of 2006 Law No. (16) of 2005 Restructuring the Environment Agency – Abu Dhabi Emiri Decree No. (18) of 2001 Declaring Marawah as a Protected Marine Area Emiri Decree (33) of 2005 Declaring Al Yasat as a Protected Marine Area Abu Dhabi Plan Maritime 2030

managers and scientists are not clearly defined as part of all the there is little probability that a nation can gain the capability reviewed initiatives. to take effective action, on both land and sea, that will be Without a coordinated (focusing on activity and process) necessary to prevent the threatening degradation of their marine and integrated (refocusing on outcome and results) approach, environments, including coral reefs.

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Fortunately, this situation is gradually changing. A good coral reef in the Arabian Gulf, the Ras Ghanadah reef (194 km2), example of a coordinated and integrated approach is the Marine resulted in extensive monitoring of the reef and extensive Spatial Plan for Abu Dhabi 2030 of the Department of Urban mitigation efforts put in place to minimize potential impacts to Planning and Municipalities (DPM) [formerly Urban Planning the coral reef (Cole and Broderick, 2007; Vizcaíno et al., 2014). Council (UPC) and Department of Municipal Affairs (DMA)]. Overfishing and indirect alterations of the structure and function The Marine Spatial Plan for Abu Dhabi 2030 targets an integrated of the reef habitat are increasing in the UAE waters. The UAE has approach to marine spatial planning which considers multiple been reliant on fisheries as a key source of dietary protein, but resource users in the context of biodiversity conservation. the stress on the marine habitat is increasing as overfishing has A project coordination team was established comprising the been reported to cause macroalgal overgrowths and predatory Office of the Deputy Supreme Commander – Maritime Security outbreaks among coral reefs (Rezai et al., 2004; Valentine and Executive Committee (ODSC), formerly Maritime Security Heck, 2005). Red tide, temperature extrema, bleaching events Executive Committee (MSEC), EAD and DPM to develop Plan and disease outbreaks have caused extensive coral reef damage Maritime 2030. Following a far-reaching stakeholder engagement in the past (Berktay, 2011; Burt et al., 2019). Oil spills and illegal process, involving over 115 stakeholder organizations from discharges (e.g., ballast waters) place additional stress on the UAE all relevant sectors, both the Framework Spatial Plan and corals and are mainly linked to the heavy marine traffic in the the Plan Maritime 2030: the Abu Dhabi Coastal and Marine Strait of Hormuz. In 2011, the latter witnessed traffic of about 17 Implementation Plan were completed. The Maritime Strategy million barrels of oil per day – about 35% of the entire world’s was signed in November 2009. The Plan Maritime 2030: Abu sea-borne oil trade (Mokhtari et al., 2015). Moreover, there are Dhabi Coastal and Marine Implementation Plan was finalized currently 21 offshore operational oil rigs in the UAE. Many small- in August 2015. The Implementation Plan is cross-sectoral and scale incidents, including accidental discharges from oil refineries includes 298 management actions, which are planned to be are detected each year. These incidents have major impacts on the implemented by 22 government entities, and prioritized at the coral reef ecosystems. Desalination activities pose another issue. short-term (to 2020), medium-term (2021–2025) and long-term UAE has a 14% share in the global desalinated water capacity (2026–2030) (DPM, 2016; EAD, 2018). and it is ranked second in the world just after the Kingdom of The implementation of the Plan, and Abu Dhabi-wide Saudi Arabia, with Abu Dhabi being the major desalination user committee for Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), in the UAE (Mezher et al., 2011). Discharges from desalination with oversight over wider strategic coastal permitting are some facilities have been shown to significantly impact coral reef of the initiatives EAD and DPM are currently working on. The ecosystems (Petersen et al., 2018). policy aim is to pursue ICZM in the maritime domain, to facilitate However, these corals, enduring high salinity levels and the achievement of the over-arching maritime policy vision: ‘a summer temperatures of up to 36◦C, have been reported recently safe, secure, and environmentally sustainable maritime domain’ to be more tolerant than most other corals being faced with recent for Abu Dhabi emirate (DPM, 2016; EAD, 2018). Furthermore, extreme events (Hume et al., 2013, 2015). Such particularity is MOCCAE has initiated a comprehensive baseline across the UAE highlighted by scientists and should be considered by managers that would help to consolidate efforts and also bring cohesion and seeking to reshape and adapt management and conservation consistency to monitoring efforts going forward. plans. Federal and local environmental laws (Table 1) were put in place to mitigate these effects, such as the Federal Law No. (23) of 1999 that concerns the exploitation, conservation, LOCAL LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK IN and development of living aquatic resources in the United THE UAE Arab Emirates and its by-law issued as Ministerial Decree No. (302) of 2001; the Federal Law No. (24) of 1999 that The potential challenges faced by UAE coral reefs and the concerns protection and development of the environment as policies/initiatives which address these challenges were covered amended by Law No. (11) of 2006; the Emiri Decree No. (18) of in section “Review of Initiatives and Policies on UAE Corals.” 2001 declaring Marawah as a protected marine area; the Emiri These comprise direct anthropogenic (Lokier and Fiorini, 2016) Decree (33) of 2005 declaring Al Yasat as a protected marine and climatic stressors (Hoey et al., 2016), as well as management area; CITES; and CBD. issues (Grizzle et al., 2016). Similar to corals worldwide, UAE The UAE’s management approaches, through legislation, corals are witnessing a decline induced by environmental and evolved gradually over time given the impacts of all these climatic extreme events, and ongoing industrial and human initiatives. Studying them in light of global model practices would activities (Bento et al., 2016; Bento et al., 2017). Increasing allow a proper assessment of this evolution. challenges and environmental threats related to the country’s rapid economic development, e.g., waste generation and land reclamation (Alzaylaie and Abdelaziz, 2016), have created UAE REEF MANAGEMENT pressures on the environment resulting in action by the APPROACHES IN LIGHT OF MODEL government in the form of policies and enforcement of mitigation INTERNATIONAL PRACTICES plans to reduce potential negative environment impacts. For instance, the potential environmental impact as a result of the UAE’s efforts have been comparable to global efforts. Bowdery construction of Khalifa Port close to one of the most extensive et al.(2014) reviewed and gathered seven examples of effective

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regulatory best practices from around the world: Australia (the 2014). In the United States, jurisdictions have designated fourteen GBR: the world’s largest coral reef ecosystem, UNESCO World MPAs under the National Marine Sanctuaries Act (on the federal Heritage Site since 1981 (reef area of 48,960 km2), Belize level) to protect coral reefs and associated communities. On the (1,688 km2 reef system), Bermuda (672 km2 of coral reefs), the state level, certain states in the United States have also established Cayman Islands (coral coverage of 231 km2), Cuba (reef size MPAs (Bowdery et al., 2014). In this regard, the UAE is on equaling 3,020 km2), Tanzania (complex barrier and island reef the right path; since the declaration of its first MPA in 2001, systems of 3,580 km2), and the United States (abundant reefs, a total of 12.21% of marine and coastal areas of the UAE are Florida Keys Reef Tract of 360 km2, Hawaiian islands including declared no-take zones; protected areas (Wendling et al., 2018). NW islands sanctuary, and, US Pacific islands territories and The number of MPAs declared and proposed in Abu Dhabi protectorates) (Spalding et al., 2001). The current situation of has increased to reach a total area of 6,570 km2 distributed UAE coral reefs, as described above, is here discussed and as shown in Table 2. Combined with other strong initiatives analyzed in light of the model regulatory tools set by these related to fisheries management and waste management, this is seven jurisdictions. The selection of these models is based indicative that the UAE has been proactive in the last decade on the important coral reef resources contained within these and a half and is a regional leader in this area of conservation. territories and on the variety of approaches used to protect For instance, EAD has been undertaking stock assessments and conserve them. since 2001, as well as fisheries resources assessment surveys for commercially important fish stocks. Results from these have Protecting the Marine Environment informed management and policy development, which have led Protecting the marine environment is crucial to the protection to a number of direct fisheries controls in terms of minimum size of coral reefs even if the latter are not mentioned explicitly limits, species, fishing gear bans, and seasonal fishing closures. (Bowdery et al., 2014). Bowdery et al.(2014) reviewed examples of In addition, the UAE has pledged to take action to fight climate jurisdictions whose specific laws designed to protect the marine change and has also developed a National Climate Change Action environment benefited reef conservation. Among the reviewed Plan 2017–2050 (MOCCAE, 2017) after a lengthy stakeholder jurisdictions, many have opted for the creation of discrete MPAs process. Several studies have been conducted to increase scientific as an additional tool for reef conservation within their territorial understanding of the impact of climate change in the UAE and waters. The legal definition and features of these protected areas in the region, in order to assist with better policy-making. In differ from country to country, but the general trend is that this context, Abu Dhabi Global Environmental Data Initiative they are particularly delineated areas of the ocean and adjacent (AGEDI) conducted a number of studies and research which coastal areas subject to stricter regulations and other protective looked at the impact of climate change at the local, national measures, mainly against overfishing, pollution, oil, and gas and regional levels, including marine ecosystems and coastal extraction activities. This includes individualized management zones (Campbell et al., 2015; Abu Dhabi Global Environmental plans customized according to the specific characteristics of the Data Initiative [ADGEDI], 2016). Moreover, all construction protected area (Bowdery et al., 2014). In Australia, the iconic GBR work, which includes dredging and reclamation now, requires represents a massive MPA, created by the government to protect Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) before permits are the world’s largest coral reef system. Between 1999 and 2004, issued and many companies are required to set up funds and/or the GBR Marine Park Authority developed a new zoning for the remediation projects, which have focused on coral restoration, Marine Park after realization, in the mid-1990s, of the inadequacy mangrove reforestation, etc. of the previous zoning for biodiversity protection. A systematic Many of these regulations are relatively new and were a and comprehensive planning and consultative program of response to the documented impacts on the marine environment scientific input, community involvement and innovation was rather than being preventative – and while there is increasing undertaken by the Marine Park Authority to increase the extent action and work on enforcement, there has not been enough time of no-take areas (Hand, 2003; Jago et al., 2004). The GBR is to determine the impact of these actions on corals although some protected under several laws; state and federal, and is also a fish stock trends are on the increase. UNESCO World Heritage site (Mulhall, 2008). Measuring success requires long-term monitoring and As an example of good practice for leveraging the power of effective enforcement. In fact, effective protection of coral reef legislation to strengthen protected status, Bermuda is considered. Bermuda established a law in 1966 for the creation of two coral reef preserves. Since then, 29 protected areas have been TABLE 2 | Coverage of MPAs in Abu Dhabi.

selected, under Bermuda’s 2000 Protected Areas Order. This 2 designation was mainly to conserve coral reefs and associated Marine protected areas in Abu Dhabi Area km habitats. A large MPA was authorized by the Minister of Bul Syayeef Marine Protected Area 145 Environment and Planning, including almost its entire Exclusive Ras Ghanada Marine Protected Area 55 Economic Zone (EEZ), in order to protect the Sargasso Sea’s reefs Saadiyat Marine National Park 59 (Bowdery et al., 2014). Mangrove Marine National Park 10 In Tanzania, three marine parks protecting coral reefs and Marawah Marine Biosphere Reserve 4,255 fifteen marine reserves, which also contain corals, were created Al Yasat Marine Protected Area 2,256 under the Marine Parks and Reserves Act of 1994 (Bowdery et al., Total Area 6,780

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ecosystems requires more than just lines on a map, although development projects in UAE coastal areas have sometimes this is often the first step. The mitigation and/or removal of covered coral reefs with sand, rock or concrete (Rezai et al., threatening processes is vitally important, without which the 2004). A ban on sand removal and damage exerted on coral state of corals will continue to decline regardless of how well reefs is therefore mandatory to achieve sustainable development delineated the protected area is on a map. of UAE coastal areas. In fact, in the UAE, regulations that prohibit sand removal, dynamite fishing, and direct damage to coral reefs are in place [Law No. (23), Table 1], however, Reducing Impacts of Land-Based and it is monitoring and enforcement that require more effort Coastal Activities on Coral Reefs and improvement. Land-based activities and unsustainable development practices The Cayman Islands, Cuba and the United States provide such as sediment and nutrient overloading threaten UAE coral examples of environmental protection through the prohibition reefs (Bento et al., 2016, 2017; Hoey et al., 2016; Lokier and of sand removal and land reclamation in areas bordering corals Fiorini, 2016). The reduction of pressures from land-based and fragile marine habitats (Bowdery et al., 2014). The Cayman activity necessitates enhanced coastal planning and EIA studies; Islands prohibit the removal of natural materials such as sand and improved and continuous coordination between authorities for reef rubble from any area between the mean high water mark and the land and the sea governance, such as the example of the 152.4 m inland thereof through the Development and Planning ongoing collaboration between EAD and DPM; and enforcement Law of 2008 (Bowdery et al., 2014). In Cuba, the Joint Resolution of regulations that protect such fragile ecosystems. As an example, of 1997 bans dredging and detonations of coral reefs (Bowdery the Belizean model mentioned by Bowdery et al.(2014) is et al., 2014). In the United States, the National Marine Sanctuary renowned for its establishment of an independent public agency Act prohibits any damage to the bottom formations within by the Coastal Zone Management Authority and an institute protected areas (Bowdery et al., 2014). However, inspecting and established subsequent to the Coastal Zone Management Act enforcing laws are as important as creating and passing them for of 1998. EAD and DPM are to assist the government in the proper environmental management. Unfortunately, some studies development of policies, programs and projects on the coastal have reported that despite dramatic growth in laws to protect zone, nurture regional and international collaboration, as well as environment, weak enforcement was found to be a global trend national programs for coral reef and water quality monitoring. (Fang et al., 1994; Kuehn, 1995). EAD is currently working with the Critical Infrastructure and Coastal Protection Authority (CICPA) to enforce regulations Implementation, Monitoring and such as fishing regulations. However, EAD and DPM are currently building up further understanding on what are the Enforcement: Scientific and Public mechanisms and pressures that are affecting the coral reefs. EAD Involvement and Participation and DPM could, therefore, respond to these mechanisms and Scientific Participation pressures more effectively. From the Australian comprehensive management of the GBR Moreover, it is crucial for the sustainable management of model, two main characteristics can be depicted as crucial to the natural resources to inform baseline analyses and long-term management plans (Vanderzee, 1996). First, scientific data should development plans toward future developments in sensitive serve as basic support for management decisions. The Australian zones. This can be done through EIA studies (Sheaves et al., authority managing the GBR Marine Park is a federal agency 2016). In Bermuda, for instance, the Development and Planning and heavily relies on scientific data and findings to monitor Act requires that all proposed coastal developments must be management resolutions such as zoning plans, to ensure the approved by the Application Board as appointed by the Minister coral reef sustainability. Secondly, periodic review and feedback of Environment and Planning, with the advice of the Marine loops are there to consider the reef dynamism and change such Resources Board. In considering submissions and requests, the as ecological changes, hydro-climatic variables, etc. in order to Application Board is responsible for the protection of the coastal remain up-to-date. Periodic reviews of the health of the reef are and marine environment, as well as for the reduction of the required under Australia’s law for the creation of management impact of all development on the coastline (Meggs, 1997). In plans for the GBR Marine Park. The GBR Marine Park Authority this regard, Heaton and Burns(2014) gave evidence that while issues an Outlook Report every 5 years. Such reports evaluate the EIA requirements have been in place for less than 20 years in overall condition of the reef in addition to its response to the Abu Dhabi, they are a strong and comprehensive practice that threats and the conservation actions. Periodic reports improve were assessed as successful based on criteria by Wood(1999). the effectiveness of policies and management plans. As a result, Heaton and Burns(2014), however, recommended that this management plans are updated and revised (Bowdery et al., practice needs greater integration into the final decision-making, 2014). And, in the case of the GBR Marine Park, the Queensland monitoring of the overall process, public consultation and Government also recently (19/09/2019) issued new regulations ongoing impact monitoring. Following these recommendations, aimed at controlling runoff from agricultural land (DEE, 2019). EAD and DPM have conducted a successful consultation during Among others, these regulations control agricultural activities the formulation of Abu Dhabi Plan Maritime 2030 (DPM, 2016). in order to reduce fertilizer application, and to actively manage Sand removal, dredging and land reclamation also pose erosion risks in reef catchments (DEE, 2019). However, the a threat to nearby coral reefs in the UAE. On occasion, effectiveness of these recent regulations is yet to be determined.

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Public Involvement and Participation who could enjoy and benefit from the reef in a more sustainable In managing coral reef environments, it is crucial to preserve the manner provided higher awareness levels. Tourists’ involvement appropriate activities of the local communities while targeting is important, as the tourism sector is witnessing a significant reef protection. The Tanzanian model stands out for balancing increase of over 150% in guest arrivals from 2006 to 2014 in and linking reef preservation with local occupations. The Abu Dhabi Emirate (ADTCA, 2015). These stakeholders should three marine parks in Tanzania contain three types of zones become active participants in efforts to conserve and safeguard with different regulations and protection measures. The Core the marine environment through, for example, tour and dive Zone is the most regulated and most protective type. It is operators sharing information on the number and location of allocated to areas with high biodiversity levels and/or large visits, chartered trips, and stronger awareness campaigns about areas of critical habitat. In Core Zones, fishing is prohibited. anchor damage, etc. The Specified Use Zone is the second type assigned to areas with high conservation value that are also of key importance to the local population. In Specified Use Zones, activities are not carried out by non-resident users. The General Use IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, Zones is the third type where local residents may undertake AND CONCLUDING NOTES sustainable resource use. This could relieve pressure on the other two zones with higher levels of protection. In General Implications Use Zones, non-residents may be involved in certain activities, In terms of protecting its marine environment, the UAE provided they have obtained a proper permit. These three zones has declared and proposed several MPAs. It is certain that are furthermore isolated from external environmental threats MPAs provide important opportunities for reef conservation; by delineated Buffer Zones (Nyigulila Mwaipopo, 2008). In however, they are a complement to, rather than a substitute this regard, UAE’s local communities are special. UAE local for, effective environmental laws. Effective MPAs aiming to people and nearby communities do not directly depend on the achieve conservation goals should not merely give an area a legal reefs for their livelihood. However, the local community may designation, rather they ought to feature key characteristics that include fishermen. In fact, there is a large fishing fleet that is are science-based management approaches in order to identify currently overfishing key commercial fish stock. There are a few and address the relevant and actual threats (Bowdery et al., 2014). local families with a strong fishing tradition, which should be However, one of the lessons to be drawn from around the protected, but this may entail radical measures to reduce the world, e.g., from the overfished reefs of Hawaii and the Virgin fishing pressures on already limited stocks. The local community Islands (Pandolfi et al., 2005; Guest et al., 2018) to the overfished also includes scientific researchers, recreational users and tourists Florida reefs that have lost most of their corals to disease

FIGURE 4 | The UAE’s existing institutional framework adapted for coral reef management could benefit from bringing scientists and managers together through an integrated ecosystem assessment process to achieve sustainability.

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(Precht et al., 2016; Sharp et al., 2019), is that despite well- liaise with scientists and researchers to keep the action plans intentioned environmental plans and actions, coral reef health up-to-date, applicable, data- and evidence-based, and efficient. and status continue to decline and, authorities and governments On the other hand, scientists and researchers are to communicate are not always able to stem the degradation. The reasons for their knowledge and findings in ways that are adapted to the the ineffectiveness of these plans and actions are several and situation and addresses a nation’s needs and interests. A closed complex. Lack of enforcement may be one reason. Reluctance loop system should consequently be established, centered around to fully engage with the scientific community, make proper the conservation of the coral reefs to achieve sustainability. use of emerging technologies and, raise awareness about the implications of reef degradation are other reasons. Recommendations and Concluding A clear and systematic roadmap that links scientists Notes and researchers to managers and policymakers needs to be • The issue of scientific capacity in the UAE needs to be established. The lack of this clear roadmap is not particular to the addressed. Each of the seven emirates and the federal UAE. In fact, Rose and Parsons(2015) illustrate the divergence ministry have different capacities for coral reef conservation and difference between scientists and policymakers and explain and management. This might pose a challenge for the that the main difference is due to the reliability of the former country to adopt a national coral reef monitoring and on impartiality and objectivity in describing reality, and the management plan and effectively implement the approach need of the latter to include values, ideologies, economics, and recommended here. emotions, thus partiality, in decision-making. They highlight that • A revision to the existing adapted institutional framework debates can be beneficial in policy development and conclude by for coral reef management and conservation is required to recommending that science should be better communicated and achieve coral reef sustainability in the UAE (Figure 4). should better address real-world issues. • Emphasizing the role of science and research in support Here, it can be concluded that efforts need to be made from of reef-based management and conservation is critical to both sides. On the one hand, managers and policy-makers must effective management (Figure 5). Furthermore, bringing

FIGURE 5 | Proposed reef management practice emphasizing the role of science in support of reef-based management and sustainability.

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stakeholders, scientists, and managers together through an the world’s carbon emissions; an intervening variable to integrated ecosystem assessment process is essential. the rapid loss of coral reefs. Burning of fossil fuels like • Integrated management programs encompass complete coal, oil and gas add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere ecosystems. They run for the needs of the present while and the ocean. Major emitters need to stop the growth ensuring that the ecological processes on which the reefs of greenhouse gas emissions. The COP21 meeting is an depend are protected for future generations; thus ensuring example of initiative that has given the go ahead for this sustainability. Reef-based management should take into to become a reality. Finally, it is essential that the feedback account the interconnectedness and interdependent nature loop to the international community be activated to inform of ecosystem components: habitat, local and nearby and help to update the existing international initiatives for communities. It also ought to emphasize the importance the general benefit of all concerned parties. of ecosystem structures and functions that provide a range of services. • When challenged with limited resources, it is crucial to AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS focus implementation and enforcement monitoring of areas with the highest vulnerability to major disturbances, HB-R conceived the work and acquired, analyzed, and e.g., bleaching hotspots, coastal areas neighboring interpreted the data for the work, and drafted the work. RJ, EG, direct anthropogenic stressors, desalination and nuclear RP, and AA contributed to the acquisition and interpretation of plants, etc. the data. RJ, EG, RP, AA, PM, TO, and HG revised the work • There is much room for capitalizing on socio-ecological for important intellectual content. HB-R, RJ, EG, RP, AA, PM, and citizen science to complement and enhance marine and TO, and HG gave their final approval to the version to be coral reef conservation in the UAE. published. All authors contributed to the article and approved • Coral reef managers in the UAE should continue to engage the submitted version. local communities in the establishment and operation of managed areas, and in the assessment and valuation of the economic and social benefits of their natural resources. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS • Management options should also take into account where relevant, the micro-level dynamics of a given reef as positive The authors express their gratitude to Mr. Anil Kumar, Ms. management intervention in one system may result in a Anuja Puthuppallil Vijayan, Mr. Sai Ravi Krishna Tubati, and Mr. negative outcome for another. Yasser Ramadan Othman, Environmental Information, Science • A strategic and systematic approach to conservation & Outreach Management Department, Environment Agency – planning is crucial. Designing and implementing a system Abu Dhabi, for their support with the geospatial data and identifying and detecting the major threats, as well as their information about the Marine Protected Areas. The authors preventive and curative measures are critical components. are thankful to Mr. Winston James Cowie, Section Manager – Such a system should be frequently reviewed based on Marine Policy-Regulations and Planning Terrestrial & Marine a regular and continuous assessment of biodiversity and Biodiversity Department, Environment Agency – Abu Dhabi, for socio-economic values. This assessment is important to having provided the recent reports and updates on the status of evaluate the effectiveness of the set conservation and the Abu Dhabi Emirate ICZM Policy. The authors are grateful management goals, and to refine and/or rectify them. to Dr. Mark Jonathan Beech, currently Head of Archaeology: Al • Significant gains can be realized when experiences and Dhafra and Abu Dhabi, in the Historic Environment Department lessons are shared among coral reef hosting countries. at the Department of Culture and Tourism (DCT) for having These countries need to cooperate in areas where deemed provided insightful information about historical use of corals necessary and build upon each other’s experience in in the UAE. Moreover, the authors also would like to express order to achieve coral reef sustainability globally. Areas their gratitude to the Editor, Dr. HK, and two reviewers whose of cooperation should address the lack of sustainability in comments helped to improve the quality of the manuscript.

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