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The Endothelium As a Driver of Liver Fibrosis and Regeneration

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The Endothelium As a Driver of Liver Fibrosis and Regeneration cells Review The Endothelium as a Driver of Liver Fibrosis and Regeneration 1, 1, 1 1 Erica Lafoz y , Maria Ruart y , Aina Anton , Anna Oncins and Virginia Hernández-Gea 1,2,* 1 Unidad de Hemodinámica Hepática, Servicio de Hepatología, Hospital Clínic, Universidad de Barcelona, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Augusto Pi Suñer (IDIBAPS), 08036 Barcelona, Spain; [email protected] (E.L.); [email protected] (M.R.); [email protected] (A.A.); [email protected] (A.O.) 2 Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +34-93-227-5400 (ext. 2209) Both authors share first authorship. y Received: 22 March 2020; Accepted: 6 April 2020; Published: 10 April 2020 Abstract: Liver fibrosis is a common feature of sustained liver injury and represents a major public health problem worldwide. Fibrosis is an active research field and discoveries in the last years have contributed to the development of new antifibrotic drugs, although none of them have been approved yet. Liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSEC) are highly specialized endothelial cells localized at the interface between the blood and other liver cell types. They lack a basement membrane and display open channels (fenestrae), making them exceptionally permeable. LSEC are the first cells affected by any kind of liver injury orchestrating the liver response to damage. LSEC govern the regenerative process initiation, but aberrant LSEC activation in chronic liver injury induces fibrosis. LSEC are also main players in fibrosis resolution. They maintain liver homeostasis and keep hepatic stellate cell and Kupffer cell quiescence. After sustained hepatic injury, they lose their phenotype and protective properties, promoting angiogenesis and vasoconstriction and contributing to inflammation and fibrosis. Therefore, improving LSEC phenotype is a promising strategy to prevent liver injury progression and complications. This review focuses on changes occurring in LSEC after liver injury and their consequences on fibrosis progression, liver regeneration, and resolution. Finally, a synopsis of the available strategies for LSEC-specific targeting is provided. Keywords: liver; liver sinusoidal endothelial cells; LSEC; hepatic stellate cells; endothelial dysfunction; oxidative stress; inflammation; liver fibrosis resolution; liver regeneration; LSEC targeting 1. Introduction Liver injury of any kind induces several molecular changes that eventually lead to the progressive fibrosis of the parenchyma and development of liver cirrhosis, the end stage of chronic liver disease. Changes at the liver endothelium level are crucial in the pathogenesis of liver fibrosis and represent the main focus of this review. The liver has a unique vascular supply where two main venous vascular systems (portal vein and inferior cava vein) and the hepatic artery interact. Vessels ramify successively into more branches and capillaries until converging and forming a vascular network that coats the hepatic sinusoid. Liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSEC) are a highly specialized and distinctive micro-vascular cell type, key in the regulation of the liver microenvironment [1,2]. They are the only endothelial cells in the organism lacking a basal membrane and containing small pores called fenestrae. Fenestrae entail Cells 2020, 9, 929; doi:10.3390/cells9040929 www.mdpi.com/journal/cells Cells 2020, 9, 929 2 of 26 open channels that allow bidirectional blood flow between the sinusoidal blood and the hepatic cells [3,4]. LSEC are first defense barrier and contribute to hemostasis/thrombosis, metabolite transport, inflammation, angiogenesis, and vascular tone regulation. Moreover, they participate in the liver cellular response to a given injury by regulating the neighboring cells [1,5,6], mainly hepatic stellate cells (HSC), the principal source of extracellular matrix (ECM) and the key player in fibrosis progression [7]. Indeed, fibrosis is the accumulation of ECM that occurs initially as a reversible wound-healing response, after acute or chronic injury, irrespective of the underlying etiology (viral infection, alcohol and metabolic injury, drug toxicity ::: )[8,9]. If the harmful stimulus is acute, ECM deposit is an attempt to limit organ damage that can be degraded when the injury is resolved. However, if the damaging stimulus exceeds the regenerative capacity of the liver and the injury persists, the response becomes excessive. Perpetuation of this “curative” response translates to fibrosis progression, substituting hepatic tissue by a fibrous scar disrupting vascular architecture and liver parenchyma [8,10]. Due to their privileged situation and intimate contact with the blood stream, LSEC are the first liver cell type sensing the toxic stimuli. At very initial phases, LSEC change their phenotype: lose their characteristic fenestrae and develop a basal membrane becoming a continuous endothelium, a process called capillarization. The loss of LSEC phenotype has been identified as the initial trigger to the fibrotic response [11–13]. LSEC participate in fibrosis through the secretion of angiocrine signals that act as paracrine factors balancing the liver response to injury towards fibrosis or regeneration [14]. Considering the new discoveries highlighting the role of LSEC as a principal regulator of initial response to damage, this review is divided into five sections. The first section gives a brief overview of how liver injury selectively damage LSEC. The second section focuses on the current knowledge of endothelial dysfunction, regarding how LSEC respond to injury, drives initiation and progression of fibrosis, taking into account autocrine and paracrine communication with parenchymal and non-parenchymal cells. The third section summarizes the role of LSEC in liver regeneration. The fourth section examines how LSEC are involved in fibrosis resolution. Finally, in the fifth section LSEC are presented as a potential target for therapy. 2. Triggers for LSEC Dysfunction LSEC have an important role in the early response to liver injury as they orchestrate the initial response to damage of the neighboring hepatic cells. Therefore, a better understanding of the pathways involved in the initiation of the wound healing response and perpetuation of the fibrotic process are crucial to identify relevant therapeutic targets able to modify fibrosis natural history. A wide range of LSEC noxious stimuli exist, of which ethanol [15], triglycerides and free fatty acids (FFAs) [16], hepatitis C virus (HCV) core protein [17], and HCV non-structural protein 5A (NS5A) [18] are the most common. Such stimuli trigger endothelial cell dysfunction mainly through generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inflammation [19–24]. Oxidative stress is a phenomenon caused by an imbalance between the production of free radicals (species with one or more unpaired electrons), reactive metabolites, or ROS and their elimination through antioxidant mechanisms [25–27]. Oxidative stress is able to modify the phenotype of many hepatic cell types including hepatocytes, HSC, and inflammatory cells [28], but LSEC are probably the most sensitive liver cell type to oxidative stress [29,30] due to several reasons: first, ROS have been described as key drivers in the initiation of liver injury and LSEC response [30–33]; second, ROS selectively damage LSEC and alter LSEC phenotype during liver injury [20,27,29]; and third, LSEC are prone to oxidative stress due to a reduction in their enzymatic detoxifying capacity of H2O2 [34–36]. In addition to the classical antioxidant response, LSEC have additional mechanisms, such as autophagy (a degradation process that maintains LSEC homeostasis), able to detoxify oxidative species and necessary for a proper adaptive response to stress. Indeed, recent work from our team reveals that impaired LSEC autophagy causes an improper response to oxidative damage, aggravates their phenotype, and provokes an impaired response to damage in the liver [37]. Cells 2020, 9, 929 3 of 26 Oxidative stress can also be responsible for modulating the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in inflammatory cells [38] initiating a robust inflammatory response [39]. Inflammation is also initiated as a result of liver damage caused by several aetiologies including infections, tissue necrosis and foreign bodies (such as lipids). Inflammatory mediators (basically IL-β and TNF-α) are released by inflammatory cells, damaged epithelial and/or endothelial cells upon injury [24,40,41] that activate LSEC. Activated LSEC upregulate the expression of adhesion molecules such as selectins, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) promoting the adherence of monocytes, neutrophils, and lymphocytes. Activated LSEC also induce secretion of several cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, and eicosanoids contributing to the inflammatory response and, therefore, acquiring an inflammatory phenotype [23,24]. In addition, LSEC are able to activate the immune cascade by themselves [42–44] by activating the inflammasome [45] as they express pattern recognition receptors such as the mannose receptor, stabilins or TLR4 being able to directly sense danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) or alarmins that typically originate from damaged hepatocytes (like free DNA, mitochondrial DNA, HMGB-1, IL-33, cholesterol, or FFAs) [46,47] and pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) derived
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