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Composition of the Oceanic Crust WM White, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA EM Klein, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA

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Composition of the Oceanic Crust WM White, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA EM Klein, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA 4.13 Composition of the Oceanic Crust WM White, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA EM Klein, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA ã 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 4.13.1 Introduction 457 4.13.2 Architecture of the Oceanic Crust 458 4.13.2.1 Vertical Structure 458 4.13.2.2 Ridge Segmentation 459 4.13.2.3 Morphology, Structure, and Spreading Rate 459 4.13.2.4 Magmatic Processes and Magma Chambers 460 4.13.3 Creation of Oceanic Crust at Mid-Ocean Ridges 462 4.13.3.1 Mantle Flow and Melting 462 4.13.3.2 Melt Extraction and Flow 464 4.13.3.3 Crystallization 464 4.13.4 The Composition of MORB 466 4.13.4.1 The Average Composition of MORB 466 4.13.4.1.1 Major elements 466 4.13.4.1.2 Trace elements 466 4.13.4.1.3 Isotope ratios 472 4.13.4.2 Regional Variations in MORB Composition 476 4.13.4.2.1 Regional isotopic variations 476 4.13.4.2.2 Regional major element variations 480 4.13.4.3 Estimating the Bulk Composition of the Oceanic Crust 484 4.13.4.4 The Composition of Back-Arc Basin Crust 486 4.13.5 Future Directions 490 Acknowledgments 492 References 492 4.13.1 Introduction 4.21). Thus, in contrast to continental crust, oceanic crust is ephemeral: its mean age is about 60 Ma (Cogne´ et al., 2006) When Harry Hess first proposed the theory of seafloor spread- and it is nowhere older than about 167 Ma (Koppers et al., ing, he imagined that mantle peridotite upwelling at mid- 2003), except in the Eastern Mediterranean where in situ crust ocean ridges reacted with water to form a serpentinite oceanic as old as 270 Ma may be preserved (Mu¨lleretal.,2008). crust (Hess, 1962). The seafloor spreading concept proved The oceanic crust plays a key role in the on-going processes correct, but his original hypothesis missed one important that modify the compositions of major Earth reservoirs. As the point: mantle upwelling beneath mid-ocean ridges undergoes product of mantle melting, the generation of new oceanic crust decompression melting, and these melts rise buoyantly to the continuously changes the composition of the upper mantle surface to form a basaltic, rather than serpentinitic, oceanic from which it forms. This has a profound effect on the mantle, crust. Approximately 60% of the Earth’s surface consists of because, if the present rates of ocean crust production are oceanic crust (Cogley, 1984), and most of it has formed in typical of those in the past, a considerable fraction of the this way at divergent plate boundaries called mid-ocean ridges mantle has melted to produce the oceanic crust. The ocean or spreading centers (Figure 1). The global rate of ocean crust crust is also a primary interface of exchange between fluids of À production is 3.4 km2 year 1; how this may have varied in the the Earth’s surface and the solid Earth below. Hydrothermal past is a matter of debate (e.g., Mu¨ller et al., 2008; Rowley, circulation of seawater through the ocean crust, for example, is 2002, 2008). Additionally, oceanic crust can be created, or at a major factor controlling the chemistry of seawater (e.g., least substantially thickened, when mantle plumes generate see Chapters 8.7 and 4.16). Subduction and consequent melt that erupts through the oceanic lithosphere, creating oce- dehydration, and in some instances melting of fresh to variable anic islands or oceanic plateaus. Oceanic islands and plateaus altered oceanic crust, is believed to initiate island-arc volca- are reviewed elsewhere in this treatise (see Chapters 3.3 and nism, and the particular composition of the subducting crust 4.18, respectively) and neither will be discussed here. Once affects the compositions of the island-arc magmas (e.g., see created, the oceanic crust is transported off-axis to each side of Chapters 4.17, 4.19, 4.20, and 4.21). The deep subduction of the spreading center, accumulating sediment (see Chapter 4.17) altered oceanic crust is also the primary means of recycling and becoming progressively altered (see Chapter 4.16)asitages. material from the surface back to the mantle, where, convec- It is ultimately consumed at subduction zones and returned in tively mixed with ambient mantle, it may form both the source a modified form to the mantle (see Chapters 4.19, 4.20,and of some hot spots and dispersed chemical heterogeneities Treatise on Geochemistry 2nd Edition http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00315-6 457 458 Composition of the Oceanic Crust Gakkel Ridge Kolbeinsey 75˚ N Mohns R. 60˚ JDF e 45˚ idg Okinawa Simisu Cayman R Azores c BASC BASC ti T.J. n 30˚ a Marianas l t A BASC - C e d i n 15˚ t M Manus ra e GSC l BASC s i I n R Jean Charcot 0˚ d c i BASC if a c n a Woodlark R Lau P 15˚ . BASC BASC t s S a o North Fiji E e C g u BASC 30˚ hile R id th . Scotia R e ian ast BASC nd Ind t I ian Ridge Southwes 45˚ idge c R A. Bain F. Z. AAD Pa arcti cific Ant - 60˚ S 150˚ W 120˚ 90˚ 60˚ 30˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚ 120˚ 150˚ E Figure 1 Map of the global mid-ocean ridge system. Names of back-arc basin spreading centers (BASC) are shown in italics. Locations of the Azores triple junction (Azores T. J.), the Andrew Bain Fracture Zone (A. Bain F. Z.), Juan de Fuca Ridge (JDF), Galapagos Spreading Center (GSC), and the Australian–Antarctic discordance (AAD) are also shown. (Hofmann and White, 1982; see also Chapter 3.3). Changes in it is 881 m thick (Umino et al., 2008). It averages 800 m thick the rates of seafloor spreading, and consequently the age and in the Hess Deep (Karson et al., 2002). A 20–60-m-thick tran- elevation of oceanic crust, have been a major cause of eustatic sition zone typically separates the eruptive layer from the un- sea-level change over the past 180 Ma (Cogne´ et al., 2006). derlying sheeted dike complex, which forms as magma freezes Thus, an understanding of the processes and rates of formation in dikes, typically 0.5–2 m wide, that feed the eruptions that of the oceanic crust is central to our elucidation of fundamen- form the overlying extrusive layer. The sheeted dike complex is tal and diverse geologic processes. 350 m thick in Hole 1256D and 1060 m thick in Hole 1256D This chapter reviews the architecture of the oceanic crust, (Alt et al., 1993; Umino et al., 2008, respectively). In the Hess the geochemical processes by which it is created, as well as its Deep, near the East Pacific Rise (EPR), the sheeted dike com- major element, trace element, and isotopic composition. The plex varies in thickness from 300 to 1200 m (Karson, 2002). principal focus is on the more readily sampled volcanic upper Seismic reflection and refraction studies are also used to esti- oceanic crust; the gabbroic lower crust is reviewed by Coogan mate the thicknesses of lava and dike units (e.g., Harding et al., (see Chapter 4.14). The oceanic crust begins to react with 1989; Toomey et al., 1990; Vera et al., 1990). Together, the seawater as soon as it is created and these processes eventually lavas and dikes are believed to constitute seismic layer 2 (layer result in significant modification of its composition. This 1 is the sediments), which is subdivided into layer 2A, thought hydrothermal alteration is reviewed by Staudigel (see to correspond to the lavas, and layer 2B, thought to correspond Chapter 4.16); consequently, this chapter focuses exclusively to the dikes. On the flanks of the ocean ridge, the average on the pristine magmatic composition of oceanic crust. Fi- thickness of the layer 2A ranges from 350 to 650 m, which nally, oceanic crust acquires a veneer of sediment, the nature is somewhat smaller than estimates based on drill cores or and composition of which is reviewed by Plank (see observations at tectonic windows (see review by Carbotte and Chapter 4.17). More detailed perspectives on these and Scheirer, 2004). Recent studies suggest, however, that the seis- related topics such as melting and melt percolation models mically identified base of layer 2A may represent an alteration (see Chapter 4.15), mantle heterogeneity (see Chapter 3.3), boundary rather than the base of the extrusive layer (e.g., and subduction zone processes (see Chapters 4.19, 4.20, Christeson et al., 2007). The combined thickness of layers 2A and 4.21) are presented elsewhere in these volumes. and 2B (the upper crust) appears to vary with spreading rate, ranging from 1 to 1.5 km at fast-spreading ridges, and 2 to 4.13.2 Architecture of the Oceanic Crust 3 km at intermediate- to slow-spreading ridges (Carbotte and Scheirer, 2004). Layer 2 is underlain by seismic layer 3, con- 4.13.2.1 Vertical Structure sisting of intrusive gabbroic rocks of diverse textures and li- The structure of igneous oceanic crust (Figure 2) has been thologies, as reviewed by Coogan (see Chapter 4.14). The total deduced from seismic studies, drilling of the ocean crust, ex- thickness of oceanic crust averages about 6.5 km, meaning that posures of the deeper crust at fracture zones and rare tectonic the gabbroic layer is typically 3.5–5.5 km thick and constitutes windows, and studies of portions of the oceanic crust that have the bulk of the oceanic crust.
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