Studien zur AaltägyptiSschen Kultur

Herausgegeben von Jochem kKahl und Nicole kKloth

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SAK 47 • © Helmut Buske Verlag 2018 • ISSN 0340-2215 The Advent of the : Tomb Decoration and Theological Change in KV 57

Margaret Geoga

Abstract This paper examines KV 57’s decorative program and the ways in which it both maintains continuity with earlier royal tombs and incorporates innovative features, such as the previously unattested Book of Gates and changes to the divine scenes. The combination of the Book of Gates, which aligns with the new solar theology developing during the reign of Amenhotep III, with the more traditional divine scenes of the well chamber and antechamber suggests a synthesis of the seemingly opposing theological streams of new solar theology and constellative theology.

1 Introduction The final years of the Eighteenth Dynasty are defined by the transition from the upheaval of the Amarna Period back to a more traditional form of religion and kingship. Evidence of this transition in the realm of funerary religion is visible in the decoration of the tombs of , , and . Horemheb’s KV 57 in particular offers a view into de- velopments occurring in royal tomb decoration and theology during the transition from the Eighteenth to the Nineteenth Dynasty. KV 57 is decorated with divine scenes and the first attestation of the Book of Gates, thus borrowing elements from earlier royal tombs, as well as incorporating entirely new decorative features. The first sections of this paper will contextualize KV 57’s decoration by discussing the history of the Netherworld Books and royal tomb decorative programs throughout the Eighteenth Dynasty. Next, I will describe the decoration of KV 57 in detail, before analyz- ing the ways in which it shows continuity with earlier Eighteenth Dynasty tombs, as well as its theologically important innovations. These innovations include a shift in ’s role in the decorative program, the use of the Book of Gates, and subtle but meaningful changes in the well chamber and antechamber’s divine scenes. I will argue that the Book of Gates is influenced by the new solar theology, as shown by the qualities its sun god shares with the transcendent sun god of the new solar theology, while the divine scenes in the well chamber and antechamber are grounded in traditional constellative theology. The combination of these two seemingly disparate theological streams within a single tomb suggests not only that Horemheb sought to reinitiate theological developments happening during the reign of Amenhotep III, but also that elements of the new solar theology and constellative theology were compatible and even complementary.

2 Early History of the Netherworld Books The New Kingdom witnessed a proliferation of previously unattested funerary texts, both royal and private.1 Notable among these are the Netherworld Books, which combine text and image to represent the sun’s nightly voyage through the netherworld, during which he

1 The composition date of the Netherworld Books remains a subject of debate, with scholars split between an early date in the Old or Middle Kingdom and a later date in the late Second Intermediate Period or early New Kingdom. This issue is discussed in further detail in the context of the Book of Gates in section 4.3.2.

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joins with Osiris in order to effect his rebirth at sunrise.2 The Netherworld Books are first attested in the early Eighteenth Dynasty and continued to develop throughout the New Kingdom. Although these books eventually spread to private tombs, in the Eighteenth Dyn- asty they were almost exclusively reserved for royal use.3 The motif of the sun god traveling through the netherworld during the night before be- ing reborn in the morning may be traced, in some form, as far back as the .4 Early examples of this motif include the Twelfth Dynasty’s Book of Two Ways, which is found inside coffins in the private tombs of Deir el-Bersha and acts as a map of the , and the subterranean Abydos tomb of Senwosret III, whose axis and building materials echo the sun’s path through the Duat, thus rendering the tomb a physical abstraction of the voyage.5 The first attested Netherworld Book is the .6 The Amduat is divided into twelve sections, each depicting a different region of the Duat and an hour of the night. sails or is towed through each hour, encountering various deities and obstacles along the way. The climax of the journey occurs in the sixth hour, when Ra joins with Osiris.7 The night ends as Ra is reborn as , the morning sun, while Osiris remains in the Duat. The earliest known fragments of the Amduat date to the reigns of Thutmose I and Hat- shepsut, with the first attested complete copy in the burial chamber of Thutmose III. With few exceptions, the Amduat was a primary feature of royal burial chamber decoration for the remainder of the Eighteenth Dynasty, working in conjunction with the tomb architecture and other decorations to form a cohesive representation of Ra’s voyage through the nether- world and eventual rebirth at sunrise.8

2 An excellent survey of the history and content of all Netherworld Books may be found in E. Hornung, The Ancient Egyptian Books of the Afterlife, trans. D. Lorton, Ithaca 1999. See also J. Roberson, The Royal Funerary Books: The Subject Matter of Scenes and Texts, in: R. Wilkinson/K. Weeks (eds.), The Oxford Hand- book of the , Oxford 2016, 316–32. On the Amduat in particular, see A. Schweizer, The Sungod’s Journey through the Netherworld: Reading the Ancient Egyptian Amduat, trans. D. Lorton, Ithaca 2010; N. Hoffmann, Reading the Amduat, in: ZÄS 123, 1996, 26–40; F. Abitz, Pharao als Gott in den Unter- weltsbüchern des Neuen Reiches, Freiburg 1995, 3–50; and M. Smith, Following Osiris: Perspectives on the Osirian Afterlife from Four Millennia, Oxford 2017, 299–305, 314–18. 3 Only one private New Kingdom tomb, that of Useramun (TT 61) is known to have incorporated the Am- duat into its decorative program. For a possible explanation of this exception, see B. Bryan, Administration in the Reign of Thutmose III, in: E. Cline/D. O’Connor (eds.), Thutmose III: A New Biography, Ann Arbor 2006, 73. 4 For example, the spells on the west gable of the antechamber of Unis and on the sarcophagus and west gable of the burial chamber of Teti. 5 A thorough explanation of this argument may be found in J. Wegner, The Tomb of Senwosret III at Aby- dos: Considerations on the Origins and Development of the Royal Amduat-Tomb, in: D. Silverman et al. (eds.), Archaism and Innovation: Studies in the Culture of Middle Kingdom Egypt, New Haven 2009, 103–68. 6 On the earliest attestation of the Amduat, see F. Mauric-Barberio, Le premier exemplaire du Livre de l’Amdouat, in: BIFAO 101, 2001, 315–50. 7 The nature, duration, symbolism, and conceptual history of the temporary union between Ra and Osiris depicted in the Netherworld Books, as well as the question of whether or not it should be deemed a union at all, is examined in detail in Smith, op. cit., 271–355, especially 299–321. 8 For a detailed exploration of the ways in which text, image, and architecture work together in these burial chambers, see B. Richter, The Amduat and Its Relationship to the Architecture of Early 18th Dynasty Royal Burial Chambers, in: JARCE 44, 2008, 73–104.

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The Amarna Period interrupted the use of Netherworld Books. None of the royal tombs of the Amarna Period were decorated with Netherworld Books or depicted the afterlife or the Duat at all. It was not until after the so-called return to orthodoxy that Netherworld Books came back into use. Tutankhamun and Ay incorporated excerpts of the Amduat into their tombs’ decorative programs, combining them with excerpts of the and, in Tutankhamun’s case, another Netherworld Book, the otherwise unattested Enigmat- ic Book of the Netherworld. Horemheb’s burial chamber features the first attestation of the Book of Gates, rather than the Amduat. After Horemheb, usage and innovation of Nether- world Books proliferated, with new Netherworld Books appearing in various combinations in royal tombs throughout the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties.

3 Overview of Royal Tomb Decoration in the Eighteenth Dynasty In order to contextualize Horemheb’s decorative choices in KV 57, I provide here an over- view of the decorative programs of Eighteenth Dynasty royal tombs (Taf. 1). The two earli- est royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings, KV 38 and KV 20, contain the first known attes- tations of the Amduat, inscribed on limestone slabs likely intended to line the walls of the burial chambers.9 Small and otherwise undecorated, these tombs, particularly KV 38, served as a prototype for a new conception of the royal tomb as “a vehicle for the texts on its burial chamber walls.”10 Thutmose III’s KV 34 further developed this concept by incorporating new chambers, the well chamber and the pillared chamber, and elaborating on the Amduat. KV 34’s pil- lared chamber depicts and names each individual deity in the Duat, while the burial cham- ber is decorated with a complete Amduat, with the hours placed according to the instruc- tions at the beginning of the text.11 The burial chamber’s pillars are decorated with a second funerary book, the , as well as the abbreviated version of the Amduat. This combination highlights the correspondence between the two texts and the identification of the deceased king with Ra and Osiris.12 Following KV 34, Amenhotep II’s KV 35 also includes a complete Amduat in the buri- al chamber. The pillars in this chamber are decorated not with the Litany of Re, but with scenes of the deceased king with funerary deities. These divine scenes became a standard part of the royal decorative repertoire following KV 35, appearing on both pillars and walls of later royal tombs. The next royal tomb, Thutmose IV’s KV 43, depicts the king with deities on the walls of the well chamber and the antechamber. The burial chamber is undec- orated, making KV 43 one of the few Eighteenth Dynasty royal tombs not to include the Amduat. Amenhotep III’s WV 22, located in the Western Valley, is the largest Eighteenth Dyn- asty royal tomb and contains an expanded decorative repertoire. Like in KV 43, WV 22’s well chamber and antechamber are decorated with divine scenes, this time with additional

9 C. Roehrig, Royal Tombs of the Eighteenth Dynasty, in: R. Wilkinson/K. Weeks (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Valley of the Kings, Oxford 2015, 183–99. A summary of the debate regarding the chronology and ownership of these two tombs may be found on 183–90. 10 Roehrig, op. cit., 188. 11 Richter, op. cit., 79; Roehrig, op. cit., 192. 12 Richter, op. cit., 87–88.

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deities, as well as with the ka of Thutmose IV. The burial chamber contains a full Amduat and an abbreviated Amduat on the walls and divine scenes on the pillars. Following the Amarna Period, Tutankhamun returned to the Valley of the Kings and was buried in KV 62. It is an unusual royal tomb for a number of reasons, including its relatively small size, the intact burial shrines around the sarcophagus, and the amount of funerary equipment found in situ, in spite of at least two robberies in antiquity. The tomb’s size and layout suggest it may have originally been intended as a private tomb before being adapted for Tutankhamun’s royal burial.13 The decorative program of KV 62, as well as that of WV 23, also includes elements associated with private tombs, such as scenes of the king’s funeral and excerpts of the Book of the Dead. The burial chamber is decorated with divine scenes, the funeral procession, the Opening of the Mouth ritual, and an excerpt of the first hour of the Amduat.14 In addition to the walls of the burial chamber, the four intact shrines surrounding the sarcophagus are also decorated. Tutankhamun’s are the only attest- ed intact burial shrines, although there is evidence to suggest that at least some other royal tombs included such shrines that have not survived.15 Their decorations are extensive.16 Pertinent to the present discussion are the second and sixth hours of the Amduat on shrine III, the previously unattested Enigmatic Book of the Netherworld on shrine II, and excerpts of the Book of the Dead, particularly chapter 142, on shrine I. Like KV 62, Ay’s WV 23 is undecorated except for the burial chamber. The walls dis- play divine scenes, unusual scenes of the king and his family fishing and fowling, the first hour of the Amduat, and excerpts from the Book of the Dead, including chapter 142, which lists several dozen epithets of Osiris.17 The burial chamber also contains several divine scenes that do not include Ay, including the four sons of seated at an offering table, the in a solar barque, and .

4 Horemheb (KV 57) Often described as a break with the traditions of the earlier Eighteenth Dynasty, the tomb of Horemheb borrows elements from earlier royal tombs while also displaying major innova- tions that make its decorative program unique. This section will begin with a description of the tomb and its decoration, followed by an analysis of the ways in which KV 57 maintains continuity with earlier Eighteenth Dynasty royal tombs. Next, I will discuss innovative elements of KV 57’s decorative program, beginning with the Book of Gates and its theolog- ical differences with the Amduat, followed by an examination of the divine scenes in the well chamber and antechamber. Taken as a whole, the decoration of KV 57 is an inventive

13 Roehrig, op. cit., 196. 14 High-resolution images of the burial chamber walls may be found at www.highres.factum-arte.org. , Factum Arte/Supreme Council of Antiquities, recorded 2009, www.highres.factum-arte.org. 15 Broken pieces of a disassembled shrine inscribed for Tiye in KV 55 and a plan of Ramses IV’s tomb (KV 2) showing boxes around the sarcophagus suggest that at least some other New Kingdom royal burials included this type of shrine. 16 For a full description of the decorative program of the shrines, see A. Piankoff, The Shrines of Tut-- Amon, N. Rambova (ed.), New York, 1955. 17 O. Schaden, Paintings in the Tomb of King Ay (WV23) and the Western Valley of the Kings Project, in: Amarna Letters 4, 2000, 88–111.

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way of combining the new solar theolotical elements of the Book of Gates with the tradi- tional constellative theology, which forms the foundation of the divine scenes. 4.1 Description Located in the eastern Valley of the Kings, KV 57 is significantly larger than both KV 62 and WV 23 and closer in size to WV 22 and KV 43.18 The tomb includes a decorated well chamber, a pillared chamber, a decorated antechamber, and a decorated two-room burial chamber with side chambers.19 The burial chamber is composed of a hall with decorated walls and six undecorated pillars, as well as a wider sarcophagus chamber with decorated walls. Nine side chambers are connected to the burial chamber, two of them communicating directly with the pillared hall component of the chamber and three others communicating directly with the sarcophagus chamber. The well chamber and antechamber are both decorated with scenes of Horemheb with various deities. These scenes are executed, for the first time, in painted relief and include a wide cast of deities, with the notable addition of Horus, as well as and .20 Both the east and west walls of the well chamber show Horemheb with Horus, , , and Osiris. The south wall shows Horemheb with Horus and Hathor, as well as an jackal on a bier. The north wall depicts Horemheb with Horus, Anubis, and Osiris. In the antechamber, the east and west walls show Horemheb appearing with Anubis, Isis, Horus, Hathor, and Osiris. The south wall features Horemheb with Hathor and Horus. Finally, the north wall depicts Horemheb with Nefertem and Ptah.21 The decorations of the burial chamber are unfinished, showing various degrees of com- pletion. The walls are decorated with the first known attestation of the Book of Gates. Un- like the Amduat, which is painted on plaster and drawn with shorthand figures, the Book of Gates is composed of painted raised relief, with full, detailed human figures. Horemheb’s burial chamber features the second through the sixth hours of the Book of Gates, some of which are more complete than others. The second hour begins on the western half of the south wall and finishes on the west wall. It is followed by the fourth and fifth hours on the west wall. The north wall, alongside the sarcophagus, features the Judgment Hall of Osiris, a new scene unique to the Book of Gates, and the start of the sixth hour. The east wall dis- plays the rest of the sixth hour and the third hour. Finally, the eastern side of the south wall shows the fourth gate. 4.2 Continuity with Eighteenth Dynasty Royal Tombs KV 57 shares several elements with earlier Eighteenth Dynasty royal tombs, most notably its axis and its use of divine scenes in the well chamber and antechamber. KV 57 follows WV 23 in incorporating a mostly straight axis. However, its shift to the left in the pillared

18 KV 57 (Horemheb), , http://www.thebanmappingproject.com/sites/browse_ tomb_871.html. 19 See T. Davis, The Tombs of Harmhabi and Touatânkhamanou, London 1912; E. Hornung, Das Grab des Haremhab im Tal der Könige, Bern 1971; G. Johnson, The Royal Tomb of Horemheb in the Valley of the Kings: Its Discovery, Design and Decoration, in: Amarna Letters 4, 2000, 120–159. 20 Hornung, Das Grab, 27–29. 21 See Hornung, Das Grab, 28–29, for a discussion of the significance of the placement of each god, as well as diagrams of the decoration of these two chambers.

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chamber is perhaps a nod to the axes of KV 34, KV 35, KV 43, and WV 22, which bend to the left. KV 57 emulates earlier tombs more directly in the divine scenes of the well cham- ber and antechamber. This type of scene appears in KV 35, KV 43, WV 22, KV 62, and WV 23. Horemheb’s divine scenes appear to hearken back to Amenhotep III’s specifically, due in part to the blue-grey background similar to that of WV 22, as well as to the inclusion of triads in divine scenes, a development of the royal decorative program begun by Amen- hotep III. WV 22’s divine scenes include two groups of three: the deceased king with his father’s ka and Hathor, as well as the deceased king with his father’s ka and . KV 62 continues this trend and includes two triads: the deceased king with his own ka and Osiris, and the deceased king with Hathor and Anubis. Although KV 57’s divine scenes do not include any royal kas, the well chamber includes three triads of the king with two deities: on the west and east walls with Horus and Isis, and on the south wall with both Horus and Hathor. Horemheb also appears on the south wall of the antechamber with Horus and Hath- or. KV 57’s use of triads in the well chamber and antechamber echoes WV 22 and KV 62, while the substitution of an additional god for the royal ka in the triads suggests a changing conception of the deceased king’s relationship with the gods, as will be discussed in greater depth in the following sections. 4.3 Innovations in KV 57 KV 57’s decorative program also introduces new elements, many of which will become standard parts of Ramesside royal tomb decoration. In addition to technical advances, such as the execution of divine scenes and the Book of Gates in painted relief, KV 57’s innova- tions include new ways of integrating Osiris into the decorative program, the use of the Book of Gates, and changes to the divine scenes and their captions. 4.3.1 Osiris in KV 57 As in KV 62 and WV 23, though using different mechanisms, KV 57 highlights the im- portance of Osiris in innovative ways. This is not to say that Osiris appears more frequently or plays a more important role in these tombs than in earlier Eighteenth Dynasty tombs, but rather that he is integrated into the decorative program in new ways. In KV 62, examples of this phenomenon include the depiction of Tutankhamun as Osiris on the north wall and the inclusion of chapter 142 of the Book of the Dead, which lists various names of Osiris. In addition, WV 23 depicts Ay embracing an enthroned Osiris – the first instance of an en- throned Osiris in a funerary divine scene – and includes some of the same Osiris-focused Book of the Dead chapters as KV 62. KV 57 highlights Osiris in an innovative way in each decorated chamber. The well chamber depicts an enthroned Osiris, as in WV 23, this time with the deceased offering to him instead of embracing him. In the antechamber, Horemheb is captioned in the divine scenes as wsjr ‘Osiris,’ rather than as the expected nTr nfr of earlier royal tombs. While it is not unique for the deceased king to be identified with Osiris in his tomb, KV 57 is the only Eighteenth Dynasty tomb in which a king is explicitly named as Osiris in this type of scene. In the burial chamber, Osiris is the focal point of the entire north wall, where he presides over the Book of Gates’ Judgment Hall of Osiris. Finally, side chamber Jb, the “Osiris an- nex,” connects to the west wall of the sarcophagus chamber and depicts an enshrined Osi-

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ris-Khentiamentiu, standing on a plinth in front of a -pillar, on the west wall. No other Eighteenth Dynasty royal tombs have decorated side chambers; after Horemheb, a decorat- ed “Osiris annex” appears in the tombs of Ramses I, , Merenptah, and Ramses III.22 4.3.2 Book of Gates KV 57 contains the earliest known attestation of the Book of Gates. After Horemheb, it remained a popular Netherworld Book in royal and eventually private tombs throughout the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties. The question of when the Book of Gates was com- posed continues to inspire debate. Scholars have generally subscribed to one of two ap- proaches in dating the Book of Gates and the other Netherworld Books: an early approach that favors a date of composition in the Middle Kingdom or even the Old Kingdom, and a late approach that suggests the early New Kingdom or very shortly before.23 The early ap- proach has been favored by Grapow, Altenmüller, Assmann, Wente, Rößler-Köhler, Quack, and von Lieven, among others.24 On the other side of the issue, Piankoff, Hornung, Schott, Brunner, Hermsen, Jansen-Winkeln, Roberson, Werning, Smith, Zeidler, and more have argued for a later date.25 In his edition of the Book of Gates, Zeidler argues, based on a combination of linguistic, semantic, semiotic, and religious-historical analysis, for a com- position date in the mid- to late Eighteenth Dynasty, most likely during the reign of Amen- hotep III or possibly the early Amarna Period.26 Quack has strongly criticized Zeidler’s dating, arguing that the linguistic features of the Book of Gates and the other Netherworld Books, as well as its theological content, are most consistent with a composition date in the Old Kingdom.27 Werning’s more recent linguistic analysis, however, reveals at least six linguistic phenomena that are highly suggestive, if not incontrovertible proof, of a composi- tion date in the Second Intermediate Period or New Kingdom.28 In addition, despite Quack’s criticism, Zeidler’s arguments based on religious content, such as the Book of

22 H. McCarthy, Iconography, Palaeography, Decorative Elements, Distribution, and Developments of Scenes, in: R. Wilkinson/K. Weeks (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Valley of the Kings, Oxford 2015, 157. 23 As summarized in J. Zeidler, Pfortenbuchstudien, Wiesbaden 1999, 230–33. 24 H. Grapow, Sprachliche und schriftliche Formung ägyptischer Texte, Glückstadt 1936; H, Altenmüller, Zur Überlieferung, 27–42; J. Assmann, Der König als Sonnenpriester. Ein kosmologischer Begleittext zur kultischen Sonnenhymnik in thematischen Tempeln und Gräbern, Glückstadt 1970, 57; E. Wente, Review of Der Gott Tatenen nach Texten und Bildern des Neuen Reiches, by H. Schlögl, in: JNES 42, 1983, 155–56; U. Rößler-Köhler, Zum Problem der Spatien in altägyptischen Texten: Versuch einer Systematik von Spatienty- pen, in: ASAE 70, 1984, 383–408; J. Quack, Review of Zeidler (1999:I), in: BiOr 57, 2000, 541–59; A. von Lieven, Grundriss des Laufes der Sterne: das sogenannte Nutbuch, Copenhagen 2007. 25 C. Maystre/A. Piankoff, Le Livre des Portes, Cairo 1939, x; E. Hornung, Ägyptische Unterweltsbücher, Zurich 1972, 21; S. Schott, Die Shrift der Verborgenen Kammer in Königsgräbern der 18. Dynastie, Göttingen 1958, 332; H. Brunner, Grundzüge der altägyptischen Religion, Darmstadt 1983, 137; E. Hermsen, Die zwei Wege des Jenseits. Das altägyptische Zweiwegebuch und seine Topographie, Freiburg 1991, 41; K. Jansen- Winkeln, Zu Sprache und Datierung des Amduat, in: JEA 98, 2012, 87–106; J. Roberson, Observations on the so-called ‘sw sDm.f,’ or Middle Egyptian Proclitic Pronoun Construction, in: Z. Hawass/J. Wegner (eds.), Mil- lions of Jubilees: Studies in Honor of David P. Silverman, Cairo 2010, 185–205; D. Werning, Linguistic Dating of the Netherworld Books Attested in the New Kingdom. A Critical Review, in: G. Moers et al. (eds.), Dating Egyptian Literary Texts, ed. Hamburg 2013, 237–81; Smith, op. cit., 245–51, 301. 26 Zeidler, op. cit., 230–46. 27 Quack, op. cit. 548–59. 28 Werning, op. cit., 230–46.

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Gates’ characterization of the sun god29 and its indication of more cosmopolitan thinking, remain convincing, though not irrefutable.30 Taken together, the linguistic and religious- historical evidence suggest that a composition date in the New Kingdom is most likely. The structure and main events of the Book of Gates are similar to the Amduat. The book is divided into twelve hours, each followed by a named gate through which Ra must pass. Each hour has three registers, as in the Amduat. Halfway through the night, Ra and Osiris unite, and the twelfth hour ends with the sunrise. Although the two Netherworld Books are similar, the Book of Gates is not simply a different version of the Amduat. There are notable differences between the two books. For example, the cast of deities, the land- scapes of the Duat, and the iconography differ from those of the Amduat. In addition, the Book of Gates includes a new scene between the fifth and sixth hours, the Judgment Hall of Osiris. Unlike the rest of the Book of Gates, this scene is written cryptographically.31 Many later tombs incorporate both the Amduat and the Book of Gates, suggesting that the two compositions complement each other. There are also significant theological differences between the Amduat and the Book of Gates. In the Book of Gates, the nature and activities of the sun god are conceptualized in ways that hearken back to the theological developments occurring just before the Amarna Period. Specifically, the sun god of the Book of Gates displays several, though not all, of the qualities associated with the transcendent sun god of the new solar theology developing during the reign of Amenhotep III. “New solar theology” is a term coined by Assmann to describe a stream of theological change happening in the Eighteenth Dynasty that centers around a single transcendent sun god who creates and regulates the cosmos.32 Assmann ascribes to this god fifteen qualities, which are drawn from mid-Eighteenth Dynasty texts, including the hymns of Suty and Hor, which date to shortly before the Amarna Period.33 These texts indicate that the new solar theology did not deny the existence of other gods, although they were generally considered aspects of the sun god rather than separate entities. The new solar theological sun god does not seem to interact with other deities, undermining the compatibility of the new solar theology with the “constellative theology,”34 a term Ass- mann uses to describe a more traditional theology, which “focused on recurrent constella- tions of divine beings, gods and goddesses interacting in eternally recycled relationships that form the substance and process of the cosmos and that also guarantee Egypt’s survival

29 Zeidler’s study of the Book of Gates calls the particular religious concepts in the Book of Gates “Vor- Amarnastufe der (Meta-)Transzendenztheologie,” arguing that the sun god is not spatially distant, but meta- physically distant. This argument relies on several questionable readings in order to draw the distinction be- tween new solar theology and (meta-)transcendence theology. I believe that what Zeidler is describing aligns with Assmann’s original conception of the new solar theology, which is described as a theological process rather than a specific moment, and that the creation of new theological terms to refer to individual steps in this process may unnecessarily complicate the discussion. Zeidler, op. cit., 234–37. 30 Quack, op. cit., 553–57; Zeidler, op. cit., 233–37. 31 See C. Manassa, The Judgment Hall of Osiris in the Book of Gates, in: RdE 57, 2006, 109–50. 32 J. Assmann, The Search for God in , trans. D. Lorton, Ithaca 2001, 201–08; J. Assmann, Egyptian Solar Religion in the New Kingdom. Re, and the Crisis of Polytheism, trans. A. Alcock, Lon- don 1995. 33 Assmann, Search, 201–08. 34 Assmann, Search, 12–13.

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as a society.”35 More than just groups of gods who appear together, constellations of deities are meaningful because of the relationships between their members, which impart meaning to religious and social activity.36 Although the new solar theology served as a stepping stone from the implicit theology of the traditional constellative religion to the explicit theology of ’s religion, it should not be seen as an early form of the Amarna religion.37 Ass- mann notes that post-Amarna texts attest to the new solar theology’s continued develop- ment, beginning where it had left off when Akhenaten introduced his religion.38 The new solar theology “confined itself strictly to visible reality,”39 suggesting that this theological movement is not compatible with the Netherworld Books’ speculation about the sun god’s nocturnal journey through the Duat. However, although the Book of Gates is not a perfect or comprehensive example of the new solar theology, the new solar theology pro- vides a useful model for interpreting the conspicuous differences between the ways in which the Amduat and the Book of Gates characterize the sun god. The Book of Gates’ depiction of the sun god trends toward the new solar theology without fully embodying it, situating itself somewhere between traditional constellative religion and the new solar the- ology’s transcendent, solitary deity. The Book of Gates describes and depicts a sun god who exhibits several of the qualities that define the new solar theology’s sun god. Not every one of Assmann’s fifteen qualities is evident in the Book of Gates. For example, the Ra of the Book of Gates does not seem to be the sole creator of time and lifetime (Assmann’s numbers thirteen and fifteen).40 Alt- hough he is referred to as the “master of hours” and the one who gave birth to the hours, he seems to delegate the responsibility of creating time and lifetime to other deities, such as and the twelve gods who carry the serpent of time.41 Some of the missing qualities may be accounted for by the fact that not all of them translate well to the Duat, since, as previously stated, the new solar theology describes visible reality. Despite the fact that the new solar theology does not speculate about the netherworld, the differences between the Amduat and the Book of Gates suggest that the composers of the Book of Gates were influ- enced by the theological shift toward a transcendent solar deity. In the following sections, I will discuss the four main new solar theological qualities displayed by Ra in the Book of Gates. 4.3.2.1 Ra Is Alone This quality of Ra in the Book of Gates aligns with Assmann’s first tenet of the new solar theology: “The Sun…is alone in the sky, so that the sun god accomplishes his course in complete solitude.”42 In the case of the Book of Gates, this tenet should perhaps be modi- fied to “Ra is (almost) alone.” The Book of Gates depicts Ra as isolated from his compan-

35 D. O’Connor, The City and the World: Worldview and Built Forms in the Reign of Amenhotep III, in: D. O’Connor/E. Cline (eds.), Amenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign, Ann Arbor 1998, 134. 36 Assmann, Search, 98–102. 37 Assmann, Search, 12–13. 38 Assmann, Search, 201. 39 Assmann, Search, 201. 40 Assmann, Search, 204. 41 E. Hornung, Das Buch von den Pforten des Jenseits, Geneva 1979, 221; 122; 215–18; 181–82. 42 Assmann, Search, 202.

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ions, if not completely alone. Although he speaks with other deities in the Duat, he remains physically separated. This is most noticeable in the depiction of the sun barque, particularly when compared to the sun barque of the Amduat.43 In the Amduat, Ra rides in his barque with a large entourage of gods whose membership is constantly shifting. In all but three hours of the Amduat, the entourage includes eight gods accompanying Ra. Although Ra is separated from the entourage by a shrine, Horus often bridges the barrier by resting his hand on the shrine.44 In the Book of Gates, however, the entourage is limited to and Heka. Ra is separated from them not only by a shrine, but also by , who does not merely stretch around the shrine but forms wide coils around it, thus increasing the distance between Ra and his entourage. Neither Sia nor Heka ever touches Mehen or the shrine, and the physical barrier between them and Ra is never bridged. Moreover, in KV 57 Sia and Heka are depicted at a smaller scale than Ra, further emphasizing his uniqueness and isola- tion, while the Amduat depicts Ra and his Amduat at the same scale. While Ra is not com- pletely alone and thus does not correspond exactly to the new solar theology’s sun god, there is a clear shift between the Amduat’s large entourage and the Book of Gates’ much emptier barque, which is best explained by a trend toward, if not a wholesale adoption of, the new solar theology. 4.3.2.2 Ra Is Inaccessible This quality refers to the unreachability and unknowability of Ra: “The Sun…is distant, so that the sun god is inaccessibly distant and unfathomable in his essence.”45 The Ra of the Book of Gates is given several epithets that center around the words StA and sStA, both meaning ‘secret, mysterious, inaccessible.’46 Epithets including these words were in use well before the New Kingdom; for example, the Pyramid Texts contain many examples of StAw jswt, “those whose places are remote,”47 as well as references to inaccessible roads and lands,48 among others. The difference between previous epithets using StA/sStA and those of the Book of Gates is that the ones in the Book of Gates focus on the general character of the sun god as inaccessible and his association with the concept of mystery. In the fourth gate, for example, the Ennead calls Ra nb StAw, ‘master of mysteries.’49 In contrast, the Amduat

43 Images of the Amduat discussed here are primarily from KV 34 and can be found in E. Hornung/T. Abt, The Egyptian Amduat. The Book of the Hidden Chamber, trans. D. Warburton, Zurich 2007. Photos of the Book of Gates may be found in Hornung, Das Grab des Haremhab, and line drawings may be found in Hor- nung, Das Buch von den Pforten. 44 In KV 34, Horus touches Ra’s shrine in the second, fourth, fifth, and sixth hours. Hornung and Abt, Am- duat, 44, 108, 136, 174. 45 Assmann, Search, 202. 46 Many instances of epithets of this type occur in the eighth and ninth hours of the Book of Gates. Howev- er, since these hours do not appear in KV 57, they will not be discussed here. 47 PT 419, 461, 468, among others. After J. Allen, The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts, Second Edition, Atlanta 2015, 124, 129. 48 For example, PT 254 and 470. Allen, op. cit., 89, 131. 49 Hornung, Das Buch von den Pforten, 144. This section of the text of the fourth gate is damaged in KV 57, but the wording is consistent across the five versions in which this passage survives. One of these, in the tomb of Seti I, was drafted using the same manuscript as Horemheb’s draftsman, according to Werning’s analy- sis of the stemma of the Book of Gates. Thus, it is reasonable to restore this particular phrase as nb StAw. D. Werning, An Interpretation of the Stemmata of the Books of the Netherworld in the New Kingdom – Tomb

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only refers once to Ra using the word StA, mentioning sStA n nTr pn aA, ‘the mystery of this great god,’ in the eleventh hour.50 All other references to StA/sStA in the Amduat refer not to Ra, but to the nearly unnavigable landscape of the Duat. The shift from inaccessible terrain to an inaccessible sun god is suggestive of influence from the new solar theology. Ra’s mysteriousness is represented visually as well as textually in the sixth hour, in which Ra’s corpse unites with Osiris.51 The middle register of this hour shows a line of armless figures, labeled in complete examples of the Book of Gates as jmnw-a Xrjw StAw, ‘the ones with hidden arms who carry the mystery,’ referring to sStAw n nTr aA jwtj mAA sw jmjw dwAt, ‘the mystery of the great god which those in the Duat cannot see.’52 These fig- ures are carrying the sun god’s corpse, which is so mysterious that it makes their arms in- visible. Both the upper and lower registers of this hour, as well as all three registers of the fifth hour on the opposite wall, are bisected by long, horizontal lines. The eye is drawn to the missing horizontal line of the middle register of the sixth hour, making the invisible and unfathomable corpse of the sun god the focal point of the hour. In contrast, the fifth hour of the Amduat depicts the inert corpse of Ra as a human encircled by a multi-headed serpent. The corpse is labeled as simply jwf, ‘flesh.’53 There is nothing to suggest any difficulty of access. 4.3.2.4 Ra Opens Up the World Assmann’s fourth tenet of the new solar theology is that the sun’s light “opens up the world, making it visible and useful to humankind.”54 While it seems like a basic natural phenomenon for the sun to illuminate the space he travels through, there are differences in the ways the Amduat and the Book of Gates represent it. In the Book of Gates, each gate describes how Ra illuminates the uniform darkness and puts light into the hidden chamber, thus filling the Duat, hour by hour, with his light.55 There are also several other references to him illuminating the residents of the Duat. For example, in the third hour, the gods of the lake of fire say that sHD Axt.f dwAtjw, ‘his effective one [his eye] illuminates the ones in the Duat.’56 In the Amduat, just as in the Book of Gates, Ra brings light to the various regions of the Duat and expels the darkness. However, he is not the only one who illuminates the Duat, nor is it always his light that makes the Duat visible. In the closing of the first hour, for example, he tells the gods in the first gateway to illuminate his creation for him, and they respond that what was dark is now illuminated for him.57 In addition, the fifth hour

Decoration and the Text Additions for Osiris NN, in: J.-C. Goyon/C. Cardin (eds.), Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress of Egyptologists, Grenoble, 6–12 septembre 2004, Leuven 2007, 1935–49. 50 E. Hornung, Texte zum Amduat, Geneva 1994, 758. 51 This hour is unfinished in KV 57. As mentioned above, Werning’s stemma analysis indicates that the same manuscript used by Horemheb’s draftsmen was used to decorate the tomb of Seti I, which includes a complete sixth hour. Therefore, I will comment on the images of this hour as if they had been completed, since it is clear what the finished product was intended to look like. 52 Hornung, Texte zum Amduat, 224–25. 53 Hornung, Texte zum Amduat, 505. 54 Assmann, Search, 202. 55 Hornung, Das Buch von den Pforten, 47–48, 90, 145. 56 This passage also supports Ra’s use of the sun disc (his eye) as a vehicle for his light. Hornung, Das Buch von den Pforten, 61. 57 Hornung, Texte zum Amduat, 152, 160.

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describes the oval of Sokar as illuminated by a serpent’s eyes, and in the ninth hour twelve serpents illuminate the chamber of Osiris.58 Thus, although Ra does dispel some of the darkness of the Duat himself, other deities do so as well with their own light, whether at his bidding or not. In the Amduat, as opposed to the Book of Gates, filling the Duat with light is not the sole prerogative of the sun. The differences in the way the Amduat and the Book of Gates characterize the sun god and his activities suggest a significant difference in the theologies they explore. In contrast with the Amduat’s sun god, who does not display any of Assmann’s transcendent qualities, the Book of Gates’ depiction of the sun god as quasi-transcendent aligns with the new solar theology. 4.3.3 Constellative Theology and New Solar Theology In contrast with the burial chamber, the decorations in the well chamber and antechamber feature elements of the traditional constellative theology. As previously discussed, these chambers depict Horemheb with various deities, in pairs and triads, on a blue-grey back- ground reminiscent of WV 22. Although KV 57’s divine scenes share elements with those in earlier Eighteenth Dynasty royal tombs, they also show innovation in their depiction of Horemheb, their wider repertoire of deities, and changes in captions. Among the most noticeable differences between KV 57’s divine scenes and those in other Eighteenth Dynasty royal tombs is that they depict Horemheb offering to the gods. The divine scenes in KV 43, WV 22, KV 62, and WV 23 depict the deceased king in exclu- sively passive roles, being welcomed or given life and favor by the gods. KV 57, in con- trast, shows Horemheb both receiving favors from the gods and in the act of offering to them, suggesting, according to McCarthy, “a heightened emphasis on the do ut des relation- ship between king and gods in the mortuary realm.”59 Following Horemheb, the deceased king will continue to be depicted offering to the gods in divine scenes in Ramesside tombs. Horemheb is also depicted with a wider variety of deities than the owners of previous Eighteenth Dynasty tombs. KV 57 expands from the usual repertoire of Osiris, Hathor, Anubis, and sometimes Nut to include Isis, Horus, Ptah, and Nefertem, as well as an Anu- bis jackal and two amuletic representations, a djed pillar and a knot.60 The addition of Horus, who appears more frequently in KV 57 than any other god, is particularly important, as it allows Horemheb to insert himself more cohesively into several constellations of dei- ties. The captions above the scenes of Horemheb and Horus offer insight into the im- portance of Horus’s presence in KV 57. In both the well chamber and the antechamber, Horus is consistently captioned as Hr zA jst, ‘Horus son of Isis,’ thus incorporating his mother Isis and their relationship into his scenes, whether or not Isis is depicted with him. In the antechamber, though not the well chamber, Horemheb is consistently captioned with wsjr, ‘Osiris,’ over his prenomen, rather than nTr nfr, as in earlier tombs. The change is subtle but meaningful. In scenes depicting Horemheb and Horus, Horemheb’s label as Osi- ris, combined with Horus’s epithet mentioning his mother Isis, allows Horemheb to act as

58 Hornung, Texte zum Amduat, 443–33; 683. 59 McCarthy, op. cit., 157. 60 For more on the number and repertoire of deities, see Hornung, Das Grab, 27–28.

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Osiris in the Osiris-Horus-Isis triad. In this way, Horemheb is incorporated into a constella- tion composed of the male and female principles of generation and the god of kingship, underlining the deceased king’s integral role in his own rebirth and the regeneration of the cosmos. Horemheb’s caption as wsjr also highlights the Ra-Osiris constellation, which is not de- picted in the well chamber or antechamber. While the captions in the antechamber intro- duce Horemheb’s prenomen with wsjr, ‘Osiris,’ his nomen retains the typical zA ra, ‘son of Ra.’ The combination of “Osiris” and “son of Ra” makes each depiction of Horemheb in the antechamber an evocation of the constellation of Ra, Osiris, and the deceased king. This combination of epithets creates cohesion between the decoration in the antechamber and the burial chamber by echoing the solar-Osirian themes of the Book of Gates, despite the dif- ferences in the theology underlying each chamber’s decorative program.

5 Conclusion The decorative program of KV 57 works within the framework of earlier Eighteenth Dynas- ty royal tombs, while also adding new elements suggestive of theological shifts. These new elements include innovative ways of incorporating Osiris into the decoration, such as the “Osiris Annex” and the Book of Gates’ Judgment Hall of Osiris. This trend, evident in KV 62 and WV 23 as well, may be driven in part by a reaction to the absence of Osiris from Amarna religion and tombs. Another significant innovation in KV 57’s decoration is the use of the Book of Gates, a new Netherworld Book that describes a quasi-transcendent solar deity, who shares some qualities with the fully transcendent solar deity of the new solar theology. In contrast with the burial chamber’s new solar theological decoration, the well chamber and antechamber’s divine scenes are grounded in the constellative theology, and innovations in the scenes and their captions serve to integrate Horemheb explicitly into various divine constellations, as well as to foreshadow the solar-Osirian themes of the buri- al chamber. By combining the Book of Gates and the divine scenes, Horemheb’s decorative program reconciles the new solar theology and the traditional constellative theology, two seemingly opposing theological streams that, in a typically Egyptian fashion, are able to coexist and complement each other in a single tomb.

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Taf. 1: Overview of Decoration of Eighteenth Dynasty Royal Tombs

Tomb Well Pillared Chamber I Burial Chamber J Side Chamber E Chamber F Chambers J- KV 38 N/A N/A N/A Amduat (limestone Undecorated (Thutmose I) slabs), kheker frieze KV 20 N/A N/A N/A J1: undecorated J2: Undecorated (Thutmose I/ Amduat (limestone Hatshepsut) slabs) KV 34 Kheker Deities of N/A Amduat, kheker Undecorated (Thutmose III) frieze the Amduat, frieze, Litany of Re, kheker abbreviated Amduat frieze KV 35 Undecorated Undecorated N/A Amduat, kheker Undecorated (Amenhotep II) frieze, deceased with deities KV 43 Deceased Undecorated Deceased Undecorated Undecorated (Thutmose IV) with deities, with deities, kheker frieze kheker frieze WV 22 Deceased Undecorated Deceased Amduat, abbreviat- Undecorated (Amenhotep III) with deities, with deities, ed Amduat, kheker kheker frieze kheker frieze frieze, deceased with deities KV 62 N/A N/A Undecorated Deceased with Undecorated (Tutankhamun) deities, Book of the Dead 1, Amduat Hour 1, Opening of the Mouth, funeral procession WV 23 Undecorat- N/A N/A Deceased with Undecorated (Ay) ed; no well deities, deities, Book of the Dead 130/141/142/144, Amduat Hour 1, deceased fishing and fowling KV 57 Deceased Undecorated Deceased Book of Gates 1–6 Jb: enshrined (Horemheb) offering to offering to Osiris- deities, deities, amu- Khentyamen- Anubis letic repre- tiu (“Osiris jackal on sentations, annex”) shrine, kheker frieze kheker frieze

SAK 47 • © Helmut Buske Verlag 2018 • ISSN 0340-2215 Inhaltsverzeichnis

Engsheden, Åke An etymological safari to Aigyptos ...... 1–30

Gee, John Correcting the Genealogy of Chaponchonsis (anx=f-(n)-2nsw) ...... 31–41

Geoga, Margaret The Advent of the Book of Gates: Tomb Decoration and Theological Change in KV 57 ...... 43–56

Ilin-Tomich, Alexander Ikonografische Datierungskriterien für Privatopfertafeln der 12. Dynastie (Taf. 1) ...... 57–87

Iskander, John M. / Wagdy, Abdelghaffar Das verlorene Grab des Udjahormehent ...... 89–120

Jansen-Winkeln, Karl Der Titel zmA(tj) WAst(j) und die Propheten des Month in Theben ...... 121–135

Kahl, Jochem / El-Hamrawi, Mahmoud / Verhoeven, Ursula The Asyut Project: Thirteenth Season of Fieldwork (2017) (Taf. 2–8) ...... 137–148

Krauss, Rolf Über die L-förmigen Schattenuhren und die Schlacht von Megiddo ...... 149–175

Miniaci, Gianluca / Haynes, Joyce / Lacovara, Peter Heart-scarabs in the transition between the Second Intermediate Period and the early Eighteenth Dynasty: BMFA 72.1346 (Taf. 9) ...... 177–182

Antonio J. Morales / Rawda Abd El-Hady / Kelly Accetta / Marta Arranz / Teresa Bardají / Manuel F. Carrillo / Flavio Celis / Carmen Díaz / Enrique Dorado / Ernesto Echeverría / Sebastian Falk / Carlos Gracia / Salima Ikram / Sofía Illana / Elisabeth Kruck / Miriam Luciañez / Oscar Martínez / Delaminet Meza / Patricia Mora / Jónatan Ortiz / Mohamed Osman / Raúl Sánchez / Dina Serova / Hazem Shared / Daniel Spinelli / Ahmed Tarek / Kei Yamamoto “The Middle Kingdom Theban Project: Preliminary report on the University of Alcalá Expedition to Deir el-Bahari, Fourth Season (2018)”. (Taf. 10–18) ...... 183–221

Sjaastad, Espen The Egyptian Reel ...... 223–239

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Soleiman, Saleh Three Inscribed Joined Blocks of Seshemnefer. Discovered Recently at Saqqara (Taf. 19–24) ...... 241–259

Stefanovic, Danijela The holders of the title Hrj n tm ...... 261–272

Di Teodoro, Micòl The scribes of the ḫnrt wr Senebeni and Sobekhotep (Stela Edinburgh A.1951.344) (Taf. 25–26) ...... 273–292

Thijs, Ad The Ramesside Section of the Serapeum ...... 293–318

Anschriften der Autorinnen und Autoren ...... 319–322

Tafeln 1–26

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