Morphotectonic Analysis of the Bihar River, Madhya Pradesh, India

Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy (2021) 87:163–174 https://doi.org/10.1007/s43538-021-00023-8

ORIGINAL PAPER

Morphotectonic analysis of the Bihar River, Madhya Pradesh, India

Saurabh Singh 1 · Atul K. Singh 2 · Pankaj Kumar 2 · Manoj K. Jaiswal 1

Received: 1 July 2020 / Accepted: 15 September 2020 / Published online: 10 June 2021 © Indian National Science Academy 2021

Abstract The river basins evolve with time; the forces may be autogenic or allogenic in nature which control their evolution. Changes in the discharge or sediment load, change the morphology of the rivers. Such changes are largely controlled by the climate change or tectonic activity. Morphometric analysis helps in quantifying various aspects of a river basin. Morphotectonic indices also provide valuable information on the tectonic activity and landscape evolution of the river basin. To evaluate the morphotectonic parameters small rivers are well suited due to their low discharge and low sediment load. Bihar river is one such river in the Central India, fl owing through the sedimentary terrain of Vindhyan. The Bihar river is unique because in its upper reaches, the river runs parallel to the Sone-Narmada Lineament (SNL) and provides an opportunity to evaluate the eff ects of this fault in surrounding region. The SNL has been reactivated several times in the past. Several morphometric and morphotectonic parameters such as the stream order, bifurcation ratio, asymmetry factor, elongation ratio were calculated and have values of 2170, 4.47, 72.41 and 0.507 respectively. These values equivocally indicate that Bihar river basin is aff ected by the activities on the SNL. In addition to that stream length index have also been calculated. The value of the SL index has ranged from 5 to 3500. These variations in the lower part can be attributed to the lithological controls while, the changes in the upper part are due to the activity on the SNL. Diff erent lineaments have been identifi ed and plotted. The study shows that two diff erent sets of lineament are present in the study area. The eff ect of activity of SNL on the Bihar river basin can also be seen in the form of paleochannels.

Keywords Bihar River · Morphometry · Morphotectonics · Sone-Narmada Lineament (SNL)

Introduction properties of the basin etc. can deliver quantitative information on the tectonic activities (Azanon et al. 2012; Prakash The morphotectonic analysis is one of the necessary tools et al. 2017a, b ). and techniques to determine and evaluate the drainage basin The spatial analysis of the morphotectonic indices is a responses to climate change (Mesa 2006a , b ), fl ash fl ood tool for assessing the tectonic activity of the region. In the hazards (Angillieri 2008; Perucca and Angilieri 2010), Indian scenario, the morphotectonic indices were adopted and hydrologic processes (Eze and Efi ong 2010 ). Morpho- to resolve issues related to active tectonics (Chamyal et al. tectonic indices also provide valuable information on the 2003; Kothyari et al. 2010 ; Sahu et al. 2010 ; Raj 2012 ; Kale tectonic activity and landscape evolution of the river basin et al. 2014 ; Prakash et al. 2016a , 2019). Sahu et al. ( 2010 ) (Bull & McFadden 1977 ; Keller & Pinter 1996). These studied the subsurface faults in the Sone-Ganga plains indices based on stream parameters such as relief, slope, and suggested that the faults run parallel to the river channels and also cut across the river channels. The eff ects of transverse and lateral tilting in the basin are manifested as This article is part of the Special Issue: IndianNational Young channel avulsions and migrations (Sahu et al. 2010 ). The Academy of Science (INYAS). Narmada River fl ows along the Sone-Narmada Lineament (SNL), the SNL separates the Vindhyan basin on the north * Atul K. Singh [email protected] from the Gondwana belt on the south (Kothyari and Rastogi 2013). The faults in the SNL have been activated several 1 Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, times in the past and the eff ect of these movements on the West Bengal , Kolkata 741246 , India river morphology have been studied in some detail in the 2 Inter University Accelerator Centre , New Delhi 11067 , India

Vol.:(0123456789)1 3 164 Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy (2021) 87:163–174 western India but the rivers originating in the Vindhyans (Bose et al. 2001 ). The basal part of the Vindhyan Super- have not been studied in detail in this context. group is of upper Palaeoproterozoic age (Ray et al. 2002 ; Bihar river is one of the important rivers of the Rewa Bengtson et al. 2009 ; Singh et al. 2020) and Kaimur Group district, Madhya Pradesh (M.P.). Bihar river is a North-West acts as the marker horizon of not younger than 1070 Ma fl owing river in Rewa and is about 106 km long. The river (Gopalan et al. 2013). The Upper age of the Vindhyan super- originates from the Kaimur hills in Kharamkheda village group is 600 Ma (Ray 2006 ) . (Satna, M.P.) at the elevation of 371 m. After its origin in The Kaimur and Bhander Groups of the sediments are Kharamkheda, it fl ows through the hilly tract of Amar- much younger to Semri and Rewa groups (Chakrabarty et al. patan, courses through the plateau of Huzur and Sirmour 2007). Various thoughts have been proposed about the struc- Tehsils, reaches to the edge of the plateau at Chachai vil- tural setting of the Vindhyan sedimentation based on diff er- lage, where with its other tributaries, it forms a waterfall, ent observations. For e.g., Vindhyan basin is considered to known as “Chachai fall” and fl ows through the plains to be a strike-slip fault basin (Crawford and Compston 1970 ; join the Tons river. The Tons river originates from a tank in Crawford 1978 ). Another school of thought proposes that Tamakund in the Kaimur range, Vindhyan plateau, M.P. and sedimentation started in a foreland basin moving southward joins the mighty Ganga river at Sirsa few kilometres down- (Chakrabarti et al. 2007) or northward (Chakraborty and stream of Pryagraj (Das 2016 ; Das et al. 2017 ). In this study, Bhattacharyya 1996 ). The Vindhyan basin is intracratonic the morphotectonic indices of the basin have been calculated north–south rifting with a dextral shear at the early stage to understand the geological and geomorphic history of the (Bose et al. 1997 , 2001 ) and a sag at later stage (Sarkar basin. Diff erent morphometric indices, asymmetry factor et al. 2002 ). Furthermore, the Vindhyan basin has shown (AF), and Stream Length Gradient Index (SL) are applied several evidences of the tectonic-induced seismicity during to the Bihar River basin to investigate any tectonic activity. Proterozoic and later (Singh et al. 2020 ). The present study focuses on fi nding the eff ects of tectonic The major part of the study area is covered by the activity (if any) in the region and also evaluates the response Bhander Group of rocks, which consists of sandstone, shale, of the river system to such activities. The small rivers such and limestone followed by Rewa Group predominantly hav- as Bihar river are well suited to study the eff ects of tectonics ing sandstone. The Kaimur Group is named after Kaimur hill because the sediment load of such rivers are low and thus in MP (Madhya Pradesh) and a well-marked unconformity signatures of deformation are preserved for a longer time between Kaimur and Semri Group is present. The sequence (Singh et al. 2016 ; 2017 ); whereas in large river systems starts with conglomerate which is followed by the Lower such signatures get erased quickly due to heavy sediment Kaimur Sandstone Bijaigarh Shale and Upper Kaimur Sand- load. Frequent fi eld visits, coupled with recently compiled stone. For the Rewa Group, the name is derived from the data on subsurface geomorphic features, have signifi cantly Rewa town in M.P. The Rewa Group of rocks are exposed helped in understanding the tectonics and their manifesta- along the synclinal belt of the Vindhyan Supergroup in the tions. This paper aims to evaluate the Quaternary tectonic Sone Valley. In Rewa Group, rocks types are sandstones activity in the Vindhyan mountain range (Central India) by and shales (Bose et al. 2001 ). The youngest group of the relying on the morphotectonic indices and drainage pattern Vindhyan Supergroup is Bhander Group, made up of sev- analysis. eral carbonate units and has fi ve formations starting from the Ganurgarh Shale, the Bhander Limestone, the Lower Bhander Sandstone, the Sirbu Shale and Upper Bhander Geology of the area Sandstone. The Sone-Narmada Lineamnet (SNL) lies to the south-east of the basin (Fig. 2 ) . The Bihar river basin spreads over one stratigraphic horizon in the central India i.e., Vindhyan Super Group (Fig. 1 ). Vindhyan basin is the intracratonic basin exposed in the Methodology Sone Valley of the Central India covering approximately 1,00,000 km 2 area. Vindhyan supergroup developed as The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) obtained an intracratonic basin that has dominantly been a shallow elevation data on a near-global scale to generate the most marine basin. The Vindhyan supergroup is divided into two complete high-resolution digital topographic database of the groups separated by distinct regional unconformity; the Earth. The SRTM data of WRS-2 has a capture resolution of Lower Vindhyans (Semri Group) and the Upper Vindhyans 3 arc second and pixel resolution of 90 m, was used for this consisting of Kaimur, Rewa, and Bhander Groups (Auden study. The boundary of the Bihar basin has been delineated 1933 ; Bose et al. 2001 ; Shukla 2014; Bose et al. 2015 ). In using SRTM DEM data. The streams of the Bihar basin were Central India, the Vindhyan Supergroup is least deformed extracted from Sentinal-2 images and Survey of India (SOI) and unmetamorphosed in comparison to the Bijawar Group topographical maps using ArcGIS. 1 3 Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy (2021) 87:163–174 165

F i g . 1 Geological map of the study area with major drainage systems. The map shows diﬀ erent lithostratigrahic units in the region

The Consultative Group for International Agriculture Results Research Consortium for Spatial Information (CGIAR-CSI) Geoportal was used to download the SRTM DEM (90 m Longitudinal profi les spatial resolution). The SRTM DEM data was used to fi gure out important geomorphological parameters such as slope Longitudinal profi les of the river can be understood as a gradient and slope aspect. The Sentinal-2 images were used balance between rates of uplift and erosion (Schumm et al. for the identifi cation of structural deformation features like 2000; Keller and Pinter 2002; Bull 2009). In Bihar river fractures, joints, and off set of drainages (linear features or longitudinal profi le of convex shape is present with a knick lineaments). The rivers follow these lineaments making point at approximately 100 kms from the origin of the river it easier to identify the structural/tectonic controls on the (Fig. 4 a–c). The results have been summarised in Table 2 . drainage system. Strahler’s (1964 ) method of stream order is used in this study. For computing the morphometric param- Drainage pattern eters of the basin, the mathematical method and formula used have been summarised in Table 1 . A fl ow chart of the The drainage patterns in general is rectangularly trel- method used is summarised in the (Fig. 3 ) . lised, while, dendritic and parallel patterns also exist at 1 3 166 Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy (2021) 87:163–174

F i g . 2 a , b showing the position of the Bihar river basin in Central India with major tectonic features. c LANDSAT imagery showing the position of the Bihar river basin. d Digital elevation model of the Bihar river basin derived from SRTM data

Fig. 3 Flow-chart of the method 1 3 Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy (2021) 87:163–174 167

Table 1 Diﬀ erent morphotectonic parameters, and mathematical formula Parameters Mathematical formula References

Numbers of stream order (Nu) Strahler (1957) Stream length (Lu) (km) Horton (1945 ) Bifurcation ratio (Rb) Rb = Nu/N(u + 1), Horton (1945 ) Numbers of Stream order (Nu) Asymmetry factor (AF) AF = 100*(Ar/At), Cox ( 1994 ) where, Ar = Area on the right side of the trunk stream (while looking downstream), and At = Total area of the drainage basin Elongation ratio (Re) Re = 1.128√A/Lb, Schumm ( 1956 ) where A = basin area, Lb = length of the basin parallel to the main drainage line Stream Length Index (SL) SL = (∆H/∆L)*L, Hack (1973 ) where, ∆H = change in height of a particular reach, ∆L is the length of that reach, L is the length from the divide to the midpoint of that reach

F i g . 4 a Longitudinal profi le of the Bihar River with knick point, b LANDSAT imagery showing position of kinck point on satellite image, c shows the fi eld photograph of the knick point (Chachai falls), d Filed photograph showing incision done by the Bihar river and development of cliff s (e ) ~ 3 m thick sediment cover lying above the sandstone of Vindhyan

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Table 2 Diff erent morphotectonic parameters and calculated value of river basin show polymodal distribution (Fig. 5 ). The 1st, the Bihar river basin 2nd and 3rd order streams have a high density in the upper Parameters Bihar River basin reaches of the river and are mostly oriented in NW–SE direction. The 4th and 5th order stream show a polymodal Perimeter (P) (km) 270.41 distribution with orientations in diff erent directions. The 2 Area (A) (km ) 1597.91 trunk stream, i.e. the Bihar river has an orientation of NEN Numbers of Stream order (Nu) 2170 in the rose diagram (Fig. 5 ) . Stream length (Lu) (km) 2401.71 Bifurcation ratio (Rb) 4.47 Asymmetry factor (AF) 72.41 Stream order Elongation ratio (Re) 0.597 According to Leopold et al. (1969) stream order is defi ned as a measure of the position of a stream in the hierarchy some places. The rectangularly trellised drainage pattern of tributaries. Stream order is a suitable indicator of dis- is shown by the higher order tributaries, i.e. 4th and 5th charge, stream size and drainage area (Strahler 1964 ). The order streams. These networks of the tributaries are well Bihar river watershed has streams reaching upto the sixth adjusted to diff erent geological structures (Zhang and order of streams as defi ned by Strahler (1964 ). According Guilbert 2013). The dendritic drainage pattern is mostly to Horton’s (1945 ) laws of stream numbers, there is an concentrated in the upper reaches of the river dominated inverse geometric sequence with stream order and sev- by the lower order streams, i.e. the 1st and 2nd order eral stream segments. This indicates that the number of streams. The dendritic drainage pattern is found in regions streams decreases (generally) in geometric progression as of homogeneous lithologies and horizontal or very gently the stream order increases. dipping litho-units. The drainage orientations of the Bihar

Fig. 5 Drainage map of the Bihar river basin with rose diagram of in NW–SE direction. The highest order stream (Bihar river) has an the drainage direction. The drainage orientations of the Bihar river orientation of NEN according to rose diagram but in upper reaches basin show polymodal distribution viz.NE-SW, NW–SE, N-S, and the river has an orientation of NE and in lower reaches S–N E-W. The lower order streams (smaller streams) are mostly oriented 1 3 Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy (2021) 87:163–174 169

Stream length Discussion

Stream length is indicative of the contributing area of The morphotectonic analyses provide information regard- the basin for a given order (Horton 1945 ). The length of ing the drainage dynamics, tectonics, and basin confi gu- stream order (segments) is lowest for fi rst-order streams and ration (Nag & Chakraborty 2003 ; Rai et al. 2018 ). Three increases as the stream order increases. The stream length types of longitudinal profi le shapes have been defi ned ratio of the Bihar river basin is 0.85, indicative of the infl u- according to the uplift rates and rainfall (as a proxy of ence of structures and rock types in the development of the rate of denudation) (Hovius 2000). Concave profi les drainage networks. indicate a long-term equilibrium between erosion and uplift rates. Concave-convex patterns with erosional steps Bifurcation ratio (Rb) in the middle parts represent the long-term dominance of erosional processes. Convex longitudinal profi les are dis- The bifurcation ratio (Strahler 1964 ) defi ned as a ratio of the tinguishing of the areas where active tectonics (uplift) is number of streams of a given order (Nu) to the number of dominant. The Bihar river has convex longitudinal profi le streams of the next higher-order (Nu + 1). The bifurcation which is indicative of active tectonics. Bifurcation ratio of ratio varies between 3.0 and 5.0 for the Bihar basin. The the Bihar river is between 3.0 and 5.0 for stream networks average Rb of the Bihar basin is 4.47 (Table 2 ) . which shows that basin is formed on a homogeneous rock without much structural disturbances (Chow et al. 1988 ; Asymmetry factor Thomas et al. 2010 ). The average Rb of the Bihar basin is 4.47, which is indicative of bed-rock river with high sur- The asymmetry factor (AF) is an index helpful in establish- face run-off and moderate permeability of the litho-units. ing any lateral tilt of a basin with respect to the main course The more signifi cant number of fi rst-order streams show of the river (Hare and Gardner 1985; Cox 1994 ; Cuong and uniform lithology and gentle slope gradient (Kale 1998 ; Zuchiewicz 2001; Mohan et al. 2007; Singh and Srivastava Kale and Gupta 2001 ), which means that a considerable 2011; Raj 2012 ). The index is sensitive to any possible dif- portion of precipitation fl ow as surface run-off with small ferential (neo) tectonic activity and sheds light on uplift and percolation. Variation in the size and order of streams is subsidence of discrete blocks along with large tilting (Pinter in direct response to the physiography, precipitation, and 2005 ). According to Molin et al. ( 2004), AF > 50 represents climate. Rainfall during monsoon in the catchment area that the channel has shifted towards the left and vice-versa. initially increases the subsurface percolation/infi ltration The Bihar basin has an AF value of 72.41. The shift in chan- which increases the groundwater table and after some nel is shown by the paleochannels, meander scars and mean- time, the infi ltration decreases, which increases the surface der cut-off s of the river (Fig. 6 ) . run-off and the number of the fi rst-order stream. The river network (stream order and stream number), slope, and Basin elongation ratio surface relief tend to reach a steady-state, when the channel morphology is adjusted to transmit the sediment and This variable indirectly provides information about the excess fl ow produced based on lithology, climate, rainfall degree of maturity of the basin by quantitatively describing and other relevant parameters of the basin (Horton 1945 ; the planimetric shape of the basin. The Bihar River basin has Strahler 1952 ; Mesa 2006a , b ). a Re values 0.597 (Table 2 ). The asymmetry factor (AF), which is an indicator of morphotectonics of a river basin is 72 for the Bihar rivers Stream gradient-length basin, this indicates that the trunk stream is shifted towards the left in the basin. The rose plot of the stream shows that The SL index indicates perturbations along the longitudi- the orientation of the 6th order stream (trunk stream) is nal profi le of the river (Burbank and Anderson 2000). SL more or less NEN (Fig. 5 ). But closer observation shows index is also useful in quantifying river slope and to defi ne that the river in its upper reach fl ows in NE direction more diff erences in uplift (Merritts and Vincent 1989 ) and ero- or less parallel to the SNL and from halfway (few kilo- sion (Hack 1973 ). Besides, the SL fi le might be utilized to metres upstream of Rewa) takes a sharp turn and starts recognize recent tectonic activity by identifying anomalous fl owing S–N. The rose plot is showing an average value changes in SL index values on a specifi c rock type (Kel- of both the fl ow directions and can be identifi ed based on ler and Pinter 1996 ; Brookfi eld 1998; Zovoili et al. 2004 ). the visual assessment of the drainage network. The drain- In Bihar river basin SL index shows anomalous change in age pattern in the upper reaches is dendritic dominated by lower part of the basin (at knick point) and some anomalous lower order streams and as the river progresses it is joined changes in the upper part of the basin (Fig. 7 ). 1 3 170 Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy (2021) 87:163–174

Fig. 6 The shifting nature of the Bihar river can be seen in the enlarged images of the present-day channels and paleochannels. Fig- form of paleochannels. a map showing the course of the Bihar river ures f and g shows the cross profi le of paleochannels and present-day with the boxes where paleochannels were identifi ed. b –e show the channels for b and c images along the lines AB and CD respectively by stream at right/acute angles forming a rectangular/trel- transverse to each other. The main fault of the SNL has lis drainage pattern (Fig. 5 ). This shows that the in upper an ENEᒧWSW trend; the SE shift of the river in the upper reaches the smaller order streams follow the local slope reaches shows the infl uence of the SNL on the Bihar river. which is towards the river basin while the higher order Re (Elongation ratio) is an indicator of the shape of the streams are structurally controlled. The satellite imagery river basin (Schumm 1956; Kanhiya et al. 2019). The drain- (Fig. 6 ) shows that in the upper reaches, the river is shift- age basins in tectonically active areas are more elongated ing towards right, i.e. in SE direction, moving towards the and tend to become more circular with the cessation of uplift Sone-Narmada lineament, whereas in the lower reaches (Bull and McFadden 1977). Re values are close to 1 as the the river is leaving paleochannels on the right and shifting basin approaches circular shapes, signifying a low relief towards West. Thus, there are two system of lineaments and hence mature topography. The Re value of 0.597 for controlling the river in upper and lower reaches. In the the Bihar River suggests an elongated shape of the river upper reaches these lineaments are running parallel to the basin. Elongated basins are the result of active tectonics in SNL and in the lower reaches these lineaments are more or the basin, whereas oval to circular basins are relatively stable less transverse to the SNL. The lineament map extracted (Bull and McFadden 1977 ). This leads to the inference that from the Sentinal-2 images is also showing similar kind the southern and south-western areas of the Bihar Basin are of orientation of the lineaments. From the origin of the tectonically more active than the rest of the regions. The river to the halfway the lineaments are parallel to SNL and elongated nature of the river basin implies both hydrologic after that they become transverse to SNL (Fig. 8 ) further and geomorphic processes. The fl ow of water in elongated justifying the presence of two sets of lineaments which are basins takes a longer time for distribution (Angillieri 2008). 1 3 Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy (2021) 87:163–174 171

F i g . 7 Figure shows variation in the Longitudinal proﬁ le (red) and SL index (blue) of the Bihar river. SL index shows anomalous change at knick point. (b ) the zoomed in plot of SL index before the knick point (large variation at the knick point has suppressed the smaller variation), variation in SL index values are present even before the knick point

The Bihar River Basin has elongated shape, shows an ENEᒧ be a lithological control rather than tectonics because no WSW elongation axis which is parallel to the Sone linea- deformation signatures were found during the fi eld visits. ment, a major lineament in central India that was activated However, the rapid incisions are also the result of active and reactivated several times between Precambrian and tectonics, the Bihar river has developed deep gorges in its Recent (Murty & Mishra 1981 ; Kanhaiya et al. 2019 ). The lower reaches (Fig. 4 d). Further work is required in this ENEᒧWSW trend of the upper Bihar river is the same as the direction. The SL index values are also showing signifi cant main fault of the Sone lineament. Thus, the reactivation of variation before the Chachai falls (Fig. 7 b), in this region the Sone-Narmada lineament must have made an impact on there are no lithological variations. So, these changes in the evolution of the Bihar Basin. The sediment and soil pro- the SL index values show that the gradient of the river is fi les along the Bihar River are thin without any evidence of changing at places, which shows the eff ect of the SNL PreᒧQuaternary accumulations. This implies that the Bihar on the upper reaches of the Bihar river. In addition to River has evolved during the Quaternary Period as a result that the upper reaches have also developed a 3–4-m-thick of the neo-tectonic activities associated with the Sone line- sediment cover (Fig. 4 e). The river has incised into this ament in the region. sediment cover. It would be important to date these sedi- The SL index values are also an indicator of active ments because they indicate towards an aggradation event. tectonics. The SL index value changes anomalously at This event may be the result of some climatic change in 100 km, close to Chachai falls (Fig. 3 c, 7 a), the exact rea- the region and may shed some light on the monsoon-con- son for this anomalous change is not known but it seems to trolled sedimentation in the Central India.

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Fig. 8 Spatial distribution of lineaments in the Bihar river basin. Rose diagram showing the orientation of lineaments

Conclusions References

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