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FACTORS RELATED TO ZIMBABWE WOMEN’S
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS IN AGRICULTURE
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial FuLfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in Graduate
School of The Ohio State University
By
Anna Ellen Mudukuti, M.A.H.E., BEd. HE., Dip. Ed.
*****
The Ohio State University
2001
Dissertation Committee: Approved by
Professor Larry Miller, Advisor Advisor Professor Scott Scheer fuman 'Sc Community Resource '^Development Graduate Program Professor Nikki Conklin UMI Number 3022544
UMI^
UMI Microform 3022544 Copyright 2001 by Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 ABSTRACT
The purpose of the study was to identify the perceived educational needs and perceived barriers to Extension participation of rural women in Shurugwi District,
Zimbabwe. The study sought to determine the relationship among the selected demographic characteristics of rural women and their perceived educational needs, and their barriers to Extension participation. The study was also designed to describe the best predictors of needs from among the independent variables.
Data were collected from 377 rural women. The researcher developed the instrument. A panel of experts and a pilot test established validity and reliability of the instrument. Face-to-face interviews were used to gather data. Interviews were conducted in Shona. Perceived educational needs, the dependent variable, were assessed using the
Borich needs assessment model. The model determines a need score by subtracting the perceived knowledge score from the perceived importance score, and multiple the result by the average perceived importance score. Descriptive and correlational statistics were used to analyze and surmnarize data.
Educational need scores ranged from a mean of 1.65 to a mean of 5.52.
According to Borich’s model, the higher mean score the greater the educational need.
The most important educational need with the highest mean score (5.52) was controlling
11 of livestock diseases. Among the 16 top educational needs 7 were related to nutrition, and 6 to access to land and credit. It appears that the rural women’s highest educational needs are in nutrition and access to land and credit. The least important educational needs of rural women were related to crop production. The findings indicated that these two areas were the major educational priority for respondents. Educational courses should be planned that meet the identified needs of the rural women. Extension program will be more effective as they focus on the educational needs of the rural women.
The selected demographic characteristics of the participants in this study failed to predict the needs of rural women, giving the possibility of drawing a conclusion that in principle Shurugwi rural women were similar. The perceived educational needs scores and the selected demographic characteristic are independent of one another. Findings revealed that the outstanding barriers to Extension participation were transportation, lack of information, time constraints, permission fi’om husband, and lack of access to credit.
A majority of the women in this study did not own land as individuals. Therefore, women continue to have poor control over a range of resources. Results of the study can help AGRITEX in placing its priorities on the items that were ranked high to meet the needs of rural women, attract a wider audience, and lead to the success of Extension programs in Zimbabwe. Educational courses should be planned that meet the identified needs of the rural women. Extension program will be more effective as they focus on clearly identified educational needs of the rural women.
Ill To my two daughters:
Chipo AnnaLee, and Zororo Maonei Natasha.
IV ACKNOLEDGEMENTS
First, I would like to give honor to God, because it is through Him that all things
are possible.
I wish to thank my adviser. Dr. Larry E. Miller for his valuable guidance, intellectual support, constructive criticism, constant encouragement, patience in correcting my errors and untiring help throughout my doctoral studies and my dissertation.
I am grateful to the members of my dissertation committee. Dr. Scott Scheer and
Dr. Nikki Conklin. I express my sincere gratitude for their support, enthusiasm, stimulating discussions and for providing useful suggestions during my course work and dissertation.
Many people have been involved in the completion of this Dissertation. I wish to thank everyone who has contributed to this study. With deep sense of gratitude, I specially thank my mother and the family for their constant support, encouragement, and understanding throughout my entire doctoral studies period. Thanks go to Annie Beny and John Solonika for sharing their knowledge and information. My doctoral studies and this research were supported by a grant from the W K
Kellogg Foundation. I am grateful for the financial support provided throughout my
studies and, indeed, my stay in the USA. To the Ministry of Lands and Resettlement,
AGRTEX Department, assistant interviewers, and all the women who contributed data
for this study, thank you for the full co-operation and making the completion of this dissertation possible.
VI VITA
September 25, 1952 ...... Bom — Gutu, Masvingo, Zimbabwe.
1976 - 1979 ...... Dip.H.E. Queensland University of Technology Brisbane, Australia
1982 - 1994...... Lecturer, Seke Teacher Training College, Ministry of Higher Education, Zimbabwe.
1986 - 1987 ...... B.Ed. H.E., Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia.
1989 -1992 ...... M. A. H. E., Mount Saint Vincent University, Canada
1995 - 1997...... Lecturer, Institute of Food, Nutrition and Family Sciences University of Zimbabwe.
1998 — 2000...... Lecturer, African-American and African Studies The Ohio State University, Columbus Ohio
2001...... Extension-Research Graduate Associate, OSU Extension Community Development, The Ohio State University, Columbus Ohio.
Vll PUBLICATIONS
1 Mudukuti. A. E. II991L Press in Africa. Journal of Home Economics Association of Australia. 23 (1), 4.
2 Mudukuti, A. E. (1994). ‘Tood and Nutrition Curriculum Development in Zimbabwe: Student and Teacher Expectations.” The Journal of Home Economics Institute of Australia. 1 (4), 55.
3 Munro, I. & Mudukuti, A. E. (Summer, 1998). “Competitive sport in Zimbabwe Secondary Schools: A Positive Influence on the Nutrition Knowledge of Students.” The Canadian Home Economics Journal. 48 (3), 97.
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Human and C om m unity Resource Development: Specialized in Extension Education, Family Resource Management, and Research Methodology
vm TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Abstract ...... ii
Dedication...... iv
Acknowledgments ...... v
Vita...... vü
List of Tables...... xii
List of Figures...... xiv
Chapters
1. Introduction...... 1
1.1 Problem statement...... 1 1.2 The setting...... 4 1.3 Purpose of study...... 9 1.4 Objectives of the study ...... 9 1.5 Significance of the study ...... 9 1.6 Definitions of terms...... 10 1.7 Assumptions...... 12 1.8 Limitations...... 12
2. Literature...... 13
2.1 The concept of needs...... 13 2.2 Needs assessment ...... 14 2.3 Face-to-face interviews...... 16 2.4 The nature o f adult learning ...... 17 2.5 Agricultural extension in Zimbabwe ...... 18 2.6 Women and extension in Zimbabwe ...... 21 2.7 Rural women and education...... 21
ix 2.8 Rural women and economy...... 26 2.9 Constraints facing rural women in Zimbabwe...... 27 2.10 Systems approach...... 39 2.11 Summary...... 43
3. M ethods...... 45
3.1 Research design ...... 45 3.2 Population and sample...... 46 3.3 Sampling procedure...... 46 3.4 Instrumentation...... 47 3.5 Data collection...... 50 3.6 Data analysis ...... 52
4. Findings ...... 54
4.1 Objective 1 ...... 54 4.4.1 Age...... 56 4.4.2 Years o f schooling...... 56 4.4.3 Marital status...... 57 4.4.4 Household size...... 57 4.4.5 Dependents ...... 58 4.4.6 Literacy ...... 59 4.4.7 Land ownership...... 59 4.2 Objective 2 ...... 60 4.3 Objective 3 ...... 71 4.4 Objective 4 ...... 74
5. Summary conclusions and recommendations...... 84
5.5.1 Methods ...... 85 5.5.2 Summary o f findings ...... 87 5.5.3 Conclusions and implications...... 88 5.5.4 Recommendations ...... 94 5.5.4 Further research...... 95 APPENDICES
A. Panel of Experts for Validation of Instrument...... 97 B. Research Instrument/Questionnaire...... 101 C. Shona Translation of Research Instrument/Questionnaire...... 110 D. Training Program...... 120 E. Participation Recruitment Script...... 123 F. Participation Consent Form...... 125 G. Shona Translation of Participation Consent Form...... 127 H. Correspondence...... 129 I. Variables Analyzed in the Correlation Matrix...... 133
Bibliography ...... 135
XI LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
3.1 Reliability coefficient of the pilot test instrument...... 50
4.1 Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients for the six domain areas, and 14 barriers to extension participation...... 55
4.2 Age of rural women (n = 377)...... 55
4.3 Years of schooling rural women (n = 377)...... 56
4.4 Marital status of rural women (n = 377)...... 57
4.5 Household size of rural women (n = 377)...... 58
4.6 Number of dependents of rural women (n = 377) ...... 58
4.7 Ability to read and write of rural women (n = 377)...... 59
4.8 Land ownership of rural women (n = 377)...... 59
4.9 Rank order of the calculated educational needs of the 23 areas of crop production (n = 377)...... 61
4.10 Rank order of the calculated educational needs of the 8 areas of livestock production (n = 377)...... 62
4.11 Rank order of the calculated educational needs of the 10 areas of marketing (n = 377)...... 63
4.12 Rank order of the calculated educational needs of the 9 areas of resource management (n = 377)...... 65
4.13 Rank order of the calculated educational needs of the 11 areas of nutrition (n = 377)...... 66
xii 4.14 Rank order of the calculated educational needs o f the areas on access to land and credit (n = 377) ...... 68
4.15 Rank order of the calculated educational needs (n = 377) ...... 69
4.16 Rank order of means and standard deviations for items related to perceived barriers to extension participation (n = 377)...... 72
4.17 Rotated component matrix loading order of principal component analysis of 14 barriers to extension participation on orthogonal (n = 377)...... 73
4.18 Percent of explained variance in barriers to extension participation explained by sociocultural and institutional factor (n = 377)...... 74
4.19 Davis’ conventions for describing measures of association...... 75
4.20 Scale of measurement and correlation coefficients used in this study...... 75
4.21 Relationships among selected demographic characteristics and the 6 areas o f educational needs (n = 377) ...... 76
4.22 Relationships among selected demographic characteristics and barriers to extension participation (n = 377)...... 77
4.23 The correlation matrix o f age, education and the six areas o f agricultural educational ...... 79
4.24 Table correlation matrix of age, education and barriers to extension participation...... 80
4.25 Summary data: regression of agricultural educational needs on Selected independent variables (n = 377) ...... 82
4.26 Regression of agricultural educational needs on marital status (married), land ownership (other) and barriers (n = 377) ...... 83
Xlll LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1.1 Map of Zimbabwe showing administrative province ...... 6
1.2 Map of Zimbabwe showing provincial and administrative boundaries ...... 7
1.3 Map of Zimbabwe showing natural regions...... 8
XIV CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter includes the following sections; a) statement problem, b) the setting, c) purpose of the study, d) objectives of the study, e) significance of the study, f) definition of the terms, and g) assumptions.
Problem Statement
The struggle to assist rural women in Zimbabwe to realize their full potential and be part of the mainstream economy continues. Yet, progress has been slow and uneven, as Extension Services often seem to take one-step forward and two steps backwards. Too often, programs create an illusion of progress, rather than creating conditions for real change and progress. In Zimbabwe the socioeconomic setbacks have brought delays, and jeopardized the hard-won strands. Understanding what brings about positive sustainable change is necessary in order to make meaningful contributions toward the improvement of the quality of life for rural women.
Extension educators are responsible for helping clients accurately identify their educational needs and, based on those perceived needs, develop relevant programs.
Programs are more often successful when they focus on clearly identified needs of the target group. According to Boldt (1987), audience targeting is a process of developing
1 and delivering programs designed to meet the needs o f specific segments of the
population. Many businesses have succeeded by developing and promoting products that
certain groups of people want and need. Extension educators ought to do likewise.
In non-fbrmal education, people are motivated to participate when they feel the
need for the education provided. Adults are self-directed and intrinsically motivated
learners who can determine their own learning needs, therefore, adults’ opinion o f their own needs should be of a primary consideration and of particular significance (Knowles,
1984). A number of definitions for the concept of need have been given, but the simplest definition is one by Leagans (1964) that states that a need is a gap or a difference between what is and what should be. When needs have been adequately assessed, program-delivering systems can be structured to provide learning opportunities for the specified audience. Therefore, the accuracy with which needs are identified for educational input is a crucial step toward meeting Extension's mission, vision, values and objectives.
Women carry the burden of providing food to the household in many parts of the world. Although they are the main actors in feeding the world, they often have little or no access to land, credit, education and technology. Moreover, little attention has been paid to alleviating women's problems, particularly those in rural areas. The theme for the
1999 World Food Day and F AO's international television campaign TELEFOOD was
"Women Feed the World". This theme was a reminder to all governments and the international community that the situation of women in rural areas needs to be improved to ensure food security and reduce the number of undernourished people, now 800 million (FAO, 1999). Development policy makers are becoming increasingly aware of
2 the crucial contribution of women in food security (FAO, 1998). Nevertheless, gender blindness prevails and agricultural policies, on the whole, still do not address the needs of women farmers adequately.
The role o f women in agriculture has increasingly grown as men are forced to leave their homes in search of jobs and income in urban areas. This trend has been called the "feminization of agriculture" and is most accentuated in Sub-Saharan Afiica (World
Bank, 1996). A total o f 40% households in the communal areas of Zimbabwe are female headed, because of massive male migration (Zwart, 1990). A study by FAO (1998), showed that women head almost one-third of the rural households today in Sub-Saharan
Africa and are becoming the majority of small farm holders. About 86% of the women population in Zimbabwe lives in rural areas and agriculture in conununal areas is largely a female activity (World Bank, 1991). Surprisingly, while the dominance of women in rural areas is evident, planners, policy makers, and Extension officials often act as if women do not exist and as if the situation and needs of all farmers are the same, whether they are men or women. Besides, Sub-Saharan African has been known to be the region of female farmingpar excellence (Boserup, 1970). Moreover, rural women fimction as independent farmers and play a fundamental role in the daily management of agricultural activities (Whitehead & Bloom, 1992)
An examination of history would reveal that women have been and are still key players in food production (Muchena, 1994; Weinrich, 1979). While women grow one- half of the world food, 95% of the agricultural Extension services worldwide are directed at men, women farmers receive only 15% of the agricultural Extension services (FAO,
1989). In addition. Extension services tend to focus more on cash crops than on
3 subsistence crops, which are the key to household food security (FAO, 1989). Rural women of Zimbabwe want to increase their agricultural production, but because early colonial administrators assumed that men were the farmers, agricultural extension services were targeted at men (Alvord, 1929). Recent studies in Sub-Saharan Africa showed significant obstacles to women farmers’ access o f agricultural extension services
(Tinker, 1990). Another factor that is holding back women farmers is absence o f accurate information of their educational needs. Accurate information about rural women’s educational needs and factors that would encourage them to participate is essential to Extension actions. The level of perceived educational needs of Shurugwi rural women were unknown, and, if barriers to Extension participation exist, then certain antecedent variables might help describes these needs and barriers. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to describe the perceived educational needs of Shurugwi rural women, their perceived barriers to Extension participation, and their selected demographic characteristics.
The Setting
This study was conducted in Shurugwi District, situated in the Midlands Province,
(Southern part) Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe is situated in the Southern Region of Afiica bordered by Zambia on the North, Mozambique on the East, South Afiica on the South, and Botswana on the West. Administratively, Zimbabwe is divided into 10 provinces:
Manicaland, Mashonaland Central, Mashonaland East, Mashonaland West, Matabeleland
North, Matabeleland South, Midlands, Masvingo, Harare and Bulawayo (Figure 1).
These provinces are fiirther divided into administrative districts. However, in each province, designated urban areas are treated separately from the administrative districts,
4 which are mostly rural. For planning purposes, Zimbabwe is divided into geographical
subdivisions such as provinces, districts, wards, and villages (Figure 2). Wards have,
however, become the focal points for government and other organizations’ development
planning. Many people in Zimbabwean communal areas still face poverty, hunger, and
food shortages. Particularly, the most affected are those in remote and very arid parts of
the country characterized as Natural Regions EH and IV (Figure 3) with the following characteristics:
• Poor soils which are unable to sustain reasonable crop returns without
application of fertilizers or manure;
• Inadequate rainfall, wnth drought in almost three out of every five years;
• Land pressure coupled with high population growth;
• Small land holding sizes with some people landless, poor grazing facilities;
and
• High levels of malnutrition (Rukuni & Eicher, 1994).
Shurugwi District is 364,561 hectares, 74% falls in Natural Region EH, which is semi-intensive farming Region, and 26% falls in Natural Region EV, which is semi- extensive farming Region. Shurugwi is characterized by low rainfall, making much of the land unsustainable for crop production without irrigation, and in some areas, only livestock production is possible. The District is subject to severe mid season dry spells and periodic seasonal droughts. Shurugwi District is typical communal land with 10 communal area wards. Specifically, communal areas have less resource endowment, are overpopulated, and are overstocked in terms of recommended human and livestock Zimbabwe: Administrative Provinces
MASHONALAND CENTRAL MASHONALAND WEST
Hwange Kadoma ^ ^
MATABELELAND NORTH Mutare
Bulawayo Masvingo
MASVINGO
cr. «or O to 9 a ^ Md SPMW MkMMM SUB tJnIMniqr
Midlands Province
Figure 1.1: Map of Zimbabwe showing Administrative Province ZIMBABWE
Aânin'stiaim District and Provincial B o u id arin
MASH,
:a l .
omfiMKtCauai No* ÜMitr Sandra'CmHol «rZrofadhM Shurugwi Dbtrict
Figure 1.2: Map of Zimbabwe showing Provincial and Administrative Districts Boundaries Zimbabwe: Natural Regions
Oiipingt
niometers
^ Region III
9 Region IV
Figure 1.3: Map of Zimbabwe showing Natural Regions carrying capacity. Crops predominately produced in Shurugwi District are rapoko, sunflower, millet and sorghum.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to describe perceived educational needs and perceived barriers to Extension participation of rural women in Shumgwi District,
Zimbabwe.
Qbiectives of the Study
The major objectives of this study were to:
1. Describe rural women in Shurugwi District, Zimbabwe, according to selected
characteristics (age, marital status, level of education, land ownership, and
family size).
2. Determine the perceived educational needs of rural women in Shurugwi
District, Zimbabwe.
3. Determine perceived barriers to Extension participation by rural women of
Shurugwi District, Zimbabwe.
4. Determine the relationship between selected demographic characteristics of
rural women and their perceived educational needs and barriers to Extension
participation.
Significance of the study
The study will make contributions to empirical knowledge of Shurugwi rural women’s agricultural educational needs and to the development of programs that reflect women’s needs. Findings of the study can assist Extension agents in developing relevant programs, and improving existing ones. Policy makers in Zimbabwe need information on
9 agricultural educational needs and characteristics of rural women for use in policy
formulation and developmental planning. This information can be a critical component
in developing more effective policies, and streamlining Extension programs preparing
agents at agricultural colleges. The Agricultural Technical and Extension Services
(AGRITEX) department and other organizations may benefit fi"om this study in a variety of ways. The findings of the study will contribute to both the applied and the scholarly knowledge base of Agricultural Extension Education in Zimbabwe.
Definitions of Terms
The following terms are operationally defined based on their use in the study:
1. Rural women- Rural women was operationally defined as conveniently selected women, typically 19-75 years old, who reside in the countryside of Shurugwi
District in Zimbabwe and their main activity is farming.
2. Educational needs- Educational need was defined as a discrepancy between the current and what the level of knowledge ought to be (Borich, 1980). For this study, perceived educational needs were measured using Borich (1980) needs assessment model. The Borich model determines a need score by subtracting the perceived knowledge score fi'om the perceived importance score, and multiply the result by the average perceived importance score as:
Cal Aen = (In - Kn) (Ig)
Where;
Cal Aen = calculated educational need
In = importance of the item reported by the respondent
Kn = perceived knowledge of the item reported by the respondent,
10 Ig = average importance of the item as rated by all the respondents.
3. Perception- Attitudes that reflect a predisposed understanding or comprehension of the educational needs of rural women in Shurugwi District, as measured by the data collection instrument. Operationally defined as responses to the items on the interview guide.
4. Perceived educational needs- for this study perceived educational needs was
operationally defined as content areas of:
1. Crop & livestock production knowledge- having agricultural
knowledge and skills needed in the process of producing and
creating food crops and livestock,
n. Marketing skills - needed in selling and buying agricultural
products,
m. Nutrition knowledge- needs and knowledge of the process of
nourishment.
IV. Resource management skills- skills needed for effective and
efficient use of resources at the homestead.
5. Barriers to Extension Participation- operationally defined as something that limits or obstructs rural women fi'om attending Extension activities in Shurugwi
District.
11 Assumptions
The following assumptions were made for the purpose of this study;
1. All rural women interviewed would respond honestly in expressing their
perceived educational needs and perceived barriers to Extension participation.
2. A descriptive survey study was considered appropriate to answer the
objectives of the research.
Limitations
Given the exploratory nature of the study, the study was limited to rural women between the ages of 19 to 75 from one Shurugwi district, in Zimbabwe. Therefore, findings of the study are limited to rural women in this particular District. The study sample was conveniently selected not randomly selected from the 5 wards.
12 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of this Chapter is to review literature on selected topics, in order to
gain a deeper understanding of the objectives of this study. The literature review focuses
on the following areas: the concept of needs, needs assessment, face-to-face interviews,
the nature of adult learning, agricultural extension in Zimbabwe, women and extension in
Zimbabwe, rural women and education, rural women and economy, constraints facing rural women, power and control, and systems approach.
The Concept of Needs
Educational researchers have paid considerable attention to the concept of
“needs” and the approaches involved in the use of this term. Tyler (1971) and Knowles
(1980) defined a need as an imbalance, a lack of an adjustment, a gap between “what is” and “what should be,” or a gap between the present situation and a new changed set of conditions assumed to be more desirable.
WHAT IS ------(GAP) WHAT SHOULD BE
( ----- ► NEED ► )
13 Need may be the solution to, or a symptom of a problem (Knowles 1980). Knowles,
Holton & Swanson (1998) went further to and defineda learning need as gap between where one is now and where one wants to be in regard to a particular set of competencies.
By identifying the perceived needs of participants, developers can increase the impact of programs and immediate adjustments can be made that are geared to the participant’s specific needs and interests. Educators should assess the needs of their clientele in collaboration with the targeted audience (Leagans, 1964).
Needs are drives or motives to the achievement of goals (Spears, 1991). When people have unmet needs, they produce motives. Needs arise firom some deficiencies in humans that can be physical or psychological, indicating lack of something that one desires. Then, what is a motive? It is a thought, a feeling, force or conditions that causes one to act in a certain manner. According to Maslow’s needs hierarchy, human beings work hard to overcome deficiency needs such as hunger, giving them a sense o f relief and they move on to the next level. When people have satisfied their deficient needs, they feel motivated to satisfy higher needs of self-actualization. A satisfied need no longer motivates a person. Caffarella (1982) stressed the importance of ranking needs according to their priorities so that popular needs are brought to the top of the list
Needs Assessment
The method for identifying needs is referred to as needs assessment. The concept of need assessment is rather eclectic in that it encompasses many definitions, strategies, techniques, processes and models. Borich (1980) defined needs assessment as:
a discrepancy between an educational goal and trainee performance in
relation to this goal. The process of identifying training needs can be
14 conceptualized as a discrepancy analysis that identifies the two polar
positions ofw hat is and what should be (p. 39).
Borich (1980) urges that the distance between these two poles can be used as the training
content and index of the training program’s effectiveness. In conducting follow-up
studies of pre-service and in-service training Borich (1980), developed a needs
assessment model that has been demonstrated to be a valid model to assess participant’s
perceptions about educational needs. Borich’s model has added elements different Grom
the traditional model, such as the respondents’ current knowledge of a competency.
Many have used Borich’s model (Arede, 1998; Nieto, 1989; Waters & Haskell 1989) because it is practical, easily implemented, and it establishes an exact system by which
the data will be analyzed before the questionnaire is developed. Measurement is a process of assigning numerals to objects or events according to rules (Kerlinger, 1986).
Borich’s model determines a need score by subtracting the perceived knowledge score from the perceived importance score, and then multiply the result by the average perceived importance score. Below is a formula representing Borich (1980) needs assessment model:
Cal Aen = (fri - Kn) (Ig)
Where;
Cal Aen = calculated agricultural education need
In = importance of the item reported by the respondent
Kn = perceived knowledge of the item reported by the respondent,
Ig = average importance of the item as rated by all the respondents.
15 Rossi, Freeman and Wright (1979) defined needs assessment as the process of
verifying and mapping out the extent and location of a problem. According to Kaufinan
(1975), the term “needs assessment” refers to any systematic process for collecting and
analyzing information about educational needs of individuals or organizations. Needs
assessment, as a process, is frequently used for establishing goals, setting priorities, and constructing positive change (Knowles, 1980). Needs assessment represents formal systematic attempts to determine and close the more important gap between “what is” and “what should be”, clarifies intent, and identifies areas of strengths and weaknesses
(Kanfinan, 1975).
In most societies, the roles and responsibilities of women have been invisible in both rural and urban areas because the framework for development has been based on information from men; therefore, the outcome addressed men’s needs instead of women’s needs. The success of development depends on the identification of people’s needs.
Needs assessment is the first step in planning developmental programs. But if the development is based on a stereotyped concept of women’s roles and responsibilities, not only will the needs of women be missed, but also there will be definitely a misimderstanding of the dynamics of the society.
Needs do change, therefore, needs assessment should be an ongoing component o f the overall Extension programming effort. According to Reid (1978), programs can pass the developmental and intellectual significance level but be rejected on grounds of situational inappropriateness for a particular society or group of people. Hence, a relevant extension program for rural women should create situations where there are no discrepancies between what goes on in training and the situation at home.
16 Face-to-face Interviews
The principal characteristic of face-to-face interviews is that the interviewer asks the questions and records the answers without any written work for participants (Witkin
& Altschuld, 1995). Planning for an interview includes deterniining the purpose o f the interview, constructing the interview schedule, selecting the sample, and training interviewers. Witkin and Altschuld (1995) stated that interviewers could come from a variety of sources: professional consultants; polling organizations; college students; or members of the public contacted through newspaper advertisements. It is essential that the interviewer establish rapport and credibiUty through the voice alone (Witkin &
Altschuld, 1995). Therefore, the interviewer should be fluent in the respondent’s language.
According to Witkin and Altschuld (1995), interviewers set up interviewing schedules, including time and place, which should be at the convenience of the interviewee. Generally, the interview begins with a series of structured or simple fact questions, which are non-threatening, enabling the participant to be open and at ease.
The interviewer should explain the purpose of the interview, how the results are to be used, and assure the respondent o f confidentiality and anonymity.
The Nature of Adult Learning
Extension cUentele are comprised mainly of adults, therefore, it is important to understand how they learn in order to develop soimd programs. Knowles (1980) developed a theory called “Andragogy” which specifically addresses adult learning.
This theory emphasizes that adults are self-directed learners and expect to take responsibility for learning decisions, therefore, can determine their own learning needs.
17 Knowles, Holton & Swanson (1998) identified the following six core adult learning
principles:
1. Learners need to know
2. Self-Concept;
3. Prior Experience;
4. Readiness to learn;
5. Orientation to learning; and
6. Motivation to leam (p.4).
The learning environment and the instructor also play a significant role in adult learning.
The role of the instructor has to be more as a facilitator than as a lecturer. An adult
educator should create a learning environment that is conducive and, therefore, enables
the learner to thrive.
Agricultural Extension in Zimbabwe
Agricultural is the predominant economic activity in Zimbabwe, accounting for
49% of the total export earnings. The main exports are tobacco, cotton, and oil-seeds.
Afiican governments have a tendency of supporting specialized commodity extension,
with weak policies, particularly with regard to women farmers as beneficiaries of
Extension services (Rukuni & Eicher, 1994). Many Afiican countries have now realized
the important role played by Extension Services to rural and agricultural development.
Therefore, they are strengthening their Extension systems but still do not pay attention to
the needs of women farmers.
In 1926, the colonial government in Zimbabwe organized agricultural Extension services in the tlien Tribal Trust Lands now known as the Communal Lands. The
18 Department of Conservation and Extension (CONEX) was formed in 1949 to advice commercial and small-scale farmers (Pazvakavambwa, 1994). Later on, the Department of Agricirltiiral Development (DEVAG) was established in 1949 to provide advice to communal farmers. After the independence, 1980 swift changes were made in the
Zimbabwe agricultural Extension system. The two department CONEX and DEVAG were combined, in July 1981, creating a unified national extension service, the
Department of Agricultural Technical and Extension Services (AGRITEX) within the
Ministry of Lands, Agricultural, and Rural Resettlement (Rukuni & Eicher, 1994).
The Department (AGRITEX) was to readdress agricultural inequalities, assigned new duties such as land resettlement. AGRITEX provides short training courses to farmers on general agricultural practices leading to increased, sustained, and profitable production. The current Extension agent to farmer ratio of 1:800 makes it very difficult for the Extension agent to pay attention to individual farmer (Rukuni & Eicher, 1994 ).
Extension service in Zimbabwe is responsible for reaching the rural population of whom
80% are women with agricultural food production as their main activity. Therefore, improvement of Extension services is one of the strategies the Zimbabwe Government ought to use to ensure the provision of agricultural education, information, and new technologies for its population. Participation of rural women in Extension activities remains low even though they make up a significant portion of the rural population in
Zimbabwe. The Agricultural Extension system in Zimbabwe seems to be unable to reach women farmers. It has been found that AGRITEX programs and activities for rural women have weakness, such as a strong focus on training male farmers than women, prejudices against women’s roles, often resulting in excluding them from agricultural
19 extension training, and gender bias among AGRITEX officers, often translated into
activities (FAO, 1994). The report (FAO, 1994) went on further to say that AGRITEX
has been unable to increase benefits to women farmers, or reduce negative impact and
formulates policies for women without the foundation of hard data. Basically very little has been done to address rural women’s needs.
The Zimbabwe Women’s Bureau is a non-govemmental organization and a
member of the Natural Farming Network (NFN), which was formed in 1980. This
organization has realized that Extension Services in Zimbabwe has largely ignored the
needs and priorities of women, therefore, has initiated extension programs for women and
helps them in the areas of food production and resource management (Vukasin, 1992).
The organization works in 13 districts only, with one field officer in each district who
teaches sustainable agricultural techniques, literacy, resource management, and project
management (Vukasin, 1992). Field officers work with a small group of people, usually
between 10 and 12 in number. The organization hopes to enable rural women to create a
better living for themselves and their families through their own effort using land as the
basic resource.
The organization uses group dynamics to build community teams and organizations that can sustain activities long after the field officer has gone. Women work
in small groups to share knowledge and skills, and also exchange indigenous knowledge.
They also have field days, demonstrations, meetings, farm visits for observations, and
advice on new developments. The Zimbabwe Women’s Bureau (ZWB) conducts a series
of workshop for field officers with technical assistance fi'om the Department of
Agricultural Technical and Extension Services (AGRITEX).
20 Women and Extension in Zimbabwe
Colonization instituted socioeconomic, legal, patriarchal and political frameworks that granted more privileges to men than women. Women could only have access to economic resources and the right to administer them through the intermediary of men and husbands (Suda, 1996). Capitalism exacerbated women’s subordination and distorted the preexisting patterns of reciprocity between men and women. Women were not considered part of the public sphere, economy, politics, and technology; hence, belonged to a private sphere and were marginalized (Bates, 1998). Zimbabwean colonial administrators assumed that men were the farmers, therefore, agricultural extension was targeted to men alone. In 1929, there were 26 Black Extension agents, all male, and it was not until 1973 that the first female agent was appointed (Muchena, 1994). Women were associated with homemaking roles and were neglected as a target audience for agricultural extension services. Women today in Agricultural Extension profession face a number of structural constraints, in term of promotion and placement.
Rural Women and Education
Living and working conditions of many rural women in Zimbabwe have deteriorated significantly. This has been primarily due to high inflation rates and a series of economic reforms that were all a part of the ongoing governmental structural adjustment programs. Zimbabwe faces economic hardships after the introduction of structural adjustment program. The program is supposed to boost economic growth, but it has increased poverty and in some ways making poor countries more dependent on the rich countries (Riddell, 1992). IMF and World Bank programs are sometimes associated
21 with msignifîcant changes, increased inflation, and mixed effects on growth (Riddell,
1992).
Economic structural adjustment programs (ESAP) introduced cuts in public spending and cost recovery measures which lead to more poverty, less access to health care and education, and has been a huge obstacle to women’s advancement (Riddell,
1992). The very things that can help raise women’s status have been pulled away. The struggle to make ends meet and other responsibilities assumed by women stretches them to their limits of endurance. Studies have suggested that deterioration in already poor living standards have been often expressed in violence, family breakdown, mental health disorders, and abandonment (Folbres, 1984). Economic structural adjustment programs have de-industrialized the existing manufacturing base without encouraging any significant replacement (Sandbrook, 1991). Social differences have increased, with large farmers, traders, corrupt governments, military and private entrepreneurs gaining firom the changes, while women, children and the poor find their standard of living dropping sharply with devastating consequences for health care and nutritional status (Sandbrook,
1991). Economic structural adjustment programs are not gender neutral and the most vulnerable group, comprised mainly of children and women, is the first to suffer (Mies,
1984). Economic and social changes caused by development and development assistant can worsen the status and life situation of women.
The devaluation of the Zimbabwe dollar and the economic crisis in Zimbabwe aggravated the economic position of rural women. The misery, dilapidation and human degradation in Zimbabwe’s rural areas are overwhelming and people have reached a point of hopelessness (Mushayakarara, 1998). Rural women have limited income, due to
22 their unequal status and inequitable access to and control of resources. Therefore,
women are most lacking in opportunities to end their own poverty. Being poor means
lack of food security, no access to basic services such as piped water, toilet, and
electricity. Zimbabwe has been faced with an explosion in population, high unemployment rates, weak economic growth, a shrinking resource base, a series of reoccurring droughts, an increasing numbers of street kids, and AIDS orphans. The task for caring of AIDS affected people and the elderly has become the responsibility of women in rural areas. Besides direct costs, such as medical, special foods and funeral expenses, HIV/AIDS causes indirect costs, which are labor-related (FAO, 1994). In Sub-
Saharan African the disease affects the most productive age group, between 15 and 49 years of age (FAO, 1994). Members of the household available to cultivate land are reduced, either by sickness or death. Resulting in the decrease of land use and a decline in crop yields (FAO, 1994). This makes the delivery o f Extension services all the more urgent. Extension training should not focus on improving agricultural production only but also the well being of families and communities.
The major role of a Zimbabwean rural woman is that of a wife and mother. After that, she assumes the role of the producer, but she plays a secondary role in decision making. Men are migrating to urban areas or other countries in search of better paying jobs. One of the consequences of male labor migration and rural-urban migration has been the rise of female-headed households and has confined women to the rural areas.
LeVine (1966) has documented out-migration of male household members to urban areas in Kenya and South Africa, resulting in women assuming formerly male agricultural tasks.
23 Society in Zimbabwe generally does not hold a positive attitude toward women.
There are still some negative cultural attitudes toward the general education of women.
Rural communities tend to be isolated from social change, and cultural concepts have
stronger impact on rural life style. In many developing countries, the majority of rural girls never go to school, and if they do, then they drop out of school early (UNESCO,
1982). Studies have shown that negative attitudes toward girls attending school are changing in rural communities, but early marriages still disrupts the girl child’s schooling
(UNESCO, 1993). Achievement of males is given more weight than that of a female.
Patterns and trends of women’s education can be revealed by measures of literacy, enrollment, and years in school, dropouts and absenteeism (UNESCO, 1993). Most of the rural schools in Zimbabwe stand in ruins today, very little development has taken place, there is no water, though right next to some of them there are big dams, but there is no equipment to draw water from it. In 1997 it was reported that over 237,000 pupils dropped out of school, countrywide, because parents could not afford to pay exorbitant school fees and levies (Mushayakarara, 1998).
The Zimbabwe government has preached education for all as one of its achievement for majority rule. Gender disparities have not substantially diminished.
But, there is, still, a high dropout rate and women form the highest figure. Although enrollment levels in Zimbabwe has been rising for both sexes but girls’ rates are still low.
One of the most significant reason for a gender gap in education was found to be that women’s education does not figure as strong as men’s into parents’ decision-making, because girls get married and leave the family (The World Bank, 1991; King & Hill,
1993).
24 Education for women lags behind that of men and the consequences are evident in
the individual and national well being. Rural women constitute the majority of this
number, because they cannot benefit from the existing educational services due to
numerous constraints. A majority of rural women bear a double burden of inequalities
and continue to be an educationally disadvantaged group. Urban—rural disparities are
wide in many countries and the majority of illiterates are women (UNESCO, 1982).
Since education does not operate in a vacuum, problems pertaining to education
of women are multi-faceted; therefore, it would be appropriate to identify those factors
that affect the educational status of rural women. Gender gap in eiuroliment becomes
more apparent beyond the primary school level (King & Hill, 1993). The problem of out-
of-school-girls emanates from a wide range of reasons, such as:
• household work overloads, which put pressure on school-age girls more than boys,
• lack of parental encouragement to go to school as opposed to the boys,
• when funds are limited, parents prefer to withdraw girls from school so that boys can
continue,
• early marriages, and teen pregnancies (UNICEF,1990 & 1994).
It is proper to mention here, that the World Bank is now “parading” as pro-gender with its project on the education of the Girl Child (The World Bank, 1991).
There are greater returns in the long run when good investment is put into the girl child’s
education. The World Bank has made enormous contributions to research on the role of women’s education in economic development.
25 Rural Women and Economy
Neglect of rural women’s contributions to the economy has led to their marginalization in the nation’s planning process in the past. In Zimbabwe, about 80% of the women Uve and work in rural areas. They contribute 70% of agricultural labor and produce most of the food using mainly traditional technology (Suda, 1996). Women are the most disadvantaged group in terms of their structural positions in household and work under bad conditions. Literature reveals that the agricultural sector is where women make their greatest contribution to the economy (Okojie, 1996). Unfortunately, income from cash crops often goes to the husband thereby denying women a chance to accumulate capital (Spring, 2000). When women’s economic dependency on men is high, their role in family and community decision-making is low. This means that women’s equality will depend on their economic emancipation. The “invisibility” of rural women in the economic field was discussed at the international conferences held during the Decade for Women (Mies, 1994).
The extent of women’s involvement in small-scale agriculture, and within the household, has not been adequately documented, resulting in an underestimation of their economic contribution (UNICEF, 1990 & 1994). Women form the backbone of the household economy wherever they are; most of the tasks they perform have only a use value but no exchange or monetary value (FAO, 1993). Women in rural areas have less experience in managing finance on a larger scale than household finances.
Women’s economic situation is directly related to their level of education, with each additional year of schooling, it is estimated, adding 10-15% to wage income
26 (UNICEF, 1990 & 1994; UNESCO, 1982). Economie and educational developments of rural women are keys to their social emancipation. Women are more likely to be poor than men are. With no income or resources, women are economically dependent on men, in many cultures it has been related to continued childbearing to ensure economic support from the husband. Girls have been viewed as an economic liability and married off as early as possible (Piepmeir, 1980). Closely related to the economic powerlessness of a woman, in Zimbabwe, is the enormous pressure on women to get married.
Constraints Facing Rural Women in Zimbabwe
Both men and women in rural areas face a number of constraints, which affect their ability to improve the quality of their everyday life. These constraints also affect women’s participation in Extension activities. In addition to facing the same constraints that men face, women often face additional constraints. Access to resources is essential to the improvement o f agricultural food productivity of both men and women. Women and men are equally efficient farmers but women have less access to inputs. Women’s participation in agriculture is a vital force in the rural economy and to their role as gatekeepers of food security and nutrition. Boserup (1970) found that men in Afiican remain more active in the production of cash crop than in food crops and this state of affairs has not changed. For example in the Gambia, women’s access to household resources was reduced when groundnuts became a cash crop and men took over the cultivation of that crop (Dey, 1981).
Access To Credit
Access to formal credit, in itself, is a resource and is often an insurmountable barrier to women (Poats, Schmink & Spring, 1988). Most rural women have no capital
27 for their income generating activities and for purchasing raw materials for food production such as equipment, seedlings, and fertilizers. Before 1980, agricultural credit for women was unheard of, particularly for illiterate rural women (Batezat & Mwalo,
1989). After independence (1980), expansion of credit was made available to communal farmers; however, it was the wealthy farmers who could access those loans
(Mumbengegwi, 1986). Usually, the wealthy farmers are men and not women. Women, who were interviewed in the ZWB Survey (1981), expressed a desire to acquire independent sources of finance rather than to always be so heavily dependent on their husbands. Blumberg (1981), in her research, demonstrated how access to income raises women’s productivity, impacts on the well being of their family, themselves, and also on the nation.
In some of the African countries, religious and customary restrictions prevent women from traveling freely within and outside the community, which is needed in order to access credit. Formal credit services are male dominated and often do not operate in rural areas; therefore, rural women have to travel to the credit facilities to apply and for regular repays and women do not have the spare time to do this. Moreover, minimum size loans offered by credit facilities are often larger than what women need (Poats,
Schmink & Spring, 1988). The unfriendly and frightening atmosphere of financial institutions tends to humiliate rural women. Some of the administrative practices by creditors insist upon male consent for credit applications, inhibiting women’s access to financial services (Bullock, 1994). Statistics have shown that women have less access to credit than men; yet, women generally have better loan repayment rates than men (FAO,
1989).
28 Access To Land
Before independence (April 1980), land in Zimbabwe was distributed according to the five natural regions. This division of land saw Africans being pushed to Natural
Regions, IV and V, which are comprised of infertile soil, poor climatic conditions and unsuitable for agriculture productivity. The White settlers who came to the country in
1890 were given the best agricultural land (Natural Regions 1, II, & HI) in terms of productivity and climatic conditions (Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Resettlement,
1985).
In Sub-Saharan Africa, land is patrilineally inherited, then distributed through lineage. Traditionally, in Zimbabwe, women had no land rights, family land was allocated to men, inherited by men, sub-divided, and handed over to adult married sons
(Schmidt, 1987). This practice made it impossible for women to have land. Special fields used to be set-aside for wives by husbands in pre-colonial times (Chimedza, 1988).
To make matters worse, land scarcity and pressure has increased the profitability of land, weakening women’s traditional land possession (Gaidzanwa, 1995). Village headmen have been tempted to sell land to those with money. It is important to analyze the consequences of the erosion of women’s access to land. Women receive the use of land on marriage in order to feed the family, but if that land is reduced constantly the consequences are poor nutrition to the whole family (Gaidzanwa, 1988). Men control land, proceeds from land, and make decisions on what to grow, such as cash crops at the expense food crops (Staudt, 1980; Chimedza, 1988). According to Chimedza (1992), legal barriers and patriarchal control to women’s land rights in Zimbabwe ought to be challenged.
29 Land is a fixed capital base which influences access to other resources.
Surprisingly, most rural women have possession of land but no legal rights to it. No title deeds means no collateral needed for credit. This limits women’s access to other productive resources such as access to membership in farming organizations and
Extension services (FAO, 1988; Parpart, 1995). In many cases, women have been managers or decision makers about the use of land but do not have ultimate control over inputs and outputs (Parpart, 1995). Land title and land tenure tend to be vested in men and occasionally this is a legal condition, but everywhere it reflects socio-cultural norms
(Staudt, 1980). Land reforms and settlement continue to reinforce this bias (Staudt,
1980).
Access To Technology
Both men and women in rural areas often have very low levels of technology, which is an obstacle to agricultural productivity. Most of the food production and processing are done manually, are time-consuming, have low productivity, and have high levels of wastage (Okojie, 1996). Low levels of technology means less or no time available for participation in Extension activities. Technology promises to emancipate women from tedious repetitive labor, but the technology needed by women farmers is relatively undeveloped (Spring, 1995).
Recently, in Zimbabwe, efforts have been made to provide improved technologies to rural women. For example, a prototype peanut butter processing equipment, which includes a shelter, a roaster, and a mill, was developed to be used by women peanut butter producers (Intermediate Technology Zimbabwe, 1996). The mill can process 20kg of peanuts per hour, thereby eliminating time spent on producing peanut butter by
30 pounding, and grinding roasted groundnuts between two stones (Intermediate Technology
Zimbabwe, 1996). Some of the technology introduced has been criticized on the following grounds:
• too heavy for women, did not take into account the posture of women users, and
some did displace women o f their traditional tasks;
• disregard of other factors needed for efficient use such as level of education, lack
of Extension information, availability of credit, follow-up services, and
maintenance (Akande & Awosika, 1994).
In Java, adoption of the sickle for harvesting instead of “ani-ani” (bamboo knife) displaced women of their traditional task (FAO, 1983). A simple substitution of tools may change the sex stereotyping of tasks and widen the productivity gap. Productivity in agriculture depends not only on labor efficiency but also on non-labor inputs such as tools, knowledge, seedlings, fertilizers, or quality of manure. Rural women’s substantially greater illiteracy rates hamper their access to and ability to understand technical information.
The issue of technology, its choice, and appropriateness is of particular importance to rural women. Technology designers ought to have some understanding of rural women who will benefit firom the technologies they develop. Involvement of the end users to determine their preferences in the planning is very important for any successful adoption of new technology. Some of the new technologies have been found to increase women’s workload, decrease the range of production of food crops, cause changes in the division of labor between men and women or benefit male farmers more than female farmers ( FAO, 1983). Given the important role of food production and
31 processing by rural women, it is essential that appropriate technology be available to them in order to increase agriculture productivity, income, household food security, and reduce time wastage (Okojie, 1996). In this world where an increase in food production is desperately needed, it is not logical to ignore and condemn a significant proportion of the agricultural labor force to inefficient farming because they are women.
Access To Extension Services and Information
There is an assumption that, when Extension workers communicate with men, men will transmit that information to the women. In Mexico, water supply was the responsibility of women, not men, but training on how to maintain the new water supply system in a particular community was given to men rather than to women (United
Nations, 1986). However, when the new water supply system broke down, women could not repair it because they were not trained (United Nations, 1986). Another assumption is that men are supposedly to be the only significant agricultural producers, therefore, they alone should be given training and women are assumed to be merely assisting with farm work (Spring, 1995). This imposition of male dominated development thinking has resulted in the neglect of women’s needs and had a negative impact not only on women, but also on the overall achievement of developmental gains (Piepmeir, 1980).
A third assumption is that Extension workers assume that all women are married and that their husbands will pass on the information to them. Agricultural knowledge acquired by men does not trickle down to women unless men themselves stand to benefit.
In cases where it does trickle down, the information is often misinterpreted, is inefficiently transferred from husband to wife, and ineffectively shared because most of those men do not have the expertise to disseminate the information. Relevance of this
32 information is questionable, as to whether it addresses the needs of women or not. What it means is that the Extension Service ought to find efifective ways o f communicating directly with the prime actors in food production. A study in one village in Ghana showed that women farmers interviewed had never been visited by Extension officers
(United Nations, 1986). In Zimbabwe, there are more male Extension workers who tend to bypass women when disseminating information. Lack of female Extension agents has resulted in limited access of information by rural women.
Several related trends in development theory emerged during the 70’s. Many researchers gathered supportive information that women are a critical force in the development process of a nation (Piepmeir, 1980). In particular, women, themselves, began to demand a more active role, an equal role, and greater access to economic resources. At the same time, poUcy makers searched for new models of development to replace the traditional one, which assumed that economic growth would bring about an improved quality of life to people through the trickle down effect (Piepmeir, 1980). The effectiveness of the traditional approach to development has been challenged. Generally, emphasis has shifted to enhancing participation based on equity. A targeted development of women is one strategy that can satisfy basic needs and reduce poverty. Krugmann-
Randolf (1994) suggests that this development should focus on access of rural women to credit, agricultural education, primary health services, family planning services, training, work-relieving technologies in agricultural and household production, advice, and participation by women themselves. Targeted development’s effectiveness can be increased and strengthened by self-help projects such as savings group and self-help capabiUties to make decisions and solve problems (Krugmann-Randolf, 1994).
33 Rural women’s lack of formal education is a major constraint. Most rural women are illiterate. In rural areas, the types of educational information available is offered by women’s groups and most of it tends to bea d hoc and superficial in approach and content
(Muchena, 1982). Access to education has been the major policy goal for most developing countries for the past decade. This was brought about by the realization that education is essential to economic and social development. There is overwhelming evidence that education improves health, economy, standard of hving and that the poorest gain the most (King & Hill, 1993). Studies by the World Bank (1992) have revealed reduction of poverty, population pressure, improved productivity, and better future for the children when women are educated. The social and economic returns of educating women are substantial and greater than for educating men. Documentation indicates that men benefit more firom rural development programs such as educational opportunities, credit, and technology transfers than women (Staudt, 1980).
Work Load of Rural Women
Rural women carry a heavier burden and work more hours than men do. In addition to food production, women in Zimbabwe are responsible for providing household water, firewood supplies, taking care of the sick and elderly, and childbearing and rearing (Batezat & Mwalo, 1989). Rural women have to balance household work and agricultural activities: “Double Day Burden.” This leaves most of women too exhausted to attend Extension activities. Migration of men to urban areas increased rural women’s already considerable workload burden.
Women and children without any or with little help fi-om men do the rest of cultivation. Engberg, Beckerson & Francois (1994) reported heavy workloads for
34 women because of their position in the society and the amount of time spent on household work in Malawi and Ghana. Women spend much time on the repetitive, daily, time consuming domestic tasks, and agricultural food production. The implication is that women will not have available time for other activities, even to improve themselves
(Spring, 1995). Therefore, women have no incentive to invest in themselves and this affects time available for them to participate in any education or training activities. The burden of helping rural women usually falls on their daughters who are kept out of school, and therefore, follow the patterns of their mothers’ lifestyle. Rural women experience chronic labor shortages when children go to school. As the extended family system in Africa weakens, the family support system is declining and relatives nowadays want pay for jobs done (Suda, 1996). The imbalance in gender division of labor can be seen as a major structural constraint to women’s empowerment in most African societies.
Women’s total labor hours are much higher than men’s (40-50 hours per week) and therefore, women’s income is lower than men’s because women have no time to engage in income generating labor, as they are required to spend more time in domestic labor and subsistence food production (Suda, 1996). Men derive income from a wide range of nonagricultural enterprises, casual or part-time. Women’s opportunities are far more limited due to lack of time. For women, the most common enterprises are beer brewing, or food processing and other small-scale trade directly related to food (Spring, 1995).
Extension workers seem to be unaware of rural women problems; often they plan
Extension activities at times and places that hinder woman’s participation.
Other external factors such as those from the natural physical-biological environment exacerbate pre-existing complex problems. Zimbabwe has suffered from
35 drought for most of its seven years since independence. When there is a drought, rural women’s task of fetching water is time consuming and more strenuous, because they have to walk longer distances to get water. In some of the areas in Zimbabwe, water has to be collected up to 20 kilometers from the homestead (Ncube, 1982). Food preparation is strenuous and time-consuming for rural women, especially with the grinding of grains and the number of people to be catered for. Women’s time and mobility are constrained by their domestic tasks, which are relatively inflexible; therefore, women tend to concentrate their agricultural activities around the homestead.
Men go for leisure activities while the burden of raising the nation’s future generation is placed on women. Studies of time use in rural Africa indicate that women are likely to have fewer leisure hours than men (Suda, 1996). A combination of cultural practices, religious beliefs and male supremacy has been used to control women’s labor.
Transport and Communication Services
As increased human contact universally depends upon means of communication and transportation, which is very limited in rural areas, hence, women become isolated.
Women, in general, fight isolation as they struggle to assert their independence and, therefore, become a force to influence developmental effort for change. Transportation remains as one of the biggest marketing constraints for rural women. Some of the rural people in Zimbabwe live about 50km from major cities; telephone and electricity lines traverse above their head destined for service to those with the economic power.
Most rural areas in Zimbabwe have bad roads and people cannot transport their products to markets. Many parts of rural Zimbabwe usually have a surplus of fruits and vegetables during the year. Therefore, they need transportation to take these perishables
36 to the city markets before they spoil. Rural women relay on the middleman who has transport but rips off rural women, getting all the profit after buying at give away prices
(Okojie, 1996). Another problem for marketing is the long distances from homesteads to bus stops, to which they have to walk, wait for the bus for long periods, and sometimes have to stay overnight at the market places (Mumbengengwi, 1986). Rural women often lack incentives to increase production because of poor market infrastructures.
Socio-cultural
Rural women are desperate for change but also the most powerless to affect it, because they are faced with cultural and structural barriers that will take time to change
(Mies, 1984). Various cultural restrictions inhibit lural women’s economic activities.
Women are seen as subordinate to men both within and outside the home. Batezat &
Mwalo (1989) concluded that the subordinate position of women in the household is common to all women in rural and urban Zimbabwe. Some cultural barriers also impede women’s full participation in economic activities, because of prevailing inequality in gender-power relations, some women still need permission from their fathers, brothers, and husbands before engaged in any commercial activities (Bullock, 1990). Cultural barriers sometimes provide insurmountable obstacles to approaching women. Patriarchy system restricts women’s access to land, credit. Extension services and others (Chimedza,
1988; Okojie, 1996). Therefore, there is a need to break down all socials and cultural prejudices that tend to discriminate against women. Special measures need to be taken to change and create awareness in rural women of their important roles in development of rural economy and household food security.
37 Power and Control
In his address to the United Nations/FAO World Conference on Agrarian Reform
and Rural Development (1979), the late, Julius Nyerere pointed out the highly political
nature of rural development. Nyerere (1979) urged that for people to develop they must
have power and control of their own activities within the framework of their village
communities. Political power is the most fundamental of all resources and the basis for
acquiring other resources. Besides this growing consensus, it has been assumed that men
represent the interests of women. Economic power and political power tend to overlap,
therefore, favoring those with access to land, capital and other productive resources, of
which most women do not have (Staudt, 1980).
The extent to which rural women are free to make decisions affects their lives.
Several other questions have been raised concerning the nature of decision making in
agricultural affairs, if women are to have a role in the decision making process. What
resources do rural women have at their disposal to carry out their work? Who controls
these resources? Who has decision-making power about their use? How should women participation in decision making in the household and the community? Rural women in
Zimbabwe are still largely outside the official decision making process and have had no chance to describe their needs. Folbres (1984) examined two assumptions associated with the concept of joint household utility function: (1) that all household members have equal bargaining power to enforce their own definition of utility and (2) that they all benefit equally from the way resources are allocate. Therefore, Folbres (1984) recommended that a household be viewed as a group of maximizing individuals rather than a single maximizing unit. Agricultural household models and project appraisal
38 methods are based on the assumption that resources are pooled, allocated to consumption, and to investment on the basis of shared preferences contributed to the general failure to accord women access to productive resources (Bates, 1998). The African rural household is not a joint enterprise but a series of individual enterprises and there has been serious misunderstanding of its economies, in which men and women conducted separate agricultural and non-agricultural enterprises and maintain separate budgets (Bates, 1998).
This joint concept has been based upon a number of inaccurate assumptions about the nature of the household.
Women do have the power of association with other women, their common interests bring then together and their strength lies in their capacity to do more. But women do not have the power to alter the behavior of men and force them to take a greater share of the burden. Women have now withdrawn from this and just go ahead and do their activities independently but effectively.
Systems Approach
A system is a set of interrelated parts all of which work together towards a defined goal (Conklin & Spiegel, 1992). An integrated systems approach recognizes that development of rural women involves many interconnected facets and that rural women have different educational and technological needs. About 85% of rural women in Africa are involved in agricultural activities and have heavy workloads because of their position in the society (Staudt, 1984). However, they face constraints such as unfavorable ecological, poUtical and economic environments. Lack of understanding of interdependent factors that influence the social organization and economy of Afiican households is in itself a constraint (Blumberg, 1988). Male and female relationships,
39 inside and outside the household, often make it difficult for women to gain access and control of resources (Staudt, 1984, 1987). Within the social hierarchy women are somewhat more restricted than men are. Men can transcend the boundaries of their household and participate more fully in Extension activities, informal education programs, and formal economy. But the daily needs of the household continue to be assigned to women.
A theoretical perspective is proposed in order to help the examination of the ecology and micro economy of rural households and their influences on food security. It is necessary to consider variables that affect rural households’ ability to sustain life such as access to the resomrces of both the macro and micro systems. Men should work together with women to combat food security problem. A focus on women alone ignores interdependent relationships at household and community levels.
The well being of rural households cannot be considered apart firom the well being of the whole ecosystem because they influence each other (Bubolz, 1990). From an ecological perspective the quality of human life and the quality of the environment are interdependent. Any program developed without taking into account the interdependencies of the individual and the environment will be incomplete and unsuccessful. There are vital linkages and interdependencies between the human and the environment for food production. A human is a complex adaptive system, can take actions and change the environment to serve human purpose (Bubolz, 1990). Humans are active in shaping their environment, therefore should be motivated to take part in the programs identification of their needs to include their own development. As such, rural
40 women, can cultivate the land, plant vegetables, improve their nutritional status and become interactive key elements in the larger environment.
Household ecosystem helps one understand the interelatedness between individuals and the environment (Bubolz, 1990). Granovsky (1985) in her Family
Resource Management Model proposed the use of this theoretical orientation as a means for examining the context o f women and families in development. This theory explains the interdependence of economic and political structures in a society. The household ecosystem concept emphasizes the interrelationships and the dependencies between its components. Recognition of interelatedness of all resource domains is crucial when thinking about the way rural households relate to their environment particularly when provision of goods and services in Sub-Saharan Africa are almost non-existence.
Therefore, it is important to look at the resource management activities in their right context in order to have a better understanding of rural households’ problems
The interdependent activities of men, women, and children, as members of the households can be understood clearly and changed using household ecosystem perspective. The basic theme is that household through their decisions and actions can help shape their own destiny. Paolucci, Hall, & Axinn (1977) emphasizes the interdependence of household decisions in microenvironment with decisions in the macro-environment. The household ecosystem perspective supports the new agenda for development which has emerged in the 1990s, that is an agenda which asks for sustainable, people-centered, self-reliant development which is socially just, economically efficient and ecologically sound (Society of International Development-
SID, 1988: 95).
41 In Sub Saharan Africa rural households are linked to each other through the local
community and kin networks. Within the households there are subsystems, such as
mother-child, sibling, parental, and so on, based on functions, activities, interests, and
relationships at a particular time and place (Blumberg, 1988). Each household belongs to
a larger subsystem, the extended family or the kin system, which in turn belong to the
community subsystem (Blumberg, 1988). In a household ecosystem family members are
connected to one another through patterns of reciprocal behavior and also through
interaction with the external physical and social environment. In his model,
Bronfenbrenner, (1979) identifies environments as the micro, meso, exo and macro.
Within the household environment, family members develop social structures and regulatory systems. Likewise the households are connected to each other through kin and community networks. Analysis of human development must consider ecological variables such as climate, soil, temperatures and the resources which influence human's abilities to sustain life (Huber, 1988). An ecological systems framework helps one understand the inter-relatedness between the individual, family and the environment.
Ecological systems approach suggests that in order for an issue to be understood, it should be viewed in terms of its relationship to the “whole” (Engberg, Beckerson &
Francois, 1994). According to systems theory the whole is greater than the sum of the parts (Bubolz, 1990). Engberg, Beckerson & Francois (1994) explain that within households there are activities such as economic, which can be viewed as a “whole”, interdependent with each other. For example the nation has more power than the household does, and the household has more power than the individual member does, but
42 these power structures are open to change. The point is structures at each level of the environment should be taken into account when attempting to foster change in rural women’s development.
In their Home Economics Mission Statement, Brown and Paolucci incorporated the global independence of individuals, families and communities with the resources of natural, constmcted and behavioral environments for the purpose of wise decision making and use of resources for sustaining optimal quality life (Bubolz & Sontag, 1988).
An ecological system framework helps one understand the inter-relatedness between individuals and the environment. Because problems that deal with people are complex and have many dimensions which are interrelated and interdependent, using a conceptual framework such as that proposed by Bronfenbrermer (1979) might enable rural families solve perennial problems in satisfying ways.
Summary
The Uterature reviewed offers support for the study to be conducted. The world is changing, populations are expending, budgets are tightening, demand for services are increasing, especial in the African countries, creating challenges for the governments as they deal with programs and policies to increase food supply and conservation of natural resources. The Zimbabwean problem of severe shortage of trained agricultural extension educators has not been sufficiently addresses by the government, universities, and agricultural colleges; later alone the identification of agricultural educational needs of women farmers (Steele, Muchena & Hakutangwi, 1993). Mkwananzi (1993), a
Zimbabwean Extensionist, stated that among rural women’s most prevalent problems, lack of trained female Extensionists compounds the situation.
43 Woman’s central role as the provider of food and care for the whole extended family places on her heavy burden of knowing that she does not have the resources to do the services adequately. Women are always put into a position of self-blame, shame and helplessness when children suffer from malnutrition, everybody blames them: the health officer and the husband (Ncube, 1982). Almost all the resources that might help make the life of rural women much easier are inaccessible. In Sub-Saharan Africa, women have land rights through their husbands and in most cases lose those rights when they are divorced or widowed. This gender inequality restricts the sets of choices available to women, limiting their ability to participate in or benefit from development (World Bank,
2000). Food security and the sustainable end to hunger as well as development in general will remain unattainable in Zimbabwe as long as the crucial position of rural women remains marginalized. Any nation that tries to develop without the full participation of women will lag behind other nations. Access to modem means of production emancipates women from tedious repetitive labor.
Knowledge is power, and by making information and skills more available, that power can more easily be shared. Improved knowledge and skills will give rural women more control over their lives and enhance this ability to contribute to sustainable development of their communities. Without access to educational information and modem means of production, rural women are isolated from technological development.
From the review literature, it is apparent that relevant, suitable and balanced Extension programs could be based on information acquired from all the individuals concerned.
44 CHAPTERS
METHODS
The purpose of this study was to secure reliable and valid information concerning perceived agricultural education needs of rural women in Shumgwi District, Zimbabwe.
This chapter will focus on research design, the population, the sample, frame selection, sampling error control, instrumentation, validity, reliability, data collection and data analysis.
Research Design
The research design employed in this study was descriptive correlational survey and, therefore, did not permit manipulation of variables. Survey research is a powerful, scientific tool used to gather accurate and useful information as long as the samples have been drawn randomly from a large population (Salant & Dilhnan, 1994). Strengths and weaknesses of survey research were both considered during the selection of the study design. The major concerns of survey research include measurement, sampling, selection, frame, and non-response errors, which need to be controlled for research to be valid (Salant & Dilhnan, 1994). According to Rudestam & Newton (1992), the thrust o f a study is in using the most appropriate method for the research question (s).
45 Population and Sample
All rural women in the Midlands Province, Zimbabwe, comprised the target population and all rural women from the five randomly selected wards in Shumgwi
District comprised the accessible population. Principle women from each household between the age of 19 -75 (this age range is used by the Zimbabwe Central Statistics
Office as those typically able to head a household) were selected to participate in the study (Census Report, 1992). In polygamous households, the senior wife was the respondent.
The researcher determined the sample size using a table for Determining Sample
Size from a Given Population by Krejcie & Morgan (1970). The rural population of
Shumgwi District is 61,721 including men and women (Census Report, 1992). But, this study was interested in interviewing women only. Therefore, the researcher divided the total rural population of Shumgwi 61,721 in half and assumed that 30,860 as being the population of women. The table byKrejcie & Morgan (1970) suggests a sample size (S) o f 379 for a population (N) o f30,860 for a 95% confidence level.
Sampling Procedure
A sample of 380 rural women was conveniently selected from Shumgwi District.
A two-stage random sampling procedure was used. This method is more representative than cluster sampling, and more feasible than simple random sampling (Fraenkel &
Wallen, 1996). The researcher randomly selected 5 wards from all the wards in
Shumgwi District and then conveniently selected a sample of 80 women from each ward.
According to Fraenkel and Wallen (1996), defining the population narrowly saves
46 money, time and effort but limits generalization- The Shumgwi District Administrative
Office and AGRITEX Office provided the fi-ame for this study.
Instrumentation
The instrument (interview guide) used to collect data for this study was developed by the researcher and tested for validity and reliability prior to implementation. The final version of the interview guide consisted of three sections: a) selected demographic characteristics, b) perceived educational needs, and c) perceived barriers to Extension participation (Appendix B).
The first section of the interview guide consisted of seven questions dealing with the following demographic characteristics of Shumgwi rural women: age, marital status, size of household, number of dependents, years of schooling, literacy, and land ownership. Participants were asked to respond to the selected demographic characteristics.
The second section dealt with educational needs which were subdivided into six areas of domain: a) crop production, b) livestock production, c) marketing, d) nutrition, e) resource management, and f) access to land and credit. Measmement is a process of assigning numerals to objects or events according to mles (Kerlinger, 1986). Perceived educational needs, the dependent variable, were assessed using Borich (1980) needs assessment model:
Equation 1
Cal Aen = (In - Kn) (Ig)
Where:
47 Cal Aen = calculated educational need
In = importance of the item reported by the respondent
Kn = perceived knowledge of the item reported by the respondent,
Ig = average importance of the item as rated by all the respondents.
Participants rated each educational need twice according to the four-point Likert type scale provided, first they rated it as to the amount of knowledge they currently possessed and secondly they rated it in terms of its importance in increasing agricultural production. Participants were shown a card that contained the rating scale with the following terms NONE, VERY LITTLE, LITTLE, MUCH, and VERY MUCH, to make sure that they understood the scale. Scores of one (1), two (2), three (3), and four (4) were assigned to each of the above term respectively. Interviewers were to indicate participant’s rating of each item by circling the response that represented their opinion.
The Borich model determines a need score by subtracting the perceived knowledge score from the perceived importance score, and multiply the result by the average perceived importance score. Computation of the educational needs in this study was done through the use of Borich’s formula, Cal En = (In - Kn) (Ig), where Cal En means the calculated educational needs. In representing the perceived knowledge of the item by the participants, and Ig representing the perceived average importance o f the item as rated by all the rural women interviewed.
The third section dealt with the perceived barriers to Extension participation. The study measured participants’ perceived barriers to Extension participation using a Likert- type scale. The section consisted of 14 statements to which the participants were asked to
48 indicate their level of agreement or disagreement using a five-point scale. A Likert-type scale was used because o f its functionality in construction, application and analysis of data (Kerlinger, 1973).
Validity
The instrument was field tested for face validity and clarity with a group of 15 randomly selected rural women with similar characteristics to Shumgwi rural women. A panel of experts consisting of four faculty members in the Department o f Human and
Community Resource Development, The Ohio State University, two Zimbabwean professors in the USA, one professor in the Department of Afiican Languages and
Literature at the University of Zimbabwe, and the Director of AGRITEX, Zimbabwe
Ministry of Lands and Agriculture assessed the instrument to estabhsh content validity
(Appendix B). Based upon the results of field-testing, necessary revision and changes were made. Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh, (1990) state that validity shows how well an instrument measures what it sets out to measure. Content validity is the degree to which the items accurately represent the domain intended to be measured and provide evidence on how the instrument measures the intended content (Fink & Kosecoff, 1998).
Reliability
Reliability is an assessment of consistency or reproducibility by an instmment, was determined by data collected during a pilot test (Litwin, 1995). Internal consistency of the instrument was calculated using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient fi*om a pilot test of
14 rural women in an area close to Shumgwi District, Zimbabwe, and coefficients ranged firom .84 to .97 (Table 3.1).
49 Cronbach’s Alpha Domain Number of Items Reliabihty Coefficient
1. Crop Production 23 .97
2. Livestock Production 8 .96
3. Marketing 10 .92
4. Nutrition 11 .84
5. Resource Management 9 .87
6. Access to Land and Credit 7 .84
7. Barriers to Extension Participation 15 .84
Table 3.1: Reliability coefficient of the Pilot Test Instrument.
These procedures controlled for measurement error. The area used for pilot test is typical communal land characterized by low rainfall, frequent seasonal droughts similar to the target area.
Data Collection
Since some of the rural women in Shurugwi District are semi-illiterate, face-to- face interviews were the most appropriate method to collect data. Face-to-face interviews were conducted at the participants’ homesteads using semi-structured
50 schedules. A face-to-face interview is one of the most effective methods for need assessment one can use in developing countries like Zimbabwe. Witkin and Altschuld
(1995) reported that during a face-to-face interview the respondent has the opportunity to express freely their attitudes and feehngs. The interviewer can add probes to the main questions and solicit information on causes or contributing factors to the issue. Face-to- face interviews have a greater response rate, the interviewer controls the order with which questions are consider but they are more expensive than other survey methods (Ary,
Jacobs & Razavieh, 1996). A semi-structured interview guide was used to collect data concerning the perceived educational needs, perceived barriers to Extension participation, and selected demographic characteristics of rural women in Shurugwi District,
Zimbabwe. The instrument was approval by The Ohio State University Human Subject
Committee Review (Appendix C). Permission to conduct interviews was obtained from the Zimbabwe Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Resettlement (Appendix D);
Department of Agricultural Technical and Extension Services (AGRITEX) (Appendix
E); Shurugwi District Administrative Officer; Shurugwi District AGRITEX Officer;
Councillors/Chief of the five wards; participants’ husbands and rural women.
The researcher trained four female lecturers from the University of Zimbabwe to assist with data collection. Female interviewers are more acceptable to rural women and, participants become more open and at ease. The training procedure included a brief orientation of the study, instructions on how to conduct the interview, and role-play. The training of assistant interviewers took three days. Interviewers emphasized that the
51 participants’ responses were confidential and the findings would be made available to the
Ministry of Lands and Agriculture.
The data collection process began in the second week of December 2000 and
lasted for 13 days. Statements and questions in the interview guide were in the local
language (Shona) read to the participant by the interviewer in normal conversational tone.
Interviewers were encouraged to read the statements and questions in the same way to all
participants in order to avoid introducing bias. Participants were also given an
opportunity to ask the researcher any question (s) about the study or state any concerns of interest that were recorded in the space provided in the interview guide.
Data Analvsis
A total of 377 rural women responded to the questionnaire. Data were processed, coded, stored and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).
Statistical analysis for this study included descriptive statistics, correlations and multiple regression.
Missing values were handled by using mean substitution (Travers, 1969).
Travers suggested that mean values be substituted for the values of missing observations.
The argument being that the measures are supposed to be normally distributed, and in such a case the class interval that includes the mean includes also the most frequently occurring values. According to Travers (1969), the placing of the mean is an effort to substitute the most likely value for the missing one.
The first objective of the study was to identify selected demographic characteristics of rural women. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the sample.
52 Frequencies, percentages, measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and measures of variability (range, standard deviation) were computed as appropriate for the scale of measurement, to achieve this objective.
The second objective of the study was to determine the perceived agricultural education needs. Descriptive statistics were used to calculate the perceived agricultural education needs. The means scores for perceived importance (Ig) and the raw scores for perceived importance (In) and knowledge (Kn) were used to calculate the needs scores of items measuring the perceived agricultural educational needs using Borich’s formula.
The third objective o f the study was to determine the perceived barriers to
Extension participation. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the perceived barriers to Extension participation. Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and measures of variability (range, standard deviation) were computed as appropriate for the scale of measurement, to achieve this objective.
The fourth objective o f the study was to determine the relationship among selected demographic characteristics of 377 rural women and their perceived agricultural education needs and perceived barriers to Extension participation. To achieve this objective measures of relationship were used to describe the associations among the variables. Pearson (r) correlation coefRcients were used to determine the relationships and multiple regression analysis was used to describe the best predictors of agricultural education needs from among the independent variables.
53 CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS
This chapter reports the data analysis and findings of the study. The purpose of
this study was to describe the perceived educational needs and perceived barriers to
Extension participation of Shurugwi rural women. The instrument was field tested for
face validity and clarity with 15 randomly selected Zimbabwean rural women of similar
characteristics of those in the study. A Cronbach’s alpha was used to establish the
internal consistency reliabihty of the final instrument on educational needs and
coefficients ranged firom .74 to. 94 (Table 4.1). Internal consistency reliability of the
final instrument on 14 barriers to Extension participation was established using a
Cronbach’s alpha and the coefficient was .91. These procedures controlled for
measurement error. This chapter will present information according to the five
objectives of the study.
Objective 1: To describe rural women in Shurugwi District, Zimbabwe, according to selected demographic characteristics.
Tables 4.2 to 4.8 display a summary of the demographic characteristics of the 377 rural women who participated in the study. The characteristics included were: age, marital status, years of schooling, household size, niunber of other dependents, hteracy and land ownership.
54 (RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS) PERCEIVED PERCEIVED Domain Number of Items KNOWLEDGE IMPOTANCE
1. Crop Production 23 .92 .90
2. Livestock Production 8 .88 .86
3. Marketing Skills 10 .85 .74
4. Nutrition Knowledge 11 .94 .89
5. Resource Management 9 .89 .74
6. Access to Land and Credit 7 .92 .94
Table 4.1: Cronbach’s Alpha Rehability Coefficients for the Six Domain Areas.
AGE f %
19 — 30 years 50 13.3
3 1 —40 years 85 22.5
41 — 50 years 135 35.8
5 1 —60 years 65 17.2
61 up 42 11.1
Note: Mean 44. 33 SD 11.91 Table 4.2: Age of rural women (n = 377).
55 Age
Data regarding the age of the respondents are presented in Table 4.2. O f the 377
rural women in this study, 36% were between the ages of 41 and 50 years. The average
age of the respondents was 44 years. The youngest respondent was 19 years and the
oldest was 74 years.
YEARS f %
None 90 23.9
1 - 7 years 164 43.5
8 — 10 years 79 21.0
11-15 years 44 11.7
Note; Mean 5. 80 SD 3.80
Table 4.3; Years of schooling of rural women (n = 377).
Years of Schooling
Data regarding the years of schooling of Shurugwi rural women are presented in
Table 4.3. Data revealed that the largest group of respondents (43.5%) had completed between 1— 7 years of schooling, 21% spent 8-10 years, and 11.7% spent 11— 15 years in school. The average period of time spent in school was 5.80 years with the maximum being 15 years. Almost one- quarter (23.9%) of the women interviewed never went to school.
56 STATUS f %
Married 259 68.7
Divorced 29 7.7
Separated 17 4.5
Single 8 2.1
Widow 64 17.0
Table 4.4: Marital Status of Rural Women (n = 377).
Marital Status
The marital status of the respondents of this study is presented in Table 4.4. Data revealed that a large percentage of rural women were married (68.7%). Further, it was noted that the percentage of widows included in the study was 17%. A negligible percentage of rural women were divorced and single.
Household Size
As shown in Table 4.5, most of the households in this study (58.1%) had a household size of 6 to 10 members, while 32.4% had 1 to 5 members. Among the participants, 9.3% had the largest household size of 1 lor more. One particular household had sixteen members.
57 SIZE f %
1 -5 122 32.4
6 - 1 0 219 58.1
11-15 35 9.3
16 - up 1 .3
Note: Mean 6. 85 SD 2.90
Table 4.5: Household Size o f Rural Women (n = 377).
DEPENDENTS f %
None 118 " 31.3
1 - 5 234 62.1
6 - 1 0 25 6.6
SD 1.97
Table 4.6: Number of Dependents of Rural Women (n = 377).
Dependents
Table 4.6 presents the number of dependents of participants of this study. Data revealed that 62.1% had between 1- 5 dependents, 6.6 % had 6 to 10 dependents and
31.3% had none.
58 READ AND WRITE f %
Yes 280 74.3
No 97 25.7
Table 4.7: Ability to Read and Write of Rural Women (n = 377).
Literacy
Table 4.7 shows that most of the participants (74.3%) in this study could read and write and one-fburth (25.7%) could not.
LAND OWNERSHIP f %
Wife 95 2Ü2
Husband 98 26.0
Jointly 159 42.2
Other 25 6.6
Table 4.8: Land ownership o f Rural Women (n = 377).
Land Ownership
Table 4.8 presents land ownership of the respondents of this study. Data revealed that 42.2% o f the rural women jointly owned land with their husband, 25.2 % owned land separately, and 26 % of the participants did not own land but used the land of their husband.
59 Objective 2: To determine the perceived educational needs o f rural women in Shurugwi District, Zimbabwe.
The perceived educational needs were calculated through the use of the Borich
(1980) model. Tables 4.9 to 4. 16 report in rank order the grand means, standard deviations, and the calculated educational needs, for the six areas of educational needs as perceived by Shurugwi rural women.
Table 4.9 shows the calculated crop production needs in rank order. The following six areas were reported by rural women as the highest educational needs in crop production: 1) how to maintain regular records of crop spraying, 2) information about new agricultural technologies, 3) how to maintain safety measures when spraying crops, 4) how to spray crops, 5) identifying insects that affect crops, and 6) control of crop diseases and insects. The following five items in crop production were reported as the lowest needs: 1) preparation of land for planting, 2) selection of suitable crop varieties, 3) how to plant crops, 4) how to identify weeds that affect crops, and 5) how to grow vegetables (Table 4.9).
Analyzing the knowledge in crop production, rural women had high knowledge in how to plant crops, how to prepare land for planting and how to identify weeds that affect crops. Rural women reported tittle knowledge in how to spray crops, and how to keep records of crop spraying. Analyzing the level of importance in crop production, rural women perceived higher levels about how to determine suitable planting dates, how to plant crops, how to prevent soil erosion and how to select suitable storage methods for harvested crops. Lower levels of importance were reported in the following areas: how to spray crops, controlling of crop diseases, and how to keep records on crop spraying.
60 STATEMENTS * KNOWLEDGE IMPORTANCE NEEDS RANK ORDERED Mean / SD Mean / SD Mean / SD
1. Maintain records o f crop spraying. 2.35 1.37 3.40 1.07 3.55 4.40 2. New agricultural technologies. 2.46 1.15 3.47 .92 3.50 4.37 3. Safety meastures when spraying. 2.65 1.23 3.61 .77 3.44 5.53 4. How to spray crops. 2.34 1.31 3.32 1.11 3.27 4.12 5. Identifying insects that affect crops. 2.58 1.21 3.50 .81 3.23 4.31 6. Control o f crop diseases and insects. 2.43 1.23 3.39 .99 3.23 4.38 7. How to prevent soil erosion. 2.88 1.07 3.69 .64 3.003.99 8. How to use crop rotation. 2.66 1.13 3.51 .82 2.98 4.23 9. Select suitable storage methods. 2.92 1.08 3.69 .73 2.85 4.06 10. Time to apply fertilize to crops. 2.84 .99 3.59 .71 2.70 3.81 11. Amount o f fertilizer for crops. 2.96 .98 3.67 .62 2.60 3.70 12. Select suitable harvesting methods. 2.84 .98 3.57 .73 2.59 3.82 13. Determining suitable planting dates. 3.08 .90 3.74 1.54 2.46 6.58 14. Correct fertilizer for crops. 3.02 1.01 3.66 .64 2.36 4.03 15. Transporting crops, field to home. 3.02 1.06 3.66 .71 2.34 4.32 16. Profitable crops. 2.96 .98 3.60 .70 2.30 3.80 17. How to control weeds. 2.99 1.11 3.61 .80 2.21 3.84 IS. Choosing high quality seeds. 2.98 1.02 3.57 .76 2.11 4.10 19. How to grow vegetables. 3.01 1.41 3.58 .74 2.02 5.33 20. Identify weeds that affect crops. 3.13 1.00 3.64 .72 1.85 3.40 21. How to plant crops. 3.19 .89 3.69 .60 1.84 3.63 22. Selection of suitable crop varieties. 3.08 1.04 3.57 .76 1.80 4.12 23. Preparation of land for nlantine. 3.18 .86 3.63 .70 1.65 3.56 TOTAL MEAN 65.55 82.36 59.88
*Potential domain range = 23 to 92 * Scale: 0 - NONE, 1 - VERY LITTLE, 2 - LITTLE, 3 - MUCH, 4 - VERY MUCH
Table 4.9: Rank Order of the Calculated Educational Needs of the 23 Areas of Crop Production (n = 377).
61 STATEMENTS KNOWLEDGE IMPORTANCE NEEDS RANK ORDERED Mean/SD Mean / SD Mean / SD
1. How to control diseases. 2.21 1.18 3.47 .88 5.52 5.64
2. How to determine when to sell. 2.42 1.21 3.59 .75 4.91 5.33
3. How to control pests. 2.53 1.19 3.61 .71 4.23 4.82
4. How to feed animals. 2.36 1.09 3.44 .85 4.05 4.51
5. How to raise animals. 2.60 1.14 3.51 .80 2.96 4.00
6. Choosing feeds for animals. 2.66 1.13 3.55 .73 2.78 3.66
7. What profitable animals to keep. 2.77 1.11 3.61 .69 2.53 3.38
8. How to select appropriate breed. 2.77 1.05 3.56 .69 2.20 3.36
TOTAL MEAN 20.32 28.34 29.18
♦Potential domain range = 8 to 32 * Scale: 0 - NONE, 1 - VERY LITTLE, 2 - LITTLE, 3 - MUCH, 4 - VERY MUCH
Table 4.10: Rank Order of the Calculated Educational Needs of the 8 Areas of Livestock Production (n = 377).
As illustrated in Table 4.10, the five highest needs reported by Shurugwi rural women in the area of hvestock production were: 1) how to control hvestock diseases,
2) how to determine when animals are ready for sale, 3) how to control livestock pests,
4) how to feed animals, and 5) how to raise animals.
The two lowest needs reported were 1) how to select appropriate breed, and 2) what profitable animals to keep. Rural women reported having more knowledge in livestock production in these two area: 1) how to select of appropriate breed, 2) what profitable animals to keep; and little knowledge in 1) how to control diseases and 2) how
62 STATEMENTS ' KNOWLEDCT IMPORTANCE NEEDS RANK ORDERED Mean/SD Mean / SD Mean / SD
1. Book keeping methods. 2.42 1.22 3.61 0.75 4.28 4.70
2. Marketing segments information. 2.25 1.25 3.41 0.93 3.95 4.47
3. How to sell hvestock 2.64 1.96 3.70 2.24 3.92 10.66
4. Transporting products for sale 2.50 1.16 3.57 0.75 3.82 4.43
5. How to promote products 2.48 1.13 3.52 0.80 3.68 4.22
6. How to grade various crops 2.58 1.10 3.52 0.81 3.31 4.15
7. How to determine prices 2.58 1.08 3.48 0.82 3.13 4.34
8. How to market near home 2.69 1.05 3.54 0.74 3.00 4.11
9. How to sell crops 2.84 0.96 3.66 0.66 2.98 3.84
10.Selection of various crops 2.85 0.95 3.61 0.62 2.76 3.79
TOTAL MEAN 25.83 35.62 34.83
*PotentiaI domain range = 10 to 44 * Scale: 0 - NONE, 1 - VERY LITTLE, 2 - LITTLE, 3 - MUCH, 4 - VERY MUCH Table 4.11: Rank Order of the Calculated Educational Needs of the 10 Areas of Marketing (n = 377). to feed animals. Analyzing the level of importance in livestock production, rural women placed high levels in 1) pests control, and 2) what profitable animals to keep.
However, they placed low levels of importance for 1) how to feed the animals, and 2) how to control diseases.
63 As shown in Table 4.11, the five highest needs reported in marketing were: 1) information about booking keeping, 2) information on marketing segments, 3) how to sell livestock, 4) how to transport products to market places, and 5) how to promote products.
Selection of various crops and how to sell crops were the lowest needs.
Analysis of knowledge in marketing indicated that participants perceived more knowledge in 1) how to select various crops for selling, and 2) how to sell crops. They reported little knowledge about 1) information on marketing segments, and 2) book keeping methods. Data indicated that respondents placed high levels o f importance on 1) how to sell livestock, and 2) how to sell crops, and lower levels on 1) information on marketing segments, and 2) how to determine prices.
Table 4.12 shows the five highest needs in the area of resource management reported by respondents as: 1) how to improve household safety, 2) how to integrate agricultural activities, household work and personal life, 3) how to start home based income generating activities, 4) how to improvise resources, and 5) how to use resources effectively. Management of family finances was reported as the lowest need in the area of resource management.
The respondents reported two areas they perceived as their highest needs in resource management as 1) management of household finances, and 2) planning of household work. The two areas they knew the least were: 1) how to integrate work, family and personal life. Analyzing importance in resource management, the participants placed high levels of importance on I) how to plan household work, 2) how to use resources effectively, and 3) how to manage household finances. They placed low levels
64 STATEMENTS KNOWLEDGE IMPORTANCE NEEDS RANK ORDERED Mean / SD Mean / SD Mean / SD
1. Household safety. 2.46 1.26 3.60 .74 4.11 4.90
2. Integrating work. 2.45 1.12 3.54 .78 3.84 4.09
3. Income generating activities. 2.56 1.14 3.61 .75 3.79 4.46
4. Improvising resources. 2.471.09 3.49 .84 3.56 3.97
5. Effective use of resources. 2.75 .99 3.68 2.20 3.42 8.38
6. Planning agriculture activities. 2.70 1.18 3.60 .70 3.26 4.13
7. Time management. 2.60 1.10 3.57 .76 3.17 4.19
8. Planning household work. 2.82 1.07 3.68 .62 3.15 3.92
9. Management of family finances. 2.83 1.02 3.64 .66 2.96 3.86
TOTAL MEAN 23.64 32.41 37.26
*Potential domain range = 9 to 36 * Scale: 0 - NONE, 1 - VERY LITTLE, 2 - LITTLE, 3 - MUCH, 4 - VERY MUCH
Table 4.12: Rank Order of the Calculated Educational Needs of the 9 Areas of Resource Management (n = 377). of importance on 1) how to improvise resources, 2) how to integrate work, family and personal life, and 3) how to manage time.
The following items were reported as the highest needs (Table 4.13) in nutrition:
1) understanding special dietary needs, 2) how to plan and prepare balanced meals, 3) how to understanding food sanitation, 4) how to understand food safety, and 5) how healthy food choices affect life.
65 STATEMENTS * KNOWLEDGE IMPORTANCE NEEDS RANK ORDERED Mean/ SD Mean / SD Mean / SD
1.Special dietary needs. 2.26 1.28 3.66 .66 5.15 5.12
2. Plan and prepare balanced meals. 2.49 1.19 3.72 .56 4.60 4.68
3. Food sanitation. 2.51 1.32 3.70 .64 4.43 5.17
4. Understanding food safety. 2.54 1.27 3.71 .63 4.35 4.92
5. Healthy food choices. 2.32 1.24 3.55 .85 4.35 4.79
6. Food preservation. 2.59 1.21 3.74 .54 4.30 4.81
7. Prevention of malnutrition. 2.441.15 3.62 .75 4.28 4.52
8. Food budgeting. 2.51 1.32 3.70 .64 4.11 4.70
9. Household food security. 2.60 1.24 3.67 .68 3.94 5.14
10. Life stages nutrition. 2.71 1.05 3.72 .64 3.77 4.48
11. Nutritional needs of family. 2.841.03 3.79 .47 3.60 4.21
TOTAL MEAN 27.81 40.58 46.88 *Potential domain range = 11 to 44. * Scale: 0 - NONE, 1 - VERY LITTLE, 2 - LITTLE, 3 - MUCH, 4 - VERY MUCH
Table 4.13: Rank Order of the Calculated Educational Needs of the 11 Areas of Nutrition (n = 377).
66 Analysis of knowledge possessed in nutrition by rural women showed that they perceived more knowledge on 1) information on nutritional needs o f household members, and 2) understanding of life stage nutrition. The participants reported little knowledge about 1) special dietary needs, and 2) how healthy food choices affect life. Respondents placed high level of importance on I) information on nutritional needs of household members, and 2) how to preserve food. They placed a low level o f importance on 1) how healthy food choices affect life, and 2) how to budget food.
As illustrated in Table 4.14, respondents reported 1) information about interest rates on loans, 2) how to choose the best loan (s), 3) information on repayments schedules, and 4) how to access loan (s) as their highest needs for learning in the area of access to land and credit.
Table 4.15 provides ranks, means and standard deviations of computed needs for all 64 items. Educational needs scores ranged from a mean of 1.65 to a mean 5.52. As show in Table 4.16, the most important educational needs related to livestock production, nutrition, and access to land and credit. The ten least important educational needs were related to crop production.
67 STATEMENTS * KNOWLEDGE IMPORTANCE NEEDS RANK ORDERED Mean/ SD Mean / SD Mean/SD
1. Interest rates on loans. 1.30 1.37 2.96 1.26 4.90 4.63
2. Choosing best loan(s). 1.37 1.36 3.00 1.26 4.89 4.77
3. Repayments schedules. 1.37 1.38 2.97 1.28 4.77 4.72
4. How to access loan (s). 1.41 1.32 3.00 1.21 4.76 4.52
5. Rural women credit facilities. 1.32 1.13 2.90 1.26 4.57 4.63
6. How to access land. 1.73 1.33 3.13 1.13 4.38 4.48
7. How to own land. 1.78 1.34 3.09 1.22 4.03 4.63
TOTAL MEAN 10.28 21.05 32.30
*Potential domain range = 7 to 28 * Scale: 0 - NONE, 1 - VERY LITTLE, 2 - LITTLE, 3 - MUCH, 4 - VERY MUCH
Table 4.14: Rank Order of the Calculated Educational Needs of the 7 Areas on Access to Land and Credit (n = 377).
68 STATEMENTS RANK MEAN SD
How to control livestock diseases. 1 5.52 5.64 Special dietary needs. 2 5.15 5.12 How to determine when to sell. 3 4.91 5.33 Interested rates on loans. 4 4.90 4.63 Choosing best loan (s). 5 4.89 4.77 Repayments schedules. 6 4.77 4.72 How to access loan (s). 7 4.76 4.52 Plan and prepare balanced meals. 8 4.60 4.68 Rural women credit facilities. 9 4.57 4.63 Food sanitation. 10 4.43 5.17 How to access land. 11 4.38 4.48 Understanding food safety. 12 4.35 4.92 Healthy food choices. 13 4.35 4.79 Food preservation. 14 4.30 4.81 Prevention of malnutrition. 15 4.28 4.70 Book keeping methods. 16 4.28 4.70 How to control livestock pests. 17 4.23 4.82 Household safety. 18 4.11 4.90 Food Budgeting. 19 4.11 4.70 How to feed animals. 20 4.05 4.15 How to own land. 21 4.03 4.63 Marketing segments information. 21 3.95 4.47 Household food security. 22 3.94 5.14 How to sell livestock. 23 3.92 10. 66 Transporting products for sale. 24 3.82 4.43 Life stages nutrition. 25 3.77 4.48 How to promote products. 26 3.68 4.22 Nutritional needs of family. 27 3.60 4.21 Improvising resources. 28 3.56 3.97 Maintain records of crop spraying. 29 3.55 4.40 New agricultural technologies. 30 3.50 4.37 Safety measures when spraying. 31 3.44 5.53 Effective use of resources. 32 3.42 8.38 How to grade various crops. 33 3.31 4.15 How to spray crops. 34 3.27 4.12 Planning agricultural activities. 35 3.26 4.13
Table 4.15: Rank Order of the Calculated Educational Needs (n = 377).
69 Table 4.15: Continued
STATEMENTS RANK MEAN SD
Identifying insects that affect crops. 36 3.23 4.31 Control o f crop diseases and insects. 37 3.23 4.38 Time management. 38 3.17 4.18 Planning household work. 39 3.15 3.92 How to determine prices. 40 3.13 4.34 How to prevent soil erosion. 41 3.00 3.99 How to market near home. 42 3.00 4.11 Management of family finances. 43 2.96 3.86 How to raise animals. 44 2.96 4.00 How to sell crops. 45 2.98 3.84 How to use crop rotation. 46 2.98 4.23 Select suitable storage methods. 47 2.85 4.06 Selection of various crops. 48 2.76 3.79 Choosing feeds for animals. 49 2.78 3.66 Time to apply fertilize to crops. 50 2.70 3.81 What profitable animals to keep. 51 2.53 3.38 Amount of fertilizer for crops. 52 2.60 3.70 Select suitable harvesting methods. 53 2.59 3.82 Determining suitable planting dates. 54 2.46 6.58 Correct fertihzer for crops. 55 2.36 4.03 Transporting crops, field to home. 56 2.34 4.32 Profitable crops. 57 2.30 3.80 How to control weeds. 58 2.21 3.84 How to select appropriate breed. 59 2.20 3.36 Choosing high quality seeds. 60 2.11 4.10 Identify weeds that affect crops. 61 1.85 3.40 How to plant crops. 62 1.84 3.63 Selection of suitable crop varieties. 63 1.80 4.12 Preparation of land for planting. 64 1.65 3.56
70 Objective 3: To describe perceived barriers to Extension participation by rural women o f Shurugwi District, Zimbabwe.
Data presented in Table 4.16 shows the calculated means and standard deviation for each of barriers in rank order. Barriers to Extension participation scores ranged from a mean of 1.79 to a mean of 2.66. Higher scores indicated outstanding perceived barriers to Extension participation. As illustrated in Table 4.16, outstanding barriers were: 1) lack of transportation, 2) lack of information about Extension activities, 3) heavy household tasks and time constraint, 4) poor roads to Extension training sites, 5) permission by husband, and lack of access to credit.
Principal component analysis was conducted on 14 barriers to Extension participation in order to transform the original set of variables into new linear combinations. Components were rotated to allow for a simpler interpretation. Two guidelines were used in determining the number of components to include in the analysis.
First, only components with eigenvalues greater than 1.0 were considered (Kieser criterion). Components with less than 1 hold less information than a single standardized variable whose variance is 1 (Kieser, 1974). Secondly, a graphical method (scree plot) was used to identify discontinuity of components. The size of succeeding eigenvalue drops off sharply and tends to level. Two principal (Table 4.17) components underlying rural women’s barriers to extension participation were identified and the researcher labeled them as: Factor I Sociocultural, and Factor U Institutional. Table 4.18 shows the percent of variance explained by the two principal components.
71 STATEMENTS RANKM“SD
Lack of transportation. 1 2.66 1.05 Lack of information about Extension activities. 2 2.46 1.19 Heavy loads of household tasks/Time constraint. 3 2.28 1.16 Roads to Extension training sites are poor. 4 2.18 1.17 No access to credit. 6 2.11 1.10 Permission by husband. 5 2.04 1.08 Extension agents do not often organize training programs for rural women. 7 1.98 1.02 Extension training sites are far from where most women Uve. 8 1.97 1.08 Women’s inability to read and write. 9 1.96 1.10 No land or access to land. 10 1.96 1.05 Lack of child-care facilities. 11 1.95 1.01 Lack of female Extension agents. 12 1.92 1.02 Extension training programs do not include women’s training needs. 13 1.82 0.95 Social and cultural customs prevents nural women from attending Extension activities. 14 1.79 0.96 Note: Scale ranges from 1— 4. 1 = STRONGLY DISAGREE; 2 = DISAGREE; 3. = AGREE; 4 = STRONGLY AGREE
Table 4.16: Rank Order of Means and Standard Deviations for Items Related to Perceived Barriers to Extension Participation (n =377).
72 Component 1 2 Items
Q ll Extension training programs do not include women’s needs. .818 0 Q 14 Social and cultural customs prevents rural women from attending Extension activities. .787 0
Q 12 Extension training sites are far. .779 0
Q 8 Lack of female Extension agents. .770 0
Q 9 Lack of child-care facilities. .768 0
Q 4 No land or access to land. .660 0
Q6 Permission by husband. .650 0
Q 10 Women’s inabihty to read and write. .641 0
Q 5 No access to credit. .625 0
Q1 Lack of information on Extension activities. 0 .811
Q2 Lack of transportation. 0 .738
Q3 Roads to Extension training sites are poor. 0 .637
Q7 Heavy loads of household tasks/Time constraint. .517 .549
Table 4.17: Rotated Component Matrix Loading order of Principal Component Analysis of 14 Barriers to Extension Participation on Orthogonal (n =377).
73 Percent of Variance Cumulative Factors Explained Percent
Sociocultural 41.4 41.4
Institutional 16.8 58.2
Table 4.18: Percent of Explained Variance in Barriers to Extension Participation Explained by the Two Principal Components (n = 377).
Objective 4: To determine the relationship between selected demographic characteristics o f Shurugwi District rural women and their perceived educational needs and barriers to Extension participation.
For this study, a scale developed by Davis (1971) was used for describing measures of association (relationship) of the calculated coefficients (Table 4.19).
Table 4.20 illustrates the types of scale of measurement and the type of correlation coefficients used in this study.
Table 4.21 reports correlation coefficients among selected demographic characteristics and the six areas of perceived educational needs. A low association (.10) existed among crop production and years in school. Negligible associations existed among livestock production and age, years in school and resource management and marketing.
74 Coefficient Description
.70 or higher Very Strong Association (Relationship)
.50 to .69 Substantial Association
.30 to .49 Moderate Association
.10 to .29 Low Association
.01 to .09 Negligible Association
Table 4.19: Davis’ Conventions for Describing Measures of Association.
Demographic Agricultural Barriers to Extension Characteristics Educational Needs Participation (Interval Data) (Interval Data) (Interval Data)
Age Pearson (r) Pearson (r)
Years of schooling Pearson (r) Pearson (r)
Table 4.20: Scale of Measurement and Correlation Coefficients Used in this Study.
75 Area of Agricultural Correlation Coefficients (r)
Educational Needs Age Years of Schooling
Crop Production -09 .10
Livestock Production 03 -.01
Marketing -05 .06
Nutrition Knowledge 06 -.07
Resource Management -07 05
Access to Land and Credit -05 -.02
Table 4.21: Relationships Among Selected Demographic Characteristics and the Six Areas of Educational Needs (n =377).
The correlation among nutrition knowledge and age was negligible. Crop production, marketing, resource management and access to land and credit, had negative association with age. Negative associations existed among years in school and livestock production, nutrition knowledge and access to land and credit.
Table 4.22 reports the correlation coefficients among selected demographic characteristics and barriers to Extension participation. All the barriers were negatively associated with age except for one barrier (women’s inability to read and write) with a negligible association of .06. The following barriers had low associations with number of years in school: 1) no access to credit (.14) and 2) Extension agents do not often organize training programs for rural women (.15). Two of the barriers (bad roads and women’s 76 Barriers to Extension Correlation Coefficients (r) Participation. Age Years of Schooling
1. Lack of information about Extension activities. -03 02 2. Lack of transportation. -'05 09 3. Roads to Extension training sites are poor. -02 -.06 4. No land or access to land. -*08 *07 5. No access to credit. -M .14 6. Permission by husband. -06 *06 7. Time constraint. -04 -01 8. Lack of female Extension agents. -*00 02 9. Lack of child-care facilities. -'07 .08 10. Women’s inability to read and write. 06 -.09 11. Extension training programs do not include women’s training needs. -.10 .08 12. Extension training sites are far from where most women live. -.06 .05 13. Extension agents do not often organize training programs for rural women. -.18 15 14. Social and cultural customs prevents rural women. -.05 03
Table 4.22: Relationships Among Selected Demographic Characteristics and Barriers to Extension Participation (n =377). inabihty to write and read) had negative association with years of schooling and the rest had negligible associations ranging from .02 to .09.
A correlation matrix was produced to further describe the variables (age, number of years in school and the six areas of educational needs) and their association. As illustrated in Table 4.23 correlations among educational needs ranged from moderate to substantial association (.31 to .64). Associations among age, number o f years in school and educational needs were either negative or low. Table 4.24 shows correlation matrix of age number of years in school and barriers to Extension participation. As illustrated in
77 Table 4.24 correlations among the 14 barriers ranged from negligible to substantial associations (.11 to .62). Associations among age, number o f years in school and barriers to Extension participation were either negative or low.
A multiple regression analysis was conducted. The dependent variable was perceived educational need (aggregated educational need o f the six domain areas) and the independent variables were:
Land ownership — rural women (nominal)*
Marital Status - rural women (nominal)*
Barriers to Extension participation — (interval)
*Dummy coded variables
Multiple liner regression was used to predict values of the dependent variable from a set of independent variables. Characteristics that were nominal were collapsed and dummy coded for the analysis procedures. The strategy used to enter variables into a regression equation was stepwise entry. The stepwise criteria probability of F to enter variables into the model was < = .050 and to remove variables into the model was > = .100. The most important part of regression analysis was to check if the required assumptions of linearity, normality, constant variance and independence o f observations were met.
Warmbrod (1998) has pointed out that analysis of residuals indicates whether the assumptions of the regression model appear to be satisfied. Examining the residuals can check violations of regression assumptions. Residuals play any important role when fitting model to data.
78 Xage Xyrsch Yneedlcp Yneed21p Yneed3ms Yneed4nk Yneed5rm Yneed6alc
Yneedlcp -.OR .10 1
Yneed21p .04 -.00 .57 1
YneedSnis -.05 .06 .54 .62 1
Ynced4nk .06 -.07 .31 .51 .52 1
YnccdSrmk -.07 .04 .34 .45 .49 .64 I VO
Yneed6acl -.05 -.02 .33 .44 .38 .48 .52 1
Table 4.24: The Correlation Matrix of Age, Education and the Six Areas of Agricultural Educational Needs. Xage Xedu Ybl Yb2 Yb3 Yb4 Yb5 Yb6 Yb7 Yb8 Yb9 YblO Ybll Ybl2 Ybl3
Ybl -.02 .01 1
Yb2 -.05 .08 .43 1
Yb3 -.01 -.06 .51 .24 1
Yb4 -.08 .07 .32 .11 .49 1
YbS -.1! .14 .40 .20 .39 .47 1
Yb6 -.06 .06 .36 .11 .43 .47 .52 1
Yb7 -.04 -.01 .45 .29 .55 .38 .45 .48 1
Yb8 -.00 .02 .30 .17 .42 .49 .52 .50 .48 1
Yb9 -.07 .07 .29 .13 .37 .42 .48 .51 .54 .61 1
00 o YblO .06 -.09 .33 .19 ,35 .45 .41 .47 .45 .44 .49 1
Ybll -.10 .08 .28 .17 .40 .59 .49 .52 .44 .60 .60 .581
Ybl2 -.06 .04 .30 .17 .42 .50 .48 .45 .47 .56 .57' .47 .60 1
Ybl3 -.18 .15 .32 .19 .31 .49 .56 .48 ,40 .60 .56 .45 .62 .61 I
Ybl4 -.05 .03 .31 .20 .34 .45 .45 .46 .51 .60 .60 .54 .62 .66 63
Table 4.25: The Correlation Matrix of Age, Education and Barriers to Extension Participation. The researcher examined the residuals’ distribution and their relationship to other variables to detect if there was any departure from the regression assumptions. Also, the researcher checked for normality by making a histogram of residuals, which had a normal curve, superimposed over it and did not appear to be skewed in any direction. Residuals had a mean o f zero, SD o f 1, and were not correlated with the independent variables.
Residuals have a constant variance (homoscedacity); evidence regarding this assumption was obtained by plotting residuals against predicted values for the dependent variable. If assumption was met, a horizontal band is indicated. Observations were independent; relationship between the two variables was linear. Three models were produced.
Table 4.25 shows that married marital status had negative correlations with educational need, and other land ownership. Educational need had low associations with barriers and other land ownership. Table 4.26 presents summary data for regression of educational needs on married marital status, other land ownership and barriers. As shown in Table 4.26, married marital status explained 3.7%, other land ownership explained 5.8% and barriers explained 8.5% of the variance in educational need.
Approximately 10% of the variance in the dependent variable (perceived educational needs) is explained by the three selected independent variables while 90% is explained by other variables not explored by the researcher. The value of R^ was low indicating that the independent variables in the model did not explain much of the variance in the dependent variable. Therefore, the model does not adequately predict rural women’s educational needs. Three independent variables were statistically significant: marital status, married (p <001 “), land ownership other (p = .004 b) and barriers (p = .001=) at 90% confidence level.
81 Standardized Regregsion (B) Coefficient* Entering Land Ownership Multiple Multiple Variable Step Age Other Barriers R** R’“ F-Ratlo'*
1 -.191 .191 .037 14.247
2 -.174 .148 .241 .058 11.563 • .
3 -.171 .172 .166 .292 .085 11.605
Computation was terminated after step 3 because the F-level was insufficient to warrant further calculation.
Table 4.27; Regression of Agricultural Educational Needs on Marital Status (Married), Land Ownership (Other) and Barriers, (n = 377)
8 Intercotrelations Variables X, Xj X, Y Mean SD
Marital Status: Married (Xi) 1.00 -.119 -.002 -.191 .6870 .4643
Land Ownership; Other (Xj) 1.00 -.137 .169 6.631E-02 .2492
Barrier (X3) 1.00 .135 2.0677 .7373
EDUNBEDOO 1.00 6.3783 4.1936
Table 4.26; Summary Data: Regression of Agricultural Educational Needs on Selected Independent Variables, (n = 377). 00 OJ CHAPTERS
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter presents the summary, conclusions, implications, and recommendations derived from this study. The study was conducted in Shurugwi
District, southwest region of Midlands Province, Zimbabwe. Shurugwi District is typical communal land that falls in Natural Region HI and Natural Region IV (Figure 2), characterized by low rainfall; unsustainable for crop production, and in some areas only livestock production is possible.
The purpose of this study was to describe the perceived educational needs of
Shurugwi rural women. The objectives of the study were to:
1. Describe rural women in Shurugwi District according to selected characteristics (age,
marital status, years in school, land ownership, and household size).
2. Determine the perceived educational needs of rural women in six areas of domain:
crop production, livestock production, marketing, nutrition, resource management,
and access to land and credit.
3. Determine perceived barriers to Extension participation by rural women.
4. Determine the relationship among selected demographic characteristics of rural
women and their perceived educational needs and their perceived barriers to
Extension participation. 84 Methods
The research design employed for this study was descriptive correlational survey.
The dependent variables chosen were: the perceived educational needs in crop
production, livestock production, marketing, nutrition, resource management, access to
land and credit, and barriers to Extension participation. The independent variables were:
participants’ age, marital status, number years in school, household size, literacy, and
land ownership.
All rural women in the Midlands Province, Zimbabwe comprised the target population and all rural women from the five randomly selected wards in Shurugwi
District comprised the accessible population. A sample of 377 rural women between the age of 19-75 were selected to participate in the study from a population of 30,860 women in Shurugwi District, for a 95 percent confidence level and five percent margin of error
(Krejcie & Morgan, 1970). From each ward, a sample of 80 women was conveniently selected.
An instrument was developed to collect data by means of a face-to-face interview.
The instrument consisted of three sections. Section one was designed to gather data on selected demographic characteristics of the participants. Section two was designed to determine the perceived educational needs o f rural women in six domain areas: crop production (23 items), livestock production (8 items), and marketing (10 items), nutrition
(11 items), resource management (9 items), and access to land and credit (7 items).
Computation of the perceived educational needs in this study was done through the use of Borich’s formula, Cal Bn = (In — Kn) (Ig), where Cal En means the calculated perceived educational needs. In representing the perceived knowledge of the item by the
85 participants, and Ig representing the perceived average importance of the item as rated by all the rural women interviewed. The Borich model determines a need score by subtracting the perceived knowledge score from the perceived importance score, and multiply the result by the average perceived importance score.
Section three was designed to determine data on rural women’s perceived barriers to Extension participation. The section consisted of 14 statements measured by a Likert- type scale to which the participants were asked to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement using a five-point scale.
The Department of Afiican Languages and Literature at the University of
Zimbabwe translated the instrument into Shona language. A panel of experts determined the content validity of the instrument. The instrument was field tested for face vahdity and clarity with 15 randomly selected Zimbabwean rural women of similar characteristics of those in the study. Reliabihty of the instrument was measured by a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient calculated from pilot test data from 14 randomly selected rural women from an area close to Shurugwi district.
Data were collected through face-to-face interview and all 377 rural women were asked the same questions in the same order. Data collection took a period of 13 days.
Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 10.0 for
Windows). The following statistics were used: frequencies, percentages, measures of central tendency, Cronbach’s alpha rehabihty coefficients, measures of variability,
Pearson (r) correlation coefficients, and multiple regression.
86 Summary of Findings
The mean age of rural women in this study was 44 years. The youngest respondent was 19 years and the oldest was 74 years. A majority of respondents had completed between 1— 7 years of schooling and almost one- quarter never attended school. The average period of time spend in school was 5.80 years with the minimum being 0 and maximum being 15 years. Data revealed that majority of rural women in this study were married and a total of 68 were widowed. In respect of land ownership, the majority of rural women in this study did not own land as individuals.
The most important needs Shurugwi rural women had in crop production were: how to maintain regular records of crop spraying, information about new agricultural technologies, and how to maintain safety measures when spraying crops. Their lowest needs were: how to prepare land for planting, and how to select suitable crop varieties.
The most important needs in the area of livestock production were: how to control diseases, how to determine when animals are ready for sale, and how to control pests.
The two lowest needs were: how to select appropriate breed, and what profitable animals to keep. Participants’ most important needs in marketing were: information about bookkeeping, information on marketing segments, and how to sell livestock. Their lowest needs in this area were: selection of various crops, and how to sell crops.
The most important needs in the area of resource management reported by respondents were: how to improve household safety, how to integrate agricultural activities, household work and personal life. The lowest needs were: management of family finances and planning household work. In the area of nutrition rural women’s most important needs were: how to understand special dietary needs, how to plan and prepare
87 balanced meals, information on food sanitation and food safety. However, a small difference between the highest and the lowest educational need exits in this area. The most important needs in the area of access to land and credit were: related to information about interest rates on loans, how to choose the best loan (s), information on repayments schedules, and how to access loan (s). The lowest needs in this area were: how to own land and how to access land.
Correlation coefficients among selected demographic characteristics and the six areas of educational needs were low. All the barriers to Extension participation were negatively associated with age of rural women except for one barrier, illiteracy had a negligible association of .06. Principal component analysis of barriers to Extension participation resulted in two factors. The three selected independent variables (marital status married, land ownership other, and barriers) explained approximately 10% of the variance in educational needs of Shurugwi rural women.
Conclusions and Implications
The following conclusions and implications were drawn from the research findings and are applicable only to the subjects of the study. From the analysis of the findings three majors conclusions are drawn: 1) rural women’s highest educational needs are in livestock production, nutrition and access to land and credit, 2) the perceived educational needs scores and the selected demographic characteristic of the rural women are independent of one another, and 3) the majority of rural women in this study did not perceived high barriers to Extension participation. Outstanding barriers with mean scores ranging between 2.04 to 2.66 were transportation, lack of information about Extension
88 activities, heavy loads of household task and time constraints, poor roads, no access to land and credit and permission from husband.
Rural women in Shurugwi District are a disadvantaged group of individuals, who have limited educational opportunities. Women’s access to agricultural extension and their abihty to comprehend and use technical information are lower when they lack education. Literature revealed that more men than women were enrolled in training programs and gain more from developmental programs (FAO, 1992; & UNESCO, 1993;
World Bank 1991). According to the World Bank’s World Development Report (2000), between 1980 and 1990, male literacy increased from 43% to 60% while female literacy increased from 23% to 36%. Low investment in female education reduces productivity, efficiency and economic progress, inside and outside the home (World Bank, 2000).
A majority of the women in this study did not own land as individuals. Land was either jointly owned or belonged to the husband. The problem with this arrangement is that when divorce takes place, particularly in the rural areas, a woman traditionally has no rights to her husband’s land (World Bank, 1991). Land ownership is considered as a prerequisite for selection to participation in some Extension programs, and entitlement to land is required as collateral for obtaining credit (Bryceson, 1990). In most cases, land is registered in the name of the husband and if he is away, this creates a problem in terms of the woman accessing loans (FAO, 1994). In Zimbabwe, legal instruments were put in place soon after 1980 to give women rights to property ownership, but local customs may still override these laws (Matrimonial Causes Act, 1985; Legal Age o f Majority Act,
1982). In general, women use land but do not own it (Cheater, 1982). The uncertainty of women’s access to land makes it a problem for them to obtain the credit they might need
89 to fully put into practice extension advice. Therefore, women continue to have poor control over a range of resources, such as land, credit, education, and information.
Household sizes of the participants in this study were very large, approximately
58% had 6-10 members and 10% had 11-15 members. Usually, rural households are very large because of socio-cultural beliefs and that they contribute to free labor in agricultural productivity. However, other factors might have contributed to the fairly large household sizes in Shurugwi District such as increasing numbers of orphans from HIV/AIDS victims. Therefore, the researcher recommends a study on the impact of HIV/AIDS on
Shurugwi District rural households. Findings of such a study can be used for creating
Extension courses.
Participants in this study perceived a considerable amount of knowledge about crop production. The findings of this study show that crop production in not a major educational priority for the rural women in Shurugwi District. The lower educational needs scores in this area may imply that the women already have received information and/or have been actively involved in crop production activities for a long time.
Information about keeping records of crop spraying and new technologies were rural women’s most important educational needs in crop production. The fact that new technologies have had an adverse impact on women since agriculture was considered men’s domain; hence, Shurugwi women may have been denied access to new technologies (FAO, 1994). However, this may well be a reflection of the lower level of education that the participants of this study have to start with. Approximately 44% of the women in this study had 1-7 years of schooling and 24% had never been to school. An
90 individual’s level of education positively and significantly affects the individual’s probability of adopting new technologies (Saito & Spurling, 1994).
Results confirmed that women’s knowledge in livestock production was low; reasons being that women do not participate that much in this activity (FAO, 1983). In this area, women reported controlling diseases as one of their most important need with the highest mean (5.52) of all their needs in the six domain areas. The reason could be that livestock is economically and cultural highly valued. In general, women participate more in rearing of small livestock such as goats, rabbits, and poultry because they own them and enjoy the benefits. But with the feminization of agriculture in Sub-Saharan
Africa, women are now responsible for all agricultural activities. From the above finding. Extension agents involved in planning programs must realize that rural women in
Shurugwi District need education in the area of livestock production. Extension program will be more effective as they focus on the educational needs of the rural women.
Participants in this study perceived to possess very little knowledge about access to credit and land. The findings indicated that this area was a major educational priority for Shurugwi rural women. Educational courses should be planned that meet the identified needs of the rural women. Despite rural women’s valuable contribution in agricultural production, they still have limited access to credit and land. FAO (1990) conducted an analysis of credit schemes in four Afiican countries and results showed that women received less than 10% of the credit directed to small-scale farmers, even though evidence suggests that women were better credit risks than men. A positive relationship is expected between land ownership and increased agricultural productivity (FAO, 1998).
91 Also, individualized land rights can enhance the credit merit of rural women and improve their chances of obtaining credit (Poats, Schmink & Spring, 1988).
Seven items in the area of nutrition were among the top 15 ranked very high educational needs (Table 4.16). Women are the key to household nutritional security.
Other factors can also contribute to the achievement of household nutritional status, such as food security, nutrition knowledge, safe drinking water and sanitation. In Zimbabwe, many organizations affirm women’s role in household food security, hence, have promoted and provided relevant programs (Muchena, 1994). The researcher recommends a multidisciplinary dialogue among Subject Matter specialists (Nutritionist and Home
Economists) from Ministry of Lands and Agriculture (AGRITEX), the Ministry of Child
Welfare and Health (Nutrition Unit), and the University of Zimbabwe (Institute of Food
Nutrition and Family Sciences) to create programs in nutrition that meet the needs and interests of rural women. This is consistent with a recommendation suggested by
Pazvakavambwa (1994), that AGRITEX needs to hire nutrition specialists.
Information on marketing segments and promotion of products were rural women’s most important educational needs in the area of marketing. Marketing involves traveling hence; men are the ones who are mostly involved. A FAO report (1994) concluded that local marketing of products posed no problem for women except for places that are far away from home. Therefore, training of rural women in marketing strategies is a matter of urgency and should take into consideration institutional and social biases. The researcher also recommends a search for and creation of marketing enterprises that are acceptable for and appropriate to rural women.
92 The findings o f this study indicated that household safety, integrating work, income-generating activities, improvising resources and effective use of resources are major educational priorities in the area of resource management. Policy makers and
Extension planners must realize that African women are the “lead managers” within a household for providing food, nutrition, health, water, education, and are active in agriculture, trade, and other economic pursuits to an extent greater than elsewhere in the world (World Bank, 1989). Extension courses should be planned that meet the identified needs of rural women.
This researcher ranked educational needs for each item under the six-domain areas (Table 4.16). This information can help AGRITEX in placing its priorities on the items that were ranked high. Target planning will help meet the needs of rural women, attract a wider audience, and lead to the success of Extension programs. Educational courses should be planned that meet the identified needs of the rural women, with emphasis given to those needs ranked highest.
The researcher concluded that participants in this study did not perceive barriers to Extension participation. This suggests that AGRITEX is actually reaching rural women, as supported by Pazvakavambwa (1994), that Zimbabwe has developed a strong agricultural extension services accessible to communal people. By asking rural women about their perceived barriers to Extension participation, strategies for overcoming these barriers can be developed. For people in rural settings, barriers related to living in geographically isolated areas such as lack of transportation become paramount.
The relationship among selected demographic characteristics and educational needs were either low or negligible in this study. The findings appear to indicate that the
93 participants have similar educational needs. Therefore, extension program based on the
educational scores will service the various groups of rural women, regardless of their demographic characteristics. The relationship among barriers to Extension participation and selected demographic characteristics were either negative or negligible. Similar characteristics may account for the lack o f association. A negative coefficient means that the predicted value of the dependent variable decreases when the value of the independent variable increases. Rural women who had more years of schooling and older had lower educational needs.
Recommendations
The recommendations are based upon the findings and conclusions of this study.
The findings of this study could be usefiil to the AGRITEX, in its endeavor to focus on rural women’s needs, as a guide in developing educational materials; conducting seminars, in-service training, and training workshops for Extension agents.
Although, the mean scores of perceive barriers to Extension participation by participants were not very high, the researcher recommends development of rural women
Extension programs that take into account the barriers they face. Awareness of women’s needs and barriers are important for specific training strategies. Both needs and barriers could be combined and used as a basis for planning Extension programs. The researcher makes the argument that women’s needs cannot be separated from barriers as they help explain, and shed light on needs. Therefore, it is critical for Extension agents to understand and be aware of rural women’s barriers. Saito & Weidemann (1990) agree that it is essential to understand the nature of barriers rural women face and the implications of these barriers for extension program.
94 The selected demographic characteristics of the participants ia this study could
not predict the needs of rural women, giving the possibility o f drawing a conclusion that
in principle Shurugwi rural women were similar. But there was some diversity in terms
of age, educational level, land ownership, and marital status. Some authors argue that
rural women are not a homogeneous group and treating them the same can bring about
inappropriate solutions and causing disadvantages for others (Das, 1994; FAO, 1994;
Poats, Schmink & Spring 1988). A study conducted by Das (1994) confirmed that women farmers were not a homogeneous group; they present different situations, which need to be considered as a useful factor in planning extension strategies. When programs target a group of women as relatively homogeneous based on a few simple factors, the existing variability among women is often not sufficiently considered. The researcher does not recommend different programs, but encourages planners not to loose sight of the heterogeneity among rural women. The researcher recommends appropriate planning of extension programs that address and take into account the existing diversity within rural women.
Further Research
This study could be replicated in other communal areas that are in the Natural
Region fH, and IV, throughout Zimbabwe, Sub-Saharan Afiica and other developing countries. The relationship among selected demographic characteristics and educational needs was low. Therefore, further studies should analyze the relationship of selected demographic characteristics and educational needs in other Districts in Zimbabwe and other developing countries in order to verify if there are differences or common patterns in findings.
95 Most of the studies (Nieto, 1989; Uko, 1985; Rodriquez, 1990; Arede, 1994) that
used Borich’s model had a very low R^. Similar studies could be conducted with other
variables, such as size of land/plot, years of farming experience, farming status hill or
part time, and use of hired labor to find out if there are common patterns or differences.
The researcher recommends a study that analyzes credit schemes in Shurugwi District to
find out the percentage of credit that is directed to rural women.
Laws have given land rights to women in Zimbabwe. But, in general, the laws have been gender-neutral and do not actively discriminate against women (Cheater,
1981). However, in practice, women’s land rights have improved to a limited extent, but very few in rural areas can actually own land. Considering that the majority of the women in this study did not own land as individuals, the researcher recommends a policy-relevant research on how rural women are affected by changes that have taken place in land rights. Warner, Al-Hassan & Kydd, (1997) suggest that policies and laws are not, in themselves, sufficient to do justice to the complicated social, cultural and economical lives of rural women. If Zimbabwe is to achieve food security and make rural areas economically viable, policy maker and planners should include gender variables as part of planning. The researcher recommends that fixture studies use the two principal components underlying rural women’s barriers to Extension participation
(Sociocultural and Institutional) to reduce the number of variables they might have.
Finally, a follow- up study should be conducted to determine if Shurugwi rural women’s educational needs have changed and barriers to Extension participation existed over time.
96 APPENDIX A
PANEL OF EXPERTS FOR VALIDATION OF INSTRUMENT.
97 PANEL OF EXPERTS
The Ohio State University
Dr Larry Miller Professor Department of Human and Community Resource Development The Ohio State University
Dr Scott Scheer Assistant Professor Department of Human and Community Resource Development The Ohio State University
Dr. Nikki Conklin Extension Associate: Employment Development Network Staff Development Ohio State University Extension
Dr Janet Henderson Extension Associate: Program Development & Evaluation Ohio State University Extension
Dr. Linda Loabo Assistant Professor Department of Rural Sociology The Ohio State University Extension
Dr. Agunga Assistant Professor Department of Human and Community Resource Development The Ohio State University
Dr. Wellington Mubatanhema Researcher College of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences University of Georgia
Dr Phillip Mandebvu Researcher W.H. Miner Agricultural Research Institute New York
98 Zimbabwe
Dr. Francis Matambirofa. Professor Department of African Languages University of Zimbabwe
Mr. Maxwell Mukwereza Director of AGRITEX Agricultural Zimbabwe Ministry of Lands and Agriculture.
99 APPENDIX B
INSTUMENT/QUESTIONNAIRE
100 INSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETING OF THE INTERVIEW GUIDE.
Statements and questions in this interview guide were in the local language (Shona) and were read to the rural women by the interviewer, in normal conversational tone. Interviewers are encouraged to read the statements and questions in the same way to avoid introducing bias. Information provided was kept confidential; names were not written on the interview guide. Answers to these statement and questions helped determine the educational needs of rural women in Shurugwi District. It was very important that the women answer all the statements and questions sincerely. The first section of the interview guide covered demographic characteristics of rural women. The second section of the interview guide will determine the level of agricultural educational knowledge of rural women in the Shurugwi District perceive the agricultural education areas in which rural women of Shurugwi may need training and the level of importance attached to the knowledge and needs. There are two columns: one for knowledge and the other for importance under which rating scales are provided to aid the rural women (interviewee) in describing their responses and reactions to each statement and question. The rating scale aided the interviewer in recording the rural women’s responses and reactions. “Please read the items for the participants and make sure the participants understand them and rate each agricultural educational need twice according to the scale provided, first rate it as to the amount of knowledge you currently possess concerning each agricultural skill and secondly rate it in terms of its importance in increasing agricultural production”. The participants were shown a card that contains the rating scale and make sure that they understand the scale. “ Indicate the participant’s rating of each item by circling the response which best represents their opinion in terms o fAmount of Knowledge for Agricultural Productionthe participant perceive to possess and Level of Importance in Agricultural Productionusing the following scale”:
101 INTERVIEW GUIDE Respondent’s ID # ______Village Code SECTION I: DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SHURUGWI RURAL WOMEN.______1. What is your age?______years. 2. What is your current marital status? (Please tick only one.) 01 ( ) Married 02 ( ) Divorced 03 ( ) Separated 04 ( ) Single/Never married 05 ( ) Widow 3. What is the size o f your household including husband if there is one and children? 4. Do you have other dependents or grandchildren Uving with you? No. ( ) Yes. ( ) How many?______. 5. How many years o f education have you achieved?______6. Are you able to read and write? 01 ( ) Yes, I can read and write. 02 ( ) No, I can neither read nor write. 7. Who owns the family land in your household? (Please tick one.) 01 ( ) Wife 02 ( ) Husband 03 ( ) Jointly by husband and wife 04 ( ) Other ( Please specify)______
102 None Very Little Little Much Very Much 0 12 3 4 Example: Amount of Knowledge Level of Importance For In Agricultural Production Agricultural Production Circle one Circle one
(^^0^ 1 2 3 4 How to get information about land preparation for crop 0 1 2 3 (^4^ planting.
If the woman’s answer is noneunder Knowledge,it indicates that she has no knowledge about land preparation for crop planting. If the women’s answer isvery muchunder Importancethat indicates that she places a high importance on getting information about land preparation for crop planting.
The second section of the interview guide will cover the demographic characteristics of Shurugwi rural women.
103 SECTION H: AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION NEEDS, KNOWLEDGE PERCEIVED TO POSSESS AND IMPORTANCE ATTACHED TO IT.
Indicate participant’s rating of the following items by circling responses which best represent their opinion in terms ofAmount of Knowledge for Agricultural Production they perceive to possess, and the Level of Importance in Agricultural Productionthey attach. None Very Little Little Much Very Much 0 1 2 3 4
Amount of Knowledge Level of Importance For In Agricultural Production Agricultural Production Circle one Circle one
QUESTION# 1 CROP PRODUCTION 0 1 2 3 4 Information on what crops are more profitable to 0 1 2 3 4 produce. 0 1 2 3 4 How to prepare land for planting. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to choose high quality seeds. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to select suitable crop varieties for your area. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to plant crops. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to determine suitable planting dates. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to identify insects that affect crops. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to identify weeds that affect crops. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to control weeds. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to control diseases and insects that affect crops. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to use crop rotation system for pest control. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to spray crops. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to maintain regular records of crop spraying. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to maintain safety measures when spraying crops. 0 1 2 3 4
104 None Very Little Little Much Very Much 0 1 2 3 4
Amount of Knowledge Level of Importance For In Agricultural Production. Agricultural Production Circle one Circle one
CROP PRODUCTION 0 1 2 3 4 How to choose the right fertilizers for crops. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to determine the right time to apply fertihze 0 1 2 3 4 to different crops. 0 1 2 3 4 How to apply proper amount of fertilizer to crops. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to prevent soil erosion. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to grow vegetables. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Information about new agricultural technologies. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to select suitable harvesting methods. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to select suitable storage methods. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to transport crops from field to home. 0 1 2 3 4
QUESTION # 2 LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION 0 1 2 3 4 Information on what animals are profitable to keep. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to select the appropriate breed. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to raise the animals. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to choose the correct feeds for animals. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to feed the animals. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to control livestock diseases. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to control livestock pests. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to determine when animals are ready to sell. 0 1 2 3 4
105 None Very Little Little Much Very Much 0 1 2 3 4 Amount of Knowledge Level of Importance For In Agricultural Production Agricultural Production Circle One Circle One QUESTION # 3 MARKETING SKILLS 0 1 2 3 4 How to sell crops. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to sell livestock. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to select various crops for marketing. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to grade various crops for marketing. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Howto determinate prices. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to promote products. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to market near home. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Information on marketing segments 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to transport products for sell. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Information on book keeping methods. 0 1 2 3 4 QUESTION # 4 NUTRITION KNOWLEDGE 0 1 2 3 4 Nutritional needs of household members. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Understanding life stage nutrition. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to prevent malnutrition. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to plan and prepare balanced meals. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to preserve food. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Understanding food safety. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Understanding food sanitation. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Understanding special dietary needs. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How healthy food choices affect Life. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to get the most from one’s food budget. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to maintain household food security. 0 1 2 3 4
106 None Very Little Little Much Very Much 0 1 2 3 4 Amount of Knowledge Level of Importance For In Agricultural Production, Agricultural Production Circle One Circle One QUESTION #5 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 0 1 2 3 4 How to manage time. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to use resources effectively. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to improvise resources. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to manage household finances. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to plan household work. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to plan agriculture activities. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to improve household safety. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to integrate work / family & personal life. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to start home based income generating activities. 0 1 2 3 4 QUESTION #6 ACCESS TO LAND AND CREDIT 0 I 2 3 4 How to own land. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to access land. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to access loan (s). 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Information on credit facilities available to rural women. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 How to choose the best loan (s). 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Infonnation about interest rates on loans. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Information on repayments schedules. 0 1 2 3 4
107 SECTION m. BARRIERS TO EXTENSION PARTICIPATION Please circle the level that best describes your agreement or disagreement that the following barriers prevent rural women from attending Extension activities? The levels of agreement are: 1. = Strongly Disagree (SD) 2. = Disagree (D) 3. = Agree (A) 4. = Strongly Agree (SA) Example SD D A SA Lack of time 1 2 3 © In this example, the individual strongly agreesthat lack of time prevents mral women from attending Extension activities. SD D_ A SA 1. Lack of information about Extension activities. 2 3 4 2. Lack of transportation. 2 3 4 3. Roads to Extension training sites are poor. 2 3 4 4. No land or access to land. 2 3 4 5. No access to credit. 2 3 4 6. Permission by husband. 2 3 4 7. Heavy loads of household tasks (Time constraints) 2 3 4 8. Lack of female Extension agents. 2 3 4 9. Lack of child-care facilities. 2 3 4 10. Women’s inability to read and write makes. 2 3 4 11. Extension training programs do not include women’s training needs. 2 3 4 12. Extension training sites are far from where most women live. 2 3 4 13. Extension agents do not often organize training programs for rural women. 2 3 4 14. Social and cultural customs prevents rural women 2 3 4 from attending Extension activities. THANK YOU.
108 APPENDIX C
SHONA TRANSLATION OF THE INSTRUMENR/QUESTIONNAIRE
109 NZIRA DZEKUPINDURA NADZO NHEVEDZWA DZENHAURIRANOINO.
Mibvtmzo nezvimwe zvakanyorwa miinhevedzwa dzenhaurirano ino zvakanyorwa nerurimi rwatinoziva rweChiShona uye zvinofanirwa kuverengerwa vanhukadzi vemumarawa nanyakubvunza {interviewers) neizwi rakadzikama rinoshandiswa mazuva ese kana vanhu vachikurukurirana. Vananyakubvunza vanokurudzirwa zvikum kuti vaverenge zvakanyorwa pamwe nemibvunzo yacho nenzira imwe chete kuitira kuti zvisita sokuti pane imwe mibvunzo yakakosha kudarika imwe. Mhinduro nemashoko anenge acbipindurwa hazvina mumwe anoudzwa nezvazvo; mazita avanhu haanyorwi panhevedzwa dzenhaurirano. Mhinduro dzichapiwa dzichabatsira kuburitsa pachena pamwe nekutaridza kukosha kwedzidzo, ruzivo nezvinodiwa nevanhukadzi vekumaruwa eDunhu reShurugwi. Chinhu chakakosha zvikum kuti vanhukadzi vapindure mibvunzo yese vachipa chokwadi chavo chaicho. Chikamu chekutanga chenhevedzwa dzenhaurirano ino chine chinangwa chekuona danho reruzivo ruri maererano nekurima rune vanhukadzi veDunhu reShuragwi. Panodikanwawo kuona nzvimbo dzinoda kuti vanhukadzi veDunhu reShumgwi vawane dzidzo pamwe nekutsvaka kuona kukoshesa kwavanoita ruzivo pamwe nezvanoshuvira kuti dai vakwanisa kuzviwana. Pane zvikamu zvinodzika zviviri: chimwe chikamu ndecheruzivo rwuripo chimwe ndechekukosheswa kunoitwa ruzivo rwacho nmopimwa nezvidungu {rating scale) senzira yekubatsira vanhukadzi vekumamwa kutsinhira mhinduro dzavanopa kumibvunzo nezvimwe zvinobuda munhaurwa inenge ichitwa. Chikero chine zvidungu {rating scale) ichi chinobatsirawo uya nyakubvunza kunatsotaridza pfimgwa dzinobva kune vanenge vachibvunzwa. ‘Tapota verengerai vacho vanenge vachibvunzwa zvakanyorwa mubve mabata chokwadi chekuti vazviozwisisa uye isai zvacho zvinodiwa mukurima pachikero chezvidungu chakapiwa kaviri. Chekutanga kutaridza ruzivo rwekurima mripo pari zvino zvichienderana neunyanzvi hwekurima hwega hwega. Chechipiri kutaridza kukosha kwacho kubudikidza nekusimudzira kwachinoita uwandu hwezvinobva mumabasa ekurima.” Vanhu vanenge vachibvunzwa vachataridzzwa kadhi rine chikero chezvidungu {rating scale) uye onai kuti vanzwisisa zvinoreva chikero ichi. ‘Taridzai zvidungu {rating) zvanyakabvunzwa nenzira yekutendenedza kana kukomberedza mhinduro inonyatsotaridza maonero ake kana pachitariswaUwandu hweRuzivo hweKurima runenge nyakubvunzwa achiona sokimge ndirwo rwaainarwo uyewo Danho reKukosha Kwaro muKurimamuchishandisa chikero chinotevera”:
110 Hapana Rushomasa Rushoma Ruzhinji Ruzhinjisa 0 1 2 3 4 Muenzaniso:
Uwandu hweRuzivo Kukosha kweRuzivo rwacho rweKurima muKurima Tendenedzai Nhamba Imwe ______Tendenedzi Nhamba Imwe
(^0^ 1 2 3 4 Nzira dzekutsvaga mashoko ari maererano 0 12 3 nekugadzirira minda kuti igodzvarwa zvirimwa —
Kana mhinduro yemukadzi anenge achibvimzwa iri yekuti hapana pasi peRuzivo, zvinotaridza kuti haana ruzivo maererano nekugadzirira minda kuti igodzvarwa mbeu. Kana mhundiro yemukadzi wacho iri yekuti Ruzhinjisa pasi peKukoshazvinoreva kuti anenge achikoshesa kuwana ruzivo ruri maererano nekugadzirira minda kuti igodzvarwa mbeu.
Chikamu chepiri chenhevedzwa dzenhaurirano chinenge chichibata nyaya dzakaita sezera, dzidzo nezvimwe zvakadaro zv'evanhukadri veDunhu reShurugwi.
Ill NHEVEDZWA DZENHAURIRANO Nhamba dzaNyakubvunzwa (ID#) ______Rupawo rweRuwa {Village Codé)_
CHIKAMU I: ZVIRI MAERERANO NOUPENYU HWEVANHUKADZI VEDUNHU RESHURUGWI. 1. Mune makore mangani ekuzvarwa? Makore______. 2. Makamira sei pari zvino panyaya dzewanano (Tapota domai chimwe chete) 01 ( ) Ndakaroorwa
02 ( ) Handisati ndaroorwa
03 ( ) Ndakarambana nemurume
04 ( ) Hatisi pamwe mazuva ano
05 ( ) Vakashaya. 3. Mûri vangani mumhuri yenyu kusanganisa murume kana aripo nevana venyu? 4. Mune vamwe vana here vamimochengeta kana zvizukuru zvinogara nemi? Kwete ( ).
Hongu. ( ) Vangani?______. 5. Makapinda chikoro kwemakore magani ? ______- 6. Munokwanisa here 01 ( ) Kunyora nokuverenga?
02 ( ) Hamukwanisi kunyora kana kuverenga? 7. Munda/minda ndeyani mumhuri menyu? (Taridzai netsvunha) 01 ( ) Amai
02 ( ) Baba
03 ( ) Amai nababa
04 ( ) Zvimwewo (Tapota natsodomai zvimwe zvacho)______
112 CHIKAMUI I: DZIDZISOINODIWA MAERERANO NOKURIMA: RUZIVO RUNONZIRURIPO NECHEKARE UYE KUKOSHESWA KWERUZIVO RWACHO KURIMA MBEU
Hapana Rushomasa Rushoma Ruzhinji Ruzhinjisa 0 1 2 3 4 Uwandu hweRuzivo Kukosha kweRuzivo rwacho rwacho Tendenedzi Nhamba Imwe Tendenedzi Nhamba Imwe
MUBVUNZO1 KURIMA
0 1 2 3 4 Mashoko embeu dzinowanisa mari yakwanda kudzirima. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Nzira yemagadzirirwo eminda kuti igodzvarwa. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Nzira yekusarudza nayo mbeu yepamusoro. 0 12 3 4
0 12 3 4 Kusarudza marudzi embeu dzinoenderana nenzvimbo yenyu. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Nzira yekudzvara nayo. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Nzira yekutsvaka guva yakakodzera yekukavira mbeu. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Nzira dzekuona nadzo tumbuyu tunokanganisa mbesa. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Nzira yekuona nayo sora rinokanganisa mbesa. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Nzira yekuita kuti sora riite shoma. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Nzira yekuita kuti zvirerwe zvinokanganisa mbesa zvidzikire. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Nzira yekudzvara mbesa dzakasiyana pamwaka yakasiyana 0 12 3 4 senzira inoita kuti zvimbuyu zvinodya mbesa zvidzikire.
113 Hapana Rushomasa Rushoma Ruzhinji Ruzhinjisa 0 1 2 3 4 Uwandu hweRuzivo Kukosha kweRuzivo rwacho rwacho Tendenedzi Nhamba Imwe______Tendenedzi Nhamba Imwe
KURIMA 0 12 3 4 Nzira yekupfapfaidza nayo mishonga pambesa. 0 12 3 4
0 12 3 4 Nzira yekuchengetedza nayo mazuva anopfapfaidzwa mbesa. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Mashoko ari maererano nokudzivirira njodzi yekushandisa 0 12 3 4 mishonga ine ngozi yekuuraya nayo zvimbuyu.
0 12 3 4 Nzira yekusarudza nayo fetiraiza chaiyo inodiwa nembesa. 0 12 3 4
0 12 3 4 Nzira yekutsvaka nguva yakakodzera yekuisa fetiraiza 0 12 3 4 pambesa dzakasiyana-siyana.
0 1 2 3 4 Nzira yakuisa nayo fetiraiza ine uwandu hunodikanwa 0 12 3 4
0 12 3 4 Nzira yekudzivirira nayo kukukurwa kwevhu. 0 12 3 4
0 12 3 4 Nzira dzekufambisa nadzo mabasa ekurima miriwo. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Mashoko ari maererano nenzira itsva dzine unyanzvi dzekurima. 0 12 3 4
0 12 3 4 Nzira dzekutsvaka nadzo nzira dzakakodzera dzekukohwa mbeu 0 12 3 4
0 12 3 4 Nzira dzekusarudza nadzo machengeterwo embesa dzakohwiwa 0 12 3 4
0 12 3 4 Nzira dzekuendesa mbesa dzakohwewa kumba. 0 12 3 4
114 Hapana Rushomasa Rushoma Ruzhinji Ruzhinjisa 0 1 2 3 4 Uwandu hweRuzivo Kukosha kweRuzivo rwacho rwacho Tendenedzi Nhamba Imwe ______Tendenedzi Nhamba Imwe
MUBVUNZO 2 KUPFUYA
0 12 3 4 Maererano nezvipfiiyo zvine mubhadharo wakanaka kuzvichengeta. 0 12 3 4
0 12 3 4 Nzira yekusarudza nayo chipfuyo chakakodzera kupfüya. 0 12 3 4
0 12 3 4 Nzira yekupfuya zvipfiiyo nayo. 0 1 2 3 4
0 12 3 4 Nzira yekusarudza nayo chikafu chaicho chakakodzera. 0 12 3 4
0 12 3 4 Nzira yekupa nayo zvipfiiyo chikafu. 0 12 3 4
0 12 3 4 Nzira yekupedza nayo zvirwere. 0 12 3 4
012 3 4 Nzira yekupedza nayo zvishambwe pazvipfiiyo. 0 12 3 4
012 3 4 Nzira yekuona nayo kana chipfuyo chave kuda kunotengeswa. 0 12 3 4
MUBVUNZO 3 UNYANZVI HWEKUTENGESA
0 12 3 4 Matengeserwo ezvirimwa. 0 12 3 4
0 12 3 4 Matengeserwo ezvipfuyo. 0 12 3 4
0 12 3 4 Masarudzirwo embeu dzakatsaukana dzokunotengesa. 0 12 3 4
0 12 3 4 Maisirwo embeu dzakasiyana dzokunotengesa mumagiredhi. 0 12 3 4
0 12 3 4 Kutema mitengo yezvitengeswa. 0 12 3 4
0 12 3 4 Mashambadzirirwo ezvitengeswa. 0 12 3 4
012 3 4 Nzira yekutengesa nayo munharaunda makare. 0 12 3 4
115 Hapana Rushomasa Rushoma Ruzhinji Ruzhinjisa 0 1 2 3 4 Uwandu hweRuzivo Kukosha kweRuzivo rwacho rwacho Tenderedzai Pamwe Chete ______Tenderedzai Pamwe Chete MUBVUNZO 3 UNYANZVI HWEKUTENGESA
0 1 2 3 4 Ruzivo rwekutengesera mapoka ari ega evatengi. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Maendeserwo ezvirimwa kunotengeswa. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Kurongedza nekuchengeta mafambisirwo emari. 0 12 3 4
MUBVUNZO 4 RUZIVO RWEKUDYA KUNOVAKA MUVIRI
0 1 2 3 4 Mashoko ekudya kunovaka muviri kunodiwa nemhuri 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Kunzwisisa kudya kunodiwa nevanhu vamazera akasiyana. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Nzira dzekudzivirira kushaisa muviri kudya kunovaka. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Nzira dzekuronga nekuwanisa kudya kunovaka muviri. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Machengetedzerwo echekudya kuti kuusaipe. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Kuchengetedza kudya kuti kusarwarise vanhu. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Kunzwisisa kuchengetedzwa kwechokudya pakatsvinda. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Kudya kunodiwa nevanenge vachifanira kudya kwakanangana navo. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Nzira yekuve neupenyu urefu kuburikidza kusarura kudya kwakanaka.O 12 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Kuwana zvakawanda kubva muzvekudya zvaunenge unazvo. 0 12 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Nzira yekuchengetedza nayo kudya kwakakwana nguva dzose. 0 12 3 4
116 Hapana Rushomasa Rushoma Ruzhinji Ruzhinjisa 0 1 2 3 4 Uwandu hweRuzivo Kukosha kweRuzivo rwacho rwacho Tenderedzai Pamwe Chete ______Tenderedzai Pamwe Chete MUBVUNZO 5 MAFAMBISIRWO EZVIWANIKWA
0 12 3 4 Nzira yekushandisa nayo nguva. 0 1234
0 12 3 4 Mashandisirwo ezvinhu zviripo zvakakwana. 0 1234
0 12 3 4 Nzira yekugadzira zvibatiso kubva pane zviripo zvacho. 0 1234
0 12 3 4 Mafambisirwo emari iri mumba. 0 1234
0 12 3 4 Nzira yekuronga nayo basa rapamusha. 0 1234
0 12 3 4 Nzira dzekuronga nadzo mabasa ekurima pamusha 0 1234
0 1 2 3 4 Kuita kuti njodzi dzive shoma pamusha. 0 1234
0 12 3 4 Kufambidzana nekupindirane kwemabasa emhuri neawako. 0 1234
0 12 3 4 Nzira dzekutangisa nadzo mabasa anopa mari. 0 1234
MUBVUNZO 6 MUKANA WEMINDA NEZVIKWERETI
0 12 3 4 Nzira dzekuwana nadzo ivhu/minda (own). 0 1234
0 12 3 4 Mukana wekukwanisa kuwana ivhu/minda (access). 0 1234
0 12 3 4 Nzira dzekuwana zvikwereti nadzo. 0 1234
0 12 3 4 Mashoko ari maererano nezvikwereti zvevanhukadzi kumamwa. 0 1234
0 12 3 4 Nzira dzekusarudza nadzo zvikwereti zvakanaka. 0 1234
0 12 3 4 Mashoko ari maererano nemari inoberekwa nemari yezvikwereti. 0 12 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 Mashoko ari maererano nenguva dzekudzorerwa kwezvikwereti. 0 12 3 4
117 CHIKWATA m ZVDSrOKUTADZIS AI KUENDA KUNENGE KUCHIPIWA MAZANO EKURIMA Tapota komberedzi tsanangudzo inoenderana nekuramba kana kubvumirana kwenyu nezvikonzero zvinokonesa vanhukadzi kuenda kunopiwa mazano ekurima nawo. Makuriro ekubvumirana nawo akamiswa nenzira inotevera: 1. = Ndinorambisisa (SD) 2. = Ndinoramba (D) 3. = Ndinobvuma (A) 4. = Ndinobvumisisa (SA) Muenzaniso SD D A SA 1. Kushaiwa nguva 12 3 ^^^4^
Pamiunuenzaniso uno, mubvunzwi anenge achibvumisisa kuti kushaikwa kwenguva ndiko kunoita kuti vanhukadzi vekumaruwa vasakawnisa kuenda kunenge kuchipiwa mazano ekurima nawo. SD D A SA 1. Kushaya mashoko maererano nekunenge kuchipwa zvidzidzo. 1 2 3 4 2. Kushaya zvifambiso. 1 2 3 4 3. Nzira dzinoenda kunodzidziswa kwacho dzakashata 1 2 3 4 4. Kushaya minda kana mikana yekuiwana minda yacho. 1 2 3 4 5. Kusakwanisi kuwana zvikwereti. 12 3 4 6. Mvumo yemurume/vanababa. 12 3 4 7. Mabasa akawanda epamusha (Kushaya nguva) 1 2 3 4 8. Kushaikwa kwemadhomini echikadzi. 12 3 4 9. Kushaikwa kwenzvimbo dzingasiiwa vapwere. 1 2 3 4 10. Kusakwanisa kunyora nekuverenga. 12 3 4 11. Kudzidziswa kurima kunoitwa hakunobati chaizvo zvinotibatsira. 1 2 3 4 12. Nzvimbo dzinodzidzisirwa zvekurima dziri kure. 1 2 3 4 13. Kusarongwa kwezvidzidzo zvevanhukadzi vekumaruwa. 1 2 3 4 14. Mitemo yemutsika nemagariro edu inorambidza vanhukadzi 1 2 3 4 kuenda kunzvimbo dzinodzidziswa vanhu kurima. TATENDA
118 APPENDIX D
INTERVIEWER TRAINING PROGRAM.
119 TRAINING OF ASSISTANT INTERVIEWERS For this study, four mature women, who are lecturers at the University of Zimbabwe were selected and trained to assist with data collection. Women interviewers are more acceptable and, therefore, participants are open and at ease. Face-to-face interviewers ought to have a variety of skills that are not required by those who conduct telephone interviews. They need good interpersonal skills and should be able to work independently, project a positive image and dress appropriately (Salant & Dillman, 1994). Interview-training program took three days and included the following activities: (I) Orientation, when each person will introduce herself; (2) Presentation o f the research study by the researcher, (2) Skills o f a good interviewer, (4) Protocol o f entering the village, (5) Convenient selection o f rural women in the village, (6) Conducting o f the interview, & (7) Role-play and discussions. The training involved some practice, interviewers interviewed each other. This involved ability in creating and establishing good interview rapport to ensure that there is a positive atmosphere, which helps participants feel relaxed and at ease to talk. Relaxed participants reveal more information. The interviewers were to promote a positive image of the research, the universities involved (OSU & UZ) and the funding organization (Kellogg) by explaining why the study was being conducted and its importance to participants. It was necessary for all interviewers to have a common understanding of the purpose and importance of the study. Greeting and introducing oneself to participants in a respectful and appropriate manner built a positive atmosphere. Use of correct names and thanking participants was important. Interviewers were to treat participants with respect and were supposed not to give negative feedback concerning participants’ answers. Frowning at the wrong time might discourage participants to answer the question. Interviewers were trained in gestures, manners, facial expression, probing in a non-directive way, how to ask questions in a consistent and standardize way, to record answers from open-ended questions verbatim, how to focus on task at hand and to avoid expressing their views (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1996).
120 A good interviewer should control the interview by keeping information flow, knowing when to interrupt politely and explaining how much time is left. A good interviewer should avoid inappropriate language and paternalistic behaviors. For this study interviewers used the Interview Guide to ask questions. Emphasis was placed on scheduling enough time to cover the interview and knowing what to do after the interview is completed. Participants were told that participation in the study was voluntary, they could withdraw at anytime, and it was their right not to answer any question (s) asked. Confidentiality and anonymity of responses was assured, names were not to be identified in reporting results. Participants were asked if conditions of the interview were acceptable, and signed a consent form.
121 APPENDIX E
PARTICIPANT RECRUITMENT SCRIPT
122 RECRUITMENT SCRIPT
There have been some concerns about lack of rural women’s participation in agricultural extension programs and little relevance of agricultural extension programs to current needs of rural women. Many researchers in agricultural extension have neglected the role of rural women in Zimbabwe. It is the belief of this study that unless rural women are incorporated into the planning process, programs conducted for them will fail. As one step towards improving the situation, this study will investigate and identify the educational needs rural women perceive to possess. I am requesting for your participation in this study. In accordance with The Ohio State University’s Ethical standards, participation in the study is voluntary and that they have right not to answer any item on the interview guide and can withdraw from the study at any time. Responses provided will be kept entirely confidential; names will not be written on the interview guide or identified in reporting results. Should you wish to participate in this study you can sign the consent. If you should wish to have more information about the study, do not hesitate to contact Ms Anna Mudukuti at The University of Zimbabwe telephone (4) 303221 Ext 1999 or Dr. L. Miller at The Ohio State University, Department of Human and Conununity Resource Development, 204 Agricultural Administration Building, 2120 Fyffe Road Columbus OH 43210-1067 telephone (614) 292-0450.
123 APPENDIX F
PARTICIPANT CONSENT FORM
124 CONSENT FORM
Protocol # 00E0164
CONSENT FOR PARTICIPATION IN SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH
I consent to participating in (or my child’s participation in) research entitled: AGRICULTURAL EDUCATIONAL NEEDS OF RURAL WOMEN IN ZIMBABWE: IMPLICATIONS FOR EXTENSION PROGRAMS.
______Larry Miller Ph. D. or his/her authorized representative has {Principal Investigator)
explained the purpose of the study, the procedures to be followed, and the expected duration of my (my child’s) participation. Possible benefits of the study have been described, as have alternative procedures, if such procedures are applicable and available.
I acknowledge that 1 have had the opportunity to obtain additional information regarding the study and that any questions I have raised have been answered to my full satisfaction. Furthermore, 1 understand that I am (my child is) free to withdraw consent at any time and to discontinue participation in the study without prejudice to me (my child).
F in a lly , I acknowledge that I have read and fully understand the consent form. I sign it freely and voluntarily. A copy has been given to me.
Date:______Signed: ___ (Participant)
Signed: ______Anna E. Mudukuti (Ph. D. Candidate) Signed: ______(Principal Investigator or his/her (Person authorized to consent for authorized representative) participant, if required)
W itn e s s :______
125 APPENDIX G SHONA TRANLASTION OF THE CONSENT FROM
126 t ■ H - F . O r p e tim e n r A f H m n a n A n d 20A Communtey Resource Development Administratltm Building OHIO 21 à) Fvtfe Road C olum bus. OH 43210-106% STATE rh o n c 674-292-032T UNIVERSITE* FAX ft 14-292-7007
P ro to co li QOEOlfr*
GWARO REHUMBOWO HWETENDERO PAKUITITSAKARUZIVO
Nduvqnni kiive ndine dieknita mntsvaknmdzo(stuefy') iyi: ACaUCULTURAL EDUCATIONAL NEEDS OF RURAL WOMEN IN ZIMBABWE: IMPLICATIONS FOR EXTENSION PROŒIAMS.
______L«rrvRdlerPh n. kaiu kuti aica minn iiyatsvakaniâvo anditsauguiin. (Tsvxnizivo Mnkura) dihuigwx chetsvaknradzo (stu^) nenu&mlnsirwo acha tevedzwa. Ndatsanagurinwa kubatsin kadiabva mutsvakmudzo iyi Ndmopupura kuti ndandzwa, ndikapiwa naikana wokawana nawo mamwe mashoko ane maererano netsvakmudzo iyi nemibvunzo yetsvakuradzo ÿ oyi Uyezve mibvunzo yanda hvudza yapmduiwa zvandigutsa. TVakare ndinonzwimna Iciili liandim«iilc«i»wi Inive ncrfmlrmfa chetsvakmudzo ino, t^ezve kuti ndine kodzero yoknramba loqiindura kana chinhu dnmwc diete zvadio panhevedzwa dzenhaurirano(interview guide) i^ew o ndinokwanisa kuhuda nmnyaya ^oyi chero pangnva ipi yandazvifimpra pasina chinondiwana.
Pakupedzisira, ndinopiqmra kuti ndavercnga uye nififcanzwisisa gwaro hi rdmmhowo hwetendero, ndasaina ndakasnmmguka kutaridza kuti ndada kuita huruknro ^
D ate:______Signed:. (NytUaibvumwd)
K gned:______Anna E. Mudukuti (H l D Candidate) Signed: ______(Tsvakaruavo Mukuru Van» (Mubereld kana munhu «Ifmmnirira wacho) anetendero yokupa bvumo)
Witness: ______
127 APPENDIX H
CORRESPONDENCE
128 COVER LETTER TO PANEL OF EXPERTS TO: Dr. Nikki Conklin Dr. Robert Agunga Dr. Scott Scheer Dr. Jane Henderson Dr. Linda Lobao Dr. Cathy Rakowski Dr. W. Mubatanhema Dr. Phillip Mandebvu
FROM: Dr. Larry E. Miller, Professor Anna E. Mudukuti, Ph.D. Candidate Department of Human and Department of Human and Community Resource Dev. Community Resource Dev. 204 Agricultural Admin. Building 204 Agricultural Admin. Building 2120 Fyffe Road 2120 Fyfife Road Columbus Ohio 43210 Columbus Ohio 43210
RE: PANEL TEST: FACTORS RELATED TO ZIMBABWEAN WOMEN’S EDUCATIONAL NEEDS IN AGRICULTURE
In non-formal education, people are motivated to participate when they feel the need for the education provided. Adults are intrinsically motivated learners who can determine their own learning needs; therefore, adults’ opinion of their own needs is crucial toward meeting Extension's mission. The role of women in agriculture has increasingly grown as the male population in rural areas is falling. Men are forced to leave their rural homes in search of jobs in urban areas. This trend has been called the "feminization of agriculture" and is most accentuated in sub-saharan Africa (World Bank, 1996). Surprisingly, while the dominance of women in rural areas is evident. Extension educators act as if women do not exist and as if the situation and needs of all farmers are the same, whether they are men or women. The piupose of my doctoral research project is to secure reUable and valid information concerning agricultural educational needs of rural women in Shurugwi District, Zimbabwe. I kindly ask you to review the attached instrument as part of my Vane\-Test. The population of this study will be comprised of rural women in Shurugwi District, Midlands Province, Zimbabwe. The principle woman of each household will be conveniently selected to participate in the study. In polygamous households, the senior wife will be the respondent. Please feel free to write on the questionnaire. All comments will be welcomed, particularly those referring to content and face validity. Please make stue that you comment on the length of the questionnaire, if each item is clear, appropriate and other items that need to be added. I would appreciate if you return the questionnaire with your comments by ______. Please use the enclosed self-addressed envelope and the campus mail system to return the package. Yoiu contribution to this study is very much appreciated. If you have any questions, please do not hesitate in contacting Anna E. Mudukuti, at 538-0124,or e-mail [email protected] THANK YOU, FOR YOUR TIME AND SUPPORT.
129 Department o f Homan and 208 Agricultuial Community Resource DevelopmentAdministration Building 2720 Fyffe Road OHKD Columbus. OH 43270-1067 Phone 674-292-6321 FAX 614-292-7007
The Pennanent Secretary Mmistiy of Lands, Agriculture and Resettlement Ngungiunyana Building 1 Borrcwdale Road Pvt. Bag 7701 Causeway Harare Zimbabwe
Dear Sir,
There has been some concerns about lack of rural women’s participation in agricultural extension programs and little relevance of agrnailtural extension programs to current needs of rural women. Many researchers in Extension Education have neglected the role of rural women in agricultural, partmularly in Zimbabwe. It is the belief of this study that unless rural women are mcorpotated into the plarming process, programs planned for them will fail. As one step towards improving the situation, this study will investigate and identify the agricultural educational knowledge rural women perceive to possess, agricultural needs in which rural women may need training and the importance rural women attach to the knowledge and the needs.
Ms Mudukuti is planning to conduct her research on perceived agricultural educational needs of Zimbabwe rural womea It is necessary for her to randomly sample a group of villages, conveniently select 380 rural women and conduct foce-to-foce interviews with these women to collect data. She is well qualified to conduct this research and needs your assistance to effectively and efSciently complete her data collection. This letter is requesting your permission to carry out this smdy.
Ms Mudukuti plans to arrive in Zimbabwe end of November and will be in contact with your ofSce. Thank you for your assistance.
Sincerely,
/ t a t c f E. Miller, Ph. D. Human & Community Resourtre Development Graduate Program.
Anna E. Mudukuti Ph. D Candidate.
Agricultural Communicaeiofi * Agricultural &iucation • Extension Education • Rural Sodology • Vocational Education
130 AI ooramcndsBe shoUd bs addsaed to the Omckr Oaiitm rt ef AviodM Tectidol a d r agn MINISTRY OF LANDS AND AGRICULTURE P.Oi a% C fg » Crnmmey. H e#» artotom T ^ n m p o B M Ti**aBm ît 79on Ac z»4-7aDEa5
Ref: 7 December, 2000
The District Agricultural Bctension Officer Agritex Shurugwi Beit Street P.O. Box 50 Shurugwi
RE: INTRODUCING MISS A. MUDUKUTI, UZ RESEARCHER
Miss Mudukuti, a UZ staff member. Is carrying out a research prpiect in your districL She has contacted us for Inputs In devdoping survey tools, particulâfy the quesbomalre.
She is undertaking a research project on agricultural education needs of rural women. She would Gke to administer the questionnaire to a number of farm ers in selected wards of your districL
It would be appreciated If you can assist her in her endeavour.
Thank you.
'trCMrux. L Mukwereza Chief Agricultural Extension Specialist (Agric. Management Services) FOR: DIRECTOR OF AGRTTEX
131 Allcorrwsp •THE SECRETARY" M INISTRY O F LANDS TMeVlwe; 70*61».. AND AGRICULTURE Fax; 734*4* Ngoapajwa MUtaf 1, Bwnaidalc Raad ■Mo: ZIM ACKIC 2Z4S5 ZW PriTSIc Bag 7701 CwMway ZIMBABWE Harare December 14,2000 TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN RE: RESEARCH IN SOME PARTS OF ZIMBABWE BY A PHD CANDIDATE ANNA E. MUDUKUTI FROM OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY. The above-mentioned PhD Candidate at Ohio State University wishes to conduct research in some parts of Zimbabwe on the perceived agricultural educational needs of rural women. The Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement fully supports the study given the lack of participation by our rural women in agricultural extension programmes. Please render her any necessary assistance during the period o f her stay in Zimbabwe. V. MUTIRO (MRS) FOR: ACTING SECRETARY FOR LANDS, AGRICULTURE AND RURAL RESETTLEMENT 132 APPENDIX I VARIABLES ANALYZED IN THE CORRELATION MATRIX 133 Variables Analyzed in the Congélation Matrix Independent Variables Xage = Age Xyrsch = Years in School Xedu = Years in School Dependent Variables (Educational Needs’) Yneedlcp = educational needs in crop production Yneed21p = educational needs in Uvestock production YneedSms = educational needs in marketing skills Yneedlcp = educational needs in crop production Yneed4nk = educational needs in nutrition YneedSrm = educational needs in resource management Yneed6acl = educational needs in access to land and credit. Dependent Variables (Barriers to Extension Participation) Ybl = Lack of information about Extension activities. Yb2 = Lack of transportation. Yb3 = Roads to Extension training sites are poor. Yb4 = No land or access to land. Yb5 = No access to credit. Yb6 = Permission by husband. Yb7 = Heavy loads of household tasks (Time constraints) Yb8 = Lack of female Extension agents. Yb9 = Lack of child-care facihties. YblO = Women’s inabilit>' to read and write makes. Ybl 1 = Extension training programs do not include women’s training needs. Y bl2 = Extension training sites are far from where most women hve. Y bl3 = Extension agents do not often organize training programs for rural women. Ybl4 = Social and cultural customs prevents rural women from attending Extension activities. 134 BIBLIOGRAPHY Acharya, M. & Bennett, L. (1983). Women and the subsistence sector: Economic participation and household decision making in Nepal. World Bank working paper no 526. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Agritex. (1982). AGRITEX aims and objectives. AGRITEX, Harare, Zimbabwe. Akande, J. & Awosika, K. (1994). Women in trade and industry in Nigeria. A study report submitted to UNIFEM, Nigeria. Akande, B.E. (1987). 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