MASARYK UNIVERSITY 20Th Century American

MASARYK UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

Department of English Language and Literature

20th Century American Journalism as a Mirror of Society

Bachelor Thesis

Brno 2015

Thesis Supervisor: Author: Michael George, M.A. Romana Helešicová

Affirmation: I hereby declare that I have worked on this thesis independently and that I have used only the sources listed in the Bibliography.

I agree that the thesis will be deposited in the library of the Faculty of Education at Masaryk University in Brno and made available for academic purposes.

March 30, 2015

……………………

Anotace Bakalářská práce se zabývá historií USA zprostředkovanou skrze tisk. Cílem práce je shrnout historii 20. století a vybrat zásadní okamžiky, které byly spojeny s žurnalistikou a zároveň měly dopad na širokou veřejnost. Nastíněna je také společenská atmosféra a situace na novinovém trhu, dále jsou v práci připomenuty významné osobnosti spojené se zmiňovanými událostmi. Na závěr je navrženo, jak lze získanými informacemi obohatit hodiny anglického jazyka na základní škole.

Annotation This bachelor thesis is focused on a history of the USA mediated through the press. The goal of the thesis is to summarize the history of the 20th century and choose momentous events connected with the journalism which also had an impact on a general public. Furthermore, a social atmosphere and situation on a market are outlined and significant personalities related to mentioned events are reminded. In the end, there are examples how to enrich elementary schools‘ English lessons by using gained information.

Klíčová slova historie USA, noviny, novináři, žurnalistika, 20. století, kultura, světové války

Key words history of the USA, news, journalism, journalists, 20th century, culture, world wars

Acknowledgements:

I would like to thank my supervisor Michael George, M. A. for his kind guidance, time, valuable advice and helpful remarks.

Table of contents

1. Introduction ...... 1 2. 1900 – 1950: From the city to the battlefield ...... 2 2.1 Pre-war trends in journalism and a social climate reflected in newspapers ...... 3 2.1.1 A life in the early 1900s, two newspaper magnates and women‘s involvement in journalism ...... 4 2.1.2 Muckraking, business, government interventions ...... 8 2.1.3 The Black press ...... 11 2.2 World wars through the eyes of war correspondents and events in-between13 2.2.1 World War I events and a social climate ...... 13 2.2.2 World War I journalists and correspondents ...... 14 2.2.3 The Roaring Twenties ...... 18 2.2.4 The period of the Great Depression ...... 20 2.2.5 World War II events and a social climate ...... 27 2.2.6 World War II journalists and correspondents ...... 29 2.2.7 The Cold War and the fear of communism ...... 31 3. 1951 – 2000: Journalists as guardians of democracy ...... 33 3.1 Historical and social changes ...... 33 3.2 The Pentagon Papers ...... 36 3.2.1 The New York Times ...... 36 3.2.2 The Vietnam War ...... 37 3.2.3 Neil Sheehan and The Pentagon Papers ...... 38 3.2.4 The impact of The Pentagon Papers...... 40 3.3 The Watergate Scandal...... 41 3.3.1 The Washington Times ...... 41 3.3.2 The Watergate Scandal ...... 41 3.3.3 The Effects of Watergate ...... 44 3.4. Media and the New Millennium ...... 45 4. Newspapers in English language lessons ...... 46 5. Conclusion ...... 49 6. Bibliography ...... 51 7. Resumé ...... 61

1. Introduction

‘Journalism is the first rough draft of history...‖ (Kolodzy)

History learned at schools draws its information from many sources. These are archeological findings, architecture, paintings, an oral tradition or literature, not only chronicles but also fiction or poetry. Subsequently, the journalism has started to contribute heavily as a historical source, especially since the 19th century. Albeit it is apparent how important news journalists publish, direct quotations of their work are rarely seen in school textbooks. Therefore many of less significant daily newspapers sink into oblivion despite their industrious editors revealing breaking news.

The content of newspapers is the most accurate reflection of a society which an unacquainted person may gain. The headlines and articles expose syntax typical for that period of time, the contents reveals news which the society considers attractive and problems it suffers from. For this reason, not censored newspapers are an extraordinary source of information.

As it is said at the beginning of this chapter, the history is not something in the remote past but it closely surrounds us. Even yesterday‘s news is considered a historical record. Through newspapers we may be witnesses of noteworthy events almost in the present time.

The aim of this thesis is to briefly summarize the 20th century history of the USA and highlight events connected with newspapers and journalism with an impact on the society. The result will be a slightly different point of view on history; instead of typical retrospective method (researches examine historical sources they find) we will see how journalists themselves were those who changed history or recorded incidents, sometimes risking their lives to present them to readers and to preserve them for the future. The aim is also to remind lives of well-known journalists, editors and newspaper magnates.

The second chapter of the thesis is concentrated on the first fifty years of the 20th century. We will see ground-breaking historical and social changes people experienced and how the biggest of them, world wars, influenced them. Two subchapters are concerned with the war correspondence in particular; owing to brave journalists the general public got information directly from the battlefield. Before that, selected issues remind carefree pre-war mood, troubles during the financial crisis, structure of the society and its interests.

Above all, the next chapter describes two biggest affairs in which journalists disclosed facts the American government tried to conceal. These subchapters emphasize the importance of investigative journalism and reveal the influence of these two events in the future. The subchapter that ensues is a very brief summary of following years.

In reference to school textbooks, the fourth, short but more practical chapter demonstrates how newspapers and their knowledge may be used as a complementary educational material in elementary school English lessons. The thesis is focusing on American history which is not taught in English lessons in the Czech Republic, even though its knowledge may help pupils and students to better understand the culture of English speaking countries. Hopefully, the examples of usage of the newspapers‘ history knowledge show how to easily enrich English language lessons and it will be a desired distraction for students, too.

2. 1900 – 1950: From the city to the battlefield

2.1 Pre-war trends in journalism and a social climate reflected in newspapers

―Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press;…‖ (US Const., amend. I)

As it is apparent from the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, North American inhabitants valued freedom of expressions long before they established rights for all citizens regardless their color of skin or sex, which are also considered vital in every prospering society. The First Amendment is foreseeing the expansion of American journalism and the future worldwide importance attained thanks to its deeply embedded broadmindedness.

The American journalism was developed mainly in the 19th century, when the concept of journalistic standards (such as neutrality, accuracy, fairness,…) distinctly appeared. Hazel Dicken-Garcia, an associate professor in the School of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Minnesota, defines them as rules governing journalistic practices which were shaped mainly by a criticism of a press (6). Schudson, a professor at the University of California and the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism, reminds that journalism has not always been a neutral one; before 1830s, people generally wanted to read about partisan viewpoints more. In the Jacksonian era1, the form of real news informing about everyday events may be traced (4).

At the turn of the century, journalism changed its course. It was no longer a small business anyone may have started, but a concern of big corporations. Newspapers launching required an investment of more than a million dollars in New York City. The innovations in printing technologies became crucial too. The market was changing and

1 Jacksonian Era (1829 – 1841) – connected with the seventh president of the USA Andrew Jackson

adjusting to readers, a higher society read different newspapers and magazines than workers and poor immigrants (Tompkins, ―American Decades: 1900-1909‖ 343).

2.1.1 A life in the early 1900s, two newspaper magnates and women’s involvement in journalism

In the 20th century, the United States became an urban nation. More than a half of inhabitants lived in the cities by the year 1920. A social alienation appears and as a source of information serves the daily newspapers. There are two kinds of journalism; the first one is concentrated on a strict factuality, the example is The New York Times, the other may be represented by New York World or New York Journal and acts as an entertainment, in other words it is called yellow journalism (Tompkins, ―American Decades: 1900-1909‖ 347).

Yellow journalism is a journalism that emphasized reporting on crime and sensations, government corruptions and corporate power. New York World and New York Journal attacked upper and middle classes tastes and style of life. There were often scandalous stories and coloring of the news (Kaplan).

The beginning of the century could be characterized by an arrival of a large number of immigrants. Three-fourths of the population of New York City were either immigrants or their children, i.e. first generation Americans. Between 1900 and 1915, 15 million foreigners chose to leave their home country and live in the USA (―Immigrants in the Progressive Era - Library of Congress.‖). Immigrants came to the USA to seek a better life. Many of them were determined to live the American dream and grasped every opportunity the continent offered. Hard work, enthusiasm and a stroke of luck brought some individuals to the fore. In the field of journalism, Joseph Pulitzer, a shining example, fulfilled the ideal of a perfect American career.

A story how Joseph Pulitzer with his poor English and few cents in his pocket went to the French‘s hotel in New York to get his shoes polished and was asked to leave

because of his scruffy appearance, became famous. Twenty-three years later, this man bought that hotel and had it demolished (Brian 7). Joseph Pulitzer was born in Hungary to wealthy parents who provided him a proper private education (Brian 5). In 1864, Pulitzer immigrated to the USA and joined the Union Army in the American Civil War. After the war, young Joseph started to work as a reporter for German-language daily newspapers The Wesliche Post. His career in journalism had begun (―Joseph Pulitzer Biography‖). During his lifetime, Joseph Pulitzer became not only a regarded journalist unveiling the corruption, but also a politician and businessman. It was him, who was a pioneer of new journalism in New York World, which was the beginning of the yellow press containing entertaining information for masses as mentioned at the beginning of the chapter. Despite blindness and other health problems, Joseph Pulitzer was one of the most important journalists of all time. In 1912, a year after his death, the first Pulitzer prizes were awarded. Pulitzer‘s credo published in The North American Review was:

―Our Republic and its press will rise or fall together. An able, disinterested, public spirited press, with trained intelligence to know the right and courage to do it, can preserve that public virtue without which popular government is a sham and a mockery. A cynical, mercenary, demagogic press will produce in time a people as base as itself. The power to mould the future of the Republic will be in the hands of the journalists of future generations‖ (Topping).

Figuratively speaking, Pulitzer‘s rival, newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst represented the affluent well-educated society even though his concerns aimed at the same people as Pulitzer‘s.

William Randolph Hearst, a son of a millionaire who gained his money through mining interests, had a chance to attend the best schools in the USA. At Harvard he was an excellent student of journalism and became a business manager of a humor magazine Harvard Lampoon. Late, he pursued the New York Governorship and had other involvements in politics ("William Randolph Hearst Biography and Profile"). His role in journalism, though, was the most significant. Hearst bought New York Journal which competed with Pulitzer‘s New York World in every possible aspect.

The Yellow Kid comic strip was one of the sources of contention. The Yellow Kid was a boy with jug ears, two buck teeth, blue eyes and yellow nightdress created by R. F. Outcault. Pictures of him mocked all classes; Americans across the country read the Yellow Kid even though yellow journalism, in which the kid appeared, was primarily concentrated on a city working-class ("Selling the Kid: The Role of Yellow Journalism."). As a first successful comic feature, it had its debut in Pulitzer‘s New York World in 1895. Soon after, Hearst‘s New York Journal used the comic for its own purposes and ―deployed him as a key weapon in the historic newspaper circulation wars‖. Pulitzer then hired another artist to draw the comic. This war established seriousness of a ―funnies‖ business almost overnight. Hearst was a man who turned Sunday funnies into a booming and modern enterprise; he was the first to promote pen- and-ink personalities and supported careers of many cartoonists (D'Angelo).

Both men had a different attitude to work; Whyte, the author of Hearst‘s biography, describes Pulitzer as a man who ―should live at his desk and sleep under it‖, man of courage, originality and zeal; on the other hand as a man without a private life who ordered his employees to ―spend six hours a day reading all available sources, a few hours talking with his senior staff, handing out assignments and several hours more book reading to cultivate and equip your mind‖ (100). In contrast, Hearst liked to write polite handwritten memos and have informal chats with brief comments; according to his employee, he never talked much. He wrote with his blue pen words ―dull‖ or ―punk‖ if he did not like the story. He was said to be generous to his employees and full of ideas and plans (113-114). Even though the rivalry urged them to be the uncompromising, they were both aware of the capability, experience and brightness of their opponent. Interestingly, Pulitzer appreciated the talent of Journal‘s writers, quality of its pictures and even the fact that Hearst‘s people were able to steal World’s best stories and ideas. He recommended his managers to do the same (251).

Rich people had its printed source of entertainment at the beginning of the century, too. For them there were magazines like Vanity Fair, The Smart Set and Vogue dealing with their lifestyle (Musser). Vogue, for example, was first published on December 17, 1892 and its ambition was to ―celebrate the ceremonial side of life‖. The contents were

highlighting beauty and aesthetic values above moral qualities; and the first editions were dedicated to wealthy New York aristocracy ("The Early Years of Vogue Magazine"). The magazine The Smart Set, on the other hand, started in 1900 as a magazine of light fiction but more than for entertaining it served to business purposes (Brooker 228).

The beginning of the 20th century was also connected with the expansion of human rights. Women became more and more active in asserting their rights and formed various alliances for their support. One of the strongest arguments to get women voting right was their participation in business. Almost 8 million American women were working by 1910. The dissatisfaction of women was reflected in a huge petition for Congress with 400,000 signatures. The result was passing the Nineteenth Amendment and women got their right to vote. Words like a feminist or a suffragist appeared in a daily life of people. Even before getting the voting right, women competed with men in various jobs, they were doctors, lawyers and also worthy journalists (Jordan 556).

British professor Hugo de Burgh explains the term investigative journalism as follows: ―…investigative journalism provides the first rough draft of legislation. It does so by drawing attention to failures within society‘s system of regulation and to the ways in which those systems can be circumvented by the rich, the powerful and the corrupt‖ (11). Investigative journalism had an integral role in the popular yellow press and it was not uncommon that women were revealing questionable issues as actively and successfully as their male counterparts.

One of those women who informed society about its hidden imperfections was Martha Winifred Sweet Black Bonfils. As it was usual these days, she chose to use a nickname and called herself Annie Laurie. She worked as a reporter for the Denver Post and Hearst‘s newspapers. Her job was to unveil political corruption, social injustices and government deficiencies and wrote about desired spicy news sensational stories and columns. Bonfils is said to be controversial in getting stories, she dressed like a boy when she reported on Galveston flood, when she was investigating public hospital conditions she feigned she pretended to be a poor woman falling into a faint. To get an

exclusive interview with President Harrison she was hiding under the table before dinner. Bonfils was very popular among her readers and also colleagues (Whitt 15).

Unconventional practices were not a specialty only of Annie Laurie. Nellie Bly, which was a pseudonym of Elizabeth Cochrane Seaman, had a similar character. The employee of Pulitzers‘ New York World faked insanity to get herself into the Women's Lunatic Asylum on Blackwell's Island. She succeeded and uncovered the terrible treatment of patients, some of whom were not insane at all and were put into the Asylum because they did not understand the English language or their family members betrayed them. Bly in her book version of Ten Days in a Madhouse describes her own bad experience including the fact that this Asylum is worse than prison. She said: ―Compare this with a criminal, who is given every chance to prove his innocence. Who would not rather be a murderer and take the chance for life than be declared insane, without hope of escape?‖ (ch. 8). After the exposure The Department of Public Charities and Corrections requested the rise of their budget from $1.5 million to more than $2.5 million to improve conditions in public institutions for disabled people (―Ten Days in a Mad-House‖).

2.1.2 Muckraking, business, government interventions

In the previous chapter, two women dealing with early investigative journalism were mentioned. For this type of work there was another established name which is ―muckraking‖. President Theodore Roosevelt first introduced the term ―muckrakers‖, expressing a disgust for reporters who exposed the worst of the society, although main reforms of American institutions would have not existed without them (Davidson 596). Before that, the government could not improve living conditions for slum dwellers, eliminate child labor, regulate working hours, safety and conditions of women workers etc. Even conservative magazines and newspapers such as The Saturday Evening Post or Ladies’ Home Journal were literally forced to publish these stories because nationwide readers demanded it and therefore bought rival magazines e.g. McClure’s, Cosmopolitan or Hampton’s. Among famous muckrakers were Ida Tarbell, retelling the

story of a Standard Oil and its methods, Lincoln Steffens with his series on corruption in the cities, and the best known Upton Sinclair (Jordan 545).

Upton Sinclair, an East American writer, wrote a book The Jungle, a vivid example of the muckraking movement. The Jungle is a story promoting a socialism; it first appeared in a weekly socialist journal Appeal to Reason. It is a drama of Lithuanian people, a family and friends who immigrated to the USA following the vision of American dream, but found nothing more than ugly and dirty little wooden buildings, stockyards, desperation and suffering. Finally, they find their fate in the socialism (Gray 156-157). It is said that President Theodore Roosevelt sent agents to verify Sinclair‘s description of situations; agents informed back that local practices were bad, specifically they wrote that: ―meat shoveled from filthy wooden floors… in all of which practices it was in the way of gathering dirt, splinters, floor filth and the expectoration of tuberculosis and other diseased workers‖ (Tichi 1).

The development of muckraking was closely connected to a business boom with its peak throughout 1920s. As big companies expanded and small ones appeared on the market to compete with them, it became necessary to promote goods in various ways and one of them was the advertisement. The first standardized structure of posters was known in 1900. Until 1920, the annual advertising volume grew from $540 million even to $3 billion (―History: 1910-1920"). The early years of the century can be called ―The Age of Lasker‖. It was characterised by a popularity of headlines, illustrations and diverse typefaces; furthermore, the literary qualities of advertisement writers were required (Fox 41). Albert Lasker, born in 1880, had an aspiration for journalism since his childhood. As 11 years old boy, he managed to earn more than $60 a month by selling advertisement space in his own local newspapers. After Lasker in his twenties became an employee of the agency Lord & Thomas, he decided to change advertising practices to raise the level of its effectiveness; he was determined to make people realize that their lives will be happier if they buy certain advertised products. Lasker and his companions were first people who gave a ―reason why‖ to buy something which incredibly increased sales of advertised companies, e.g. 600 percent increase in three years of Lucky Strike (a brand of cigarettes) after the campaign ―Reach for a Lucky

instead of Sweet‖, persuading women that smoking tastes good and does not harm their slim figure. Lasker‘s actions had a direct impact on the life of American people in the following years. Thanks to his innovating ideas which helped the mass consumption to be developed, products‘ range widened, the quality was better and prices lower (Beato). How essential advertising is and was indirectly confirms a joke from 1901 where a merchant who does not advertise is compared to a man in a rowboat because they both have to cope without sales/sails (Fox 48).

The golden age of advertising was provided by the entry of the USA into the World War I. Even though companies changed their production and concentrated on war materials instead of consumer products, it had a positive effect in the public eye; companies‘ names and trademarks became well known. (―History: 1910-1920‖). On account of the U.S. war interests, President Woodrow Wilson and Congress created the Committee on Public Information (CPI) on April 13, 1917. The aim of CPI was to protect and justify American war concerns and persuade public that their actions are right and legitimate. The Committee spread the idea of American‘s idealism and unselfishness all over the civilized world (Creel 4). Because of anti-German propaganda and a limitation of information and their slanting, it gained a very bad reputation among defenders of free press. Means how CPI got and used information were arguable; they were not presenting the exact material which should be published in the press, instead, CPI depended on the Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 which made opposing the U.S. war participation illegal. Many socialist or German American newspapers were forced to end their activities due to their political views (Tompkins, ―American Decades: 1910-1919‖ 349). James R. Mock, the author of the book Words that won the war, gives a few examples of protests in newspapers. The New York Times presented editorial opinion with words ―OPPOSE CENSORSHIP AS NOW PROPOSED‖, the San Francisco Chronicle defined the censorship as ―The Russian method of excision‖ and the Los Angeles Times as ―a Kaiserism2‖ (31). The question is how is it possible that CPI could have violated The First Amendment of the Constitution guaranteeing the freedom of speech and the press. Mock offers his point of

2 Kaiser - the German title meaning ―emperor‖ (―Kaiserism‖)

view, highlighting the fact, that if all these rights were granted, the national safety would be endangered (21). To what extent he is right or not, is difficult to guess.

Although information market was guarded by the previously mentioned Committee on Public Information which punished everyone who tried to protest or have a different opinion than it was allowed and generally accepted, anti-American involvement in a war in particular, there was a stream of people who were not discouraged by it. It was the press aiming on anti-war topics and the press produced by African Americans who were not interested in a war.

Among people who were condemning World War I were religious pacifists and immigrants from Germany and Austria, who appeared in a strange situation due to anti- German hysteria, but in fact most of them supported the United States as their home country because of their children and their future. Socialists were also against the war, feeling that the war protects prominent investors not workers, and some African Americans who were opposing the war because they found it hypocritical to fight abroad for the country which behaved so badly to them (Tompkins, ―American Decades: 1910-1919‖ 351).

After progressive years full of many positive changes in a society at the beginning of 20th century, Americans had to face a conflict transferred also to their own continent. In the newspapers, opinions were mixed and new styles of journalism appeared. World War I and World War II and the period between them; along with the press market, famous journalists and social climate will be dealt with in following chapters.

2.1.3 The Black press

James R. Grossman, the assistant professor of history at the University of Chicago, describes the situation of black people during World War I and their famous newspapers The Chicago Defender. For African Americans, the North was a promised land, a place known for the better treatment with more employment opportunities and higher wages which the Defender enthusiastically emphasized. In the newspapers, they did not use the

word ―Negro‖ because it sounded offensive and humiliating, instead African Americans were called ―The Race‖. There were anti-South articles encouraging migration, reports about lynching and discrimination and many other of similar, sometimes radical, style which were written to support the national consciousness (82-86). It was all idea of its founder Robert S. Abbott. The Chicago Defender first appeared in 1905 and it was the weekly newspapers four pages long. Soon enough, in 1915, it became a popular source of information and its circulation reached 16,000 every week. Meanwhile, the number of African American citizens in Chicago increased about 148 percent from 1910 to 1920; in 1920, 230,000 copies were sold every week (―Chicago Defender (1905- )‖).

2.2 World wars through the eyes of war correspondents and events in- between 2.2.1 World War I events and a social climate

Beginnings of the first as well as the second world ground-breaking war incident have its routes in Europe. On 28 June 1914, a young revolutionary killed in Sarajevo, Bosnia, the Austrian heir Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The gunshot destroyed the balance of the power; Austria-Hungary accused the Serbian government to be responsible for the assassination of the member of their royal family. On 28 July 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia with a support from Germany. Russia, a rival of Austria- Hungary, decided to stay on the side of Serbia. Following events complicated the situation: On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia, on August 3, on France. On August 4, Germany invaded Belgium because it refused to let German troops go through the country on its way to France. Because the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland was committed to defend Belgium, they had to declare war on Germany and a few days later, on Austria-Hungary too. The conflict became worldwide when Japan, trying to get German colonies in Pacific, made use of an opportunity and attacked Germany in the late August. The Ottoman Empire supported Germany and Austria-Hungary, until then neutral Italy became an enemy of Austria-Hungary because they hoped to win provinces in the southern Austria. The European continent kept realigned and finally, it was divided into two warring parts, the Allies, putting Britain, France, Russia and Italy in the lead, and the Central Powers, consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and some others (King 454-455).

In the meantime, the United States of America was observing the situation, standing by and debating entry into the Great War, as the World War I was called. At that time, the Allies were very close to be defeated (Davidson 635). The US entry into World War I in 1917 was connected with German announcement that they will sink ships with U. S. citizens on a board (―Wilson‘s Fourteen Points, 1918‖). By the spring of 1918, the United States sent more than 180,000 men to help the Allies. Protester compared their conscription to a punishment, progressives saw an opportunity to unite Americans and create a feeling of a real democracy among divided classes of people. Most of soldiers

eager to fight in Europe were young white men between the ages of 21 and 31. If there were women, they served as nurses, clerks or telephone operators. African Americans participated to a lesser extent, Southern Democrats in Congress even had opposed their training, ―fearful of putting arrogant, strutting representatives of black soldiery in every community‖ (Davidson 635–636).

The war was a challenge for a national economy. Army of nearly 5 million people required to be equipped, fed and transported. A production through networks of industrial and trade associations was coordinated by a War Industries Board, profits of corporations tripled and production increased. The part of the economy was mobilized in a countryside, where farmers were encouraged to grow more crops, also a new railroads were built. Wartime needed women to do be a labour force because strong men were fighting abroad. It helped in promoting their rights and capabilities. The previously mentioned The Committee on Public Information was created to support American enthusiasm for a war; millions of posters, pamphlets were spreading through the country (Davidson 639-641).

In January 1919, the end of the World War I was definitively confirmed by the Treaty of Versailles. So called the ―Big Four‖, consisting of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, France, Italy and the United States of America, established rules to ―punish‖ Germany and set the peace in Europe. The new German Government had to surrender 10 % of its prewar colonies in Europe and overseas. The Germans had to accept the responsibility for the war and paid for war expenses ("The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles.").

2.2.2 World War I journalists and correspondents

Even though the World War I at its beginning was not considered as a danger for the United States, it was the opportunity for adventurous American journalists to go to Europe, write sensational stories and promote the war in American newspapers. One of those journalists was Richard Harding Davis.

It was years before the first global conflict, when Richard Harding Davis, born in 1864, won a reputation of a publicly accepted literal talent and a rebel for being able to precisely but also ironically describe American materialism and current problems. He was a respected writer, emphasizing his characters more than a plot, a managing editor of Harper’s Weekly and also the war correspondent (Osborn 84-88). Before World War I, he observed different wars and conflicts therefore he was known for his skills and required even by newspaper magnates such as William Randolph Hearst. His language in war reports should have evoked the atmosphere. Articles from war reminded story more than emotionless news information. The march of a German army into Brussels was described by Davis as follows:

―The change came at ten in the morning. It was as though a wand had waved and from a. fete-day on the continent we had been wafted to London on a rainy Sunday. The boulevards fell empty. There was not a house that was not closely shuttered... For two hours I watched them, and then bored with the monotony of it, returned to the hotel. After an hour, from beneath my window, I could still hear them; another hour went by. They were still passing... No longer was it regiments of men marching, but something uncanny, inhuman, a force of nature like a landslide, a tidal wave, or lava sweeping down a mountain. It was not of this earth, but mysterious, ghostlike...‖ (Wesley).

All American journalists who wanted to write about World War I had to receive an accreditation and before the Secretary of War they had to swear that information they acquire will not be used to help the enemy. The paper, for which they worked, had to pay money to army to cover the equipment and also money which guaranteed that a journalist will not act inappropriately but as a ―gentleman of a press‖. Before the USA entered the war, there was the only one American correspondent who accredited to the British Army. It was a reporter and censor Frederick Palmer (Tompkins, ―American Decades: 1910-1919‖ 353).

Frederick Palmer‘s attitude was slightly different than Davis‘. He was a person who checked other journalists‘ reports and said that only those facts which were listed in official press releases may be written about. People who did not follow his orders were fined. It led to contradictory situations; he did not informed about some events even though he was a witness of them. Sometimes the false information was released to avoid

the decrease of a general public attraction to the war (Shearer 656). For example, in Everybody’s Magazine Palmer described Veracruz in Mexico as a pleasant place to live rather than a town involved among battle places. He writes about American soldiers:

―Having taken the city by force of arms, he proceeds to take it again with his money and good-nature… Nimble and young and boyish, with his easy gait and his hail-fellow-well-met comradeship, heat cannot stale his wit and humor. It is difficult when you see him ashore to think of him as a fighting man at all. He is a tourist; an American, whether from the Maine or the Mississippi coast, who has become the playboy of the world‖ (Ruiz 208-209).

Women reporters did not stay aside. Rheta Childe Dorr, an advocate for women‘s rights, became a war correspondent too. Activities of Dorr were vast and varied; she supported a municipal housekeeping which was a promotion of the idea that women should not care only about their own houses but also about the city they live in. She wrote for Hampton’s Magazine, highlighting the need of educational reforms. Dorr considered her war reports from Europe and Russia as the peak of her career but some historical experts mark them as biased; they say that covering war stories gave her a feeling of importance among all men journalists (Gottlieb).

Another woman involved in war journalism was Peggy Hull Deuell. Hull, born 1980 as Henrietta Eleanor Goodnough, a fan of Nellie Bly and her investigative reports, decided to be a journalist early in her childhood. In 1916, Hull decided to join the Ohio National Guard in Mexico and wrote for El Paso Morning Times. Her reports were highly appreciated. Later on, she went to France to inform about events in Europe. Without accreditation, she spent only a month and a half there, and then she returned to the United States. In 1918 she received the accreditation but was complaining that as a woman, she is not given the same opportunity to be in a front line her male colleagues are (―Peggy Hull Deuell‖).

In The Chicago Tribune Peggy described herself playfully and spontaneously in a short column:

―HOWDY-DO! I‘m Peggy. And this is my picture. It looks a big large for just me and I reckon it was touched up some. But I never could do anything with these newspaper editors. However, they fell hard for my stuff, and I understand they are going to run it beginning on Monday. I wrote it about me for the folks back in El Paso – but that s just a stall to get by with the editors who are strong for personal experience. By rights my stuff‘s really about other people I met on my way from El Paso to see General Pershing and our boys in Paris … ― (Van Wychen).

The articles or reports of war correspondents are often disunited. In general, the readers got information based on reporting but they were also influenced by the war propaganda or its opposition. Apart from perceiving it as a terrifying experience, the war is a kind of ―appealing drama‖ or a ―collective enterprise‖ attracting readers (Seethaler 98). The World War I was the turning point in the medialization of wars; newspapers dedicated a lot of space to news from Europe. The war propaganda was realised by spreading posters or jokes and even governments of democratic societies tried to influence the public opinion, as it was during the existence of previously mentioned CPI (xi).

In contrast to newspapers published on territories of the United States, new American newspapers on the European continent were established. General John J. Pershing ordered to strengthen morale of soldiers by releasing news about their home country. In February 1918, The Stars and Stripes was first published in France. The editorial staff was composed of some highly renowned names such as Alexander Woollcott from The New York Times, Abian "Wally" Wallgren from The Washington Post or John Winterich but the soldiers themselves were encouraged to write their own articles or commentaries. More than writing about a war, soldiers wrote poems, described a life in trenches and emphasized the patriotism or homesickness; yet even this may be considered as enriching components of war journalism. The contents of The Stars and Stripes were similar to ordinary American newspapers; it carried the material about sport, current events, there were advertisements, columns and letters to the editor. Among others, its task was to entertain soldiers; for this reason cartoons and humorous stories were present. Of course, the home front news and news about the war in general

were included, too ("World War I Newspapers - The Stars and Stripes"). All articles were reviewed by military authorities and sometimes vetted by mentioned Frederick Palmer who was working for the Military Intelligence Service; however, no matter how much The Stars and Stripes was censored, the influence and popularity of newspapers in which soldiers participated, was significant ("Military Censorship").

2.2.3 The Roaring Twenties

After the war, the international organization the League of Nations was created to preserve the arranged conditions and ensure a lasting peace. American President Woodrow Wilson stood for the organization but the U.S. Congress did not ratify American connection to it; for them ―the treaty was discredited as unenforceable, short- sighted, or too extreme in its provisions‖ ("The League of Nations."). Americans turned their attention back to their nation.

By 1920, half of the population was living in cities and towns, fewer immigrants came from Europe but more from Mexico. But race relations were tense; there were violent strikes in some industries and disagreements over the culture and the religion. From 1919 to 1929 the gross national product rose 39 percent, a life expectancy was higher and people became better educated. Physical landscape changed as well; taller skyscrapers were built even in smaller cities and a lot of money was spent on roads, parkways, bridges or tunnels. Working class families afforded new houses, but still, there was segregation along economic and racial lines. Houses were equipped better; an average American lived in the suburban area and had a vacuum cleaner, flush toilets, a radio, a toaster and a washing machine. Many people also owned a car, thanks to the cheap car manufacturing developed by Henry Ford. African Americans continued their movement and on a large scale migrated from the South to the North. New York City was known for the Harlem Renaissance uniting black poets and writers (Freeman 270- 306).

The lifestyle and preferences of Americans after World War I were reflected in popular magazines, which experienced a tremendous growth contrary to expectations. Observes were afraid that ―the automobile will take people out of their homes and they will not have time for magazine reading." In fact, the increase of purchasing power caused that magazines benefited from advertising of goods and services. Another important influence on the magazine market were advances in education and the amount of leisure time because work weeks were shorter (Peterson 40-44). There were magazines for every social class and their hobbies.

News magazines. Reader’s Digest and Time were probably the most famous representatives of magazines who shared news and current information with people. News magazines contained the same information as newspapers but they paid more attention to details, etc. In February 1922, the first issue of Reader’s Digest was published and it reached a huge popularity within the next twenty years (―RDA Timeline‖). The first issue of Time appeared in 1923 but in first few years it struggled for existence (Peterson 222).

Movie fan magazines. This type of magazines was dedicated to the motion pictures, the theatre and film stars. For example, in 1914, Chicago magazine Photoplay contained novelettes, photoplay stories, interviews and serials. Other well-known magazines were Motion Picture Magazine, Screenland, The New Movie Magazine or Picture Play Magazine. Most of them were established after 1920s. ("Fan Magazine Collection (1911-1963)")

Magazines about health. Health magazines had a distinctive representative Bernarr Macfadden. His magazine Physical Culture in 1920s successfully changed manners of a society; for example girls started playing tennis in shorts and the anti-white bread campaign was launched. Macfadden said that there is no need to be worried about getting fat if you are exercising. Some people despised some of his more radical ideas, e.g. criticism of hat industry and wearing hats in particular, nevertheless he did not care because he had a lot of followers paying for his pieces of advice (Hunt 153-154).

Women‘s magazines. Magazines aimed on women varied from gardening and housekeeping to dealing with social issues and they also reflected women‘s interests. Ladies’ Home Journal advising women how to raise babies, decorate their houses, understand Bible and play the piano as one of the first magazines reached the circulation of a million at the beginning of the 20th century. Subsequently, the market considerably grew (Peterson 11). In 1926, two similar magazines appeared, Household and Homes and Gardens (59). For young women, there was a magazine Seventeen. The biggest boom of women‘s magazines appeared around 1940s (86).

Little magazines. Little magazines were focused on literary experimentation and criticism. They published works of almost 80 percent of American novelists, poets and storytellers after 1912. Unfortunately, many of them vanished in a year or two of their existence. The most popular were Poetry, Story, the Little Review and Accent (Peterson 353-353).

Pulp magazines. Pulp magazines got their name because of the type of paper they were printed on. It was made from wood-pulp; soon enough it yellowed and became brittle. First pulps appeared on the market by the end of 19th century. They were composed almost entirely of a fiction, there were usually four or five serials running together. Later on, book stories were serialized too. Their production was cheap and there were only drawings because it was not possible to print photographs on a paper like this. After World War I, the pulp magazines market expanded; sometimes the stories were ―sold under the counter‖ because of its erotic subtext. One of the main famous pulps was a detective story Black Mask (Ashley).

2.2.4 The period of the Great Depression

A relatively carefree living between two world wars was interrupted by the Great Depression in 1930s. Stock-market trading became very popular by 1920s. People bought and sold shares or stocks of selected companies depending on their profit. Some Americans were struggling to make credit payments, therefore buying shares on margin

had spread. It means that a buyer pays only some percentage of the share‘s selling price in cash. The rest of the money are borrowed from the stockbroker who holds the shares as collaterals. When the stock prices moves up, all involved people gets their money back and even more. If stock prices fell, the buyer should pay more margin money and if he does not do that, the stockbroker sells the stock to cover the loan. Because of American business boom after the World War I, the stock prices were rising and it looked problem-free. At the end of the year 1928, the loans were $6 billion and almost half a million people were speculating in stocks. The critical point of this system emerged in 1929. In March, the market dropped sharply. To soothe the situation, the National City Bank in New York City promised to provide up to $25 million for new loans. Even the Ladies’ Home Journal at this moment described the advantages of buying stocks. In October, stock prices fell again. On Tuesday, October 29, the stock market collapsed completely and people lost all invested money (King 509-513). At the beginning of the crisis, people thought that the debacle on Wall Street will not have a huge impact on those who were not involved in the stock market. But by 1933 almost 15 million people were unemployed, the gross national product fell 29 percent and real wages fell 16 percent. People were wandering around the country and some of them starved (Freeman 319-320). The Depression devastated agriculture because farmers were ruined because of low prices. Later on, it moved to Europe too, causing the anxiety in the society (322).

The consequences of the economic crisis were vast. President Hoover was not very popular among people at that time; he seemed to have an unrealistic look at bad conditions caused by the Depression. In the election of 1932 he was replaced by Franklin D. Roosevelt who tried to be closer to people inflicted by crisis (Jordan 633- 635). The 32nd President of the United States had to deal with a country on the edge of total collapse. He created the program called the ―New Deal‖ which should have improved state of a society. It was ―a series of economic measures designed to alleviate the worst effects of the depression, reinvigorate the economy, and restore the confidence of the American people in their banks and other key institutions‖ (―The New Deal‖).

The Depression threatened all professions without exceptions. Journalists experienced financial uncertainty because companies placing advertisements reduced their interests in press; instead, they invested money to the popular radio broadcast. In 1933, the first organization for journalists, the American Newspaper Guild (ANG), was founded. The aim of it was to protect the job security and agitate for better working conditions and higher wages. The beginnings of ANG were complicated and arguable; it was even said that ANG wants to control newspapers as a communist agency. ANG‘s goals were similar to the industrial codes of government National Recovery Administration (NRA). Roosevelt‘s organization required a five day and forty hour workweek, overtime compensation, a minimum wage or eliminating child labor. American Newspaper Publishers Association did not like and support these terms (ANPA) because they were not advantageous for them. ANG members protested against ANPA by strikes. First strikes in the summer and fall were aimed at the Long Island Daily Press, the Jewish Daily Bulletin and the Staten Island Advance. These were peaceful. Later, the strike against Hearst‘s News ended unhappily, strikers were fired. Finally, the ANG members reached their requirements and on 2 September 1936 the fight was over. The ANG have become a permanent feature of the publishing industry (Bondi 362-363).

American historian and professor of media and public affairs Christopher H. Sterling in the book Encyclopedia of Journalism devotes a chapter to ethics and emphasizes its importance in 1920s and 1930s. The age of 1930s may have a nickname the ―ethical age‖. Tens of years passed when Pulitzer‘s World and Hearst‘s Journal appeared with their sensational stories attracting attention of workers, and journalism became a respectable occupation, such as medicine or law. In this period, books about ethics in journalism were written, e.g. The Conscience of the Newspaper by Leon Flint or Ethics and Practices of Journalism by Albert Henning. The standard of a good journalist was to inform without bias and write news which readers should interpret themselves (537).

In opposition to neutral news there are personal opinions shared by columnists. The role of a columnist is to present any kind of opinion, unlike the editor‘s, who must keep the newspapers‘ stance whether they like it or not. In columns, there is reflected the approach of the columnist, their worldview and personality. This short essay composed

of 700 or 800 words in average was not some kind of novelty in 1920s and 1930s; columns and commentaries appeared as far back as in the age of Benjamin Franklin3. It became a journalistic specialization approximately a hundred years later. Around 1800‘ columnists were known for their humoristic style; around 1900s Chicago became ―the capital city of columnist‖ because of the concentration of popular journalists. Since then, every decade got an exceptional columnist. In 1880, it was Eugene Field writing for Chicago Morning News, the representatives of 1900s were H. L. Mencken and Bert Leston Taylor with his column titled ―A line o‘Type or Two‖ using slang which brought him closer to Chicago inhabitants, his readers. In 1912, the column ―Sun Dial‖ written by Don Marquis and commenting on the Roaring Twenties enchanted the New York City. The peak of columns became after the editor of New York Evening World hired Heywood Broun (Sterling, ―Encyclopedia of Journalism.‖ 317-318). Broun, a socialist and eager defender of a journalist‘s union, with his column significantly contributed to a formation of the ANG. He was very persuasive and emotive, showing the dissatisfaction over the situation on the labor market:

―The men who make up the papers of this country would never look upon themselves as what they really are—hacks and white-collar slaves… No matter how short they make the working day, it will still be a good deal longer than the time required to complete this stint. And as far as the minimum wage goes, I have been assured by everybody I know that in their opinion all columnists are grossly overpaid. They have almost persuaded me‖ ("The Column That Launched a Union").

There were many types of columnists. The syndicated columnists were freelance writers who sold their column to a group of newspapers; then there were local columnists ―the unofficial voices‖ of their living area. Minority columnists reacted against the race segregation, unfortunately, regardless their talent, most of them were allowed to work only for the Black press. The excitement about motion picture industry was projected in a number of celebrity columnists. Americans worshipped famous people therefore it was logical that gossips about celebrities quickly found its place in newspapers (Sterling, ―Encyclopedia of Journalism.‖ 318-322). Occasionally, the famous people themselves wrote about their colleagues, like Hedda Hopper, a silent movie star, did.

3 Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) – one of the Founding Fathers, an author, politician, printer, scientist, inventor (―Benjamin Franklin‖).

These news were called ―soft‖, in opposition to ―hard‖ ones containing information about politics and foreign policy. Hopper behaved like a stereotyped gossip woman and in her columns unveiled the private pleasures and her own personal benefits. She stood between her readership, audience and the movie industry. Despite the dependency on major studios which gave her a job, she became an essential part of Hollywood. American women addressed letters to her, revealing the significance of movies in their personal lives, which had an impact on the course of the industry (Frost 3).

The early influence of the radio was ignored by newspapers. If there were any columns, they were of technical character. The Boston Traveler was among pioneers of radio columnists. Columns appeared three times a week and apart from technicalities they informed about people working in a radio. The Detroit News were the first newspapers which owned a radio station. This gradual expansion of radio news began in 1920s. In 1930‘ the job of a reporter became prominent. Some newspapers like the Washington Post, Boston Globe or Los Angeles praised those people who wrote about radio (Sterling, ―Biographical Dictionary of Radio‖ 51-52) .

Not until 1930, the overall majority of American homes were equipped with radios. Before, only a few people had a chance to listen to the broadcast. The radio was used by families especially for a night-time entertainment but as a number of listeners grew, new radio stations appeared. The first specialized radio station KYW in Chicago broadcast opera music six days a week. After the end of the opera season, the radio must have changed its schedule; they offered information about sporting events, weather reports, market updates, political commentary, etc. Music, popular or classical, was included too. The beginnings of the radio broadcasting created mixed and contradictory feelings for many individuals. Firstly, everyone thought that radio is a public service so it was difficult to develop it without any profit, secondly, programs often overlapped because radio waves were free to grab for anyone, and thirdly, new technologies caused a tension between the old, traditional, and new style of life. In 1927, the Radio Act organized by the Federal Radio Commission monitored the growth of the radio industry and finally, set up regulations (―Radio in the 1920s‖). Radio in 1930s changed into a format of an entertaining medium. Show Amos ’n’ Andy made fun

of African Americans and their attempt to reach a better position in a society; serial melodramas Just Plain Bill, Big Sister, The Goldbergs and others were created to entertain American families, for their romantic contents the listeners were mainly women. During listening of advice programs, Americans were inspired by home- decorating tips, on the other hand, drama or horror series full of crime were designed to leave the audience in suspense. Radio news broadcasting opposed to newspapers because they were not able to make a deal about limiting the number of news broadcast and delay news releases in 1934 (Bondi 352-356).

Among popular features of 1920s and 1930s newspapers were comic strips. Short comic entertained and sometimes commented on current events. Harold Gray‘s Little Orphan Annie, a story about a girl with a dog, pointed at trials during the Great Depression which did not pleased supporters of F. D. Roosevelt ("1930s Cartoons"). Another story, Krazy Kat, a joyful strip about a cat, mouse and officer, was created by George Herriman for Hearst‘s newspapers. The comic never caught the full attention of public because of its unusualness but Hearst personally liked it (―Krazy Kat‖). The comic strips ranged from political topics to superheroes. Superman and Popeye amused people during the Depression, Buck Rogers, taking place in future, reflected the goals of the New Deal ("1930s Cartoons").

The popularity of magazines after the Depression did not decline. Public interests in the combination of food, housekeeping, fiction, entertainment and fashion tips allowed new magazines to be introduced to the market. A first store distributed women magazine, Family Circle, business orientated Fortune and the city magazine The New Yorker found its place among their longer released competitors (Bondi 358).

The epoch of Pulitzer and Hearst was drawing to a close. These new magazines Fortune, Life and later Sports Illustrated were affected by the young and future magnate Henry R. Luce. The creator of modern news magazines was born in 1898 in China. Luce attended prestigious British boarding school and then he moved to the USA. He was an excellent student writing verses, editing the school magazine and also working as an assistant managing editor of the weekly paper. At that time he found friends

involved in journalism and shared his opinions and concerns that too many people is ignorant of the world which surrounds them. As a Yale student, Luce became an editor of The Daily News. Luce was a loyal Republican, supporter of a free enterprise and big business and an opponent of Communism. He was confident that reaching the objectivity is impossible. ―We tell the truth as we see it,‖ he used to say. By the time of his retirement in 1964, Luce‘s influence in society was enormous. The world circulation of his magazines reached 13 million copies an issue. He owned radio and television stations and created books on science (Whitman).

After the crisis, a part of the society radicalized. The influence of radical magazines spread not only through the United States but also abroad. Writers of these magazines denounced capitalism and proposed reforms (360). The New Masses, a socialist magazine, founded in 1926, was one of the most famous left-wing refuges for opposing writers and artists. This view, among others, was held by Upton Sinclair, Theodore Dreiser or Eugene O‘Neil (Simkin).

The extract from The New Masses’ article ―Go Left, Young Writers‖ written by Michael Gold in January 1929 precisely describes the mood and thinking of The New Masses‘ journalists:

―The great mass of America is not prosperous and it is not being represented in the current politics and literature. There are at least 40 million people who are the real America. There are Negroes, immigrants, poor farmers and city proletarians and they live in the same holes as they did ten years ago. Upon their shoulders the whole gaudy show-palace rests. When they stir it will and must fall‖ (Articles from The New Masses).

The New Masses was not the only radical magazine, e. g. The Partisan Review started as a communist journal and after 1937 became anti-Stalinist (Cooney).

2.2.5 World War II events and a social climate

The start of the World War II took place in 1938 in Europe. Nazi troops invaded Austria and then annexed this country to Germany. As the next territory, Hitler demanded the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. Superpowers France, Britain and the Soviet Union promised to support the Czech resistance. In September the same year, in Munich, Germany, the conference with Hitler was held. Nations decided that the Sudetenland will be given to him as the last territory, hoping that the problems with him are over and they protected Europe from a war. Eventually, the policy of appeasement turned out badly. Hitler‘s troops conquered the rest of Czechoslovakia in 1939. On the day Germany attacked Poland, the war was officially announced. Britain and France declared war on Germany. Germany signed a nonaggression treaty with the Soviet Union. After the one of President Roosevelt‘s chats on the radio, a majority of Americans in a public opinion poll expressed sympathies for Britain and France but did not want to be a part of the war. The Congress passed a Neutrality Act guaranteeing the US non-involvement in the war (King 565-568).

German troops spread through Europe attacking French and British soldiers. In 1940, the air force was sent to bomb London. However, British pilots were well-informed about these intentions. In 1940s, Americans became afraid of German advancement and Congress voted for funding of the navy and army. President Roosevelt, despite the contradictory criticism because of his help the United Kingdom, won the third term presidency in 1940. The United States was involved in the war gradually, after first problems with Germans, escalating in the Battle of the Atlantic, and struggles with the Japanese in the Pacific Ocean. The biggest shock came on Sunday, December 7, 1941, when the nation was surprisingly attacked at Pearl Harbor (569-572).

The Japanese planes sank ships, killed soldiers and sailors. The next day, the United Kingdom and the United States declared war on Japan and in a few days, Germany declared war on the United States (Freeman 436). The news mentioning the attack at Pearl Harbor were compounded of bits and pieces; because of chaos, journalists did not describe the situation properly but it was sure it will result in a world war. The New York Times on 8th December informed imprecisely: ―The crash of exploding bombs in

the Hawaiian Islands, Guam and possibly the Philippines…‖, but promptly warned that the war is becoming serious for all Americans: ―It broadened the conflicts already raging into a world-wide struggle whose end no man can know.‖ The Daily Telegraph journalists investigated how it is possible that Japanese ships were ―able to get inside the outer defences of the Hawaiian group.‖ The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette described the Japanese as savages and for Time Magazine the action was ―premeditated murder masked by a toothy smile...‖ that ―…had finally brought national unity to the U.S.‖ All reports were unusually emotive (Sanburn).

The following year a rationing program to set limits was established. Families were restricted to buy and huge amount of almost everything, from meat, sugar, fat or butter to fuels or tires. It prevented the shortage of supplies for the U.S. troops. To be stronger and more successful than American enemy, the United States needed to have a good war-related material. As it was during the World War I, many of the workers were women because men went into the armed forces. To encourage women‘s enthusiasm and recruit them for a work in an industry, Rosie the Riveter appeared in media (―The U.S. Home Front During World War II‖). Rosie was a star of a government campaign. It was any picture or a photography of a woman working in the industry, but later the woman declaring We Can Do It became the specific symbol of her. The other popular image was painted for the cover of the Saturday Evening Post on May 1943. It was a strong, muscular women, eating a sandwich, wearing badges, decorations of war service and was standing on Hitler‘s Mein Kampf. There is said that Norman Rockwell‘s Rosie has features of Michelangelo‘s Isaiah. ―It captured the mood of an American generation – irreverent, good humoured, casual, egalitarian, and at the same time confident, strong and deadly serious in its cause of liberty and freedom‖ (Fisher 535-538).

A good reporting always pleases the reader who feels to be well-informed and is satisfied that the government is not hiding something. On the other hand, information do not serve only to intended readership but enemies may easily got missing pieces they need for the attack in future. There appears a problem; where are the bounds separating a good reporting and dangerous spreading of delicate information?

In 1938, President Roosevelt cautiously considered this ethical problem. The unauthorized photographs or maps of military bases were forbidden to be published. He was also remembering the public dissatisfaction with the Committee for Public information during the World War I and finally, it was decided that the accuracy of the articles is necessary but censorship is needed too. To avoid massive protests, a news editor of the Associated Press, Byron Price, a man in charge of this matter, set rules for journalists. Unusually, the media were asked to observe them voluntarily. People who released threatening information were punished, but only by the Justice Department on the grounds of the 1918 Espionage Act. To know what information is good to keep in secret, journalists were advised to consult it with authorities such as government department heads. Nevertheless, this system did not avoid complications, e.g. few people were hurt when the Navy refused to provide information about Japanese balloon bombs. The censorship was canceled on August 15, 1945 (Sweeney).

In American households gradually appeared another source of information and entertainment, a television. In 1939, people had the possibility to watch television 4 hours a day, 5 days a week. After the war, there were 6 stations in States, two years later, the number of stations increased to the number 128. Inevitably, the new medium began to compete with newspapers and the radio broadcast (Wild).

2.2.6 World War II journalists and correspondents

Unlike the World War I, the World War II was informed about in miscellaneous ways. Again, there were columns, newspaper articles and report but besides, the large amount of information people got through radio and television. The most distinctive group of the World War II journalists were called the ―Murrow Boys‖.

Edward Murrow, born in 1908, became the leading figure of 20th century war journalism. In 1935, he was sent to London to report about the situation in Europe. He witnessed German occupation of Austria and Czechoslovakia a year later (―Edward R. Murrow Biography‖). His reports from London started with words ―This … is London‖ which became his trademark. Murrow informed Americans about the war by providing

stories of ordinary people. These stories were transformed into powerful commentaries on political issues. After the war, Murrow discovered that his popularity in his home country significantly rose thanks to the broadcasting from Europe. He started to work for television and also radio; his shows See it Now and Hear it Now once again presented stories of ordinary people which Americans liked so much (―Edward R. Murrow‖). Edward Murrow was characteristic for speaking to the listeners directly so they had the feeling that they are standing next to him and observing the situation. Strong visual images were included too. During the London blitz in 1940, he described what was going on around him precisely:

"Tonight, as on every other night, the rooftop watchers are peering out across the fantastic forest of London's chimney pots. The anti-aircraft gunners stand ready… I have been walking tonight - there is a full moon, and the dirty-gray buildings appear white. The stars, the empty windows, are hidden. It's a beautiful and lonesome city where men and women and children are trying to snatch a few hours sleep underground" (―Radio Days - Edward R. Murrow‖).

The team of Edward Murrow was known as the ―Murrow Boys‖, although it was not correct because in this group of war correspondents one woman, Mary Marvin Breckinridge, worked. After 1938, Murrow as a follow up to the Czech Crisis and the invasion of Austria asked CBS for a permission to hire more staff. Finally, there were eleven people working under Murrow. He did not choose his colleagues because of their experience in journalism or broadcasting; instead he preferred them to have analytical skills, the knowledge of a foreign language, writing skills as well as the adventurous bent. Apart from Breckinridge, the other members were William L. Shirer, Thomas Grandin, Larry LeSueur, Eric Sevareid, Cecil Brown, Winston Burdett, Howard K. Smith, Charles Collingwood, William Downs and Richard C. Hottelet (―The Murrow Boys‖).

Ernest Taylor Pyle, known as Ernie, was the only war correspondent who in 1944 won the Pulitzer Prize for the stories about ordinary soldiers. Six times a week a new column was written by him and published in Reader’s Digest, Saturday Evening Post and many other magazines. The last published column on 25 April 1945, he dedicated to the life of

Fred Painton, his colleague and dear friend, who died shortly before. This tribute described the sorrow of the war and Painton‘s wish to go back home. Sadly, Pyle as a forty-five years old man also died just before the end of the war he was the active observer (―Wartime Columns‖). Another journalist who died not only before the end of the World War II but also before the United States entered the conflict was a correspondent of New York Herald Tribune, Ralph W. Barnes (Roth 22).

The breath-taking moments were captured on images of Margaret Bourke-White. This woman studied at Columbia University and by creating black and white photography attracted Henry Luce‘s attention who gave her a job in Time and Fortune magazines (―Margaret Bourke-White – Bio‖). Bourke-White was the first woman with accreditation giving her the opportunity to go on missions and photographing Nazi concentration camps after the liberation in 1945 (Cosgrove).

Earlier mentioned magazine The Stars and Stripes continued to be published. During the World War II this magazine released approximately 32 pages long booklets G. I. Stories, which were stories about United States formations in Europe. Soldiers signed inside of the booklets. G. I. Stories informed about Ground, Air, and Service Forces. In the first issue, it was Major General who wrote an encouraging editorial to soldiers:

―The story of the Division and its units is printed herein in factual writing. Our record lives up to our motto: ‗No mission too difficult, no sacrifice too great.‘ The press and the historians have, and will always pay tribute to the "Fighting First" as a great division; but I want to take these opportunities to recognize you as individual soldiers. Your courage, your caginess, your teamwork, and your spirit are ever present...‖ (―G. I. Stories: WWII Unit History Booklets Issued by Stars & Stripes‖).

2.2.7 The Cold War and the fear of communism

The World War II ended in Europe on May 8, 1945 but the United States were still in a war emergency because of Japanese who surrendered in August 1945. After the war a tense appeared between the United States and Soviet Union, known as the Cold War (―The United States, the Soviet Union, and the End of World War II‖).

In late 1940s and early 1950s, a number of inhabitants of the United States were filled with consternation when they got a suspicion that somebody else was a member or a supporter of a Communist Party. On the basis of interventions of the House Committee on Un-American Activities the Blacklist appeared, especially separating Hollywood celebrities who were said to be Communists. Eleanor Roosevelt in her column My day where she commented on events and problems the USA faced, said: ―The film industry is a great industry with infinite possibilities for good and bad. Its primary purpose is to entertain people… I do not think the public will tolerate a removal of its right to decide what it thinks of the ideas and performances of those who make the movie industry work‖ (―Hollywood Blacklist‖).

3. 1951 – 2000: Journalists as guardians of democracy 3.1 Historical and social changes

After the death of President Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman became the President in 1945. Under his leadership the USA dropped atomic bombs on Japanese cities, went through the Korean War and he also created the Truman Doctrine. In 1948, the elections were held and Harry S. Truman stood against Thomas Dewey. Truman, the candidate of the Democratic Party, managed to win without difficulties (―Election of 1948‖). In this moment Chicago Tribune published newspapers with the headline DEWEY DEFEATS TRUMAN, and showed ―every publisher‘s nightmare‖ to Americans. The wrong headline was caused by editors relying on the outcomes of polls. Because of printer‘s strike, the newspapers had to be sent to print earlier than usual, so journalists had to do the decision whether they estimate the results of elections or they will not inform at all. 150,000 copies were printed out before the mistake was corrected. Chicago Tribune did not support Truman throughout his campaign (Jones). Truman commented the fault with words: ―Ain't the way I heard it‖ (―The 1948 Election: Case Study II‖).

During the war, the cooperation between American newspapers and government was more or less problem-free. From time to time, the incidents disrupting the fragile balance appeared, e.g. when Edward Kennedy announced the end of the war in Europe, even though this information was not approved at that time; but the voluntary censorship was generally accepted system. After the war and the media coverage of Joseph McCarthy in 1950s, journalists called for the independence and chance to be objective again. V. M. Newton of the Tampa Tribune said that: ―Every line written by a government press agent is designed to reflect glory upon his government agency and to prolong the political life of his boss, regardless of whether it is the truth, half truth or no truth.‖ Journalists were often manipulated and government propaganda was spread. On 4 October 1951, President Truman listened to laments of editors but the situation changed later, after the President Eisenhower was elected. ―Millions have read and heard of freedom of information for the first time," said James S. Pope in reaction to changes made by the government. However, the forthcoming Cold War forced journalists to make compromises again (Davies).

This was the beginning of the 1950s. The Americans considered the period after the war as the ideal time for having families because the economy was growing and the peace guaranteed calm and prosperous living. High wages and low-cost mortgages enabled middle classes the investments to houses in suburbs. It was also the time when movements gained strength; the feminist movement and the civil rights movement changed the future of the United States (―The 1950s‖).

The feminists used the media to promote their movement. The Second Wave4 of feminism developed properly later in 1960s with the establishing of the National Organization for Women in 1966. Women demanded social changes, their proper inclusion into productive society and a ban of a sex discrimination. This wave was started by The Feminine Mystique which appealed on readers of mainstream magazines and routes of women‘s dissatisfaction (Bloch).

1960s were shattered by the Civil Rights Movement, starting with harmless protests in 1950s and escalating in Martin Luther King‘s speeches (Vox). The event accompanying the beginnings of the movement was the Montgomery Bus Boycott. The Boycott started when the black woman Rosa Parks refused to leave the place where she sat in the bus to a white person. It lasted 381 days until segregated buses were prohibited. The Boycott was massive; here is the description of the atmosphere written by the Alabama Journal reporter:

―Negroes were on almost every street corner in the downtown area, silent, waiting for rides or moving about to keep warm, but few got on buses . . . scores of Negroes were walking, their lunches in brown paper sacks under their arms . . . They exchanged little talk among themselves. It was an almost solemn event‖ (―381 Days the Montgomery Bus Boycott Story‖).

The other form of protest was ―The Greensboro sit-ins‖; young African Americans sat on seats which were reserved for white people. Firstly, journalists overlooked this protest; they started to care about it after The New York Times released the first article on 3 February 1960 (Bilyeu).

4 The First Wave of feminism took place in the end of 19th century and beginning of 20th century

On 3 January 1959, Alaska became the 49th state in the USA, eight months later Hawaii became the 50th state. The New York Times cited President‘s words that this is ―truly an historic occasion because for the second time within a year a new state had been admitted‖ (Lawrence).

On 22 November 1963, every newspaper in the country had a headline with the same message: KENNEDY IS SHOT DEAD. The news about assassination of the President in the streets of Dallas mainly also mentioned that Kennedy‘s wife and Vice President Lyndon Johnson were not hurt (Taibi). Another exceptional event connected with this period and extensively published were first men walking on the surface of the moon.

The core of journalism is about ―factual reports of current events‖. Throughout the years, different styles of reporting were popular and demanded by a readership so at last, the news readers get on their tables were very different to a brief and unemotional description of events. In 1955, there was a huge rise in numbers of stories about events which other types of front pages overshadowed (Stray). Articles were not only about ―what, where and when‖ but suddenly, they provided the background story and thought about ―so what‖ and ―why‖ questions. This was called ―contextual journalism‖, bringing more detailed analysis and specific interpretation (―The rise of contextual journalism, 1950s-2000s‖).

The popularity of the television broadcast caused that the newspaper market struggled to keep its position. In 1960, the number of daily newspapers fell by 15 %. The ownership of newspapers was divided to few magnates (Norris). Some magazines even had to end, e. g. Collier’s, the rival of the Saturday Evening Post, focusing on news articles and photojournalism or Woman's Home Companion, a magazine aimed on women interested in fashion and housekeeping. Both magazines were owned by Crowell-Collier Publishing company (―Crowell-Collier Publishing Company―).

The influence of the television may be demonstrated on a debate which helped Kennedy to defeat Nixon. Young Catholic John F. Kennedy was not famous at that time; nevertheless, he decided to beat Vice President Richard Nixon in elections. The debate

with both of them was broadcasted through the radio as well as television. For people who were listening to the radio, Richard Nixon won the debate. But for those who were watching the television, Kennedy became the favorite one. The number of viewers was up to 74 million which was many times higher than the number of listeners. Kennedy engaged the attention by his calm and confident behavior and a good appearance. Nixon looked weak because of his health problems. At this moment, the television definitely confirmed its privileged position in the world of media (Webley). Since 1960s, the broadcasting was colored and also Afro Americans got their magazines and shows (Layman).

Radio in 1960s went through fundamental changes. Shows, drama and other entertainment were transferred to television, to it had to find and idea how to attract listeners. Radio began to be a medium which filled houses of Americans with music. Unlike the newspapers, radio did not suffer from social changes but it prospered thanks to advertisement (Layman).

3.2 The Pentagon Papers 3.2.1 The New York Times

―All the News That‘s Fit to Print‖ is a famous slogan which has been introducing The New York Times since 10 February 1897. At first, the slogan was created to attract readers to invent a better one but eventually, none of those ideas which were sent to the editorial office were chosen, therefore the original suggestion of Adolph Ochs, the owner of The New York Times, stayed unchanged on the front page (―Our History‖).

The history of The New York Times starts in 1851. At the beginning of 20th century, the concept of The New York Times stood against the popular yellow journalism which was not a reliable and unbiased source of information. The New York Times, on the other hand, guaranteed to provide objective facts to inform their readers precisely. At that time, Ochs said: ―It will be my earnest aim that The New York Times give the news, all the news… impartially, without fear or favor, regardless of party, sect, or interests involved‖ (Dryer). To keep his words, Ochs reduced the advertisement which The New

York Times published; the goods and services he considered unacceptable, such as immoral books, massages, fortune tellers, were not allowed to be in the newspapers. In the upcoming years, The New York Times engaged the attention mainly by publishing political or ground-breaking news, using new innovations and supporting interesting people. For example The New York Times was famous for the usage of halftone photographs of the Queen Victoria in 1901, the sponsorship of Robert E. Peary who managed to get to the North Pole, the announcement of problems on Titanic, which The New York Times got as the first medium or releasing the full version of the Treaty of Versailles (―Our History‖).

The New York Times has been awarded by 114 Pulitzer Prizes by 2014, which makes it the most successful news organization (―Pulitzer Prizes‖). The New York Times editors played an inevitable role in releasing the Pentagon Papers causing the affair which shattered the United States inhabitant‘s the trust in government.

3.2.2 The Vietnam War

The Vietnam War was the war which stuck in American minds for a long time. This war was the longest and the least popular in the history of the United States. It lasted from 1955 to 1975 and 60,000 Americans and 2,000,000 Vietnamese paid for it with their lives. The war started as a result of the division of Vietnam to anti-communist South and communist North. The South did not want to be connected with the North in the elections in 1956 and in 1958 Viet Cong, supporters of communism, attacked the South. The United States interfered in the war on the side of the South (―Overview of the Vietnam War‖).

The war in Vietnam was linked to riots in States and with the considerable change of lifestyle. There were many reasons why activist protested against the Vietnam War and bombing of North Vietnam. Some of them were against the war as a matter of principle, others did not agree that the war stands for democracy and freedom. Soon enough, the antiwar movement spread and grew. National protests were common as well as local which took strong actions against war supporters or war-related research. Young men

refused to fight for their country, workers radicalized. The antiwar movement in late 1960s was characteristic by the style of clothing and living; people had long hair, listened to a rock music, smoked marijuana. The demonstrations were often held on universities. A political movement the New Left was establish in a reaction to official government attitudes. At first, newspapers and other media did not notice this movement. For this reason there appeared ―underground community newspapers‖ Los Angeles Free Press, Berkeley Barb or Austin Rag which covered the matters of the protesting community (Freeman 574-580).

''No event in American history is more misunderstood than the Vietnam War‖ said President Nixon who claimed that if the United States were fighting properly, the war would be over in six months (Gwertzman). The purpose of the United States entering into the war in Asia and its maintaining is still very contradictory. It was said that American soldiers are going to fight for democracy, they are setting things right and their help is inevitable. After the releasing of Pentagon Papers, the concept of The United States – protectors was destroyed.

3.2.3 Neil Sheehan and The Pentagon Papers

It was The New York Times which first released the overwhelming information about the Vietnam War. They thought that ―it is in the interest of people of this country to be informed …‖ and that it is the duty of the democratic press to publish information about the government and inform the Americans about their elected representatives. ―We believe that, once this material fell into our hands, it was not only the interests of the American people to publish it but, even more emphatically, it would have been and abnegation of responsibility and a renunciation of our obligations under the First Amendment not to have published it…‖ is written in the editorial in the newspapers. The New York Times also pointed out that they would not release information if the lives of American soldiers were endangered (Sheehan ―The Pentagon Papers: The Secret History of the Vietnam War the Complete and Unabridged Series as Published by the New York Times― 644).

The official title of The Pentagon Papers is ―United States-Vietnam Relations, 1945– 1967: A Study Prepared by the Department of Defense‖ and it first appeared in press in June 1971. The Papers has 3,000 pages of narrative and another 4,000 pages containing appended documents (―Pentagon Papers‖). The Pentagon Papers revealed that the United States was involved in a war sooner than it was said because the American government sent supportive military aid to France when French soldiers were fighting in Vietnam. The facts about President Eisenhower‘s opposition to the new Vietnamese communist regime were disclosed as well as information that President Johnson was not able to make a final decision and complicated the war by radical steps such as bombing of the North Vietnam (Sheehan ―Vietnam Archive: Pentagon Study Traces 3 Decades of Growing U.S. Involvement‖).

Maybe there would not be any Pentagon Papers released if The New York Times did not recruited Neil Sheehan. Sheehan, a country boy, who managed to get a degree on Harvard University where he developed his journalistic talent in the literary magazine Harvard Advocate, as young entered to the United States Army and decided to spend some years abroad, first in Korea then in Tokyo, Japan. After the period he was a soldier, he started to work for United Press International. Thanks to his reports, The New York Times employed him as a war correspondent. Sheehan informed American public about the massacre in Jakarta, Indonesia, later on about Vietnam. He pointed out on facts that Americans were presented as enemies of communism but Vietnamese people did not consider the intervention of the United States as a help but as an occupation. Neil Sheehan got information about the Pentagon Papers in 1971. Daniel Ellsberg, a man who used to work in the government, gave Sheehan a copy of the description of relationships between the USA and Vietnam which were ordered to be written for the Secretary of Defense Robert MacNamara. Nixon‘s Administration sued The New York Times, saying that the newspapers released Papers illegally. Finally, the Pentagon Papers became the bestseller in the USA. The government tried to discredit Ellsberg and let some people to break into his office to find something inappropriate; however, they were not successful and this burglary which preceded the Watergate burglary was another problem slowly contributing to Richard Nixon‘s resignation (Neil Sheehan Biography).

3.2.4 The impact of The Pentagon Papers

The Pentagon Papers were not only considered scandalous but their releasing has influenced the whole society on a large scale. As mentioned earlier, The New York Times struggled when the Papers were released. Surprisingly, the court gave preference to the newspapers instead of the government. It proved that the freedom of press guaranteed in the Constitution has a bigger value than a small danger to security of a nation. Furthermore, the journalists who wrote articles against politicians and other well-known influential personalities were accepted badly. It was because of their changes of opinions; once they praised somebody, the other day condemned them (Apple).

The court‘s decision about Pentagon Papers had consequences in the recent history when Julian Assange released WikiLeaks. Even though the government considered WikiLeaks dangerous, they could not stop him. James Goodale, the former vice chairman and general counsel of The New York Times and a lead lawyer in the Pentagon Papers case, once said: ―The great vice in what the government is trying to do is that it's trying to criminalize the journalistic process with respect to getting information that's classified‖ (Kramer).

3.3 The Watergate Scandal 3.3.1 The Washington Times

The history of The Washington Post is a bit shorter than of The New York Times. The Washington Post was founded in 1877 by Stilson Hutchins. For the new newspapers wrote articles up and coming personalities Joseph Pulitzer and Theodore Roosevelt. They were not well-known at that time but their selection confirmed the good choice of editors The Washington Post had since the very beginning. The Washington Post often suffered with financial problems. Because of the Wall Street Crash of 1929, The Washington Post had to be sold. The new owner Eugene Meyer bought the Post for $825,000 which was essential in saving the newspaper in time of a great struggle. Despite his successful interventions based on advertising, The Washington Post was not able to completely get out of its crisis. The next owner of the newspapers was Philip L. Graham. He got inside of Meyer‘s family business because of the marriage with Meyer‘s daughter Katharine. After his death in 1963, Katharine took over the company and the newspapers were thriving (―Washington Post Co. Timeline‖).

Soon after, The Washington Post released shocking news about the Watergate Scandal. At that time, only few people predicted that this affair will have vast consequences in the whole society which culminated in a resignation of President Nixon. Katharine Graham remembered the Watergate as ―the most important occurrence in my working life‖, the reporter Ken Ringle as ―draining, mesmerizing, pulse-racing days‖.

3.3.2 The Watergate Scandal

The first turning point introducing the series of groundbreaking events was almost unnoticed burglary in Democratic Offices in Watergate office complex on 17 June 1972 in Washington. Bob Woodward, 29 years old journalist working for the Post for only nine months, was chosen by the city editor to compose the article about it. The case was not special in any way; writing about corruptions and burglaries was a daily bread for Woodward. Soon enough, Woodward noticed that this case is also being prepared for press by his colleague, a year younger Carl Bernstein. There were five men arrested in

Watergate, all of them were wearing suits and surgical gloves. A large amount of money was also found in their possessions. In a short time, both journalists discovered that statements of accused and their defenders are suspicious (Bernstein and Woodward 13-20).

The connection between one of ―burglars‖, James McCord, and President Nixon‘s reelection committee appeared after the payroll was found. Furthermore, six days after the burglary, Nixon's chief of staff H. D. Haldeman who called himself ―the president's son-of-a-bitch‖ discussed with the President the possibility of stopping FBI‘s investigation. Later, another names connected with the President of the United States got involved into the investigation, among them was the former CIA officer E. Howard Hunt, former FBI agent G. Gordon Liddy or the former Secretary of Commerce Maurice Stans. Bernstein and Woodward realized that this is not the accident and created the connection between the burglary in Watergate and the government (―Watergate at 40‖).

The Washington Post’s journalists consulted their assumptions about the case with their secret adviser hidden under the nickname ―Deep Throat‖. His true identity was revealed 30 years after the Watergate scandal published. It was W. Mark Felt, the agent of FBI. Deep Throat and journalists were meeting each other in a parking garage in the middle of the night. Both journalists promised not to break the vow of silence about Felt‘s identity but surprisingly Felt himself gave the secret away (Von Drehle). In book All the President’s Men Bernstein and Woodward described him as ―a deep background…[who] didn‘t want to use the phone even to set up meetings‖ (71).

Although information led to activities of Committee for the Re-Election of the President, in fact, the whole affair was covered badly in many newspapers at the beginning. After the final revelation, the journalists enthusiastically praised themselves even though only few newspapers noticed and informed about the affair carefully. Except for The Washington Post, the connection between Nixon and Watergate burglary remained often unnoticed or was not taken into consideration (Mankiewicz 92). Because of this, on 7 November 1972, President Nixon defended his place in the White

House successfully. Nixon, with 61 % of the votes, won over his rival George McGovern (―1972: Nixon Takes Second Term by Landslide‖).

Bernstein and Woodward did not give up and continued to investigate the Watergate mystery. It was found out that a secret taping system exists and that President‘s conversations were recorded. Because of its discovery, some people were given their notices (―Watergate at 40‖). The Washington Post published on 21 October 1973 following article:

―Demands for the impeachment of President Nixon mounted swiftly last night in the wake of his firing of Watergate Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox and the resignations of Attorney General Elliott L. Richardson and Deputy Attorney General William D. Ruckelshau…. Sen. Mark O. Hatfield (R-Ore.) in a telephone interview from Oregon, said, ‗It seems to me the President is almost intent on committing political hara-kiri‘‖ (Witcover).

Richard Nixon defended himself and was saying he is innocent, but ―the smoking gun‖ tape, where the President and Halderman are discussing the FBI involvement in the investigation of the Watergate scandal, weakened the support of his most loyal voters. ―I hereby resign the Office of President of the United States‖ signed Nixon on 8 August 1974 (―Watergate at 40‖). Richard Nixon was impeached but never sentenced thanks to the pardon of next President Ford. Nixon was accused of ―making false or misleading statements to lawfully authorized investigative officers, withholding relevant and material evidence or information from lawfully authorized investigative officers, endeavoring to misuse the Central Intelligence Agency, making or causing to be made false or misleading public statements for the purpose of deceiving the people of the United States, etc.‖ (―Articles of Impeachment‖).

3.3.3 The Effects of Watergate

Richard Nixon did not cooperate with the press unless it was necessary, e. g. when he needed a campaign for the elections. (Mankiewicz 91) According to the management of the newspapers, the President was very rude when The Washington Post was mentioned. ―The Post is going to have damnable, damnable problems out of this one‖ he said threateningly (Graham). Nixon introduced quite new tactics how to get rid of journalists which were not common before him. Among these methods was ―intimidating journalists, avoiding White House reporters or staging events for television‖. Nixon is also known as a man who considered and called the newspapers as ―the media‖ more than ―the press‖ because, in his opinion, the media cannot be trusted. Unfortunately for American press, the future Presidents adopted some of these Nixonian tactics to protect their activities (Marshall).

Not only the change of Presidents caused the Watergate scandal, but also new attitudes were introduced in journalism. The investigative journalism emerged to be an attraction to readers. Newly, the society discussed the role of anonymous sources and celebrity journalism (―The Post and Watergate‖).

The political consequences of the scandal were summarized in the U.S. News & World Report on 26 August 1974. It was only few months after the resignation and the impact of it started to be visible on a political scene: the reforms about problematic issues were discussed more quickly, some candidates voluntarily decided to limit contributions in their campaigns, questions about the two-party-system arose and speculations about the good name of Presidency appeared. Is it possible that a new Watergate will appear? Senator Scott said: ―Watergate has gone into the national memory bank. I think it is most unlikely that we will ever see another‖ (―Effects of Watergate: The Good and the Bad‖).

3.4. Media and the New Millennium

In previous chapters there were mentioned and briefly described two probably the most influential 20th century events connected with newspapers and journalism in general. 1960s and 1970s were ground-breaking in many aspects, the form of journalism changed; now it was called the ―new journalism‖.

The transition between ―old‖ and ―new‖ journalism was based on the change of the writing style. The new movement changed typical news into stories with ―well- developed characters, sustained dialogue, vivid scenes, and strong plotlines marked with dramatic tension‖. The main problem was the distinguishing between the true information and invented one which sometimes happened to be published. Among distinctive representatives of new journalism were Tom Wolfe and Truman Capote (Fakazis).

As technologies developed, people were seeking for information in different ways. By the end of 1990s, the Internet was the popular medium. It has its advantages as well disadvantages; news from the Internet are fresh, quick and also accompanied with many pictures, on the other hand sometimes it is difficult to find credible information and hoaxes are easy to spread. Typical features of news by the end of the century were shorter stories, larger photos and the info graphics. Informing about new events was not the only aim of journalism, the right and catchy interpreting of them was vitally important too (McPherson 182-183).

4. Newspapers in English language lessons

This thesis may serve as well as an educational material for teachers. Czech Curricula documents, such as the Framework Educational Programme for Basic Education, do not provide much space to enrich the pupil‘s lessons with nonstandard activities so that there are only suggestions how to implement newspapers in the lessons without disrupting the study plan.

For intermediate pupils, usually pupils of 8th or 9th grade, the teacher can prepare a material based on historical events. The worksheet may be beneficial in more areas, it can cover vocabulary section as well as listening and speaking; above all children get to know something about English speaking country which is equally important. The example:

On June 17th, 1972, someone called the police because of a burglary in Watergate offices in Washington. The police found five men who looked like thieves. They were accused of installing tape-recording systems and eavesdropping and were brought to justice. Investigators discovered that they were paid by President Nixon‘s people because Watergate offices belonged to the opposition. President Nixon denied his connection with burglary. Two journalists, Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward, revealed that Nixon lies and wrote articles about it to The Washington Post. People did not believe and voted for Nixon in other elections. Nixon became the President again but journalists did not give up. They found more proof and Nixon had to admit his guilt and resigned. Gerald Ford became the President. Bernstein and Woodward are known as investigative journalists.

Here, children get an easy description of Watergate scandal. The topic of the worksheet may be Crime or Investigative journalism and underlined words are chosen to be corresponding with the topic. Children may be asked to find them in the dictionary or they may be given the list of them with the translation. The exercise may be accompanied by questions: Do you like reading newspapers? Do you have any newspapers at home? Do you know what the investigative journalism is? Is it

dangerous? As homework they can be asked to ―investigate‖ a problem in their hometown and write an article about it. Teacher should introduce the style of writing headlines in English newspapers. The headline is selling the story; it must be attractive to persuade a potential reader to buy the newspapers. The necessity is its accuracy and a clear language (―Teacher Resources: Activity - Writing headlines‖). It may be difficult for Czech students to understand because English headlines often contain a noun phrase but no verb. It is shorter, therefore the bigger font may be used, and it also grabs the attention. Other typical features of headlines are noun strings, which means there are more nouns together, verb changes or omission of articles (Beare).

To practice the ability of understanding English headlines, which is important for children because in the future they will certainly be searching at least through English news websites, teachers can create an easy and quick exercise to make students to speak at the beginning or end of the lesson. There are two pieces of paper. Pupils are expected to be working in couples; each pupil gets one piece. One piece of paper contains English headlines, for example: Teens, man arrested in Long Beach shooting that injured 5 (Los Angeles Times, 19 February 2015) Northeast in deep freeze as record low temps seen (New York Post, 20 February 2015) Panel: Consider planet before you eat (The Washington Post, 19 February 2015) The second piece of paper may look like this: A: ―Cold temperatures have broken decades-old records in many places – including Washington, Baltimore and New York.‖ B: ―The nation‘s top nutritional organization (panel) is recommending for the first time that Americans should consider the impact on the environment when they are choosing what to eat.‖ C: ―Four teenagers and a 27-year-old man have been arrested because of a gang- related shooting that left five people wounded, authorities said.‖

One pupil is supposed to think about news headlines and their meaning; in their own words, they should explain to their partner what happened. While this pupil is talking, his or her classmate is listening and then reveals the true story and corrects mistakes and inaccuracies.

In fact, it depends on the teacher‘s own creativity how to involve English newspapers and journalism in their lessons. On the basis of the thesis the school materials and worksheets can be dedicated to popular and attractive comic phenomenon, magazines or yellow papers. Older pupils may be informed about Pulitzer prizes or war stories.

5. Conclusion

The press and history will go hand in hand forever. In this thesis we can see how demands of the society influenced the supply of the newspapers, how this relationship was interrupted in the moments of crisis or wars and sometimes influenced by affluent newspaper magnates and their desires.

The shapes, opinions or a composition of the society is mirrored in reports of journalists; no matter how hard journalists are seeking the objectivity or truth, they are always bound by the invisible rope of the era they are living in. They usually try to be provocative and develop new methods, although the next generation incorrectly considers these attempts as insignificant. Each and every step forward is a step which counts.

Names of famous journalists or newspaper owners were mentioned in the text. They were chosen according to their success, influence or extraordinary personality; in fact those people change the way of a development of journalism. In the second chapter we watched the ―fight‖ between Pulitzer and Hearst at peaks of their careers but then they suddenly disappear and other young capable people replace them. The beginning of advertisement helped new magazines to stay on the market and enrich the careless life of people after World War I. The crisis and following World War II allowed surviving of the best ones. As a tribute, two subchapters are dedicated to war journalists who risked their lives for the unbiased reporting, which is so important for the democratic country.

When it comes to democracy, journalism played an important role in the second part of the century. Releasing of Pentagon Papers and revealing of secret actions of the President in the Watergate Scandal shattered the country but helped to strengthen the national consciousness. The United States has always been intended to be a democratic country and these ideals would be disrupted if dishonest intentions of the government were kept up in secret.

The thesis may serve as an educational material. It is a guide of the 20th century journalism, the knowledge of this topic may be deepened by reading additional materials provided in a Bibliography. Simplified information may be used at school, examples are given.

This thesis is not directly concerned with the future of journalism but it would be a mistake if the content was considered not topical. It is obvious that the future of journalism, at least the near one, is situated on the Internet. However, the change of the medium does not mean that the content is rapidly changing as well. The popular investigative journalism is based on the processes Woodward and Bernstein used when they were investigating the Watergate scandal; the tabloid press, on the other hand, has its roots in yellow journalism, comic strips almost have not changed.

6. Bibliography

Print sources

Bernstein, Carl, and Bob Woodward. All the President's Men. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1974. Print.

Davidson, James West. Nation of Nations: A Concise Narrative of the American Republic. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996. 947. Print.

Freeman, Joshua B. Who Built America?: Working People and the Nation's Economy, Politics, Culture, and Society. From the Gilded Age to the Present. Vol. 2. New York: Pantheon, 1992. 723. Print.

Gray, Richard J. A Brief History of American Literature. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011. Print.

Jordan, Winthrop D. The United States. Combined Ed., 6th ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1987. 874. Print.

King, David C. Addison-Wesley United States History. Presidential ed. Menlo Park, Calif.: Addison-Wesley Pub., 1986. Print.

Mankiewicz, Frank. U.S. v. Richard M. Nixon: The Final Crisis. New York: Quadrangle/New York Times Book, 1975. 322. Print.

Sheehan, Neil, Hedrick Smith, E. W. Kenworthy, and Fox Butterfield. The Pentagon Papers: The Secret History of the Vietnam War, the Complete and Unabridged Series as Published by the New York Times. New York: Bantam, 1971. 677. Print.

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7. Resumé

Bakalářská práce 20th Century American Journalism as a Mirror of Society má jen teoretickou část. Tato část dokumentuje vývoj a význam žurnalistiky ve Spojených státech amerických ve 20. století. Práce je z velké části zaměřena na noviny, a to zejména proto, že před rozmachem televizního a rádiového vysílání nebyla jiná rozšířená oficiální možnost jak získat informace. V druhé polovině století to byli právě novináři pracující pro noviny, kteří odhalili národní kauzy. Soukromý a pracovní život mediálních magnátů a některých žurnalistů je zde uveden, aby zdůraznil jejich výjimečnost na trhu s informacemi. Práce je doplněna o historické události, aby se čtenář snadno orientoval v čase a porozuměl důvodům, kvůli kterým se žurnalistika měnila. Na závěr je navrženo, jak lze získané poznatky využít v učitelské praxi.

The bachelor thesis 20th Century American Journalism as a Mirror of Society has the theoretical part only. This part illustrates the development and importance of journalism in the United States of America in the 20th century. The thesis is focused mainly on newspapers because there was not any other option how to officially get the information before the boom of the radio and TV broadcasting. In the second part of the century, journalists working in newspapers were those who revealed national affairs. Personal and private lives of newspapers‘ magnates and some journalists are mentioned to highlight their exceptionality on the market. Historical events are described in the thesis to help readers to better understand the era and reasons why journalism changed so much. In the end, there is a proposal how to use gained information in English lessons.