1 1.0 INTRODUCTION in This Document We Are Concerned With

Home , Basse (Gambia), Central River Division, Janjanbureh (Gambia), Lower Niumi, Nianija, Upper River Division

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this document we are concerned with private sector involvement in natural resources management in The Gambia. This is a subject of increasing interest as widespread perceptions of the failure of common property and state property regimes are thought to strengthen the case for private sector involvement in natural resources management. For similar reasons, private sector natural resource management is seen as the most effective way to encourage more sustainable levels of exploitation of resources which are presently open to access.

This document inter alia will concentrate on the development and establishment of guidelines for the rational involvement of private entrepreneurs in natural resources management and will also look into the process framework for the legal procedure to establish private game ranches or protected wildlife reserves in The Gambia

Meanwhile, The Gambia conserves its biodiversity through the protected area systems in form of National Parks, Nature Reserves and other sanctuaries, which cover 4.9% of the Gambian land mass. However, these are insufficient for conservation of wildlife. The surrounding community and private lands provide dispersal areas for food, water, security and breeding grounds. These are the areas we would ask the private sector to consider establishing game ranches or protected wildlife reserves.

The profitability of game ranching has been demonstrated in environments with species of wildlife similar to those which used to be found in The Gambia. Dassman and Mossman (1961) showed that game cropping particularly in semi-arid areas provided greater yield per unit area than cattle ranching. They carried out game ranching on a 13,000 ha study area in Zimbabwe and yielded 50,653Kg of dressed meat in one year from a culling programme. They stated that the same area was capable of producing 42,900Kg of cattle beef. It was further found out that cattle were more expensive to rear than wild animals because the financial returns from game cropping were higher.

The higher yield of game than cattle per unit area in semi-arid areas stems from the fact that the wild animals are better adapted to harsh environments; more resistant to diseases than livestock; easy integration into modified or intensified production system; and can utilize natural resources more efficiently than domestic animals. Other qualities of wild animals that rationalize their management under ranching and farming are valuable trophies and photographic tourism.

It is in this view of the aforementioned comparative advantages of wildlife species over their domestic counterparts that this strategy attempts to recommend ranching as a means of promoting the exploitation of wild animal species for food, photographic tourism; and export of trophies. Such operations are expected to cushion the livestock keeping programme which often suffers from diseases such as foot and mouth disease and bovine pleura-pneumonia, leading to great losses of animals, reduction in protein supply and loss of income for the farmers.

The development of concerted guidelines for involvement of private sectors in natural resources management and particularly on biodiversity conservation will contribute to the growth of tourism sector, which is in support of government’s policy of promoting the tourism industry that has been elevated to the second position in the country’s economy after agriculture. The purpose of these guidelines is therefore to provide a comprehensive and objective framework for private sector involvement in natural resources management with a view to determine inter alia; the nature of partnership arrangements, formalizing partnerships, obligation of partners, areas of support, legal status of game ranches or protected wildlife reserves, administration and management, recruitment and training of staff, range condition and ecological carrying capacity of the area, the proportional stocking rate of animal species for introduction and their management, the natural distribution of water as well as the need for artificial sources of water, and manipulation of the range to improve pasture quality.

It is hoped that the provision of this information will stimulate interest in the general public, private sector and local communities to invest in ranching operations so as to support the development of tourism and conservation of biodiversity.

1.1 Background

The Gambia’s coastal zone is extremely rich in biodiversity; it is an area rich in natural resource with particularly high biodiversity of national, regional and global environmental significance. Indeed, The Gambia coastal and marine zone is harbouring important nursery grounds for regional coastal and marine fisheries. It is equally an important breeding, nesting, feeding, refuge and habitat for endangered and threatened species such as migratory birds, dolphins, sharks, marine turtles, the West African Manatee and other species of natural and regional significance.

The Gambia’s coast is also an area that is under increasing human presence, in particular coastal and marine resources are exploited for both subsistence and economic purposes. These pressures have had considerable impact on the ecological integrity of the coast. There is also evidence of significant pressure of species of global and regional concern such as nesting and migratory birds and marine turtles, the eggs of which are frequently collected; sharks harvested for their fins and manatees hunted for meat. In addition, there is inadequate financial support to development of protected areas but also the rational management and conservation of the remaining fauna and flora of the country.

In developing and implementing The Gambia biodiversity management and institutional strengthening project, one of the objectives is to secure financial sustainability of the protected area network system. This objective intends to explore options for sustainable revenue generation initiatives to ensure financial sustainability in the conservation arena.

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW OF EXISTING POLICY ON PRIVATE SECTOR INVOLVEMENT IN NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN THE GAMBIA

The GOTG endorsed a policy to encourage the private sector to invest in National Parks, Nature Reserves, Forest Parks and other Private Wildlife Estates in June, 2009, through a Cabinet Paper by the Secretary of State for Forestry and the Environment on the involvement of the Private Sector in management of Protected Areas (PAs) and natural resources. It should be noted however that the invitation of the Private Sector to be involved in natural resources management was a major policy shift from the existing one which did not allow the Private Sector to participate in conservation programmes in the country. It should be recognized that the policy shift was meant to benefit the country economically, empower the local communities and reintroduce the animal species with a view to repopulate the depleted PAs of The Gambia.

The study also benefited from various documents which were made available by DPWM, such as ICAM Process Framework for the Restriction of Access to Natural Resources, Proposal for the designation of Tanbi Wetland complex as a National Park, Cabinet Paper: Proposal for the re-designation of Tanbi Wetland complex and Bao Bolong Wetland as National Parks, Process Framework to designate Bolong Fenyo as a community wildlife reserve, Notice: Intent to designate Tanbi as a National Park, and Tanbi process framework disclosure plan. These documents provide evidence that all activities that take place in Protected Areas receive blessings from relevant stakeholders.

2.1 The Rationale of the Existing Policy

Currently, the Government policy orientation is mainly to create favourable conditions for the involvement and empowerment of local communities (especially those living on the periphery of protected areas) in biodiversity/wildlife schemes so that tangible benefits could accrue to these communities.

The National Parks, Nature Reserves and Forest Parks are in a deplorable state in relation to depletion of animal species and deforestation and hence the need for the involvement of the private sector to resuscitate them. The GOTG realized that the poor management of the PAs was exacerbated by poor management of protected areas due principally to insufficient inflow of resources and the inadequacy of technical skills and capacity. Fences to keep away intruders have generally been destroyed, bush fires have ravaged many protected areas and on the other hand drought has taken its own toll on the remaining fauna and flora.

As indicated in the Banjul declaration, there has been a steady decline in animal species and numbers in The Gambia. Reports have been received from the DPWM indicating that sixty six (66) animal species have been depleted to extinction in the country, including roan antelope, buffalo and elephant. The West African Giant Derby Eland which is the largest of all the antelopes was last seen in The Gambia in 1916. It is now occurring

3 naturally in neighbouring Senegal in the Niokolokoba National Park. This trend can be reversed by reintroducing these animal species back in the PAs of The Gambia.

The Gambia needs to diversify her tourism products and this is feasible if other tourism attractions could be developed such as game reserves for game viewing, walking safaris and game ranches for photographic and hunting safaris. These would complement the already existing sun, sand beaches and sea products that The Gambia has already been well known for. There is need to realize that tourism tend to perform very well in countries with wildlife and The Gambia would not go wrong because tourism is wildlife based.

The National Parks, Nature Reserves and Forest Parks as we all know are depleted of animal species and numbers. Therefore, it is advisable for the Private Sector to introduce restocking programmes with a view to repopulate the above PAs. The breeding and restocking initiative will take into consideration the animal species with a history in The Gambia.

2.2 Policy Implementation

To implement this scheme, specific activities will be planned, and these will include studies to develop relevant policy and legal frameworks to guide the process. The Gambia Biodiversity and Institutional Strengthening project has already started the ball rolling by funding the Private Sector involvement in natural resources management. There is need also to reorient the staff of DPWM and Department of Forestry (DOF) on how to implement these policies and legal frameworks. The local chapter of an International Organization of business entrepreneurs interested in investing in nature, called Leadership in Conservation for Africa (LCA), was launched in May, 2008. The LCA comprised members from the ground tour operators, Gambia Hotel Association, Gambia Chamber of Commerce and Private Forest Owners. This group recommended to GOTG for the shift of policy. This approach opened the participation of the Private Sector in natural resources management and the country will stand to benefit and tourism will also benefit immensely from this arrangement.

In principle it is expected that a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) would be entered into by any potential investor with GOTG specifying the responsibility of either party in the designated area. Investments in park infrastructure, technically skilled personnel, animal species for restocking PAs, and marketing would be expected to be the responsibility of the Private Sector. The GOTG would provide a conducive policy and legal framework to ensure that the PAs and natural resources are managed in accordance with the required standards and accepted norms.

It is expected that when these schemes come to fruition the beneficiaries will be the communities living adjacent to the PAs in terms of employment opportunities, market for vegetables and hand craft. The GOTG will benefit from the foreign exchange earnings coming directly and indirectly from local and international tourists. Details of the Agreements and modus operandi within the PAs would be developed in a consultative

4 manner to take into account the well being of the forests as well as the general economic situation in the country.

2.3 Protected Areas on Offer for Private Sector Involvement

There are sixty six (66) gazetted Forest Parks and seven (7) National Parks and Nature Reserves available in the country. It is anticipated that GOTG would begin on a pilot scale, gradually allowing a maximum of 4 of these PAs in 5- 10 years, for involvement of the Private Sector, expanding gradually and systematically as the country gains experience.

It is gratifying to note that the process to allow the Private Sector involvement in natural resources management received overwhelming support from the Departments of Tourism and Culture, Agriculture, Local Government, Lands and Religious Affairs and Fisheries and Water Resources and various other important stakeholders.

3.0 INFORMATION FROM RELEVANT STAKEHOLDERS CONSULTED ABOUT THE PRIVATE SECTOR INVOLVEMENT IN NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Working on the assumption that actors in The Gambia’s environment and natural resources sector will always better articulate the sector’s needs. Over twenty six (26) individuals belonging to a wide range of institutions active in this sector were interviewed (Annex II). The goal of key stakeholder interviews was to generate data from interviews that reflect the diversity of the target audience and give a variety of experiences to compare amongst. Most of the people interviewed were fully conversant of the issues surrounding environment and natural resources management in general. With specific reference to PAs, the majority of the people interviewed acknowledged that there was a problem affecting PAs and made some critical recommendations on the way forward. These and other thoughts expressed have been included in the report.

3.1 Stakeholder Analysis

The purpose of a stakeholder analysis is to analyze and suggest which stakeholders can contribute to better PA management and in particular Private Sector involvement in natural resources management. The analysis was based on information generated from key stakeholder interviews as well as the literature search (reports of action plans, annual plans, and strategies). The key institutions emerged as the Ministry of Forestry and the Environment (MOFEN), DPWM, DOF, Tourism, Fisheries and Water Resources. The other relevant institutions are traditional leaders, NGOs and other government departments such as Agriculture. Also of importance are local institutions such as Side Management Committees (SMC) or Protected Area Settlement Committee (PASC) where these have been established. The message that emerged from the analysis is that closer collaboration of all stakeholders is essential and institutions should learn from each other in terms of how to work and involve the Private Sectors in natural resources management in general.

4.0 GUIDELINES FOR THE RATIONAL INVOLVEMENT OF PRIVATE ENTREPRENEURS IN NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

The main advantage of involving the Private Sector in the management of natural resources is to benefit from the inherent capacity of the Private Sector to mobilize funds, equipment, such as road and water transport, camping equipment and food rations which are critical for resource protection. It is on the basis of the above that DPWM would like to enter into partnerships. In view of the complexity of challenges being faced by PAs, a wide variety of Private Sector Agreements are required to apply to different resource management challenges. A regulatory framework is therefore required to ensure that there are no conflicts between the Private Sector and DPWM.

These guidelines provide the basis upon which the different forms of Private Sector Agreements will be developed and regulated.

4.1 Objectives of Partnerships

The following objectives form the basis of entering into partnerships in PAs and natural resources management. i) To increase management effectiveness of PAs and natural resources; ii) Provide financial, technical and material support to DPWM to manage PAs and natural resources; iii) To ensure, on a case by case basis, that PAs are self financing as “business centres” and encourage the use of business plans to achieve financial sustainability. iv) To conduct conservation education among the local communities in and around PAs. v) To develop infrastructure in PAs. vi) To develop and implement management plans. vii) To implement natural resources compatible community development projects among the local communities in and around PAs. viii) To promote tourism in PAs to generate income for DPWM and local communities.

4.2 Definitions

Partnerships are contractually based frameworks that seek to allocate project related risks to those parties (public sector, private sector, civic society and local communities) considered best able to manage them.

The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) has defined a partnership as:

“systems of formalized co-operation, grounded in legally binding arrangements or informal understanding, cooperative working relationships, and mutually adopted plans, where partners share responsibilities, resources, risks and benefits overtime”

4.3 Nature of Partnership Arrangements

The following points are important in defining the nature of partnership arrangements in PA and natural resources management: i) Partnerships are not limited to public and private sector interest and welcome the inclusion of civil society and community partners; ii) DPWM plays an important role within any PA partnership arrangement and must be engaged effectively and regularly; iii) Partnerships are composed of a partnership entity or body such as a company, trust or governance board where all the partners meet and make decisions collectively; iv) Partnerships have an agreement where the functions, obligation, responsibilities and risks of the partners are stipulated and agreed upon; v) Partnerships can provide (1) general support for PA management where DPWM has full management control over the PA and receives financial and technical assistance from its partners. (2) Fully devolved operational management of the PA is undertaken by a partnership in collaboration with DPWM and other key stake holders; and vi) In some PAs it is more effective to have general support partnerships whilst in other areas a fully devolved partnership is more effective.

4.4 Formalizing Partnerships

The diversity of The Gambia’s PAs calls for area specific approaches to the development of partnership agreements and entities. Some of the principals in this regard are:

(i) Partnership Agreements must have a clear vision, which is agreed upon by all partners and must establish a partnership entity to facilitate the agreement; (ii) Partnership can be composed of different entities, such as trusts or companies limited by guarantee or constitute as a single entity of different partners, such as shareholders;

(iii) General support partnerships can be formalized in a Private Partnership Agreement (PPA) signed between DPWM and the partner(s); (iv) Partnership agreements establish a legal partnership entity, such as trusts or companies limited by guarantee where the management of the area is devolved to the partnership entity. Legal entities stipulate in the articles of association who are the partners, their obligations and the partnership procedures. They allow the partnership to have employees and bank accounts and manage funds; (v) Trust registered under The Gambia Chamber of Commerce and companies limited by guarantee under the companies act are non profit and are effective partnership entities for PA management and can receive donor funding (private and public finances); (vi) Shareholding companies set up as partnership entities are more challenging to negotiate and require an agreement on the distribution of dividends; and (vii) Partnership agreements that set up an informal partnership entity are less accountable, lack of transparency and are susceptible to individual interests.

4.5 Areas of Support

Areas of support by the private sector or civil society partner shall be as follows:

(i) Provision of vehicles, boats, mobile phones, field and office equipment, uniforms and patrol rations; (ii) Support SMC(s) and local communities in managing PAs and natural resources. (iii) Support implementation of approved Management Plans which includes animal censuses and demarcation of boundaries. (iv) Capacity building of law enforcement personnel through training, deployment and the provision of incentives. (v) Provision of environmental education and awareness campaigns for the local population around PAs, relevant target groups and the general public.

4.6 Partnerships Governance

In order to ensure good governance on a partnership which is accountable and appropriate for PA management in The Gambia the following shall apply:

(i) All partnerships shall be over seen by a governance board that has a balanced representation of all partners; (ii) Partnerships in PAs involve DPWM and a private sector/ civil society partner and shall be set out through an Agreement;

(iii) Partnerships agreements that extend support to PAs on customary land or other categories of PAs require representation of the local community, appropriate government institution and the private sector/civil society partner; (iv) The functions, roles and responsibilities of a partnership and its partners shall be part of the contractual obligations under an agreement, which provides bench marks for accountability; and (v) Effective partnerships in PAs management shall have structures and sub-groups where specific tasks and activities are carried out. These will include activities focused on the community, education and training, infrastructure, conservation, programme funding and income generation. In addition partnerships that have devolved operational management responsibilities also included enforcement, research and environmental monitoring activities.

4.7 Obligation of Partners

The obligations of the partners shall be as follows:

4.7.1 Obligations of Government of The Gambia

(i) The GOTG shall grant the Private Sector/Civil Society exclusive rights of running the wildlife reserve and to collect visitors’ fees for the entire PA; (ii) The GOTG shall give the Private Sector/Civil Society assistance and shall grant it all privileges connected with foreign investment in the Republic of The Gambia; (iii) The GOTG shall give the Private Sector/Civil Society the right to import and export wildlife to and from Gambian territory within the relevant international legal framework; (iv) The GOTG shall give rights to Private Sector/Civil Society to capture wildlife in Gambian territory intended for introduction into the game ranches or wildlife reserves. It shall also grant the Private Sector/Civil Society the right to private ownership of wildlife within the designated areas; (v) The GOTG shall authorize all transfers of animals between the game ranches or protected wildlife reserves and all destinations inside and outside Gambian territory; (vi) The GOTG shall grant all necessary rights to the Private Sector/Civil Society for the running of game ranches or protected wildlife reserves, in particular the right to create (infrastructure such as fences, bomas, drive ways, parking facilities, water boreholes, building, souvenir shops, safari camps, etc); (vii) The GOTG shall grant the Private Sector/Civil Society the right (to replace some of the existing infrastructure such as hides, cages, walkways, certain buildings,

bomas, fences, driveways, parking facilities, water boreholes, souvenir shops, safari camps, etc); (viii) The GOTG shall (grant import duty exemption on all animals, technical equipment, vehicles, animal feed, veterinary drugs, construction materials, house hold items for the protected wildlife reserves expatriate staff, and office equipment to be used in connection with the PAs); (ix) The Private Sector/Civil Society, as well as its expatriate sub-contractors shall be exempted from corporate taxes and internal revenue levies of all kind); and (x) The GOTG reserves for itself the right of free access for its technical staff to the protected wildlife reserve and the right to proceed with periodic project progress assessment.

4.7.2 Obligations of DPWM

The obligations of DPWM shall be:

(i) To create an enabling environment for the partnership to flourish; (ii) To formulate partnership agreements; (iii) To oversee law enforcement activities; (iv) To facilitate the employment of technical staff; and (v) To regulate and supervise the management of the PA.

4.7.3 Obligations of Private Sector and/ or Civil Society Partners

The obligations of the Private Sector/Civil Society Partner shall be:

(i) To raise funds needed for the effective management of the PA; (ii) To supplement managerial and technical support for the effective management of the PA; (iii) That all partnerships with devolved management responsibility shall formulate and implement, in collaboration with DPWM and stake holders, a General Management Plan (GMP) for the PA under their responsibility which improves compliance by communities and other partners and is verified through budgeted annual work plans; (iv) Knowledge of relevant legislation; (v) That all partnership with devolved management responsibility shall formulate and implement business plans; (vi) To administer the funds according to the work plans and account for all funds and assets;

(vii) To prepare progress and financial reports in quarterly intervals. Progress reports within the confines of biodiversity and wildlife act of 2003 and the financial reports in the manner prescribed in the companies act; (viii) To present audited financial statements undertaken by an auditing firm and to make the auditor’s report available to DPWM; (ix) To take all reasonable steps to ensure that its staff members, technical advisors or consultants during the tenure of the agreement not to engage in activities that are incompatible with the aims and objectives of the co-operation between the parties or in contravention of the laws and regulations in The Gambia; (x) To follow laid down channels of communication in raising grievances to DPWM; and (xi) To ensure employment and training of Gambian nationals for senior and middle management levels.

4.7.4 Obligations of Communities

The obligations of local communities shall be:

(i) To foster a good relationship between the partnership and the community at large; (ii) Through the SMC, to employ village wildlife rangers to assist in law enforcement of the PA; (iii) To ensure that community members are not involved in illegal activities as contained under the biodiversity and wildlife act of 2003; and (iv) To ensure equitable sharing of benefits among the community.

4.7.5 Monitoring, Evaluation and Performance Review

A monitoring, evaluation and performance review system ensures that partnerships, their goals, strategies, as well as day to day activities are regulated. The following points shall apply:

(i) A partnership shall be reviewed every five (5) years by a natural resources management consultant, to assess effectiveness in natural resource management and economic development; (ii) All partnership bodies shall provide data regularly and quarterly reports on all activities to DPWM; and (iii) Ensure that partnership evaluation tools like the “Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool for PAs managed by DPWM” are used to evaluate the overall management effectiveness of partnerships in PA management (i.e. natural, social and economic impacts) and are conducted regularly.

4.7.6 Conflict Resolution

In the case of conflict between partners the following shall apply:

(i) For the purposes of the clause “Dispute” shall mean any dispute, difference of view, disagreement, controversy or claim arising out of or relating to an Agreement, or the interpretation or performance of an Agreement or breach, termination or validity thereof, which the parties are unable to resolve by mutual agreement within reasonable time; (ii) In the event of any dispute difference or question whatsoever with the exception of events Default, which may at anytime hereafter arise between the parties hereto or their respective representatives or assignees or nominees or any of them out of the construction of or concerning anything contained in or arising out of an Agreement or as to the rights, duties or liabilities of the parties hereto respectively on their respective duties. The parties shall in the first place endeavour to settle such disputes, difference or question through good faith negotiations within a period of fourteen (14) days; (iii) If the dispute, difference cannot still be resolved through negotiations, then the dispute, difference or question shall be referred to the Committee of Experts appointed by the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Forestry and the Environment; (iv) If the dispute, difference or question cannot be resolved within fourteen (14) days the parties shall then refer such dispute, difference or question to Arbitration by an Arbitrator appointed by the Gambia Association of Arbitrators; and (v) In the event that either party is not satisfied with the arbitral award, it may opt to lodge an appeal directly to the Supreme Court of The Gambia. Such appeal to be lodged within seven (7) days from the date of arbitral award.

4.7.7 Events of Default and Termination

Partners in PA Management and the partners involved must be compliant with the agreed contractual obligations. In the case of termination of partnerships, assets shall be surrendered to DPWM for the management of the PA in question.

In the event of termination, events of default are as follows:

(i) The company fails to provide the performance security/bond of within thirty (30) days of signing of this Agreement;

(ii) The company fails to perform or honour its obligations to the local community within and adjacent to the PA in particular relating to the engagement of staff from the local communities; (iii) The company fails to employ the village wildlife rangers or fails to provide logistics for anti-poaching operations; (iv) Any amount payable by the company to either the local community or DPWM is not paid when it becomes due; (v) The company fails to comply with any of the terms and conditions of this Agreement; (vi) The company does not abide by the GMP relevant to the said PA or environmental conditions that has been set; (vii) The company fails to operate and maintain the PA; (viii) The company decides to discontinue the operations in the PA; (ix) The company is bankrupt, in liquidation placed under receivership or deregistered from the registrar of companies; (x) The company enters into any composition, compromise or deed of arrangement with its creditors; (xi) The company effects a change in its control and or ownership without the Director’s prior written consent; (xii) The company either by itself through any of its Directors, Employee or Agents indulges in any criminal activities especially the illegal hunting or capture of wildlife. For the purposes of this clause, the company shall be liable for the activities of its Directors, Employees or Agents; (xiii) The company enters the sub-lease arrangement without DPWM’s prior approval; (xiv) The company fails to submit to DPWM its annual report; and (xv) In the event of the Agreement being terminated by DPWM on account of the above events of default, the performance security bond and any other uncredited deposits shall be forfeited to DPWM and the protected area shall revert to DPWM.

4.7.8 Duration of Agreements

25 years subject to renewal.

4.7.9 Review of the Private Sector Guidelines

The guidelines may be reviewed periodically after every five (5) years.

4.7.10 Engagement

Entry will be by: (i) Application by the party; and (ii) Offer by DPWM. In both procedures above offer will only be done upon determination of the capacity of the party to undertake the private sector agreement.

5.0 PROCESS FRAMEWORK FOR THE LEGAL PROCEDURE TO ESTABLISH PRIVATE GAME RANCHES OR PROTECTED WILDLIFE RESERVES IN THE GAMBIA

5.1 International Conventions

The Gambia, although small in size, is extremely rich in biodiversity, harbouring a wide range of terrestrial, coastal, marine and wetland habitats and species, including several species and habitats of global significance. The Gambia is therefore a signatory to a number of international environmental conventions, including: the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Convention for the Conservation of Migratory Species (Bonn Convention), CITES, Ramsar, and the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (Algiers convention).

All protected areas should be managed and understood according to their relationship to the IUCN protected area management categories. These universal guidelines apply without prejudice to size, geography or ownership or governance status.

5.2 National Legislation

Commitment to protect and manage the country’s natural environment dates back to the Banjul Declaration and the Wildlife Conservation Act of 1977, which laid down the basis for conservation and sustainable use of biological resources. The National Mission Statement, The Gambia Incorporated Vision 2020, sees “a well balanced ecosystem” as fundamental to achieving the national goal of Middle Income Country status by 2020. The Gambia Environmental Action Plan (GEAP, 1992), and the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP, 1999), both emphasize biodiversity conservation as a critical element of achieving this goal. NBSAP’s identified priorities for biodiversity conservation include, inter alia: (i) Increasing national capacity to support biodiversity conservation and sustainable use efforts (scientific and technical); (ii) Increasing the representativeness of protected area coverage, specifically coastal and marine habitats; and

(iii)Promoting a multi-sectoral integrated approach that emphasizes the involvement of local communities in the protection and management activities.

These priorities were taken into consideration during the preparation of the revised national biodiversity/wildlife policy objectives, as well as DPWM’s strategic plan for 2000-2005.

5.3 The Biodiversity and Wildlife Act of 2003

The Act establishes the procedures for protected areas. The Minister responsible for biodiversity and wildlife may, on the recommendation of the Director, declare an area to be a PA for the purposes of biodiversity, wildlife conservation, and sustainable use. In so deciding, the Minister must take into consideration the following factors:

(i) The importance of the area for the conservation of biodiversity and wildlife; (ii) An evaluation of the current and potential value of the economic activities to be carried out in the area; (iii) The human settlement and the regime of land tenure governing the area; and (iv) The social benefits to be derived from the management of the area.

Importantly, the Minister must, when declaring a Protected Area, “recognize the rights of the communities and indigenous peoples traditionally settled in the area” (Part II, para. 14[3]).

The declaration of a PA is made by order of the Minister published in the Gazette, and, in the case of a National Park, must be approved by the Cabinet. The preliminary notification of the intention to create a PA must specify, as closely as possible, the location and boundaries of the PA, state whether its purpose is for the general good or for the particular use and benefit, wholly or in part, of a class of persons or for the benefit of a community, and declare that the land will form a Protected Area. In addition, the Minister must appoint a Protected Area Settlement Committee (PASC), composed of: the Attorney General or his designated representative, the Divisional Commissioner, the District Seyfo (chief), the Alkalou (land chief) of the villages concerned, a member of the Area Council, the Divisional technical officers of the Departments concerned, and, where appropriate, other technical experts.

Upon official publication of the intent to create a PA, the PASC must make the notice known in all the areas in which the land is situated. The law specifies that the intent will “be read and interpreted into the local language in every court in the area” (Part III, Para 16). In addition, the PASC may inform in writing the Seyfo of the communities dwelling on, and the Area council or local authority having jurisdiction over the land. This general dissemination of the intent to create a PA must also make known how and when claimants may present a case. The PASC keeps a record in writing of any claim or alleged right, any objection made to a claim or alleged right, and any evidence in support or in opposition to the claim or alleged right, and the Committee has judicial powers to decide claims. The PASC submits its report to the Director for the consideration of the

Minister, and is obligated to set out “all such particulars as may be necessary to define the nature, duration, incidence and extent, of any claim and alleged right referred or brought to its notice in respect of the land; and admitting or rejecting the claim or alleged right wholly or in part” (Part III, para. 20).

In the instance a claim is admitted in whole or in part, the Minister may in receipt of the Director’s report, “extinguish the claim or right and may give monetary compensation or grant in exchange similar right on other land either within or outside the final boundaries of the PA or may ‘make an enclave or so amend the boundaries of the proposed PAs so as to exclude from the PA, an area over which the claim or right has been admitted.”

Once these procedures are completed, the Minister publishes a second notice in the Gazette to specify the land finally intended to be designated as a PA, the rights which may be exercised within the PA, and any special conditions affecting the PA (Part III, para. 22). The second notice is also publicized in the local areas concerned through posters, public meetings and formal notification. Thereupon, the Minister publishes the Order to constitute a PA in the Gazette. The date of publication of the Order in the Gazette constitutes the date that the land in question comes into effect as a PA.

Park management is under the Department of Parks and Wildlife Management. “The Director of Parks and Wildlife Management shall encourage community participation, in the form of a Local Biodiversity and Wildlife Committee (BLWC) in the management of a PA, particularly the communities in the area and its immediate surrounding” (Part III, Para. 34-1). The BLWC is empowered to “decide, in collaboration with the DPWM, the type and number of licenses and permits to be issued in the area; monitor the activities of license and permit holders in the area, prevent any illegal act in the area, and administer the revenues collected from the area in accordance with the Act (Part III, para. 35).

The law recognizes that the Minister may, if the Biological Resource Management Plan so permits, declare an open season during which it is lawful to hunt or harvest within the PA (Part III, para. 47) for non-commercial purposes. The Minister shall, by regulations, prescribe the type, form of and the terms and conditions attaching to hunting or harvesting licenses.

The Minister shall declare an area as a game ranch or protected wildlife reserve and subsequently issue a certificate of registration after the following criteria has been met:

(i) Written application to the Director of DPWM with the intent to set aside land for wildlife conservation and management; (ii) A feasibility study report done at the direction of DPWM indicating the acreage, habitat, wildlife species etc of the proposed areas; (iii) Title documents of the proposed area; (iv) A map/plan evidencing that the boundaries of the proposed area have been delineated by a surveyor; (v) The ability to manage funds with an appropriate method for the equitable distribution of benefits derived from game ranch or protected wildlife reserve;

(vi) A representative list of the persons who are the members of the partnership for the purpose of being recognized by the director as the game ranch or protected wildlife reserve partnership; (vii) The Private Sector Agreement of the game ranch or protected wildlife reserve providing for the sustainable management of the wildlife resources on the proposed area; (viii) The conservation area shall have a management plan according to the DPWM criteria; (ix) The game ranch owner or protected wildlife reserve owner shall enter into a MOU with DPWM for the conservation and management of natural resources in the designated area; (x) As part of the administrative structure the game ranch or protected wildlife reserve shall have a manager with clear job description; (xi) The game ranch owner or protected wildlife reserve owner shall have a minimum number of wildlife rangers for wildlife and visitor security, problem animal control inter alia prescribed by DPWM; and (xii) Such other documents as the director may reasonably require.

The Minister shall declare such an area a game ranch or protected wildlife reserve by issuing a license or certificate to operate a game ranch or protected wildlife reserve and such a license shall set out geographic boundaries in respect of which the game ranch or protected wildlife reserve is being declared, and such license or certificate may give conditions under which the game ranch or protected wildlife reserve shall be managed.

5.4 Legal Status of Game Ranch or Protected Wildlife Reserve

Game ranches and protected wildlife reserves hold different legal status as they are registered under different legal regimes. Some of them engage in integrated livestock and wildlife management while others focus purely on conservation of wildlife. However, for purposes of standardization of wildlife management and conservation, this process shall apply to all game ranches or protected wildlife reserves that host wildlife equally.

5.5 Functions of Game Ranches or Protected Wildlife Reserves

Game ranches or protected wildlife reserves contribute majorly to conservation and management of wildlife and serve as:

(i) Breeding grounds; (ii) Wildlife dispersal areas and corridors; (iii) Protected area buffer zones; (iv) Eco-tourism and recreation facilities; (v) Habitats for wildlife and endemic wildlife species; and (vi) Education and research.

6.0 RECRUITMENT, TRAINING AND EXIT

6.1 Recruitment

(i) The game ranch owner or protected wildlife reserve owner shall make an application to the DPWM to vet all rangers recruits; (ii) A certificate of good conduct shall be mandatory; (iii) Recruits shall be of good health and physically fit; and (iv) The recruit must be a Gambian citizen and must have attained the age of 18 years and should not be more than 40 years of age.

6.2 Training

Requirements for training

(i) All applications for training shall be made to the DPWM; (ii) All applications to DPWM shall be recommended by game ranch owners or protected wildlife reserve owners. (iii) The DPWM shall be responsible in vetting all rangers before admission to DPWM for training; (iv) All applicants must possess a valid certificate of good conduct and must be holders of a National Identity Card or Passport; (v) The minimum number of trainees shall be determined by the training officer at Abuko Nature Reserve. Game ranch owners or protected wildlife reserve owners may come together to raise the number; and (vi) The training officer shall only accept recruits who meet the standards set by the college.

Duration of Training

The course duration shall be three (3) months

Curriculum

The DPWM shall prepare a curriculum tailor made to meet the training needs of the rangers and that will include lessons on human rights as per constitution of The Gambia.

6.3 Collaboration, Monitoring and Evaluation

(i) The DPWM in liaison with the game ranch owners or protected wildlife reserve owners shall monitor the operations of rangers; (ii) The DPWM, game ranch owners or protected wildlife reserve owners shall maintain personal records with respect to rangers; and (iii) The DPWM shall hold quarterly meetings with game ranch or protected wildlife reserve management to review the performance and operations of the rangers.

6.4 Exit and Discharge

(i) There shall be procedures for exit of rangers; (ii) Exit and discharge shall include retirement, resignation, dismissal, structural adjustment or removal by the game ranch or protected wildlife reserve management; (iii) The game ranch or protected wildlife reserve shall maintain a record of all rangers who have exited from their service with a copy to DPWM; and (iv) The game ranch or protected wildlife reserve shall issue a discharge certificate to those who exit for any other reason other than by those who are dismissed or removed by the management on disciplinary grounds.

7.0 ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT

An established game ranch or protected wildlife reserve shall have a manager who shall be in-charge of the day to day operations of the game ranch or protected wildlife reserve.

The game ranch or protected wildlife reserve manager shall have the following qualifications: i. The manager must possess a diploma in wildlife management from a recognized training institute; ii. The manager must possess a valid certificate of good conduct and must be a holder of a National Identity Card or Passport; and iii. The game ranch owner or protected wildlife reserve owner shall develop a clear job description for the game ranch or protected wildlife reserve manager in liaison with DPWM.

7.1 Uniform/Dress Code i. The game ranch or protected wildlife reserve manager and the rangers shall wear a uniform which shall be approved by DPWM in consultation with the national uniform review committee; ii. Uniform shall only be worn when the ranger is on duty; and iii. On exit or discharge, the management of the game ranch or protected wildlife reserve shall ensure that the uniform is surrendered back to them.

7.2 Registration of Game Ranches or Protected Wildlife Reserves i. Upon establishment, a game ranch or protected wildlife reserve shall be issued with a certificate or registration by DPWM; ii. A database shall be maintained by DPWM for all game ranches or protected wildlife reserves and shall contain details of the acreage of each game ranch or protected wildlife reserve and species there in; and iii. A database shall be maintained by DPWM for all rangers in the area jurisdiction which shall contain their personal details.

7.3 Code of Ethics

Each game ranch or protected wildlife reserve shall develop and implement code of ethics in consultation with DPWM.

7.4 Standing Orders

Each game ranch or protected wildlife reserve shall develop and implement standing orders in consultation with DPWM.

7.5 Job Descriptions for Game Ranch or Protected Wildlife Reserve Managers and Rangers i. Game ranches or protected wildlife reserves shall develop job descriptions for the rangers; ii. Game ranches or protected wildlife reserves shall develop a clear structure showing the reporting lines of their rangers; and iv. Deployment of rangers within the game ranch or protected wildlife reserve shall be done in accordance with standard operating procedures.

7.6 Discipline

Game ranches or protected wildlife reserve shall develop a guide line for enforcing discipline.

7.7 Standard Operating Procedures i. Game ranches or protected wildlife reserves shall operate within DPWM standard operating procedures on matters touching on human wildlife conflict, wildlife security and trophy handling; and ii. Game ranches or protected wildlife reserves shall also develop their own standard operating procedures to govern the management of their game ranches or protected wildlife reserves.

8.0 COLLABORATION/LINKAGES

8.1 Security and Wildlife Protection i. Rangers shall be required to ensure security of wildlife and visitors within their jurisdiction; and ii. Rangers shall carryout wildlife operations within their jurisdictions as may be determined by DPWM from time to time.

8.2 Human Wildlife Conflict

Rangers shall report all human wildlife conflict incidents to DPWM.

8.3 Communication

(i) Communication is a critical tool that supports wildlife conservation and management; (ii) Game ranches or protected wildlife game reserves shall be required to make real time and regular reports on threats to wildlife and visitors to DPWM; and (iii) Game ranches or protected wildlife reserve management shall be required to establish communication links with DPWM.

8.4 Education and Awareness Creation

DPWM through its officers shall continuously carryout conservation education and awareness programmes to sensitize the game ranch and protected wildlife reserve management, and the surrounding communities.

8.5 Meetings i. DPWM wardens shall hold not less than four meetings a year with game ranches and protected wildlife reserve management in his area of jurisdiction to address issues related to wildlife conservation; and ii. The minutes in respect of these meetings shall be sent to the director.

8.6 Capacity Building i. DPWM shall assist in the capacity building of the management of game ranches or protected wildlife reserves to sustainably conserve and manage wildlife; and ii. DPWM shall support management of game ranches and protected wildlife reserves to establish linkages with development partners for funding.

8.7 Wildlife Enterprise

DPWM shall assist game ranches and protected wildlife reserves to become viable enterprises so that they can become self-sustainable.

9.0 IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY

The implementation of this legal framework shall be spear headed by DPWM in liaison with game ranches and protected wildlife reserves. The implementation strategy shall cover the following areas: i. DPWM shall carryout an inventory and establish a database on all existing game ranches or protected wildlife reserves and their status;

21 ii. DPWM shall conduct education and awareness programmes on the legal framework for DPWM wardens, game ranches and protected wildlife reserve management; iii. DPWM shall support in development of documents and instruments required under this legal framework; and iv. DPWM shall establish monitoring and evaluation systems towards attaining the broader DPWM objective of wildlife industry governance to enhance wildlife conservation.

10.0 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS

10.1 Department of Parks and Wildlife Management The responsibility to develop, manage and conserve Gambia’s biological resources in wildlife protected areas is vested in the Department of Parks and Wildlife Management.

10.2 Community Participatory Structures and their Functions Community participatory structures exist at two levels: the grass-roots village community levels, where Village Management Committees (VMCs) will be established, and the PA where a Side Management Committees (SMCs) will be formed with representatives of the various VMCs and the DPWM. The participatory process will be technically supported by the PMU, Park Management Team and multi-disciplinary facilitation team from the technical departments.

10.3 Village Management Committee(s)

The VMC comprise elected representatives of all identifiable village interest groups (e.g., resource users, women, youth); an elected representative of the Village Development Committee; and, a member of a Multi-Disciplinary Facilitation Team (preferably Site Management Staff), who will serve as secretary. The VMC performs the following functions: (i) Assist the SMC and the PMU in the mobilization of stakeholders for the Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) exercise for preparing the Village or Cluster Village Community Conservation Action Plan; (ii) Participate in the preparation and implementation of project conservation action plans; (iii) Prepare village sub-project applications for livelihood restoration measures and submit to the SMC Chairman for submission to the PSC; (iv) Oversee and monitor the implementation of approved individual and group sub- projects within the village; (v) Seek and solicit technical and financial assistance from other donors in replicating successful sub-projects and other important conservation measures identified in the Conservation Action Plan (CAP); and, (vi) Arbitrate and resolve all conflict and disputes arising in respect of the site between individuals and groups within the village.

10.4 Site Management Committees The role of the Site Management Committee (SMC) varies in accordance with the level of PA. For the National Park, the SMC comprises representatives of the stakeholder villages around the PA, i.e., villages located within the environs that have traditional use right claims on the resources of the site; and the head warden of the Site will serve as Secretary to the SMC. The role of the SMC at National Park, which involves communities, involves co-management with the DPWM. The SMC performs the following functions: (i) Participate in the PRA to collate and synthesize individual villages’/cluster villages’ Community Conservation Action plans into a consolidated Site Community Conservation Action Plan with the technical support of the Project Management Unit; (ii) Participate in the preparation of Project Site Work plans; (iii) Submit through the Chairman all sub-project applications to the Standing Working Group of the Project Steering Committee; and, (iv) Arbitrate and resolve all conflict and disputes arising in respect of the site between individuals, groups, villages and groups of villages.

11.0 SIZE OF A RANCH

The minimum size of the ranch has not been estimated for The Gambia. However, studies done in other countries by researchers such as Bothma (1996) indicated 2,000 hectares as being suitable minimum size in the low veld, and 10,000 hectares for the arid areas of South Africa. Studies by Mossman and Mossman (1976) indicated that the minimum size for a game ranch that relies on the natural production of food, cover and water within its boundaries is determined mostly by the size of the home ranges of the animals involved. They suggested a minimum of eight hectares for the ranching of small mammals such as the cane rat (Thyonomys spp). They reported that 5,000 to 400,000 hectares of land would be required for rearing of medium to large antelopes. KWS (2000) suggested a minimum viable area for a viable ranch between 1,000 and 2,000 hectares. Realizing that much of The Gambia is a strip along the river Gambia, the minimum size of a game ranch cannot fall below the figures provided by KWS (2000). However, it is important to note that if the area is small, it should be intensively managed whilst if the area is big it can be managed under near natural conditions.

12.0 AVAILABILITY OF LAND FOR GAME RANCHING IN THE GAMBIA

The total land area for The Gambia is 11,300Km2. The distribution of The Gambia’s land use types is shown in table 1 below:

Table1. Current land use types in The Gambia

Nature of Land Use Percentage Comments Cover Agriculture 28.32% This percentage includes both commercial and small holder farmers Wildlife Management 4.53% Equally this percentage includes National Parks and Nature Reserves. Forestry Management 30.11 Includes forests on both state and traditional land. Urban development 2.0% Unspecified areas 35.04%

Source: The Gambia Soil and Water Resources, Banjul and FAO 1984

Table 1 implies therefore, that land outside built up areas, settlements and related agricultural activities, commercial farms and subsistence holdings can be put into productive game ranching. Forest reserves in particular can be very suitable for ranching as a way of adding value to them by increasing climate and the Agro-ecological Zones in The Gambia.

Fig. 2 Agro–ecological Zones in The Gambia

12.1 Climate and the Agro-ecological Zones in The Gambia

The Gambia has three distinct seasons; the rainy season from July to September, the cool dry season from December to February and hot dry season from March to July. The annual rainfall over the period 1971–1997 is 857mm. but has varies over the past decades between a maximum of 1482mm in 1975 and a minimum of 424mm in 1983. There has been a tendency for the rainfall to decrease since the 1950s though the situation seems to have stabilized in the past 15 years (see The Gambia soil and Water Resources, Banjul and FAO, 1984). The mean annual temperature ranges between 32o1C and 19o9C. The highest annual average temperature is 27o8C and the lowest temperature average temperature averages 23o7C. The country is further divided into six agro–ecological zones (figure 2 above)

Their economic potential that would also help resist the current pressure to have them degazetted for agriculture purposes. Unused agricultural land can also be used for wildlife farming or ranching. Each Agro – ecological zone indicated in fig.2 above has its characteristic conditions, which have been explained below:

12.2 Agro–ecological Zone A.

This area extends in the western part of the country and covers the following districts; Kombo North, Central, East and South, Foni Brefet and Foni Bintang Karenai, all located in the Western Division on the south bank of River Gambia. It included the metrological stations Yundum and Banjul, and the rainfall stations Janbanjeli,Pirang, Somita and Sibanor. The reference station for this zone is Yundum Airport. The annual cumulative

25 rainfall exceeds 800mm (Yundum 856mm; Banjul 806mm; Pirang 845mm; Sibanor 859mm), with a corresponding excess rain in the humid period above 300mm.

Over the past 40–50 years the annual precipitation in this area has significantly decreased, resulting in a reduction of general precipitation to approximately 135 days. Though it is not clear that this phenomenon has now been stabilized, it is possible that the natural vegetation has still not adapted to this reduction in moisture supply. Obviously, farmers in the region must experience a higher crop risk failure than before. Despite its limitations of rainfall, it is suitable for ranching as certain species of wildlife are used to semi arid conditions.

12.3 Agro–ecological Zone B

This area extends over the complete North Bank Division, e.g. from the lower Niumi district in the West to the Lower Saloum district in the East and over the South Bank between the River Gambia and Bitang Bolon up to the Central Jarra district in the east. It included the Metrological stations of Kerewan and Jenoi, as well as the rainfall stations of Bakendik, Njabakunda, Yallal, Ngeyen Sanjal, Kwinella, Jali and Karantaba; the latter station appears to be non–representative for the zone and stands for the transition area with zone A. The reference station is Jenoi.

The annual cumulative rainfall for this zone is between 700 and 800mm (Bakendik 735mm; Njabakunda 728mm; Jali 765mm; Jenoi 778mm). The suitability for ranching is evidenced by the national park occurring within the zone (Niumi National Park).

Fig.3. Location of National Parks and Nature Reserves for comparisons with Agro- ecological zones

12.4 Agro–ecological Zone C

This area extends over the South Bank of River Gambia, South of Bintang Bolon. It includes the districts Foni Kansala, Foni Bondali and Foni Jarrol. The climate of the region is documented by two rainfall stations only: Bwiam and Kanjibat. No reference station is available.

The Agro – Climate of the area is characterized by a growing period of less than 120 days, starting after June 15. Annual rainfall is between 600 and 700mm (Bwiam 629; Kanjibat 661mm). The excess rainfall over the humid period is slightly below 200mm. The natural vegetation is composed of extensive grasslands with savanna shrubs, and relatively high number of dispersed Baobabs. Scattered Elaeis palm trees and thick bushes are observed along the major valleys. The suitability for game ranching is also confirmed by the availability of the range and suitable habitat.

12.5 Agro–ecological Zone D

This area extends over the Central River Division, both on the north and south banks of the River Gambia, with the exception of the drier Nianija district defined under zone E. It included the Metrological stations Sapu, Kaur and Janjarbureh/Georgetown, and the rainfall stations Dankunku, Jassong, Mamudjana, Sare Ngai and Sare Sofi.

This zone is characterized by a start of growing period before 15 June (Kaur, Jassong, Sapu, Janjanbureh 10 June, Sare Ngai, Mamudfana 125 days, Kaur and Janjanbureh 130 days, Sapu 135 days) and an annual rainfall between 650mm and 750mm (Jassong 723mm, Dankunku 758mm; Sapu 678mm; Mamudfana 689mm)’ except for Kaur which registers an exceptionally high precipitation of 814mm.

The natural vegetation is mainly of savanna type, dominated by grassland and riparian growth. Grazing is important, especially in the dry season when cattle move from the drier upland areas to the river banks. The suitability for game ranching is also confirmed by the availability of grazing range and savanna type habitat.

12.6 Agro–ecological Zone E

This zone extends in the northwestern part of the Central River Division, and covers Niani and Nianija districts, as well as part of Upper Saloum district. It includes the Metrological station Kuntaur and rainfall station Njan. The annual rainfall for this zone is 600mm or less (Kuntaur 596mm; Njan 605mm), and the excess rainfall accumulated in the humid period as a whole is below 100mm (Kuntaur 77mm; Njan 88). This means that for certain years the full moisture retention capacity of the soil will not be completely used. The natural vegetation is an open savanna with grasses and shrubs dominating, and definitely less trees on the uplands as compared to zone D. The suitability for game ranching is confirmed by the open savanna type habitat and the availability of grasslands. Habitat manipulation which will take into consideration trees for shelter and cover would be encouraged.

12.7 Agro–ecological Zone F

The surface covered by zone F corresponds broadly with the Upper River Division and extends over both banks of River Gambia. It includes metrological stations Basse and Fatoto, and the rainfall stations of Naude, Jarkunda, Girobakunda and Maukama Kunda. The annual rainfall of 700–800mm with an excess precipitation in the humid period of 150 -250mm.

This region is characterized by a good rainfall distribution over the season. Rains start earlier than in the west and extend often beyond mid – October. This allow for a higher flexibility and low risks for crop failures in the growing season. Likewise, mean temperatures registered in zones D and F are comparatively higher, creating better growth conditions for high – temperature requiring crops like cotton and maize.

The natural vegetation of the area is dominated by grasslands, with scattered trees. The suitability for game ranching is confirmed by the availability of large tracts of land and suitable habitat for wildlife.

Table 2: Summary of Climate zone characteristics in The Gambia

Zone Length GP Rainfall Mean Rel. Air Hum in GP Temp in Sept-Oct. in GP A=Yundum Pirang  135 days  800mm  26oC 83–87% B=Bakendik – 120–135 days 700–800mm 27o8C 72–79% Kerewan – Janoi C=Bwiam -  120 days 600–700mm 27o8C Kanjibat D=Janjanburehn- 120–135 days 650–750mm 27o6C 72–78% Sapu - Kaur E=Kuntaur  120 days  600mm 28o5C 73–80% F=Basse  135 days 700–800mm 28o5C 79–80

12.8 Distribution of large Mammals in the Ecological Zones

Though the large mammal population has tremendously declined in The Gambia over the years, their distribution, diversity and status can further enhance game ranching potential in all ecological zones. The distribution pattern of wildlife species shows that most large mammals and other species of wildlife with meat production potential are located in all the ecological zones. Nevertheless, the zones have varied potential for ranching. All the six ecological zones have the potential to accommodate game ranching because they have streams and rivers which are perennial. Likewise, fire in all these ecological zones is more intense due to accumulation of litter. The quality of pasture in all ecological zones

28 is good except for zone E where cover and shelter is inadequate and a game rancher in this regard would be required to practice habitat manipulation which would entail planting of trees and shrub to improve cover and shelter. It is therefore important to examine the following factors: Region (Zones A,B,C,D,E and F) habitat type, water availability, existing game, needed improvements, proximity to hydroelectricity power source (note that solar power can be used), proximity to good road or airport and others. Mitigation measures such as artificial water developments will vary from area to area depending on the area’s ecological limitations.

13.0 OWNERSHIP AND FUNDING

13.1 Ownership of Game Ranches

The issue of ownership is critical. Local communities in particular need to be involved which requires the creation of an appropriate category of partnership. Once communities are involved the problem of poaching may be mitigated. It is suggested that communities whose lands are to be used for extensive game ranching programmes be integrated into these programmes. The advantage of incorporating local communities is that it will make land acquisition easy and guarantee the support and cooperation of the members of the community as well as contributing to poverty reduction.

In addition to the privately owned ranches the following types of partnerships are suggested:

Community Ownership; Community Based Cooperative Society Ownership; Community and Government Ownership Community Trust; Community and Public Liability Company; (PLC) Ownership; and A Combination of 3, 4 and 5. Others.

13.2 Financing Game Ranching in The Gambia

In view of the feasibility and profitability of game ranching, an investment into game ranching projects is therefore worthwhile.

13.3 Community Funding

The following sources of funding are recommended:

13.4 Community funding: Where a community has land, which is ecologically suitable for game ranching, the local community then raises funds from its own initiatives.

13.5 Loans: Loans could be sought and obtained from financial houses and credit institutions.

13.6 Government funding: Since game ranching programmes also help in conserving the environment, and helps to reduce poverty in line with the millennium Development Goals (MDGs) all tiers of government should be made to set aside some money for communities willing to embark on extensive game ranching projects.

13.7 Funding through partnerships with business organizations: Public Liability Companies operating in the country could be approached by communities for joint ownership with the aim of securing financial assistance from such companies.

13.8 Others: There could be other forms of funding not covered here. An effort should be made to explore the other potential sources of funding.

14.0 STARTING A GAME RANCH

The first step is to get a copy of this document to familiarize oneself with the procedures involved. If the client is satisfied and is willing to proceed, the next step is to apply to the Director of the Department of Parks and Wildlife Management, expressing interest to establish a game ranch. It will be advisable at this point to get a copy of the Policy Guidelines on the Private Sector involvement in natural resources management if it is available in order to be acquainted with the regulatory framework in the industry.

14.1 Steps to Follow

The process to be followed when establishing a Game Ranch is as follows:

1. An application is submitted (as an expression of interest to establish a game ranch) to the Director. The proposed site should not share the boundary with a National Park or Nature Reserve.

2. Take note that distances between protected areas (PAs) and game ranches shall be regulated on a case by case basis.

3. Applicant collects and completes forms Nos. 1a and 1b (Appendix III and IV) from the Departmental Headquarters (DPWM).

4. Ecological assessment is done at owners cost and report submitted to the Department of Parks and Wildlife Management for review at a fee.

5. If the ecological assessment report done by a consultant is inadequate, a verification exercise is undertaken by DPWM at the expense of the project proponent.

6. If the applicant has title to the land, and the ecological survey report is positive, the Department of Parks and Wildlife Management generates a letter to the applicant outlining the sequence of events and developmental phases.

7. Fencing and other developments begin.

8. When all physical developments recommended in the report are completed, an inspection to verify the physical developments is carried out by Department of Parks and Wildlife Management.

9. Department of Parks and Wildlife Management counts all the resident fauna enclosed on the ranch, after the fencing has been completed.

10. Based on the faunal survey conducted in 9 above, the project proponent is presented with a bill to pay for the animals resident on the ranch. Prospective Ranch owner can purchase animals from any source (existing game ranches, Department of Parks and Wildlife Management or can import from outside The Gambia), with permission from Department of Parks and Wildlife Management and other relevant Government agencies.

11. Project proponent prepares Management Plan for Ranch. The plan will cover the following: Project background Project objectives Technical plan Start-up Production process Marketing Financial plan Employment and job creation Localization and any other relevant information.

12. After the animals have been paid for (in cases where there are resident fauna), and the management plan has been finalized, Department of Parks and Wildlife Management issues Certificate of Ownership and permit to keep animals in captivity. In cases where prospective owner purchases animals from other sources, the list of animals stocked on the property is presented to Department of Parks and Wildlife Management for the issuance of the Certificate of Ownership. 13. The Director of Department of Parks and Wildlife Management issues letter of authority allowing the investor to operate the business.

Note: Certificate of Ownership and Permit to keep animals in captivity expire every 31st December and must be renewed with Department of Parks and Wildlife Management.

15.0 ACQUISITION OF LAND FOR GAME RANCHING

Policies and laws dealing with the buying, selling and leasing of land by nationals and foreigners alike need to be clear and unambiguous. Safeguards are essential to prevent the illegal seizure of land, expropriation and wanton destruction of private property. If foreign investors have limitations in buying or leasing land, this must be clearly spelt out.

In The Gambia, the process of acquiring land for purposes of game ranching varies with the type of land category. Land tenure system in The Gambia is under local administration. Those interested in game ranching will need to seek permission from the Alikalou and his council at village level, the Chief and his council at District level and the Governor and his council at Regional level. Before the councilors will consider either a new application, or a request to establish a game ranch in a given locality, they require a gazette notice to be lodged for approval. Once the gazette notice has been received in the affirmative, the councilors will consider the application. Normally leases are twenty five (25) years. State Land, one has to apply to the Department of Lands in the Ministry of Agriculture.

In the case of State land however, at the time of writing the DPWM still require a management plan to be submitted and approved before the game ranch can be registered and issued with an approval permit.

15.1 Investment Incentives and Management Benefits

The establishment of game ranches is an expensive procedure if one takes into account the buying/leasing of land, the erection of a game fence, the restocking of the property with wildlife and the building of ranch infrastructure and the buying of equipment. The further the site is situated from the capital city or regional large city, the more expensive these costs become. Clearly foreign and local investors will only do this if they have some investment incentives such as those provided for other sectors when new industries are being promoted (VAT deferment, reduction or cancellation of import duties, capital allowance reduction and the repatriation of profits, etc). They also require some management benefits from the Department of Parks and Wildlife Management (such as the establishment of quotas based on scientific management, affordable buying of game, extension of hunting season from 6 to 12 months), which help to make the return on investment worthwhile.

16.0 MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES

1. To strengthen the existing legal framework. 2. To classify and/or categorize Private Wildlife Estates (PWEs).

3. To encourage local communities to participate in the establishment and management of game ranches 4. To empower indigenous Gambians to participate in the establishment and Management of game ranches. 5. To provide a framework to guide Ecological Assessments. 6. To implement Framework for Partnerships; Among DPWM, Private Sector and Local Communities. 16.1 To Strengthen the Existing Legal Framework

The Government should recognize that the development of Private Wildlife Estates in the country cannot proceed without a strong legal and regulatory framework to guide and regulate the operations. Doing so would result in numerous problems affecting such investments, which may be tied to socio-cultural, political and legal constraints. DPWM seeks to redress such issues by strengthening the existing legal framework. The following actions should be undertaken:

1. Prepare a Statutory Instrument (SI) for ‘Authority to Keep Animals in Captivity’ to adapt it to contemporary needs with the view of promoting Private Sector investment. 2. Prescribe the administrative procedures for processing applications and issuance of registrations, licenses and permits. 3. Enforce the CITES Appendix listing in the utilization of wildlife on game ranches and farms. 4. Maintain a comprehensive database on all game ranches and farms specifying the biological and economic data. 5. Provide for additional categories of game ranches and farms in the legal framework.

16.2 To classify and/or categorize Private Wildlife Estates

DPWM realizes that it is cost-effective to provide for different categories of Private Wildlife Estates with regards to license fees and policing in general. The following action should be undertaken:

Prescribe different categories of private wildlife estates and associated secondary and tertiary industries/businesses as; game farm/ranch, Communal-Private Conservancy, Communal Wildlife Conservancy, Crocodile Ranch/Farm, Reptile Park, Serpentarium, Aviary, Zoo, Commercial Premises, Residential Properties, Butcheries, etc.

16.3 To encourage local communities to participate in the establishment and Management of game ranches/farms

DPWM realizes that there is need to promote the participation of local communities in the management and ownership of Game ranching and farming operations if the

33 communities were to realize maximum benefits from wildlife. The following actions should be undertaken: Conduct awareness campaigns through print and electronic media, seminars and workshops or any other suitable means. Offer incentives to local communities interested in establishing game ranches/farms.

Encourage local communities to form community trusts for acquisition of land by local communities to participate in wildlife ranching and farming operations.

Encourage communities to lobby for funds from cooperating partners.

Sensitize financial and insurance institutions about wildlife ranching and farming operations so that they can provide financial support.

16.4 To empower indigenous Gambians to participate in the Establishment and Management of game ranching and farming

Inadequate participation by indigenous Gambians in wildlife ranching and farming operations is a source of concern. Many indigenous Gambians have access to large tracts of land, which can be utilized for the development of ranching operations but do not have the financial capacity to engage in wildlife ranching and farming operations. The following actions should be undertaken:

1. Lobby with Government to provide long-term credit facilities at affordable rates to indigenous Gambians keen in participating in game ranching and farming Management. 2. Disseminate information on investment opportunities in game ranching and farming to the public. 3. Encourage indigenous Gambians to build capacity in game ranching and farming Management. 4. Encourage the Gambian public to lobby with Government to offer tax holidays for long-term ranching investments for indigenous Gambians. 5. Promote partnerships in game ranching and farming Management between indigenous Gambians and other investors (non-indigenous and non-Gambians). 6. Establish, maintain and update a database for indigenous Gambians requiring partnerships in game ranching and farming Management. 7. Share information from database on indigenous Gambians with Gambia Tourism Board and Gambia Chamber of Commerce.

16.5 Game Ranch’s Contribution to the Economy

The positive socio-economic impacts at various levels of successful game ranching enterprises have fuelled expansion of the activity.

16.6 Vested Interests of the Local Community

It is logical that the interests of the local communities are best served when the most activities possible that can be carried out in a harmonious way are engaged in their area. This gives them the best chances for training and employment, markets for their produce, contacts with the outside world, etc. Whether on adjacent private, village or general land, or in a WMA, the same principle applies, in that, compared to running one wildlife activity such as a game viewing tourism, or safari hunting or cropping, the integration of all three activities under the appropriately experienced management provides the most opportunity for benefit for the community. Professional management is required however to integrate these activities in a given area as they are basically antagonistic. Also, catering to international clients (which is desirable as it vastly increases the income), especially safari clients, requires particular skills; as the manager must not just manage an activity and coordinate potentially conflicting activities, but also manage the cherished dreams and the (often unrealistic) aspirations of clients. Then, just as different seasons are more appropriate for certain activities of wildlife production, some activities are more lucrative than others (but more limited in scope), and some activities reduce the potential for others; so an adjustment can be made as to the relative importance and schedule of each activity within the overall goals and context. As some combinations benefit the State more than the local community or the investor. The mix of activities and schedules can be designed to generate the most benefit for the managers or the investors, or the community, or the State. The design can also be aimed at generating the most overall benefit for all sectors. This is what is meant by the optimization of benefits . 17.0 ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENTS TO DETERMINE SUITABILITY FOR GAME RANCHING

Before proceeding to establish a ranching operation, it is critical to conduct an ecological assessment with respect to habitat suitability, grazing and browsing capacity, and physical limitations. It is also important at this time to evaluate the following: Check if game ranching will be combined with agricultural activities. Determine the ecological carrying capacity/stocking levels of the area. Examine and document whether invasive alien or toxic plants occur in the area. Consult with Veterinary authorities regarding veterinary regulations. Examine poaching threats. Determine availability of electricity particularly for fencing purposes.

17.1 Environmental Profile of the Area

17.1.1 The Physical Environment

(a) Climate Climate is an important environmental factor in assessing areas’ suitability. Long term weather conditions that constitute the climate are important regulators of the geographical

35 distribution of soils, plants and animals and have the ultimate control of animal habitat quality and determine the availability of food, water and cover (Moran et al 1980).

A detailed description of climatological systems and data on temperature and rainfall will be required. Rainfall data such as mean onset date of rains, mean date for retreat, mean relative humidity, coolest month, mean temperatures, hottest month and average number of frost days are important components when presenting data on weather and will be required in every report.

(b) Geology and Soils

(i) Geology It is Important to understand the geology of the area, particularly the nature of parent material, which determines the nature of soils formed. A description of the geology of the area will be required stating the types of rock and their properties as this ultimately determines the nature of soils formed.

(ii) Soil Soil is the natural medium in which the roots of the plants grow. From the soil the plant absorbs the water and solutes necessary for their continued well being. If a soil is fertile, it contains in a readily available form all the chemical elements essential for plant growth. Soils therefore, determine to a large extent the plant species that can grow in an area and thereby determining the food quality for wildlife.

(iii) Soil elements: A description of the soils within each landscape ecological unit should be provided. Details of physical and chemical composition of soils such as presence or absence of elements such as Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Sulphur, Iron, Manganese, Zinc, Copper and Chlorine should be included (Appendix V). Soil alkalinity and acidity (i.e. pH) should also be determined. In areas where there are mineral deficiencies in the soil it will be advisable to provide supplements in form of mineral licks and others.

(c) Land-Form(s) The land surface has many different shapes called landforms. Landforms are represented on topographical maps by contour lines, and include features such as plains, valleys, hills, gorges, ravines, ridges and escarpment(s). For the purpose of ecological assessments, the key parameter to be used in describing the landform will be slope. For practical reasons, four categories of slope steepness may be used i.e. flat, moderate, steep slope and very steep slope/escarpment.

The description of the geomorphology should provide a general view of what the landscape ecological unit looks like. Features worth noting include; overall hilliness, occurrences of rock out crops, the unevenness of the surface (rough terrain or rather flat surface), special features of the unit and the general outlook of the unit. It will be critical to reflect these land units on the map and their percentage proportional coverage in relation to the whole area (Appendix VI).

(d) Drainage The term drainage refers to all forms of water that can be found on or beneath the surface of the land. Features such as lakes, rivers, streams, dams, dambos, intermittent and/or ephemeral rivers, dry valleys, and the drainage patterns will be required to be documented. The presence and distribution of watering points with respect to the various landforms on the proposed ranch is very important in the establishment of a ranch, and will be required in every report.

17.1.2 Biological Environment

(a) Vegetation The natural vegetation of an area consists of all the different plants that grow naturally in the soil. The natural vegetation consists of woody and non-woody plants. These occur together in varying densities, and sometimes separately in the landscape and make up different natural vegetation types. Generally, the vegetation type of an area depends upon aspects of the terrain such as altitude and slope, the climate, the soil and usually the past and present activities of man.

(i) Woody Plants The vegetation composition of woody species determines the availability of cover, and food for browsers. The report should provide information on the physiognomic vegetation types. Information on floristic composition, and (species importance values) growth form, life form and structure will be required to be documented (Appendix VII, VIII (a) and VIII (b)).

(ii) Grass and other Non Woody Plants Use of key plant species require that all grass species, which occur in each site, be documented. In planning range management, the key species approach can be used to determine range quality. For instance it is generally known that grass with less than 4% crude protein is too low a quality for ruminants to maintain their body weight and hence it ceases to be food for them (Sinclair, 1975). Primary production itself must not be simply be equated with food. In grassland ecosystems there are times in the growing season where there is considerable excess of food, but there are also times when growth ceases and there is a shortage of food. In the dry season, for instance, the previous excess of food is no longer available to the animals because it changes in nature, both structurally and chemically and becomes unsuitable as forage. It is thus important to assess grass quantity and quality per landscape ecological unit.

18.0 GENERAL HABITAT REQUIREMENTS FOR WILDLIFE

Habitat requirements refer to the kind of food, water and cover that are needed by the animal to perform the ecological functions successfully.

Habitat requirements may be viewed in two ways:

Individual animal and its requirements for survival. A population which looks at the habitat requirements for production of the highest stable population or the highest sustained yield.

An ideal habitat should provide resources for the species through out the season or year round for survival and reproduction of the species. In assessing the habitat the following should be considered.

18.1 Food and Cover

Concerning food, a distinction should be made between browsers, grazers and mixed feeders as well as carnivores if present. Cover refers to both shelter from the elements of the habitat and screening effects. The availability of food in terms of quantity and quality and shelter will determine the distribution of animals. The distribution of feeding areas is considered together in interspersion with cover. Each species has specialized requirements and preference for certain food items as well as cover to hide, rest, roost, nest, breed, raise young, and escape from enemies. . For grazers, the quality of food is the first limiting factor, while for browsers the quality of shrub and tree leaves will determine the food suitability. A suitability matrix can be worked out for all feeding groups, marched against land units and the availability of the three basic requirements of a habitat (Appendix IX).

Proper management decisions and goals regarding wildlife can only be made through the understanding of the entire ecological concept of the habitat. Preferred key forage plants of grasses, browse and forbs should be abundant and increasing. The manager should have the ability to recognize these plants and know what role these plants play in the diets of the animals that exist. A list of plants may be obtained through literature review of food habits of certain animals or through discussions with professionals such as Soil Conservation Scientists and Ecologists/Biologists. Observations of areas void of certain types of grazing animals can give valuable clues as to what plants are preferred by different animals. Additionally, a complete life history of the wildlife species being managed should be understood.

18.2 Water

Water is essential for all living things. Some animals require free water every day and are termed water dependent while others drink less frequently. Others do not drink free water, instead they are adapted to extracting water from vegetation by feeding at a time when plants have maximum water accumulation (Appendix X). However, all animals need water. Consequently, the distribution and movement of animals are influenced by the distribution of water within the area. Therefore, water availability and distribution is an important ecological aspect of habitat description. Apart from description, there is an

38 element of degree of permanence of various water bodies, especially in the dry season that should be considered.

18.3 Home Range and Territoriality

Species-specific requirements such as home range and territoriality must be considered when assessing the area. A home range is an area, which an animal travels in pursuit of its routine activities such as food gathering, mating and caring for the young. Within home ranges, animals can actively defend against their co specifics or other members of the same species. This area usually not including the peripheral parts of the home range is called a territory and species that apportion space in this way are termed territorial animals. Territories may be seasonal and thus smaller than the yearly home range. In some instances they may be exactly the same area as the home range. Therefore, understanding species’ home range and territorial requirements will help the manager to estimate the minimum numbers of animals the ranch can sustain.

19.0 DETERMINING STOCKING RATES

This refers to the number of livestock units by which a given ranch surface area is grazed. Stocking rate is generally one of the most important factors that affect animal production and the condition of the range. The maximum number of individual animals depends on the food availability in the dry season, when there is food stress. It is primarily a function of the grazing and browsing capacity of the range, which in turn is dependent on the condition of the range and is modified by the objectives and management of the area. The type and condition of different available habitats and habitat requirements of herbivore species determine stocking rates of different species. Appropriate stocking rates are therefore important for ecological, conservation, economic and aesthetic reasons.

The calculation of stocking rates and determination of species mix for a given area are done in stages. First calculate the ecological carrying capacity and take it as the potential stocking rate for the area. The concept of total stocking rate corresponds to different perceptions of the concept of ecological carrying capacity. The total stocking rate is apportioned between ecological groups of animals whose classification is based on body size and feeding style. Between and within groups allocation of the stocking rate is highest from large to small animals and from bulky and roughage feeders to concentrates feeders.

19.1 Issues to Consider when Determining Stocking Rates

19.1.1 Ecological Carrying Capacity and its Practical Implications

The ecological carrying capacity is the maximum population of animals that an area can support without deterioration of the habitat (Bothma, 1996). Stocking rates therefore are a measure of the amount of animal biomass per unit area.

(a) Important Information to Consider when Determining Ecological Carrying Capacity

When initially stocking a ranch or private reserve, a realistic guide is to calculate optimal stocking rates using any method where one must calculate the ecological carrying capacity and determine the natural species mix (Bell, 1985). We should be wary of extrapolation from one range type to another until more is known of the factors involved. Advocacy to one system for managing all range types is not encouraged (Wilson, 1993).

The concept of mean carrying capacity can be used as yardstick to manage for a range of objectives. Thus ecological carrying capacity or mean carrying capacity does not give species mix. Whatever the rainfall-soil regime of an area, the key to obtaining ecological carrying capacity or an optimum rate is adaptive management (Bell, 1985 and Heath, 1991).

The first step is to calculate carrying capacity of an area and adopt as the potential stocking rate to be introduced and maintained initially. Further determine how the current range condition including habitat types, objectives of the area, levels and types of management, and interaction between animals and how these would affect the potential stocking rates.

The estimation of ecological capacity has numerous challenges, for instance, the classical model (logistic population growth model) for presenting the ecological carrying capacity (Caughley, 1979) has been criticized by Bell (1985) because it is not easy to measure carrying capacity. Plant productivity and quality, two of the primary determinants of carrying capacity (Mentis, 1977) are directly linked to rainfall (Coe, et al., 1976), which varies annually and widely in savannah regions. Thus the ecological carrying capacity fluctuates within limits of rainfall variations (Bell, 1985). Many large mammal populations fluctuate about an equilibrium level; when they are too high they are depressed by lack of resources, too much predation (if predators are present) or disease as shown in the logistic curves shown in Fig. 4 below.

Fig.4. The logistic curves showing (a) Population size against time, (b) Loge population size against time. K= population size at the ecological capacity of the area (Modified after Sinclair and Grimsdell, 1982).

Secondly there is a time lag between change in plant productivity and or biomass and animal response as shown in Fig. 5 below.

Fig. 5. Herbivore-Plant relationships (Modified after Sinclair and Grimsdell, 1982)

A sudden increase of animals at time x will lead to disturbances in the plant-herbivore interaction that dampen with time. Time lag is responsible for over shooting the carrying capacity by a population during growth (Caughley, 1979). The overshooting stages in the logistic growth model can lead to a permanently reduced carrying capacity, to be at a certain level or lead to extinction (Riney, 1964). Thus herbivores may cause changes in the plant community altering the ecological carrying capacity. Bell (1985) suggested a situation whereby overshooting stages result in animal population, due to time lag, constantly trailing behind changes in vegetation production.

It is important to note therefore that there is no single carrying capacity; instead it is a band within which animal population fluctuates (or is regulated) depending on resources availability in the environment (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Models of population regulation: (a) shows almost perfect regulation to the equilibrium level with only minor fluctuations about k; (b) shows less accurate regulation at first but gradually the equilibrium level is reached and then maintained; (c) shows that perfect regulation is never achieved; instead the population shows a constant cycle of change, oscillating with k in a regular way. (This is called a stable limit cycle); and; (d) shows an extreme case of failure to regulate; the population overshoots k so much that k itself is reduced and eventually the population plunges itself to extinction. (Modified after Sinclair and Grimsdell, 1982)

Stocking rates therefore, should be conservative to cope with unfavourable rainfall conditions such as drought cycles. Thus the stocking rates should be made on the mean annual rainfall for all the below average rainfall years (Appendix XI).

19.1.2 Herbivore Feeding Habits

A summary of the feeding habits of each herbivore recommended should be given. Important factors in deciding the proportional contribution of each species to the total stocking rate are food type preference, land unit preference, grassland seral stage preference for grazers, overgrazing on selected sites by grazers, and the unit mass of the species.

Smit (2005) worked out Grazer and browser unit approach. You need to strike a balance between the stocking rate and the grazing and browsing capacity. Usually livestock farmers define grazing capacity as the area of homogeneous piece of land that can carry one large stock unit (LSU) for a specific period without degrading the range (hectare per stock unit). An LSU is an animal with a mass of 450kg, which gains 0.5 kg per day on the range with a digestible energy of 55%.

He agued that for game, it is better to use the grazer unit (GU) and browser unit (BU) approach. The GU is the metabolic equivalent of a blue wildebeest (100% grass feeder) with an average mass of 180kg, while a BU is the metabolic equivalent of a kudu (100% browser) with an average mass of 140kg.

(a) Grazing Capacity for Grass Feeders

Before calculating the grazing capacity for grass feeders, one has to establish the grass production for the season.

(b) Browsing Capacity

Browsers and certain mixed feeders should only be kept if the ranch has enough trees. To calculate the browse capacity you have to measure the amount of leaf production on the ranch. The height of the foliage is also important. Giraffe will have more feed to themselves than kudu. Kudu will in turn, have more than duikers.

19.1.3 Species mix

Estimates of species mix is important for various reasons when establishing new populations and managing existing ones. Appropriate species mix and stocking rates allow fullest possible use of every available niche, hence increasing a spectrum of wildlife. However, farmers and managers must be cautious of mixing species that interbreed which can result in high calf mortality and financial loss on ranches (Piennas, 1974). Great care should also be taken when introducing species outside their natural habitat range. It is also important to note that the translocation and keeping of buffalo on game ranches in The Gambia is only permitted when the species is declared Foot and Mouth Disease free.

19.1.4 Species Interaction and Social Behaviour

(a) Species Interactions

A wide spectrum of co-existing species has a potential to boost the total stocking rate for an area. However, in species mix the issue of animal interactions is complex, can be positive or negative and both direct and indirect. Herbivore interactions in species mix management have not been given much attention. Collinson and Goodman (1982) put large mammals in four different classes called Type I, Type II, Type III and Type IV.

1. The first group has the propensity to cause intrinsic drastic changes in vegetation and they include elephant, white rhino, buffalo and zebra. 2. Type II species are sensitive to habitat change caused by type I, examples of type II are sable, roan, waterbuck, reedbuck and oribi. They thrive better in either tall or short grassland close to or at climax. 3. Type III species can exploit well new environments created by activities of type I and can even drive change beyond equilibrium that would have been attained if they were note there. Examples of type III species are impala, wildebeest, and hartebeest. There may be competition between type II and type III species and the facilitation for type II species by type I species. Management of type II species, therefore, requires management of both type I, and type III species. 4. Type IV species are affected by changes e.g. bush encroachment, caused by type I and type III species and examples in this group are kudu, black rhino, eland, bushbuck, and duikers and they can compete with type III species such as impala.

The above account should be considered to arrive at stocking rates of different species in an area. In general, there are differences in animal’s ability to over-utilize range areas and cause productivity to decline though specific evidence of this is scant (Wilson, 1993). Per unit metabolic, many wild ungulates are potentially more or less damaging to their environment because of their small body sizes and more selective feeding under continuous grazing (Mentis, 1977). For example kudu, common duiker, and steinbok can exploit severely degraded habitats better than sable and roan and without management the former group can inflict more damage to the range. Mega herbivores like elephant have the propensity to degrade habitats (Owen-Smith, 1988), hippo and impala can maintain degraded habitats (O’Connor and Campbell, 1986) and both groups can cause serious habitat degradation in the absence of management. Thus at high densities, management is required most on elephant, impala and hippos than on roan and sable.

(b) Site Preferences

Species have habitat preferences and therefore do not use the whole area evenly. Some species like wildebeest, impala and warthog have potential to overgraze selected sites and have preferences for valley bottoms and lower several stages of grassland (Collinson and Goodman, 1982), hence the importance of classifying the area into land units. It is also important to consider habitat specialization for species such as reedbuck, waterbuck and klipspringer.

Social behaviour gives the concept of social carrying capacity for territorial species such as the black rhino and breeding males in ungulates. Territorial animals require large areas than non-territorial conspecifics. The herding behaviour of a species is important too (Appendix XII).

19.1.5 Sex Ratios

Through evolution, wild animals have developed a social structure, which promotes the optimum production of progeny. Sex ratio is once such factor. Very often when a rancher is confronted with poor production of progeny he blames predators (if available), nutritional deficiencies and other habitat problems. Some times this problem can be solved by simply correcting an imbalance of the ratio of males to females in the population.

An imbalance in the sex ratio of animals will often lead to poor mating frequency, particularly in species where one male tries to serve a harem of ten or mole females while at the same time trying to keep other males out of the territory and harem. In such cases the male becomes physically too exhausted to breed as he may spend more energy and time defending his territory and harem that he does not have time to mate with females when they are in oestrus. A shortage of adult bulls for instance leads to sub optimal productivity. The sex ratios found in large natural areas can be used as guidelines. Knowledge of the social structure of each animal will ultimately determine the optimum sex ratio of the population. Ranch managers from year to year should monitor sex ratios of their populations.

19.1.6 Monitoring Wildlife Populations

The DPWM needs to organize game counts and determine which kind of game count is suitable for the property. The game counts should be done by the Wildlife Research Division of the DPWM in conjunction with the landowners concerned. In all cases the rancher or the community should be involved as they know the area and the local wildlife movements. Game counts need to be done at least once a year. Where a landowner has the expertise to do his own count, he should be encouraged to do so as long as he uses the prescribed method and gives the data to the DPWM for analysis. The DPWM should encourage landowners to collect data on numbers, age structure and sex ratio throughout the year with ranch personnel as this will help in establishing population trends and off- take rates. Off-take rates and quotas need to be determined well in advance of the next season so that the landowner can market his quota and work out which utilization options are appropriate.

19.1.7 Establishing Off-take Quotas

Annual off-take rates vary but they are usually around 10-15 percent depending on the species and the rate of increase. For example an off-take rate of 15 percent can be split up in the following way: percent for Safari Hunting (2 percent for buffalo) which is maximum for trophy hunting if the quality of trophies is to be maintained at the level required to attract better paying customers.

percent for Game Capture, which is probably an annual maximum due to the logistics and markets involved. 10 percent Game Cropping, which makes use of remaining “allowable animals as required to maintain stable populations, which if not cropped would lead to depression of reproduction or to over-stocking.

19.2 Import and Export of Live Specimens

Conscious of the ecological and socio-economic threats, which may result from the import, and export of live specimens of wildlife, DPWM will regulate such activities by:

1. Restricting species that may be imported and exported based on a permit system. 2. Ensuring that animals imported into the country will neither threaten the ecological integrity nor distort the wildlife population and the overall goal of maintenance of biodiversity. 3. Ensuring that all veterinary requirements are complied with. 4. Adhering to all CITES regulations. 5. Ensuring that transportation, care and management whilst in transit comply with the relevant veterinary regulations; 6. Prescribing ports of entry and exit for monitoring purposes; 7. Regulating the importation of exotic species; 8. Where exotic species are permitted, prohibit the release to the wild of such species. 9. Issuing notice from time to time of animal species that cannot be imported in the country due to potential hazards and risks to public health, ecological invasions and genetic contamination and any other reasons that DPWM will deem appropriate. 10. Complying with the regulations of keeping animals in captivity.

19.3 Animals in Transit

Wildlife entering The Gambia in transit to another country will be required to comply with CITES provisions and regulations. Such specimens will not be entitled to other documentation issued by DPWM unless where such specimens will be resident in the country for a period exceeding seven (7) days from the date of entry.

19.4 Co-ordination with other Stakeholders

19.4.1 Government Agencies

DPWM recognises the importance of intersectoral co-ordination if the industry is to expand in a judicial manner.

To achieve this, DPWM will: 1. Establish and strengthen inter-sectoral co-ordination especially with Government line Ministries critical to the expansion of the industry such as Ministry of Agriculture, Gambia Revenue Authority and The Gambia Chamber of Commerce etc.

2. Promote the establishment of appropriate measures and institutional arrangements for improving co-ordination with other stakeholders. 3. Maintain regular liaison, consultations and exchange of information on matters relating to land policy and administration, trade in wildlife products, security and taxation and investment portfolios.

19.4.2 Provision of Information/Advice to Investors, Landowners, Communities and Managers

The DPWM will need to provide information and maps on potential game ranching areas together with the current policies, laws and guidelines on game farming and ranching and different forms of utilization. It should help the investor to establish contacts with local Regional, District and village councillors and provide a checklist of all the things that the investor has to do (application procedure etc.) in order to establish a game farm or game ranch. The DPWM can also provide a service to the potential game farmer/game rancher by facilitating contacts with recognised experts and consultants in the field of game farming and ranching. A register of such consultants should be maintained at the Game Farming and Ranching Desk and made available for consultation by game farmers and ranchers.

19.4.3 CITES Regulations

19.4.4 Objectives of CITES Regulations

The principal objectives of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora) regulations are (see Wijnstekers 1995): to protect wildlife species against over-exploitation of wild populations through international live animal trade, and

to prevent international trade from threatening the extinction of species.

19.4.5 Review of CITES Regulations as to Game Farming and Ranching

One of the fundamental principles of CITES is that the Parties shall not allow trade in specimens of species included in Appendices I, II, and III except in accordance with the provisions of the present Convention, where Appendix I includes endangered species that are under strict international regulations i.e. commercial trade is strictly prohibited in order not to endanger further their survival;

Appendix II includes species that are not necessarily threatened with extinction but may become so unless trade in specimens of such species is controlled;

Appendix III includes all species that are subject to regulation within the jurisdiction of a Party to the Convention for the purpose of preventing or restricting over- exploitation.

Therefore many products from game farms and ranches will be subject to CITES regulations including export permits justified by the country’s management authority (DPWM). However, CITES does not provide standard definitions of game farming and ranching such as those given in Section 1.3.1 of this present document, and CITES definitions of “captive breeding” and “ranching” essentially concern farming operations. According to CITES, trade in captive-bred specimens of Appendix I species is only allowed for specimens from the second and subsequent generations bred in captivity from wild- caught parent stock. This restriction should provide an incentive for game farming and fenced game ranching as their live animal products are captive-bred (in case of game farms) or similar to captive-bred (in case of fenced game ranches). It needs to be clarified how CITES considers specimens from managed unfenced ranches where animals may become locally abundant, even if rare on the international scale, and where the possibility for an annual off-take is desirable to help promote the increase of those species on game farming concessions.

19.5 Harvesting of Wildlife Specimens from the Wild

Realizing that wild specimens are a critical input to the establishment and operations of private properties, DPWM will provide a harvesting quota at a prescribed fee to the different categories of Private Wildlife Estates. Harvesting of such specimens will be under the supervision of DPWM officials.

Specimens harvested from the wild will be for the purpose of enhancing breeding in captivity and ranching.

19.6 Veterinary Checks and Inspections

Private Wildlife Estates will be required to act in accordance with all veterinary laws and regulations in their operations including trade in wildlife products. In drawing up management plans of their private wildlife estates, DPWM will take into consideration the role that wildlife and livestock have in the transmission of animal diseases between the two animal groups, and humans.

In the spirit of promoting compliance of veterinary laws and regulations DPWM shall where necessary lobby for the revision and amendment of specific veterinary legislation that may constrain wildlife production and utilization including trade.

For public health reasons, the location of any medium-to-large scale private wildlife estate operation from a built up area will be regulated through an assessment on a case by case basis.

19.7 Policing and Monitoring Operations of Private Wildlife Estates

To ensure compliance with all wildlife legislation and regulations, DPWM will undertake regular inspection of PWEs. During the inspection, DPWM will crosscheck the biological (including condition of habitat) and socio-economic status of the properties. This information will be kept by DPWM in a computerised database.

For monitoring purposes, private operators shall submit annual returns to DPWM not later than 15th February each year, specifying all relevant aspects of biological and socio- economic parameters of the previous year.

19.8 Law Enforcement

To promote law enforcement on Private Wildlife Estates the property owners will be conferred the status of Honorary Wildlife Rangers as should be prescribed in the Principal Act unless where such individuals do not qualify for such appointment due to infringement of the Biodiversity and Wildlife Act or other relevant laws of the land. In the event that the property owner is not eligible or is a professional hunter, this privilege shall be conferred on the Manager or any other suitable person.

19.9 Transfer of Ownership of the Estate from one Party to Another

All the transfers of ownership of the wildlife estate from one party to the other shall be done with the approval of DPWM, who will undertake an inventory of the property before transfer of ownership is granted.

19.10 Change of Land Use

Any change of land use from that initially provided for under the Permit shall be with the approval of DPWM.

20.0 STOCKING RATES AND GRAZING CAPACITY

The effect of the specific stocking levels and range condition is dependent on the inherent production capacity of the grazing which is determined by the factors such as soil type, climate and range type. The inherent grazing capacity, therefore, refers to the number of livestock units per hectare or hectares per livestock unit, which can be applied without causing the range to deteriorate as a result of over or underutilization. Because game in fenced ranches do not rotate like livestock, game stocking rates should be kept at more conservative levels.

20.1 Range Types and Nutritional Value

The critical factor influencing the condition of herbivores are the grazing capacity and the season in which the nutritional value of the range is optimal. There are types of range where most plants maintain their palatability and nutritional value through out their life

50 cycle, and can therefore be utilized through out the year and will keep the animals in a good condition and reproductive state. There are also other areas where the grazing material loses palatability and nutritional value at maturity. In such areas the plants are palatable and nutritious during the growing season, and can thus maintain animals in a good condition and reproductive state for about up to eight months of the year. For the remaining period of the year nutritional deficiencies occur and animals may require supplements. Most high rainfall miombo and dystrophic soil areas of The Gambia particularly zone E fall under this category. Assessing the quality of the range is therefore imperative.

20.2 Range Condition

Range condition assessment and monitoring are important phases in wildlife management. Three major determinants of the long-term ecological carrying capacity in African Savannah are rainfall, soil and species diversity of herbivores (Goodman, 1996). The state of the soil and vegetation has a short to medium term effect on the carrying capacity. Range condition relates to some functional characteristics of vegetation, namely species composition and standing crop biomass available to ungulates as food (Appendix X). Under poor range condition, with high proportion of unpalatable and annual grasses and where soil erosion is significant, the ecological carrying capacity will be below that determined by rainfall and soil. Under such poor situations, stocking rates should start lower than the potential carrying capacity to allow range rehabilitation. Grass species such as Urochloa and Panicum spp for instance, have highly variable production, with high production under normal rainfall and poorly productive under below normal rainfall (Goodman, 1996).

The assessment report should, therefore, provide a summary of range management goals for each land unit in form of a matrix; for instance it may recommend maintaining the status quo on hill slopes and summits, but to improve the basal cover, species composition and soil surface conditions on the pediment and valley bottoms. The following information should be provided as well: a) Soil surface condition: surface litter status, capping, pedestalling, compaction, rill, sheet and/gulley erosion; b) Vegetation condition: (i) herbaceous component – species composition, basal cover, grass tuft, size and structure, vigor, utilization, accumulation of standing dead material and status of forbs, (ii) Woody component – species composition, size, structure and density, utilization and response to fire.

20.3 Impact of Management Objectives on Stocking Rate

Ranches under different management intensities or style may require animals to be stocked at different stocking rates. Optimal total stocking levels can be expected to correspond to different perceptions of the concept of ecological carrying capacity. Land under consumptive utilization requires populations to be stocked below the ecological carrying capacity. For venison production and live sales it is recommended that the

51 stocking rate should be equivalent to approximately 50% of the ecological carrying capacity of the logistic growth model (Trollop, 1990) and approximately 70% of the modified logistic growth model (Caughley, 1977). At this level, the rate of increase of an animal population is at a maximum. For trophy hunting the stocking rate should be below 50% of the ecological carrying capacity so that the environmental conditions, especially forage, are optimal for maximum animal performance. For game viewing the stocking rate should be higher than the maximum rate of increase (50% of the ecological carrying capacity) because here the emphasis of management is on maximizing animal numbers (Bothma, 1996) though at very high stocking rates there is very poor animal body condition and as a result lack of aesthetic appeal (Heath, 1991).

Jones and Sandland (1974), did further clarification of the above concepts. At very low stocking rates production per animal unit is at maximum and independent of stocking rates. At moderate stocking rate after a certain point when competition or resources e.g. forage occurs, production per animal unit decreases linearly. At very high stocking rate animal production per head declines to zero. At very low stocking rate animal production per unit area is very low but it increases with an increase in stocking rates until it reaches maximum after which animal performance decreases to zero. There is a point of maximum profit, which can occur between 50% and 100% ecological carrying capacity, or at slightly below the maximum production per unit area because as the stocking rate increases variable costs can increase at a rate more than gross returns. Therefore the management objectives for the ranch should be clearly articulated.

20.4 Browsing and Grazing Capacity

The grazing/browsing pressure should be kept at a level, which is acceptable for less favourable years, and the capacity should be determined by making intensive continuing study of the vegetation of the game ranch. The optimum capacity therefore, is determined by the characteristics of the habitat and the purpose for which the game ranch is used. By applying range management practices and other habitat manipulation techniques, the optimum capacity of an area can be increased for a given game species. It is important to note that there is a maximum density level for every animal species. Beyond this saturation level, the social behaviour of the species will prevent the further increase of game densities, even if further habitat management is applied.

20.5 Range Manipulation

Manipulation involves the management of the habitat to improve upon food quality and quantity and may be carried out through such practices as cutting of tree canopy or total removal of trees to enhance the growth of forbs and grasses, seeding of the range with desirable species, fertilization, irrigation and the use of prescribed fire. Other management practices include the provision of water holes, wells or reservoirs and salt licks. Animal number is also kept within the ecological carrying capacity of the habitat using the appropriate harvesting strategies.

The effort of good management should be directed towards maintaining the habitat at the best stage for maximum benefits. If this is not done, the habitat is likely to degrade. Therefore, good management should prevent habitat degradation. Under normal circumstances, habitat for wildlife may change for good or bad in three ways:

(i) Heavy use by wildlife species themselves; (ii) Factors such as fire, scrub clearing, heavy use by other wildlife or by domestic animals or due to some natural catastrophe such as earthquakes or floods; (iii) Natural plant succession.

All the three ways may be related, for instance plant succession may be initiated by either a release of pressure (reduction of animal population) or through some other disturbances such as fire, wind etc. Any maintenance of appropriate habitat can only be done if one knows what is appropriate. If one wants to maintain a habitat for a species or group of animals, he requires knowledge of habitat of the animals and the following questions become relevant:

(i) Which elements of the habitat are required to maintain the desired numbers and kinds of wildlife and how are they best interspersed? (ii) What is the present state of vegetation? You require having a checklist of vegetation types and also a habitat classification. (iii) In what direction is the vegetation changing? (iv) Is the habitat changing as a result of external factors? If it is due to ecological succession determine the factors involved. (v) Is the habitat changing as a result of interaction with domestic animals or other factors?

Whatever the specific management practice it may be, if it affects animal habitat then the habitat should be monitored to ensure that the objectives of management are being achieved. Once the management plan is in place then monitoring becomes an integral part of management.

(a) Water Points

The report must make recommendations on whether artificial watering points are required or not. For instance, it may recommend that no further water points be created, or if they are to be created should be restricted to areas with soils of low erosivity (Collinson and Goodman, 1982).

(b) Guidelines on the Location of Artificial Water Holes

Wild animals are adapted to their environment and the utilization of water varies from one species to the other. Like wise, some animals depend on free water, while others are less dependent on it (Appendix V). In general terms, grazers are considered water dependent while browsers are water independent (Bothma, 1996). Despite the variations

53 in water intake, it still remains an important factor to be considered when establishing a game ranch.

Below are some of the guidelines regarding the location of artificial water holes:

1. The water hole must consider the species of wildlife that will be utilizing the water hole. 2. The water hole must be some how controllable such that it can be closed when necessary to encourage movements. 3. The location of one water hole in relation to others must be carefully worked out to limit over or under grazing. 4. The water hole must provide water all year round particularly during drought years. 5. There should be adequate cover where animals can rest in the shade after drinking the water, but it should not be so much as to provide cover for predators. 6. The placement of waterholes must consider the terrain and nature of soils. It is not advisable to put water holes on highly erosive soils, or steep slope; a water quality test must be done to ensure that the water is suitable for game. High salt concentrations may negatively affect the nutritional metabolism of game. 7. An attempt should be made to make it as natural as possible and to fit within the natural landscape as possible.

(i) Water Quality

Water quality can be determined by collecting water samples and sending to the laboratory for analysis. Water for animal intake may not contain more than the following parts per million: Sodium 2,000 Chlorine 3,000 Calcium 1,000 Magnesium 500 Nitrate 400 Sulphate 1,000 Bicarbonate 500 Fluorine 6

Total dissolved solids 5,000 (Bothma, 1996)

21.0 MANAGEMENT OF GAME BIRDS

Game Birds are listed in (Appendix XIII to XIV) For the purpose of ranching the following have been considered:

21.1 Ducks and Geese

21.1.1 General Habitat Requirements

The most important consideration in attracting ducks and other waterfowl on your farm or small holding is the provision of suitable areas of water and the supply of food.

In most cases the farmer will need to create dams. It is essential to provide a suitable dam. Rivers are generally not favoured by many species except for species such as the black duck but small streams, dammed at intervals may prove effective. The dam should have as much shallow water as possible to enable the ducks to reach their main source of natural food – under water plants. The ideal situation would be to provide a number of shallow dams, as these would be greatly favoured by all waterfowl probably except the Egyptian Goose which being a land grazer, is perfectly happy in deep water. Ducks usually require a safe feeding and resting place. It may be advisable to clear a sizeable area near the water edge where you intend to put down food. The cleared ground gives the birds a feeling of security as no predator can creep in unseen.

It is also desirable to provide one or more islands in the middle of the dam as predator proof refuges. Birds, which hatch and grow to maturity on your property, will probably return to the same site regularly to breed. If plant growth is encouraged, the seepage area below the dam wall makes an excellent breeding ground.

Every few years a dam should be cleared and cleaned. When the water level is at its lowest, all reeds and old rank vegetation must be pulled out and taken to the shore where they can be used as composting material. When the dam starts to fill at the onset of the rains the rich nutrient cycle will start up once more. This seasonal rise and fall in the water level creates most favourable conditions for waterfowl.

(a) Feeding

Planting of water lilies (Nymphaea spp.), as shown on the top right hand corner of the cover picture, wild rice (Oryza spp), antelope grass (Echinochloa spp.) and many others at the water’s edge should be considered. Good range management will promote a healthy wildfowl population as it encourages plant growth in the vicinity of water supplies, so giving the wildfowl an additional source of food. However, do not allow the dam to become completely overgrown with water lilies and other vegetation, as ducks usually prefer a clear waterway.

Once the duck population is established, a cycle of enrichment will come into being. The bird’s droppings will start to fertilize the ecosystem, algae will develop, and the nutrient supply will grow rapidly.

(b) Shooting of game birds

Do not shoot birds at or near a feeding or roosting area at anytime, as birds will associate shooting with feeding and roosting. The guns can be posted halfway between these areas, and the duck shot as they fly over to roost in the evening. This will minimize disturbance and incidentally, eliminates the possibility of poisoning through lead shot falling on the feeding areas or the dam.

21.1.2 Terrestrial Game Birds

Game birds are a wonderful asset to any farm and are relatively easy and inexpensive to attract and maintain. Game birds respond favourably to good range management.

21.1.3 General Habitat Requirements

There is always room even on the intensively utilized farms for game birds. All under developed and idle land is potential game bird habitat. Contour ridges, valleys, rocky outcrops and anthills are useful refuges for birds.

22.0 MANAGEMENT INFRASTRUCTURE

22.1 Required Infrastructure

Some or all of the following fixtures will be required to operate a game ranch: Fences Holding pens Loading/off-loading ramps Roads Airstrip Firebreaks Buildings/camps/staff accommodation Water points and power

In addition, a great number of items of equipment are also necessary. The following list indicates some of the most substantial and expensive requirements: Machinery: generator, water pumps, workshop and tools; Vehicles: e.g. 4-wd pick-up, hunting car, game viewing car, tractor and trailer; Office and communications: radios/cell phones, GPS, Computer, Aerial photos; Butchery equipment; Refrigeration/cooling facilities; Firearms; and Veterinary requisites

22.2 Fencing

All game ranches are supposed to have a game proof fence. If a Game ranch is not fenced, no Certificate of Ownership will be issued except where DPWM finds it unnecessary to do so. A fence can either be ordinary or electric. A combination of the two forms is also acceptable. However, electric fencing is most advisable. The purpose of the fence is to deter poaching and to contain the animals within the property. DPWM will ensure that all Game Ranches are properly fenced. The fence specifications to be inspected by DPWM shall include:

The height of the fence. Energy and voltage delivery. Number of strands. The distance between corner posts or posts that take strain. Dropper interdistance. Clearing along the fence to prevent leakage of voltage etc.

The property owner should take note that river crossings present a challenge in fencing and may provide an opening for some species to escape or enter the property. Antelopes such as kudu and eland will easily jump over low fences. If bush pigs are kept on the property, there should be a regular inspection of the fence since this species can dig under the line and create an opening.

22.3 Fence Requirements

Bothma (1996) recommended requirements for a good fence as follows:

The fence must be straight. The straining posts must be firmly and vertically planted and anchored. All posts should be upright and extend to the same height above ground level matching with the terrain; Straining posts should not be too far apart, the closer they are together the firmer the fence; Irrespective of the number of wire strands or type of fence used, each strand should be at specified height above ground, parallel to other strands and firmly attached to each line pole, to prevent vertical movement. The more strands used in a fence of a given height, the closer the strands and the more difficult it will be for a person or animal to pass through. Droppers should be neatly and evenly spaced vertically between the line posts and the wire strands must be firmly attached to them so that the space between the strands and between the posts is maintained. Fences should always be erected with good quality material.

(a) Height of Fence

The height of the fence should be established when the species to be stocked on the ranch have been determined.

The following species-specific characteristics should be considered:

1. Eland, kudu, impala and waterbuck are animals that can jump over fences. 2. Sable antelope, roan antelope, tsessebe, warthog, and bush pig, are animals that can crawl under fences. 3. Warthog, bush pig, duiker, klipspringer and many predators, are animals that can move freely through the fence.

4. Buffalo, rhinoceros, giraffe, waterbuck bulls, eland bulls, and blue wildebeest bulls, are animals, which can break the fence.

In view of the above animal characteristics it is important to note the following:

Animals that can jump effectively (animals shown in group I above) can be contained by erecting a 2.25 to 2.4 metres high fence, which should consist of 17 to 21 wire strands.

It is recommended that in areas where no animals that can dig holes underneath fences such as warthogs it may be advantageous to attach wire mesh to the bottom half of the fence. This would prevent the stray dogs or predators from getting into the fence.

(b) Posts

Generally there are three types of posts;

Straining posts- with supports and/or anchors These must be strong enough not to bend or break and must able to withstand the strain and weight of the fence and must have a long life span. Materials commonly used include:

Wood (such as treated bluegum posts not pine); Rails; Metal pipes

Line posts – spaced in the line between straining posts. These divide the distance between the straining posts into equal sections. The wire strands are fastened or stapled to each of the line post. Materials used include- wood, iron posts, and pipes.

Droppers- Spaced between the line posts. These are used to divide the spaces between the line posts equally thereby strengthening the fence. The distance between droppers varies between 1 to 3metres. Materials used include- wooden droppers, ridgeback iron droppers, and cable droppers.

Several types of wire are used each with its own characteristics as follows:

Plain steel (smooth) It is easier to erect and more resilient. The disadvantage is that it is stolen and used to make wire snares.

Barbed wire (Campeon steel barbed wire), it is more visible to game and easily avoided. It is not used for wire snaring. The disadvantages are that it is difficult to erect, and can cause injury to game.

Veldspan- is square mesh type of wire with horizontal steel wires and vertical soft wires.

Wire mesh- diamond mesh, jackal or pig wire mesh and welded wire mesh.

23.0 OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

23.1 Need for Management Plans

There is need to have a management plan for any game ranch because ranching demands a multifaceted approach with specific objectives. The objectives should be clearly defined before any management actions occur. Management activities should be applied with apparent long-term objectives in mind. These should be clearly outlined in the Management plan.

23.1.1 Fire Management Plan

Fire is generally considered as a natural ecological factor in the savanna. Different vegetation types respond differently to various fire and grazing regimes. In general, there are about six main reasons for applying fire in the savanna, and these must be clearly identified in the plan: To remove old moribund left over from the previous growing season, which if left can stifle new growth and reduce the quality of the range. To promote or stimulate out of season growth such as burning after the rains when grass has matured and/ or dried and the protein content has declined, burning stimulates new growth of better quality. To reduce or destroy parasites such as ticks. This should be done with great care so as not to impact negatively on other objectives. To encourage grass growth and controlling undesirable woody or herbaceous invaders. To encourage rotational grazing of game by burning different areas at different times. This needs to be applied correctly. To make fire barriers in order to protect certain areas of the range for given reasons or to prevent hot fires depending on the objectives.

The Management Plan should specify how fires will be applied on the ranch.

23.1.2 Parasites and Disease Assessment

Game animals are susceptible to a wide range of diseases and parasites (Zieger and Caudwell 1997). However, wildlife is known to be more resistant to most diseases classified as viral, bacterial, protozoa and rickettsia, which may be transmitted to livestock. Because of the possible transmission of diseases to cattle as indicated above, it is advisable not to let wildebeest, buffalo or hartebeest in the same area as cattle. These species are very sensitive to ticks (Scott, 1989). There are also diseases to which wildlife

59 is just as susceptible as cattle. These diseases include anthrax, rabies and rinder pest (Scott 1989). It is important for every farmer to maintain regular communication with the Veterinary authorities and should always report suspected disease out breaks to DPWM and Veterinary authorities.

When the tick load increases, fire can be used to burn grass and eliminate ticks. Alternatively game can be attracted to a salt lick where pouring acaricide on game can be done. The other alternative is to allow cattle sweep through an area and then driven to a dip tank. Allowing ox peckers on the farm has yielded good results too. This however, depends on the cooperation of the surrounding communities not to use harmful chemicals in dipping their cattle, which would kill the birds.

REFERENCES

Bell, R.H.V. 1985 Carrying capacity and off take quotas. In: Conservation and Wildlife Management in Africa. Bell, R.H.V. and McShane-Caluzi, E (eds) U.S. Peace Corps, pp 145-181.

Bothma . P. du J 1996 Game Ranch Management. J.L. Van Schaik Publishers, Pretoria.

Caughley, G. 1977 The analysis vertebrate populations. John Wiley and Sons, Toronto.

Caughley, G. 1979 What is this thing called carrying capacity. In: North America Elk: Ecology, behaviour and management. Boyce, M.S. and Hayden-Wing, L.D. (eds) University of Wyoming.

Coe, M.J. Cumming, D.H.M. and Philipson, J. 1976 Biomass and production of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production. Oecologia, 22:341- 354.

Collinson, R.F.H. and Goodman, P.S. 1982. An assessment of range condition and large herbivore carrying capacity of the Pilanesberg Game Reserve, with guidelines and recommendations for management. Inkwe EnvironmentalResearch in Bophuthatswana, No.1 pp 55.

Dassman, R.F. and Mossman, A.S. 1961. Commercial use of game animals on a Rhodesian ranch. Wildlife 3(3): 7 – 14.

Du Toit, J. 1995 Determinants of the Composition and distribution of Wildlife communities in Southern Africa. Ambio, 24 (1): 1-6.

Goodman, P.S. 1996 Malilangwe: Initial assessment of large herbivore carrying capacity, species mix and management. Malilangwe Report, Chiredzi. Heath, D. 1991 The reassemble of indigenous ungulate communities on commercial ranchland in Zimbabwe. MSc thesis. University of Zimbabwe.

Jones, R.J. and Sandlant, R.J. 1974 The relationship between animal gain and stocking rate: Derivation of the relation from the results of grazing trials. J. Agric. Science, 83: 335-345.

Kenya Wildlife Service 2000 Wildlife Utilization Guidelines. Community Wildlife Service, Nairobi, Kenya.

Leuthold, W. 1977 African ungulates, a comparative review of their ethology and behavioural ecology. Epringer Verlage, New York.

Mentis, M.T. 1977 Stocking rates and carrying capacities for ungulates on African rangeland. S. Afr. J. Wildl. Res; 7(2): 89-98.

Mentis, M.T. 1981 The animal as a factor in pasture and veld management. In: Tainton, N.W. (ed) Veld and pasture management in South Africa. Pietermaritzburg. Shuter and Shooter. Pp. 289-311.

Mossman, S.L. and Mossman, A.S. 1976 Wildlife utilization and Game Ranching. Report on a study of recent progress in the field in Southern Africa. IUCN Occasional Paper No.17: 9 – 91.

O’conner, T.G. and Campbell, B.M. 1986 Hippopotamus habitat relationship on the Lundi River, Gonarezhou National Park, Zimbabwe, Afr. J. Ecol; 4:7-26.

Owen-Smith, R.N. 1988 Mega herbivores: The influence of very large body size on ecology. Cambridge University Press London.

Riney, 1964 The impact of introduced large herbivores on the tropical environment. IUCN, Publication New Series, 4: 261-273.

Scott, A.J. 1989 Game Ranching: Proceedings of the Game Ranching Seminar held in Lusaka, 13 – 14th April. Wildlife Conservation Society of Zambia, Lusaka.

Sinclair, A.R.E 1975 The resource limitation of trophic levels in tropical grassland ecosystems. J. Anim. Ecol. 44(2): 497-520.

Sinclair, A.R.E. and Grimsdell, J.J.R 1982. Population dynamics of large mammals. African Wildlife Foundation, Nairobi, Kenya.

Smit, N. 2005 Calculating your lands’ game carrying capacity. Farmer’s Weekly, May 2005.

State of the Environment in Zambia 2000. Environmental Council of Zambia, Lusaka. Zieger, U. and Caudwell, A.E. 1977 Zambian Game Ranching manual.

Appendix I: Scope of Work

Guidelines for Private Sector Involvement in Natural Resources Management

Background

The Gambia’s coastal zone is extremely rich in biodiversity; it is an area rich in natural resource with particularly high biodiversity of national, regional and global environmental significance. Indeed, the Gambian coastal and marine zone is harbouring important nursery grounds for regional coastal and marine fisheries. It is equally an important breeding, nesting, feeding, refuge and habitat for endangered and threatened species such as migratory birds, dolphins, sharks, marine turtles, the West African manatee and other species of national and regional significance.

The Gambia’s coast is also an area that is under increasing human pressure, in particular, coastal and marine resources are exploited for both subsistence and economic purposes. These pressures have had considerable impact on the ecological integrity of the coast. There is also evidence of significant pressure on species of global and regional concern such as nesting and migratory birds and marine turtles, the eggs of which are frequently collected; sharks, harvested for their fins; and manatees, hunted for meat. In addition, there is a lack of adequate financial support to development of protected areas but also the rational management and conservation of the remaining fauna and flora of the country.

The Government of The Gambia (GOTG) has developed a policy to enable private sector’s involvement in natural resources management. As the initiative is developing, there is a genuine need to develop and validate a national set of guidelines for the smooth involvement of private sector in the rational management of Biodiversity. In developing and implementing the Gambia Biodiversity Management and institutional Strengthening project, one of the objectives is to secure financial sustainability of the protected area network system. This objective intends to explore options for sustainable revenue generation initiatives in order to ensure financial sustainability in the conservation arena.

Objectives of the Study This consultancy is aimed at achieving the following specific objectives: 1. Propose, develop and establish guidelines for the rational involvement of private entrepreneurs in natural resources management 2. Propose process framework for the legal procedure to establish private game ranches or protected wildlife reserves in the country.

Specific Responsibilities

Review existing policy on private sector involvement in natural resources management ,

Consult all relevant stakeholders to explore potential activities to be initiated, Propose and develop concerted guidelines for involvement of private sectors in natural resources management and particularly on Biodiversity conservation. Organize and lead validation process.

Level of Effort and Deliverables

Dates Activity Number of Outcome Completion days date 24rd July Signature and 1 Work plan and 25th July submission of budget Inception Report writing 01st -09th Consultation with 4 Data on 09th August August relevant departments background information and literature 10th August Literature review 5 Bibliography 20th August

21st August Interviews with local 7 Local community 29th August communities views 30th August Writing draft report 7 Draft report 18th September 19th Conduct validation 2 Recommendations 27th September September 28th Writing final Report 4 Final report 8th October September incorporating recommendations from validation.

Validation Workshop on the Guidelines for the Private Sector Involvement in Natural Resources Management in The Gambia

The Gambia Biodiversity and Institutional Strengthening Project situated at Abuko Nature Reserve will organize a one-day workshop to validate the Guidelines for the Private Sector Involvement in Natural Resources Management in The Gambia. The Workshop will take place at Baobab Lodge on 14th November, 2012.

The overall objective of the workshop is to discuss and finalize the draft Guidelines for the Private Sector Involvement in Natural Resources Management in The Gambia. To enrich the draft, The Gambia biodiversity and Institutional Strengthening Project will invite its partners and other stakeholders to the workshop to bring their inputs in the guidelines for the Private Sector involvement in natural resources management.

This is the first Guidelines the Project is developing, and will outline the establishment of guidelines for the rational involvement of private entrepreneurs in natural resources 64 management and framework for the legal procedure to establish private game ranches or protected wildlife reserves in the country.

Appendix II: List of People Contacted Name Title Institution or Organization Alpha Omar Director DPWM Jallow Lamin Principal DPWM Kassama Conservation Officer Ousainou Project The Gambia Touray Coordinator Biodiversity and Institutional Strengthening Project Kawsu Education DPWM Jammeh Officer Babou M. Assistant Gambia Soil and Camara Director Water Resources Sambou Nget Assistant Forestry Director Department/The Gambia Junkung Senior Soil Gambia Soil and Ceesay Officer Water Resources Abba Senior Department of Sankareh Agriculture Agriculture Officer

Famara Assistant Fisheries Darboe Director Department Dr. Wilbroad Director of Zambia Wildlife Chansa Research, Authority Planning and Information Dr. Vincent Planner and Zambia Wildlife Nyirenda Technical Authority Advisor to the Director General Dr. Victor Programme Kavango Zambezi Siamudaala Officer Transfrontier Conservation Area (Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe) George Country WWF/Zimbabwe Kampamba Director Keith Director Professional

Asherwood Hunters Association of Zambia Professor Progamme Peace Parks Andrew Coordinator Foundation/Zambia Nambota Willem Botha Co-Director Parays Game Ranch/Zambia Ms.Melody Community Zambia Wildlife Zeko Based Natural Authority Machamwala Resources Manager Changwe Regional Zambia Wildlife Kunda Manager Authority Mawdou Conservation DPWM/The Gambia Jallow Officer Alagie Assistant DPWM/The Gambia Manjang Director Jan Botha Co- Director Parays Game Ranch/Zambia Dr. Harry Lecturer University of Chabwela Zambia, Biological sciences Dr. Henry Country African Wildlife Mwima Director Foundation Paul Zyambo Conservation Zambia Wildlife and Authority Management Manager Benny Project Crane Kamweneshi Technical Foundation/Zambia Manager Dora Programme African Wildlife Kamweneshi Officer Foundation

Appendix III

The five important steps for the designation process of a piece of land into a game ranch or protected wildlife reserve

.1st step: Declare your intention to create a PA 2nd step: DPWM to put in place an assessment team 3rd step: Organize community awareness on the periphery of the proposed area 4th step: Hon. Minister to appoint a protected area settlement committee 5th step: Declaration of a PA is made by order of the Minister, published in the Gazette, and, in the case of a National Park, approval is by Cabinet.

PROTECTED AREA SETTLEMENT COMMITTEE The PA Settlement Committee comprises all members of the SMC representatives of the stakeholder villages around the PA, i.e., villages located within the environs that have traditional use right claims on the resources of the site; and the head Warden of the site serves as secretary to the (SMC) and the representative of the Attorney General as chair of the said committee. The role of the PA Settlement Committee is inter alia to: (i) Receive all claims/objections, queries, complaints, petitions, recommendations….. (ii) Enquire and verify the nature of complaints, queries…and gather all available facts of all conflicts and disputes. (iii) Arbitrate and resolve all conflicts and disputes arising in respect of the site between individuals, groups, villages and groups of villages.

The list of the PA Settlement Committee members is as follows: (i) Attorney General or his designated representative – Chairman; (ii) The Divisional Commissioner; (iii)The District Seyfo; (iv) The Alkalou of the villages concerned; (v) A Member of the Area Council; (vi) The Divisional Technical Officers of the Department concerned ; (vii) A co-opted Technical Expert ; and (viii) Area Member of Parliament.

Appendix IV

REPUBLIC OF THE GAMBIA FORM I (a) The Biodiversity and Wildlife Act Parks and Wildlife Management (Wild Animals in Captivity) Regulations

Application for a permit to keep animals in captivity (Regulation) PART I: Particulars of the applicant: (a) Full name……………………………… Age………………………………… (b) ID/Passport No……………………………………………………………… (c) Postal Address………………………………………………………………… (d) Residential Address…………………………………………………………… (e) Present Occupation……………………………………………………… PART II: Particulars of land where the applicant intends to keep animals: (f) Farm No………………………………………………………………… (g) Name of Lessee………………………………………………………… (h) Area of Farm…………………………………………………………… (i) Location of Farm………………………………………………………. PART III: Other Particulars (j) Where the wild animals be kept.

i) On a game farm (e.g. crocodile farm, aviary, etc)? ii) In a zoo? iii) At any other place? (specify) ……………………………………………………………………… (k) Species of wild animals and maximum number required………… (l) Do you want to raise wild animals for- i) Sale alive? ii) Sale of their skins/ other trophies? iii) Sale of meat? iv) Public display? v) Other purposes?……………………………………………………… (m) Will you operate the farm/ranch/zoo on a full time basis? ………………………………………………………………………… (n) What is your experience in wildlife ranching or farming? ………………………………………………………………………… (o) Have you been convicted of an offence against the Act or Firearms Act? …………………………………………………………………………… (p) When would you conduct an ecological assessment and submit the report for review to Director?………………………………………………………….

I certify that the above information is correct. Date…………………………………………..

Signature of applicant……………………..

Appendix V REPUBLIC OF THE GAMBIA FORM I (b) The Biodiversity and Wildlife Act Parks and Wildlife Management (Game Ranching and Farming Operations) Regulations

Application for a permit to keep and use wild animals on Ranching Operations (Regulation) PART I: Individuals (a) Full name……………………………… Age………………………………… (b) ID/Passport No……………………………………………………………… (c) Postal Address………………………………………………………………… (d) Residential /Physical Address…………………………………………………………… (e) Present Occupation……………………………………………………… PART II: Companies/Organizations/Trusts etc (a) Name of Organization……………………………………… (b) Physical address ………………………………………………………… (c) Business Address …………………………………………………………… (d) State nature of present business………………………………………………………. PART III: Particulars of land where applicant intends to establish a Ranching operation a. Farm No/Stand NO. / Plot NO………………………………………… b. Name of lessee/Owner of land …………………………………………………… c. Title deed number or other authority…………………………………………. d. Location of farms/stands…………………………………………………… e. Estimated distance from (a) nearest park…………..(b) nearest nature reserve ………. f. Estimated distance from the City/District administrative center……………….. PART IV: Others (a) State category of operation……………………………… (b) State size of estate………………………………………. (c) What are the main objectives of your operation? (i) Hunting…………. (i) Photographic tourism …………………(iii) Other…………………………….

a. What is the experience and qualifications of individuals who will be managing the operation?

b. If no to (d) above or response is negative, state intervention measures for the management of animals on the operation?……………………………

c. Have you been convicted of any offence under the Biodiversity and Wildlife Act or the Fire arms Act?…………………………………………………..

d. If yes to (f) above specify the offence, date of conviction and penalty………………..

e. When can the assessment be done?………………………………………….

(i) By DPWM…………………or (ii) Private Consultant ……………….

f. If you choose I (ii) When would you conduct an ecological assessment and submit the report for review to the Director?…………………………………………………

I certify that the above information is correct.

Date…………………………………………..

Signature of applicant…………………………

Appendix VI Soil nutrient assessment

Vegetation Land Unit Type pH Soil Nutrients Type Classification of soil Conc. NH4 NO3 P Na K Mg

Appendix: VII Summary of Land Unit parameters

Land Unit Size of unit Soil Type Slope Vegetation Action Classification Structure recommended

Appendix VIII (a) Species Composition per landscape Unit

Species Woody Importance or Non value Species Woody Landscape Unit Classification (Woody

A B C D E F G H I etc

Appendix IX (b) Species Suitability per Land Unit Classification

Species Land unit Classification A B C D E F

Appendix X. Foliage production per landscape Unit (Non Woody)

Land Unit Area Cover Kg/Ha, per year

Classification 0-75cm 75-150cm >150cm 0-75cm 75-150cm 75-150cm

Appendix XI Land suitability for Wildlife Ranching/Stocking

Species of animal Food Cover Water

Appendix XII. Habitat, Food and Water requirement

Species Habitat characteristics Primary food Water Dependent Buffalo Woodland, Grassland Grass (group e) Yes Burchell’s Zebra Open Woodland, grassland Grass Yes Bushbuck Riparian thicket, other Leaves Yes dense shrub (browse) Bushpig Forest, Shrubland, Catholic: grass Yes grassland, tall grass roots, leaves and reeds tubers, earth worms etc. Duiker Common Woodland, shrub land Leaves, twigs, No flowers fallen Fruit Eland Adaptable: Woodland to No Open dry regions Giraffe Open woodland Leaves No (browse) Grysbok Shrubland, grassland Leaves and Yes sharpes’ Grass Hippopotamus Open water deep enough Grass Yes Impala Woodland, grassland Leaves and Yes grass Klipspringer Stony patches, mountains Leaves Yes and hill locks, rock outcrops Kudu Bush land, termitaria, Leaves Yes thickets Klipspringer Stony patches, mountains Leaves Yes and hill locks, rock outcrops Kudu Bush land, termitaria, Leaves Yes thickets Oribi Open area: flood Plains, Grass Yes short Grassland Reedbuck Tall grassland or Grass Yes Reeds near open Water Roan antelope Open woodland, Medium to Grass Yes tall Grassland Sable antelope Open woodland, Medium to Grass Yes tall Grassland Tsessebe Grassland Grass Yes Waterbuck Open areas, Flood plains Grass Yes Warthog Open woodland, Grassland Grass, sedges, Yes

flood Plans Herbs, wild fruits White Flat bush land With short Grass Yes rhinoceros grass Land Wildebeest Open woodland, Grassland Grass Yes (blue) White Flat bush land With short Grass Yes rhinoceros Grassland Wildebeest Open woodland, Grassland Grass Yes (blue)

Source: Leuthold, W. 1977 African ungulates, a comparative review of their ethnology and behavioural ecology.

Appendix XIII Herbivore Stocking Rate Guidelines

Estimated project area of the Ranch = Ha/Km2 Estimated Ecological Carrying Capacity = 1 AU to Ha. Total permissible AU’s =

Animal Animal Recommended Recommended Feeding Proportion Species Unit Animal Unit total number class of total equivalent Stocked stocked ecological Carrying Capacity; Total AU’s.

Appendix XIV Species home range and herding behaviour

Species Herd animal Remarks Black rhinoceros No Sometimes female with young, couples Buffalo Yes Herds of few hundreds recorded Burchellis: Zebra Yes Bushbuck No Sometimes couples, small herds of female and young Bush pig Yes Herds of 6-12 individuals recorded Blue duiker No Couples, female with young Duiker Common No Couples, female with young Eland Yes Herds up to several hundreds Giraffe Yes Herds with loose ties, males usually Solitary Grysbok sharpes No Couples, female with young Hippopotamus Yes Impala Yes Klipspringer Yes/No Live either in couples, family herds Or solitary Kudu, Greater Yes Oribi No/Yes Sometimes family herd Reedbuck Yes Couples or family herds Roan antelope Yes Sable antelope Yes Waterbuck Yes Warthog Yes White rhinoceros Yes Small family herds Wildebeest Yes

Appendix XV Game Birds

(a) Members of the Family Anatidae (Ducks and Geese) Species Name Common Name Scientific Name Fulvous Whistling Duck Dendrocygna bicolor White-faced Whistling Duck Dendrocygna viduata White-Backed Duck Thalasornis leuconotus Egyptian Goose Alopochen aegyptiacus Spur-Winged Goose Plectopterus gambensis Knob Billed Duck Sarkidiornis melanotos African Pygmy Goose Nettapus auritus African Black Duck Anas sparsa Yellow-Billed Duck Anas undulata Cape Teal Anas capensis Pintail Anas acuta Red-Billed Teal Anas erythrorhyncha Hottentot Teal Anas hottentota Garganey Anas querquedula Northern Shoveler Anas clypeata Cape Shoveler Anas smithii Southern Pochard Netta erythrophthalma

(b) Members of the Family Phasianidae (Francolins and Quails) Species Species Common Name Scientific Name Coqui Francolin Francolinus coqui White throated Francolin Francolinus albogularis Crested Francolin Francolinus sephaena Shelley’s Francolin Francolinus shelleyi Red-winged Francolin Francolinus levaillantii Red-billed Francolin Francolinus adspersus Natal Francolin Francolinus natalensis Hildebrandits Francolin Francolinus hildebrandti Swaisons’ Francolin Francolinus swainsonii Red-necked Francolin Francolinus afer Common quail Coturnix coturnix Harlequin Quial Coturnix delegorguei Blue Quail Cotrurnix chinensis

(c) Members of the Family Numididae (Guinea fowl) Species Species Common Name Species Common Name Crested Guinea fowl Guttera pucherani Helmeted Guinea fowl Numida meleagris

(d) Members of the Family Columbidae (Pigeons and Doves) Species Species Common Name Species Common Name Afep Pigeon Columba unicincta Rameron Pigeon Columba arquatrix Bronze-naped Pigeon Columba delegorguei Cinnamon Dove Aplopelia larvata Pink-breasted Turtle Dove Streptopelia lugens Laughing Dove Stereptopelia senegalensis African Mourning Dove Streptopelia decipiens Cape Turtle Dove Streptopelia capicola Red-eyed Dove Streptopelia semitorquata Emerald-spotted Wood Dove Turtur chalcospilos Blue-spotted Wood Dove Turtur afer Tambourine Dove Turtur tympanistria Namaqua Dove Oena capensis Green Pigeon Treron australis

SELECTED GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN THE TEXT

Acaricide

A pesticide used to control or kill mites or ticks

Adaptive Management A dynamic planning or modeling process that recognizes the future cannot be predicted perfectly. In response to these imperfect predictions, planning and management strategies are modified frequently as better information becomes available. It applies scientific principles and methods to improve management activities incrementally as decision makers learn from experience and new scientific findings and adapt to changing social expectations and demands.

Adaptive Planning A planning strategy in which planning efforts are directed toward meeting temporary crises that arise in response to changing conditions. The planner responds to external forces influencing the area, identifies potential and current crises, takes advantage of externally developed resources and attempts to forestall or resolve the crises by creating the proper responses to the pressures generated by those forces.

Biodiversity The variety, distribution, and abundance of different plants, animals, and microorganisms, the ecological functions and processes they perform, and the genetic diversity they contain at local, regional or landscape levels of analysis. Biodiversity has five principal components: (i) genetic diversity thus the genetic complement of all living things, (ii) taxonomic diversity – thus the variety of living things, (iii) ecosystem diversity – the three dimensional structures on the earth’s surface including the organisms themselves, (iv) functions or ecological services- what organisms and ecosystems do for each other, their immediate surroundings and for the ecosphere as a whole and (v) the a biotic matrix within which the above exists- the unity of the soil, water, air, and organisms with each being interdependent on the continued existence of the other.

Captive breeding Captive breeding involves the capturing of animal species from the wild and putting them under artificial conditions, while ensuring that their survival, health and probably reproduction are part and parcel of the management strategy. The first two are related to the physical environment which depend also on hygiene, food etc. Reproduction includes the overall biological considerations such as behaviour and general welfare.

The main aims of keeping animals in captivity are: breeding (for different purposes including provision of meat), conservation in broad terms, scientific research, recreation, and education. Captive breeding is important as it may involve rare or endangered species. Species bred in captivity may eventually be returned or reintroduced to the wild. The caution here is that animals bred in captivity may not necessarily adapt to wild

environments, and so breeding in captivity for the purpose of reintroduction should be the last resort. Census As a noun, a complete to the extent possible, inventory of every member in a population within a specified period. As a verb, the counting of all individuals in a specified area within a specified period in order to estimate animal density or total population for that area.

Conservation The management or control of human use of resources (biotic and abiotic) and activities on the planet, in attempt to restore, enhance, protect, and sustain the quality and quantity of a desired mix of species, and ecosystem conditions and processes for present and future generations. Conservation is explicitly concerned with the temporal distribution of use; that is carefully considered use now so that some more less the same amount will exist for use later on. The use in question could be consumptive or non consumptive. The common denominator in the definition of conservation is the notion of judicious use of resources by humans over time, which in some instances may mean no use at all, or use that serves to enhance, rather than deplete resources.

Conservation Strategy A management plan for species, group of species or ecosystem that prescribes standards and guidelines that if implemented would provide a high likelihood that the species, groups of species or ecosystem with its full complement of species and processes will continue to exist as a viable population within a given area.

Diversity Is an assessment of the number of species present, their relative abundance in an area, and the distribution of individuals among the species.

Ecological carrying capacity The concept of carrying capacity (ecological, visual, recreational, psychological) in resource management involves the specification of several key aspects. These are (i) a level of use that (ii) will allow for the long term maintenance of (iii) some level of environmental quality within (iv) some predefined level of management activity determined by the costs of maintaining the resource quality at (v) a level that will provide resource user satisfaction. Any level of use greater than zero will result in change, thus it is incorrect to imply that ecological carrying capacity is the same as ‘no change regime’. Ecological carrying capacity can only be determined after the acceptable levels of change have been set, preferably as measurable thresholds that can be readily monitored. It is imperative that a baseline value be determined in order to have an effective monitoring programme.

In wildlife management it indicates the maximum number of organisms than can be supported in a given area of habitat at any given time.

Ecological integrity The quality of a natural, unmanaged or managed ecosystem in which the natural ecological processes are sustained, with genetic, species, and ecosystems diversity assured for the future.

Fire Management Plan A statement of policy and prescribed actions with respect to forest fires (prescribed and wild fires) for a specified area. The plan may include maps, charts, and statistical data.

Game Farming Is intensive game production in small fenced ranches or communal/partnership land, usually for the production of market products such as meat, skins etc.

Game Ranching Is extensive game production, which is the managed extensive production of free-living game on large fenced or unfenced private or communal/partnership land, usually for hunting but also for game products, photographic tourism, sale of live game and other non consumable uses.

Grass Plants in the family Graminaeae, whose characteristics include stems that are jointed at nodes, are hollow (culms), have sheathing leaves, and inflorescences surrounded by glumes.

Grazing Herbivorous animals eating grasses or non-woody plants.

Grazing capacity A measure of the number of grazing animals that can be maintained on a range without depletion of the range and its forage. The determination of grazing capacity is based on the herbage and browse – to- weight ratio.

Habitat Those parts of the environment (aquatic, terrestrial and atmospheric) often typified by a dominant plant form or physical characteristic, on which an organism depends, directly or indirectly in order to carry out its life processes.

Landform A segment of the three-dimensional surface of the earth, consisting of soil, and rocks with characteristic shapes, produced by natural processes. A landscape unit (element) describing types of land surfaces or features. Landforms have distinctive shapes and positions in the larger landscape that reflect their origins and geologic development. These physical attributes are used to classify landscapes.

Macronutrient Nutrients required by plants in relatively large amounts for healthy development

Micronutrient Nutrients usually required in relatively small amounts for the health development of organisms; they may be toxic in higher concentrations.

Prescribed fire The planned use of carefully controlled fire to accomplish predetermined management goals for instance, reduction of fire hazards or pest problems, improvement of the ease with which the site can be traversed and or creation of better quality browse /graze for wildlife. The burn is set under a combination of weather, fuel moisture, and fuel arrangement; conditions that allow the management objectives to be attained and yet confine the fire to the planned area.

Range condition In range management it refers to the current status or stage of succession of a plant community, relative to the potential or climax vegetation possible for the site.

Rate of increase A measurement of the change in numbers of a population. The finite of geometric, rate of increase is the factor by which size of a population changes over a specified period.

Sex ratio The number of males in a group divided by the number females; at fertilization (primary sex ratio), at birth (secondary sex ratio), and at sexual maturity (tertiary sex ratio).

Soil The top layer of the earth’s surface consisting of unconsolidated mineral or organic, materials derived from geological material and dead organic matter. These components are modified by biological, chemical, and physical processes. In combination with climatic factors and the actions of organisms acting on the materials, a substrate of supporting plant life may be created.

Territory The area an animal defends usually during breeding season against intruders of its own species.

Vegetation Management The act of manipulating vegetation and microenvironments to direct site resources into producing the vegetation complex desired to meet management objectives, while at the same time meeting the concerns for improving wildlife habitat, grazing, scenic value, recreation, and watershed concerns. Some of the objectives may be diametrically opposed and mutually exclusive.

Wildlife management The art and science of manipulating wildlife populations and their habitats to meet specific objectives, which can be scientific or recreational.