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| The history of vinegar and of its acetification systems | 147 | The history of vinegar and of its acetification systems Jacques F. BOURGEOIS 1, François BARJA 2 Ms reçu le 24 février 2009, accepté le 27 novembre 2009 T Abstract The history of vinegar and of its acetification systems. – A rapid historical survey from the XVI th to the XX th centuries serves to order and situate the principal landmarks which have contributed to the present level of scientific knowledge, and of the technological advances in vinegar production. The first proposition of an elaboration of a chemical equation, the description of the mother of vinegar, the identification of the importance of wood shavings and of air led to the development of a rapid and more stable method. As soon as scientific knowledge established rules, the resultant profit contributed to the rapid development of corresponding techno - logies. This progress prepared the way for the valuable contribution of Pasteur: the description of “ Mycoderma aceti ”, the role of oxygen in the atmosphere for the oxidation of ethanol to acetic acid, the possibility of continuous production, and even - tually the acetification of high strength vinegar. The submerged fermentation system and computerization have both contributed to these last aspects of technological advance. From the end of the 1 9 th century and throughout the 2 0 th century, the development of industrial equipment and process significantly increased the production and the quality of vinegar. Probably the most significant step forward was the deve - lopment of the submerged system in 1949. This communication attempts a rapid historical review, with corresponding references, of the fundamental advancements which have contributed to the present understanding and knowledge of the elaboration of vinegar. Keywords: Wood shavings, generator, submerged acetification system, rotation acetifier. T Résumé L’histoire du vinaigre et de ses systèmes d’acétification. – Cet article est un résumé historique rapide du XVI e au XX e siècle, avec les références correspondantes, des progrès fondamentaux qui ont contribué à la connaissance et à la com - préhension de l’élaboration du vinaigre. La description de la mère de vinaigre, l’équation chimique de la fermentation acétique et l’importance des copeaux de bois et de l’air ont conduit à un mode de fabrication du vinaigre plus rapide. Ces progrès ont ouvert la voie à l’importante contribution de Pasteur: la présence de «Mycoderma aceti» , le rôle de l’oxygène atmosphérique pour l’oxydation de l’al - cool en acide acétique, la possibilité du système d’acétification en continu, et celui à haut degré. Le système immergé et l’informatique ont contribué tous deux à ces derniers aspects du progrès technologique. L’évènement le plus significatif pour le développement de l’équipement industriel et du procédé d’acétification a certaine - ment été le système immergé en 1949. Depuis la fin du XIX e siècle et durant tout le XX e, le développement des équipements industriels et des procédés ont aug - menté la production et la qualité du vinaigre. L’avancement probablement le plus significatif a été le développement du système immergé. Mots-clés: Copeaux de bois, systèmes d’acétification tournant et immergé. 1 Consultant H. Frings, D-Bonn, 19 route de Chevrier, CH-1244 Choulex, Switzerland. E-mail: [email protected] 2 University of Geneva, Unity of Microbiology, 10 chemin des Embrouchis, CH-1254 Jussy–Lullier, Switzerland. Tel: +41 22 379 37 50, E-mail: [email protected] | ARCHIVES DES SCIENCE S | Arch.Sci. (2009) 62:147-160 | | 148 | Jacques F. BOURGEOIS, François BARJA The history of vinegar and of its acetification systems | T Introduction way down the steep slope with winding tracks and adapting the gradient, so that not only the pack ani - A good grasp of background history is always benefi - mals but even the elephants could be led down». Pliny cial for the deeper understanding of a subject, and wrote in his book «Natural History», chapter IX, that serves as a basis for significant contribution to its ad - Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt, made a bet with the vance. Vinegar is no exception to this. This publication Roman general Mark Anthony that she could host the attempts a rapid historical review, with corresponding most expensive banquet costing ten million sesterces. references, of the fundamental advancements which He laughed at her, but during the meal, for the desert, have contributed to the present understanding and she had a bowl of strong vinegar brought in and dis - knowledge of the elaboration of vinegar. At the end of solved a pearl of inestimable value in it, and then drank the XVI th century knowledge about vinegar making the resulting potion. Vinegar is mentioned and used as had not progressed further than a range of different a drink and medicine in the Old and the New techniques, all empirical, with uncertain production Testament of the Bible (Mazza and Murooka 2009). results, and no scientific knowledge to speak of. It is said that Louis XIII (1601-1643), King of France, paid up to 1.3 million francs for every battle fought, to T Surprising uses revealed by vinegar history buy vinegar for use in cleaning the canons of his army. Vinegar was well known by the European alchemists of The word vinegar comes etymologically from the the Middle Ages. After pouring vinegar on lead, they French word “vinaigre” which means “sour wine”. The produced “lead sugar”, used to sweeten cider until the origin of vinegar is certainly connected to the dis - 19 th century. Unfortunately, lead acetate being a covery of wine. If wine is left open to air, it rapidly be - poison resulted in the death of several cider drinkers. comes acid and it turns into “sour wine”. Recognizable The cabalistic symbol (Fig. 1A) of a cross in the middle both by its smell and its pungent taste, this liquid has a of four circles (Bourgeois 1999) was used by al - long tradition. The history of vinegar helps us realize chemists as the symbol of vinegar. that it is one of the beautiful and great gifts given to mankind by nature. Basilius Valentinus (1565-1624) wrote at the begin - ning of the 15th century that it was hardly possible to The first recorded mention of vinegar was in around do anything useful in alchemy without the help of vine - 3000 B.C., when the Babylonians used the fruit and sap gar. of the date palm as raw material to produce alcoholic beverages. They were transformed naturally into Between 1347 and 1771 several European towns were vinegar in contact with air. The Babylonians used it as hit by the plague at various times. It is estimated that a food and as a preserving or pickling agent. Residues there were 50 million victims of this disease, which was of vinegar were found in Egypt in urns dating back to vectored to man by flea ridden rats. In 1721, the plague 3000 B.C. Texts about vinegar dating from 1200 B.C. hit the towns of France so violently that it became im - have also been found in China. In ancient Greece, in possible to bury the dead suitably. To remedy the situ - about 400 B.C., Hippocrates, the father of modern ation, prisoners were forced to bury the very conta - medicine, recommended cider vinegar mixed with gious corpses of the victims. According to the legend, honey to treat coughs and colds. All through the ages, whereas most prisoners died, there were four pris - diluted vinegar has been used as a vitalizing and ener - oners who managed to survive by drinking daily large gizing tonic. Roman soldiers called this refreshing bev - quantities of vinegar macerated with garlic. Today it is erage “posca”. Vinegar was also used to clean and dis - still possible to buy this vinegar called “the four thieves infect wounds. One of the spin-offs of the study of his - vinegar”, named thus, because they proverbially tory through the ages is that it brings to light, quite in - robbed the corpses they were burying. cidentally, some surprising uses of vinegar. For in - stance, the Cartha ginian general Hannibal used The aristocrats of the 17 th and 18 th centuries held vinegar to cross the Alps to invade Italy in 218 B.C. sponges dipped in vinegar to their noses, to neutralize Titus Livius better known as Livy, wrote in his book the foul smell of sewage and waste prevalent at that «the History of Rome» Chapter XXI (in the Punic time. Little silver tins, called “vinaigrettes” were used Wars): «Hannibal’s soldiers were told to cut through to carry these soaked sponges, which were kept in the the rock that barred their way over the Alps. They built knobs of their walking sticks. Vinegar was also used for up against it an enormous pile of tall trees which they bodily hygiene. At the court of Versailles the ladies had felled and lopped, and when the wind was strong used it both for their ablutions and medicinal use enough to blow the fire into a blaze they set light to the (Mazza and Murooka 2009). pile. When the rock was red hot they threw vinegar on it (the sour wine the soldiers drank) to make it friable, The fabrication of vinegar was left to the care of nature and opened a way through it with their tools, making a for a long time and it was not until the Middle Ages that | ARCHIVES DES SCIENCE S | Arch.Sci. (2009) 62:147-160 | | The history of vinegar and of its acetification systems Jacques F. BOURGEOIS, François BARJA | 149 | B A C D­ Fig. 1. Old time pictures.

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