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Chemical and Mineralogical Approaches to the Organization of Late Bronze Age Nuzi Ware Production*

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Chemical and Mineralogical Approaches to the Organization of Late Bronze Age Nuzi Ware Production* Archaeometry 53, 6 (2011) 1171–1192 doi: 10.1111/j.1475-4754.2011.00597.x CHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL APPROACHES TO THE ORGANIZATION OF LATE BRONZE AGE NUZI WARE PRODUCTION* N. L. ERB-SATULLO† Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, 11 Divinity Avenue Cambridge, MA 02138, USA A. J. SHORTLAND Centre for Archaeological and Forensic Analysis, DEAS/CDS, Cranfield University, Shrivenham, Swindon SN6 8LA, UK and K. EREMIN Harvard Art Museums, 32 Quincy Street Cambridge, MA 02138, USA In order to investigate the nature and organization of high-status ceramic production in the Late Bronze Age, samples of Nuzi Ware from four different sites were analysed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM–EDS) and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectros- copy (ICP–AES). Chemical and mineralogical evidence suggests that Nuzi Ware was produced in at least two distinct regions, one probably in the Adhaim Basin in northern Iraq and another possibly in the Orontes catchment in southeastern Turkey. The existence of individual produc- tion units probably developed in response to the local elites’ desire to imitate the tastes of the Mitanni aristocracy, resulting in a mapping of political relationships on to material culture. KEYWORDS: LATE BRONZE AGE, NEAR EAST, NUZI WARE, ICP–AES, SEM–EDS, PROVENANCE, ORGANIZATION OF PRODUCTION INTRODUCTION During the Late Bronze Age, the Near East saw numerous changes in its political, social and economic structure. Interregional contacts defined the history of Near Eastern civilization from very early times, due to the scarcity of resources such as stone and metal in the alluvial plains of Mesopotamia. Around the middle of the second millennium bc, however, the rise of regional hegemons in Egypt, Anatolia and Mesopotamia set the stage for an unprecedented degree of diplomatic communication. State archives, particularly those from Tell Amarna in Egypt and Hattuša in Anatolia, attest to a vigorous correspondence and a highly developed system of international gift exchange (Liverani 2008; Shaw 2008). Situated between the Hittites, Egyptians and Kassite Babylonians, the Mitanni Kingdom held a central position in the Near East by the early 15th century bc, controlling large parts of Syria, southeastern Turkey and northern Mesopotamia. The lack of archival evidence from the incon- clusively identified capital Waššukanni makes the political organization and history of the Mitanni more obscure than that of its contemporaries (Akkermans and Schwartz 2003, 327). As *Received 31 August 2010; accepted 24 January 2011 †Corresponding author: email [email protected] © University of Oxford, 2011 1172 N. L. Erb-Satullo, A. J. Shortland and K. Eremin a result, archaeologists and ancient historians have a much poorer understanding of the Mitanni than of contemporary powers, and often rely on chronological synchronisms to reconstruct the history of the region (Evans 2008b). The relationship between the material culture of the region and the socio-political structure of the Mitanni state remains largely unexplored, beyond the generalization that high-status materials such as glass and Nuzi Ware have some association with the elite stratum of Mitanni society. Late Bronze Age political organization revolved around systems of vassal states and ever- changing spheres of influence. Regional powers wielded authority over extensive vassal net- works, but frequently had to campaign to maintain and extend their spheres of influence (van de Mieroop 2007, 136). Palace archives offer glimpses of a demand for elite materials driven by diplomatic gift exchange, tribute and war spoils. Particularly with regard to luxury goods, scholars have argued that these centres also exerted control over some aspects of production (Kuhrt 1995, 298). The unprecedented connectivity, at least at the highest levels, had a significant effect on the development of material culture across the Near East and Eastern Mediterranean. During this period, a distinctive white-on-dark painted fineware known as Nuzi Ware saw widespread usage, with a distribution ranging from the Orontes River in the east to beyond the Lesser Zab River in the west (Fig. 1). In addition to white-on-dark paint, Nuzi Ware has a more or less cohesive array of vessel shapes and design elements. Given the appearance of this decoration on delicate finewares in elite contexts (Stein 1984, 30; Evans 2008a; Pfälzner 2008) and the imitation of the stylistic repertoire found on early glass vessels (Hrouda 2001), the Nuzi Ware corpus has a clear connection with the wealthier strata of Mitanni society (Mullins 2010). Studying this ceramic tradition—unusual amidst the trend towards mass production in the Figure 1 A map of the region and the sites mentioned in the text (base map provided by Jason Ur). © University of Oxford, 2011, Archaeometry 53, 6 (2011) 1171–1192 The organization of Late Bronze Age Nuzi Ware production 1173 historic periods of Mesopotamia—offers a unique opportunity to study the effects of intra- regional political organization on elite material culture. Thus, the study of Nuzi Ware production permits an examination of economic and social relationships between cities and towns in the Mitanni state. In order to examine the relationship between Mitanni socio-political organization and material culture, this research project addresses several questions. Was Nuzi Ware the product of a single industry, or did multiple loci of production exist, each catering to local needs? How homogeneous did Nuzi Ware potters make the clay materials, whether through careful selection of clay beds, levigation or other methods of clay refining? This question applies both to clay chemistry and mineralogy, as well as to sizes and types of inclusions. Analysis of the chemistry and mineralogy of Nuzi Ware in conjunction with other Late Bronze Age ceramics will address these questions in new ways. ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND Nuzi Ware has sparked a debate over its scope, origins and relationship with other painted wares from the region. The designs display regional variation, with some arguing for more floral and vegetal patterns at Alalakh (Tell Atchana) (Woolley 1955, 349–50; Mullins 2010, 60), while at Nuzi, geometric patterns predominate (Moorey 1999, 158). The subset of Nuzi Ware found at Alalakh is sometimes referred to as Atchana ware. Alalakh’s first excavator, Leonard Woolley, argued that it was a possible local manufacture, but recent research suggests that it could be an import (Fink 2010, 102–10). Other scholars, looking at the assemblages from Tell Rimah and Tell Brak, argue for greater stylistic homogeneity closer to the Mitanni heartland (Postgate et al. 1997, 55). The latter site provides a long stratified sequence of Nuzi ware (Oates et al. 1997), which Pfälzner (2007) uses to delineate two ceramic traditions, Middle Jazireh IA and IB, in which Nuzi Ware appears in this region. Many see the popularity of Nuzi Ware as linked to the political spread of Mitanni power (Stein 1984). Given this proposed connection between pottery and politics, what does Nuzi Ware reveal about Mitanni society and economy? The centralized palace system of the great Late Bronze Age empires created demand for specific types of material culture, and might have resulted in the widespread exchange of high-status finewares between sites. The extreme case of this model would involve the exportation of Nuzi Ware from a single production region to the rest of the Mitanni sphere. Alternatively, one could argue that the vassal system imposed by these powers promoted an environment where local styles imitated those of the centralized core. Indeed, the lack of standardization and mass production evident in Middle Jazireh IA and IB traditions hints at a more dispersed mode of production (Pfälzner 2007, 257–8). While exchange may have played a part in initiating this system, scientific investigation of ceramic pastes should reveal multiple production centres if this model of production applies. Analysis of Nuzi Ware has previously been restricted to vessel form and decoration, and chemical and mineralogical analysis provides a fresh perspective on these issues. While published chemical and mineralogical analyses of Nuzi Ware are lacking, some studies have analysed Near Eastern ceramic materials from other periods (Mynors 1982; Eiland and Williams 2000; Broekmans et al. 2004, 2006, 2008; Kibarog˘lu 2005). Most successful are studies that combine a number of different methods and make a concerted effort to tie the geoarchaeo- logical analysis of ceramics with the geological variation of the region. Research on the tech- nology and production of ‘Metallic Ware’ has identified several different groups by their relative calcium content at Tell Brak and Tell Chuera (Schneider 1989) and also at Tell Beydar (Broek- mans et al. 2006). Another study (Mynors 1982) used instrumental neutron activation analysis © University of Oxford, 2011, Archaeometry 53, 6 (2011) 1171–1192 1174 N. L. Erb-Satullo, A. J. Shortland and K. Eremin (INAA) to investigate a number of ceramics from Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf area. Importantly, this work also uses ceramic petrology as a further comparison to support its conclusions, with the relative frequencies of the minerals epidote and biotite being the most important discriminants. Batiuk (2005) assessed the provenience of the late fourth to early third millennium bc Red-Black Burnished Wares from the Amuq Plain near Alalakh, arguing that many of the ceramics were locally produced. Other studies have examined
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