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Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction Du Branch Patrimoine De I'edition Jewish Politcal Participation in Late Imperial Russia, 1881-1917 by Alicia L. Lauersen Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts at Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia August, 2008 © Copyright by Alicia L. Lauersen, 2008 Library and Bibliotheque et 1*1 Archives Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-43971-5 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-43971-5 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives and Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par Plntemet, prefer, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans loan, distribute and sell theses le monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, worldwide, for commercial or non­ sur support microforme, papier, electronique commercial purposes, in microform, et/ou autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. this thesis. Neither the thesis Ni la these ni des extraits substantiels de nor substantial extracts from it celle-ci ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement may be printed or otherwise reproduits sans son autorisation. reproduced without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne Privacy Act some supporting sur la protection de la vie privee, forms may have been removed quelques formulaires secondaires from this thesis. ont ete enleves de cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires in the document page count, aient inclus dans la pagination, their removal does not represent il n'y aura aucun contenu manquant. any loss of content from the thesis. Canada DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY To comply with the Canadian Privacy Act the National Library of Canada has requested that the following pages be removed from this copy of the thesis: Preliminary Pages Examiners Signature Page (pii) Dalhousie Library Copyright Agreement (piii) Appendices Copyright Releases (if applicable) To Kimmy, Dan, Jen, Mischa, Katherine, Kim, Danielle, Ben, Katty, Laurie, Tanya and Sari Without whom it would have been a very long four months IV Table of Contents Abstract ...vi Acknowledgements .....vii Chapter One Introduction 1 Chapter Two 11 Maxim Mosevich Vinaverand Liberal-lntegrationism 11 Chapter Three 34 Ahad Ha-am and Spiritual Zionism 34 Chapter Four 54 Vladimir Davidovich Medem and the Bund 54 Chapter Five 77 Eva Broido and the Mensheviks 77 Chapter Six Conclusion 99 Bibliography 103 Primary Sources: 103 Secondary Sources: 103 v Abstract The twilight years of the Russian Empire saw an explosion of political, economic, and social change across all sectors of society. Spearheading these changes were political organisations intent on reforming the egregious societal ills fostered by centuries of autocratic rale. Russia's Jews, though a minority within the Empire, were actively involved in this quest for social justice, participating in a variety of political organisations. Maxim Vinaver and his fellow liberals sought to reform the existing system by limiting the power of the tsar and providing a responsible government to the people. Ahad Ha-am worked to create a separate state that would speak to the special spiritual requirements of the world's Jews. Vladimir Medem and the Bund fought for the unique needs of the Jewish workers, who suffered under a double yoke of persecution. Conversely, Eva Broido advocated international solidarity for all workers in an attempt to hasten the socialist revolution. The actions of these individuals paralleled the wider quest for social justice in Russia and Europe between 1881 and 1917, while highlighting different interpretations of what it meant to be a Jew. VI Acknowledgements I would like to thank John Bingham, Roni Gechtman and Norman Pereira for their help with this work. VII Chapter One Introduction The "Jewish question," or the question of how to resolve the political, economic and social circumstances of Russian Jewry, occupied an important place in the debates of Russia's intelligentsia during the last years of the Empire. After several failed attempts by the tsarist authorities to forcibly convert the Jews into Orthodox Russians, members of the Jewish community decided that the Jewish question would not, and could not be solved by outsiders, but rather "by the total change, collective action, political planning and organization" of their own people.1 However, there was no consensus among the Jewish population as to how this fundamental emancipation would be brought about. The Russian Empire acquired its first large population of Jews following the three partitions of Poland under Catherine the Great (1772,1793, and 1795). After acquiring Polish territories, Russia suddenly found itself with more than one million new Jewish subjects who had no legal classification under Russian law.2 Not entirely sure what to do with her new subjects, Empress Catherine categorised all Jews as members of the urban estate, regardless of their place of residence or occupation. As ethnic-national minorities, Jonathan Frankel. Prophecy and Politics: Socialism, Nationalism and the Russian Jews, 1862-1917 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 2. 2 The new Jewish subjects did not conform to any of the established Russian castes. They were not peasants, noblemen, nor did they belong to the clergy. 1 they were classified as inorodtsy (aliens), as were the nomadic peoples of Russia's Far East. It has been argued that "the underlying rationale for including Jews and eastern inorodtsy in the same category was either that the Russian authorities perceived both groups as a dangerous alien presence in the body politic, or simply that it was a pejorative term highlighting the Jews lower level of civic and cultural development." However, Russia's Jews faced different legislation than other minorities in the empire; for example, they were subject to collective taxes not faced by Ukrainians or Poles. Further underlining their ambiguous place in society, Catherine retained the Jews' traditional self- governing institution known as the kahal, but did not grant the Jews representation in municipal Gentile governments. The kahal was responsible for the payment of collective taxes imposed on the communities, and later for military conscripts, and ensuring the elections of state-sponsored rabbis. Within the Jewish community the kahal was responsible for the enforcement of Jewish law and implementing the decisions of the Beth-din (Jewish court system), daily administrative functions, and the collection and distribution of taxes for the community, such as the tax on kosher meat. In addition, if Jews converted to Russian Orthodoxy they would receive the same rights as Great Russians, but still be classified as "of Jewish descent" on all official documents. John W. Slocum, "Who, and When Were the Inorodtsy? The Evolution of the Category of'Aliens' in Imperial Russia," Russian Review, 57 (1998): 173-190. 2 The officials of the kahal had to walk the fine line between ministering to the needs of their communities and fulfilling their obligations to the state. Because of their precarious position, the kahal at various times found itself under attack by Russian anti-Semites as well as members of its own communities.4 For example, given the collective nature of Jewish taxation within the empire, the wealthy often had to pay the taxes of the poor. As such, when compulsory military conscription came into effect in 1827, the kahal sought to relieve the community's tax burden by drafting the sons of the poor first, thereby causing enmity between the classes of the community. Almost immediately after their inclusion in the empire Jews were considered to be a "problem," which stemmed from the dual forces of their "fanaticism" and "exploitation."6 For an in-depth examination of the functions and operations of the traditional Jewish kahal within the community, see Isaac Levitats, The Jewish Community in Russia, 1772- 1844 (New York: Octagon Books, 1970). 5 Once a community member was conscripted he was no longer included in the Jewish communal tax assessment. By drafting the poorest first, the kahal reduced the financial burden to the wealthy members of the community, who often had to pay the tax for the poorer members. To further highlight class differences within the community, those exempt from military conscription included rabbis, merchants of the first guild, students and graduates of Russian schools, apprentices and masters in craft guilds, skilled factory workers and agricultural workers. Levitas, The Jewish Community in Russia, 60. John Doyle Klier, Imperial Russia's Jewish Question, 1855-1881 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 2. 3 The Jews, it was said, considered themselves to be a chosen people, superior to all other nations among whom they dwelt. They loathed the non-Jew, and kept themselves isolated and apart from Gentile society. Jews felt no loyalty to their place of birth, to their fellow subjects, or to the
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