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SENSATION AND PERCEPTION An Integrated Approach Fourth Edition Harvey Richard Schiffman Rutgers, The State University JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. New York Chichester Brisbane Toronto Singapore CONTENTS AN INTRODUCTION TO Detection and Noise, 26 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 1 ROC Curves, 30 Sensation and Perception, 2 Subliminal Perception, 33 The Historical and Scientific Roots of Sensation Semantic Priming, 34 and Perception, 3 The Difference Threshold, 35 Empiricism and the Senses, 3 Weber's Fraction, 35 Sensation and Perception as Interdisciplinary Sciences, 5 Fechner's Law, 36 Approaches to the Study of Sensation and Stevens' Power Law, 38 Perception, 5 The Relativity of Psychophysical Structuralism, 5 Judgments, 41 Gestalt Psychology, 6 Summary, 42 Constructivist Approach, 6 Direct Perception, 7 1 THE VISUAL SYSTEM 45 Computational Approach, 8 The Physical Stimulus, 46 Neurophysiological Approach, 9 •Wavelength, 46 Why Study Sensation and Perception? 9 Intensity, 47 Physiological Perspective: Neuronal Light Reception, 48 Communication, 11 Anatomy of the Vertebrate Eye, 51 The Neuron, 11 Iris, Pupil, and Whytt's Reflex, 51 Neural Transmission, 12 The Lens, 54 Sensory-Neural Transmission and Integration, 15 The Retina, 54 Sensory Receptots, 16 Variations in Eye Position: Mobility and Summary, 19 Placement, 60 Eye Mobility, 60 PSYCHOPHYSICS 21 Placement of the Eyes and the Visual Field, 60 Detection and the Absolute Threshold, 22 Accommodation, 61 Psychophysical Methods, 23 Refractive Errors, 64 Signal Detection Theory (SDT), 25 Lens Aberrations, 66 Sensitivity Versus Response Bias, 25 Astigmatism, 67 XIII XfV • CONTENTS Pupil Mobility, 67 Object Identification and Localization: Focal Pupillometry, 69 and Ambient Systems, 108 Eyeblinks, 69 Blindsight, 108 Eye and Brain, 70 Summary, 109 Visual Pathway of Eye to Brain, 70 Receptive Fields, 72 COLOR VISION 112 Receptive Fields for Ganglion Cells: Centet-Surround The Function of Color Vision, 113 Organization, 73 The Nature of Color, 113 X, Y, and W Cells, 74 _ The Dimensions of Color, 114 Receptive Fields for the LGN, 75 Color Mixture, 116 Receptive Fields for the Visual Cortex, 76 Additive Color Mixtute, 116 Cortical Cells and Featute Detection, 81 Subttactive Color Mixture, 120 Summary, 84 Afterimages, 122 Successive and Simultaneous Contrast, 122 FUNDAMENTAL Memory Color, 123 VISUAL FUNCTIONS Color Constancy, 124 AND PHENOMENA 88 Factors Influencing Color Constancy, 124 Scotopic and Photopic Vision, 88 Function of Color Constancy, 125 Adaptation, 89 Theories of Color Perception, 125 Measuring Dark Adaptation, 89 Trichromatic Receptor Theory (Young—Helmholtz The Photochemical Basis of Dark Adaptation, 91 Theory), 125 Spectral Sensitivity and the Purkinje Shift, 92 Opponent-Process Theory, 127 Limits of Basic Visual Function, 94 Defective Color Vision, 130 The Absolute Thteshold, 94 Anomalous Trichromatism, 130 Factors Affecting the Absolute Threshold, 94 Dichromatism, 132 Perceiving Continuity from Intetmittent Light: Monochromatism, 133 The CFF, 95 The Sttuctutal Basis of Defective Color Vision, 133 Acuity, 96 Cottical Color Blindness, 134 Visual Angle, 97 Subjective Colors, 134 Recognition Acuity and the Eye Chart, 99 Summary, 135 Hyperacuity, 99 Acuity and Retinal Location, 100 •6~H BASIC PROPERTIES Eye Movements, 100 OF PERCEPTUAL Saccades, 101 ORGANIZATION 138 Pursuit Movements, 105 Contour and Contrast Perception, 138 Vestibulo-Ocular Eye Movements, 105 Latetal Inhibition, 139 Vergence Movements, 106 Hetmann Grid, 141 Miniature Eye Movements, 106 Lightness Contrast, 142 Mixed-Mode Eye Movements, 107 The Ganzfeld: Perception in a Homogeneous Field, 142 Development of Efficient Eye Movements, 107 Stabilized Image, 145 CONTENTS D XV Spatial Frequency Analysis, 147 Cl8^ THE PERCEPTION OF Spatial Frequencies, 147 MOVEMENT 195 Contrast Sensitivity Function, 149 Motion Detectors, 195 Selective Adaptation, 151 Movement Systems of the Eye, 196 Image-Processing: Block Portraits, 152 Image-Retina Movement System, 196 Spatial Frequency and Acuity, 153 Eye—Head Movement System, 197 The Role of Spatial Frequency Analysis in Vision, 154 The Pattern of Optical Stimulation for Movement Perceptual Processing, 154 Perception, 200 Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processes, 155 Optic Flow Patterns, 200 Preattentive and Focused Attention Stages, 155 Retinal Expansion and Rate of Movement, 200 Object Identification: Recognition by Components, 156 Thtesholds for Movement, 201 The Computational Approach, 158 Biological Motion, 201 The Connectionist Model, 160 Distortions in the Perception of Movement, 202 Summary, 161 Motion-Produced Depth: Kinetic Depth Effect, 202 Anotthoscopic Perception, 203 Induced Movement, 204 HIGHER PROCESSES OF PERCEPTUAL Pulftich Effect, 205 ORGANIZATION 163 Apparent Movement, 205 Sttoboscopic Movement, 205 Figure—Ground Perception, 163 Motion Pictures, 206 Ambiguous Figure—Ground Relationships, 164 Autokinetic Movement, 209 Perceptual Differences Between Figure and Ground, 166 Movement Aftereffects, 209 Figure—Ground and Lightness, 166 The Prediction of Motion Paths, 210 Figure-Ground and Perceptual Organization, 167 Summary, 212 The Gestalt Approach, 168 Gestalt Psychology Versus Structutalism, 169 MONOCULAR AND Gestalt Grouping Principles, 170 BINOCULAR VISION 215 Measures of Grouping Effects, 171 Monocular Cues for Spatial Perception, 215 Law of Pragnanz, 173 Interposition, 215 Subjective Contours, 175 Aerial Perspective or Clearness, 216 Apparent Overlap, 176 Shading and Lighting, 216 Temporal Factors in Shape Perception, 179 Elevation, 217 Masking, 179 Linear Perspective, 218 Aftereffects, 181 Textute Gradients, 218 Figural Orientation and Form Perception, 185 Relative Size, 219 Perceptual Set, 187 Familiar Size, 220 Perceptual Set, Reading, and the Stroop Effect, 190 Pictorial Perception, 224 Perceptual Set and Scene Perception, 190 Motion Patallax, 226 Bottom-up or Top-Down Processing? 192 Motion Perspective, 228 Summary, 192 Accommodation, 228 XVI • CONTENTS Binocular Cues, 228 Multiple Determinants of Illusions, 278 Convergence, 228 Optical-Retinal Components, 279 Binocular Disparity, 228 Cognitive Components, 280 Corresponding Retinal Points and the Hotopter, 230 Multiple-Illusion Figures, 281 Binocular Disparity and Steteopsis, 233 Impossible Figures, 282 Cyclopean Perception, 236 Summary, 283 Physiological Basis of Binocular Disparity, 240 The Interaction of Cues to Space, 241 PERCEPTUAL Constructivist Approach to Spatial Cues, 241 DEVELOPMENT 288 Gibson's Direct Approach, 242 Development of the Sensory System, 289 The Visual Cliff, 242 Cortical Effects of Visual Deptivation, 289 Summary, 244 Cottical Effects of Biased and Selective Visual Stimulation, 290 Effects of Biased Stimulation for the Human, 291 CONSTANCY AND Restoted Sight with Humans, 293 ILLUSIONS 247 Perception of the Newborn Human, 294 Perceptual Constancy, 247 Eye Fixations and Scanning, 295 Lightness Constancy, 248 Form and Pattern Perception, 296 Size Constancy, 251 Color Perception, 299 Shape Constancy, 256 Visual Acuity, 300 Visual Illusions, 259 Space Perception, 302 Transactionalism and the Ames Illusions, 259 Development of Perceptual-Motor The Ames Illusions, 260 Coordination, 306 Illusions of Depth, Distance, and Constancy, 263 Perceptual-Motot Cootdination, 306 The Mooon Illusion, 263 Perceptual Adaptation to Distorted Visual Angle-of-Regard Hypothesis, 263 Stimulation, 308 Apparent Distance Hypothesis, 264 Adaptation to Ptism-Induced Distottion, 308 Relative Size Hypothesis, 266 Adaption to Optical Invetsion and Reversal, 309 The Miiller-Lyer Illusion, 266 Active Movement and Adaptation, 310 Perspective-Constancy Theory, 266 Comparative Studies of Adaptation, 312 The Ponzo Illusion, 268 Vision and Aging, 312 The Ponzo Illusion and Perspective, 269 The Eye and Aging, 313 The Ponzo Illusion and Framing Effects, 270 The Retina and Aging, 313 The Poggendorff Illusion, 272 . Visual Acuity and Aging, 314 The Poggendorff Illusion and Perspective Constancy, 273 Summary, 314 The Horizontal-Vertical Illusion, 274 Contrast Illusions, 275 THE AUDITORY Ambiguous, Reversible, and Multistable SYSTEM 318 Figures, 276 The Physical Stimulus, 318 Multistable Figures and Adaptation, 277 Frequency, 320 CONTENTS • XVII Amplitude, 321 Consonance and Dissonance, 361 Complexity, 324 Laboratory versus Natural Sounds, 361 Phase, 327 Summary, 362 Resonance, 328 Anatomy and Mechanisms of the Ear, 328 SOUND AS The Outer Ear, 328 INFORMATION 364 The Middle Ear, 330 The Auditory Pathway and Central Structures, 364 The Inner Ear, 332 Cerebral Dominance and Hearing, 366 The Auditory Nerve, 335 Auditory Space Perception, 367 Functioning of the Inner Ear, 336 Monaural Cues, 367 The Place Theory, 336 Binaural Cues, 368 The Frequency-Matching Theory, 339 The Pinna and Localization, 373 Cooperation of Place and Frequency-Matching Echolocation, 373 Mechanisms, 340 Obstacle Perception by the Blind, 375 Auditory Pathology, 341 Perception of Music, 377 Tinnitus, 341 Dimensions of Music, 377 Ptesbyacusis, 341 Absolute or Perfect Pitch and Tone Deafness, 379 Hearing Loss, 342 Perception of Pitch Sequences: Melodies, 379 Causes of Hearing Loss and Deafness, 344 Comparative Auditory Structures, 345 Chtomesthesia and Music, 380 Summary, 346 Function of Music Perception, 381 Perception of Speech, 381 Range of Speech Sounds, 382 Speech Perception with Sound Distortion, 383 General Issues in Speech Perception, 386 PSYCHOACOUSTICS 350 Perception of Words, 387 Intensity, 350 Uniqueness of Speech, 387 Intensity Discrimination, 351 Auditory
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