Fossil Birds, Reptiles and Amphibians

Home , Eosphargis, Gastornis, Mullerornis, Mystriosaurus, Rhinochelys, Sclerotic ring

A GUIDE

TO THE

FOSSIL BIRDS, REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

IN THE DEPARTMENT OF

GEOLOGY AND PALAEONTOLOGY

IN THE

BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY), CROMWELL ROAD, LONDON, S.W. 7

WITH 9 PLATES AND 51 TEXT-FIGURES

LONDON:

PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM.

Sold at the British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, S.W. 7,

and by

B. Quaritch, Ltd. ; Dulau & Co., Ltd. ; and The Oxford University Press.

1934 r \

PRICE ONE SHILLING

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4'v$&::-■ ■■■■■.. ■'*'■ n :-v"-.i... ?i - Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries A GUIDE

TO THE FOSSIL BIRDS, REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

IN THE DEPARTMENT OF

GEOLOGY AND PALAEONTOLOGY

IN THE

BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY),

CROMWELL ROAD, LONDON, S.W. 7

W.. E. SWINTON, PH.D., F.KS.E.

LONDON:

PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM.

Sold at the British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, S.W. 7,

and by

B. Quaritch, Ltd. ; Dulau & Co., Ltd. ; and The Oxeord University Press.

1934

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Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries TABLE OF CONTENTS.

page

Table of Contents ...... iii

List of Plates ...... iv

List of Illustrations in Text .... V

Preface ......

Introduction ......

Table of Stratified Rocks .... Opposite p. xii

Class II.—AVES.

Sub-class I.—Ornithurje ..... 1

Order.—.Droji^ognathas .....

Sub-class II.—Saurur^e ..... 12

Class III.—REPTILIA.

Order I.—Squamata ...... 16 Sub-order 1.—Ophidia (Snakes) 16

„ 2.—Lacertilia (Lizards) 17

,, 3.—Dolichosauria 17

„ 4.—Pythonomorpha 18

Order II.—Pterosauria ..... 20

„ III.—Crocodilia (Crocodiles and Alligators) . 24

,, IV.—Dinosauria ..... 29 a. Saurischia—

Sub-order 1.—Theropoda .... 30

„ 2.—Sauropoda .... 32 b. Ornithischia—

,, 1.—Ornitiiopoda .... 40

,, 2.—Stegosauria .... 45

Order V.—Rhynciiocephalia .... 47

,, VI.—Theromorpha or Anomodontia . 48

Sub-order 1.—Theriodontia .... 49

,, 2.—Dicynodontia .... 51

,, 3.—Dromasauria .... 51

„ 4.—Dinocephalia .... 51

5.—Pelycosauria .... 52

Order VII.—Cotylosauria ..... 52

,, VIII.—Sauropterygia .... 55

,, IX.—Placodontia ..... 63

,, X. ichthy"opterygia . , • 63

,, XI.—Chelonia (Tortoises and Turtles) 70 Sub-order 1.—Trionychoidea 71

,, 2.—Cryptodira .... 71

,, 3.—Pleurodira .... 75

,, 4.—Amphichelydia . . .75

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries iv LIST OF PLATES

Class IV.—AMPHIBIA. page

Order I.—Anura or Ecaudata (Frogs and Toads) ... 76 ,, II.—Urodela or Caudata (Newts and Salamanders) . . 76

,, III.—Stegocephalia ...... 77

Sub-order 1.—Temnospondyli ...... 78

,, 2.—Lepospondyli ...... 81

,, 3.—Phyllospondyli 81

Fossil Footprints ...... 82

LIST OF PLATES.

I.—Skeleton of the Gigantic Moa (Dinornis maximus) from New Zealand ...... Opposite p. 6

II. Fossil Lizard-tailed Bird, Archceopteryx macrura, from the Litho¬

graphic Stone (Upper Jurassic) of Eichstadt, Bavaria . Op. p. 11

III. Photograph (by Mr. J. T. Pigg) of a reproduction in plaster of a Dinosaurian Land-Reptile (Diplodocus carnegii), 84 feet in

length, from the Upper Jurassic, Wyoming, U.S.A. . Op. p. 32

IV. Hind Limb and Tail of a Dinosaurian Land-Reptile (Cetiosaurus leedsi) discovered by Mr. Alfred N. Leeds in the Oxford Clay near Peterborough ...... Op. p. 36

V. Skeleton of a Dinosaurian Land-Reptile (Iguanodon atherjieldensis), discovered by Mr. R. W. Hooley in the Wealden of Atherfield, Isle of Wight ..... Op. p. 42

VI. Skeleton of a Cotylosaurian Land-Reptile (Pareiasaurus baini), discovered by Prof. H. G. Seeley in the Karroo Formation of Tamboer Fontein, Cape Colony ..... Op. p. 52

VII. Skeleton of a Plesiosaurian Marine Reptile (Cryptocleidus oxoniensis), discovered by Mr. Alfred N. Leeds in the Oxford

Clay near Peterborough ...... Op. p. 58

VIII. Skeleton of a Marine Ichthyosaurian (Ichythosaurus tenuirostris), from the Lower Lias of Street, Somersetshire . . Op. p. 66

IX. Skulls of Two Species of a Horned Tortoise (Miolania). (a) Miolania a'rgentina, from the supposed Cretaceous of Chubut, Argentina ; (6) Miolania oiveni, from the Pleistocene of Queens¬ land ...... Op. p. 72

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT.

FIG. PAGE 1. Skull and lower jaw of Odontopteryx toliapica, with bony denticles on jaws, from the London Clay of Sheppey .... 2 2. Skeleton of a toothed flightless bird, Hesperornis regalis, from the

Cretaceous of Kansas, U.S.A. (After Marsh) .... 3 3. Skeleton of a toothed flying bird, Ichthyornis victor, from the Cretaceous of Kansas, U.S.A. (After Marsh) .... 4 4. Restored skull and lower jaw of Phororhachos longissimus, from the Santa of Cruz Formation Patagonia ..... 5 5. Diagrammatic sketch of the fossil Lizard-tailed Bird, Archmopteryx macrura, from the Lithographic Stone (Upper Jurassic) of

Eichstadt, Bavaria ...... 13 6. Skull and lower jaw of Archmopteryx siemensi, showing teeth, from the Lithographic Stone (Upper Jurassic) of Eichstadt, Bavaria.

(After Dames)', ...... 14 7. Jaws of Mosasaurus camperi, from the Upper Cretaceous of

Maastricht, Holland. (After Cuvier) ..... 18 8. Skeleton of Platecarpus coryphceus, from the Upper Cretaceous of

Kansas, U.S.A. (After Williston) ...... 19 9. Skeleton of Pteranodon occidentalis, from the Upper Cretaceous of

Kansas ...... 21 10. Skeleton of Pterodactylus spectabilis, from the Upper Jurassic

Lithographic Stone of Bavaria ...... 22 11. Restoration of Rhampliorhynchus phyllurus, from the Lithographic

Stone of Bavaria. (After 0. C. Marsh) .... 23 12. of Skull the existing Crocodilus paluslris, from India . . . ' 25 13. Skull of Metriorhynchus hastifer, from the Kiinmeridge Clay of Normandy ...... 26 14. Tooth of Dakosaurus maximus, from the Kimmeridge Clay of Ely . 27 15. Skull of Pelagosaurus typus,.from the Upper Lias of Normandy.

(After Owen) ...... 28 16. Skull of Belodon kapffi, from the ICeuper of Wiirtemberg. (After H. von Meyer) ...... 29 17. Skull and mandible of Ceratosaurus nasicomis, from the Upper Jurassic of Colorado, U.S.A. (After 0. C. Marsh) . . 31 18. Tooth of Thecodontosaurus platyodon, from the Upper Trias of

Bristol ...... 31 19. Skull and mandible of Diplodocus. from the Upper Jurassic of

Colorado, U.S.A. (After P. C. Marsh) .... 32 20. Skeleton of Brontosaurus excelsus, from the Upper Jurassic of Wyoming, U.S.A. (After 0. C. Marsh) .... 36

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries VI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT

FIG. PAGE 21. Tooth, probably of Ornithopsis hulkei, from the Wealden of the Isle of Wight ...... 39

22. Tooth of Iguanodon, from the Wealden of Sussex ... 41 23. Skeleton of Iguanodon bernissartensis, from the Wealden of

Belgium. (After L. Dollo) ...... 41 24. Skull and mandible of Iguanodon bernissartensis, from the Wealden of Belgium. (After L. Hollo) ...... 42 25. Skull and mandible of Sterrholophus flabellatus, from the Cretaceous of Wyoming, U.S.A. (After 0. C. Marsh) .... 46 26. Restored skeleton of Triceratops prorsus, from the Cretaceous of

Wyoming, U.S.A. (After 0. C. Marsh) .... 46 27. Upper tooth of Scelidosaurus harrisoni, from the Lower Lias of

Charmouth, Dorset ...... 47 28. Skull and mandible of Hyperodapedon gordoni, from the Trias of

Elgin. (After A. S. Woodward) ...... 48 29. Skull and mandible of Mlurosaurus felinus, from the Karroo Formation of South Africa. (After Owen) .... 50 ■30. Skulls of Dicynodon lacerticeps and Aulacocephalodon baini, from the

Karroo Formation of South Africa. (After Owen) . . 50 31. Dorsal vertebra of Naosaurus claviger, from the Permian of Texas.

(After E. D. Cope) ...... 52 32. Vertebra of Plesiosaurus, from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis . 56 33. Skeleton of Plesiosaurus macrocephalus, with restored outline of

body and tail-fin, from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis . 57 34. 'Tooth of Polyptychodon interruptus, from the Cambridge Greensand 58 35. Sauropterygian mandibles ...... 61 36. Skull and mandible of Nothosaurus mirabilis, from the German

Musehelkalk ...... 62

37. Skeleton of Lariosaurus balsami, from the Italian Musehelkalk . 62 38. Skull of Cyamodus laticeps, from the German Musehelkalk . . 63 39. Skeleton of Ichthyosaurus communis, with restored outline of

body and fins, from the English Lower Lias . . .64 40. Skull and mandible of Ichthyosaurus zetlandicus, from the Upper Lias of Normandy. (After Zittel) ..... 65 41. Tooth of Ichthyosaurus campylodon, from the Lower Chalk of

Folkestone ...... 65 42. Vertebral centrum of Ichthyosaurus, from the Kimmeridge Clay of

Wiltshire ...... 66 43. Paddles of Ichthyosaurus intermedins, from the Lower Lias of

Lyme Regis ...... 69 44. Carapace of Hardella thurgi, from the Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills,

India ...... 70 45. Skeleton of the existing Logger-head Turtle (Thalassochelys

caretta) ...... 71 46. Carapace of Chelone benstedi, from the Ghalk of Kent ... 72 47. Skeleton of Andrias scheuchzeri (" Homo diluvii testis "), from the

Upper Miocene of Oeningen, Baden ..... 77 48. Skull of Mastodonsaurus giganteus, from the Lower Keuper of Wiirtemberg. (After E. Fraas) ...... 78 49. Transverse section of tooth of Mastodonsaurus giganteus, from the Lower Keuper of Wiirtemberg. (After Owen) . . 79 50. Vertebra of Actinodon rochei, from the Lower Permian of France.

(After A. Gaudry) ...... 80 51. Footprints of Cheirotherium barthi, from the Bunter Sandstone of Saxony ...... 82

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries PREFACE

This Guide is based on the tenth edition of the ' Guide to Fossil Reptiles, Amphibians and Fishes ' ; but the Fishes have been excluded, and the Birds have been added. As the whole has been considerably re-arranged, revised, and brought up to date, while parts have been rewritten, it is rather the first edition of a new Guide than a new edition of the old. Although its arrangement has mainly been determined by the plan of the Galleries, the temporary nature of some of the exhibits and the re-arrangement schemes for the Galleries of vertebrates on the one hand, and the fact that the Guide is much used by students of Palaeontology on the other, have dictated certain modifications, and demanded the omission in some instances of precise details of exhibition cases. Like the other Guides to the Department, however, it assumes some elementary zoological knowledge on the part of the reader. Many of the specimens bear small discs of green or red paper. Those marked with green discs are either " type-specimens or have been described and illustrated in some scientific work, to which a reference is given on the label. Those marked with red discs have been merely noticed or briefly described in print.

W. D. LANG, October, 1933. Keeper of Geology.

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Objects much resembling fishes, shells, plants, and other remains of living things, have been noticed in rocks from time immemorial. They are so abundant and conspicuous in some of the countries round the Mediterranean, where the Greek and Roman civilizations flourished, that they cannot fail to have attracted the attention of the earliest observers. Herodotus, for example, referred to sea-shells from the stone quarries in the hills of Egypt and the Libyan desert. Other contemporary philosophers and writers made similar observations, and most of them appear to have reached the very natural conclusion that these petrified relics were originally buried in the bed of the sea, which had hardened and become dry land through the retreat of the waters. At this early period in the study of natural philosophy, however, it was a common belief that animals could originate from the mud or slime of lakes and rivers. There was therefore another reasonable explanation of their occurrence as petrifac¬ tions in stone which seemed simpler, because it did not involve any startling theories as to great changes in the relations of land and sea. If certain animals could be generated in mud, it appeared quite probable that they should sometimes remain concealed in their native element without reaching the surface, and in that case they would become hardened into stone itself. As Tbeophrastus remarked concerning petrified fishes, they might have " either developed from fresh spawn left behind in the earth, or gone astray from rivers or the sea into cavities of the earth, where they had become petrified These bodies

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thus appeared to be mere curiosities, and they were treated as such by Aristotle, who was content to regard them as produced by some plastic force in the rock which he could not explain. The authoritative opinion of Aristotle was almost universally accepted by the few writers who considered the subject before the revival of learning towards the beginning of the sixteenth century. By this time the numerous shells, teeth, and fish- remains met with in the stone quarries of Italy had induced several observers in that country to reconsider the question of their true nature. Similar discoveries in other European countries were also being discussed in their bearing on the same problem. The objects found in stone were now closely compared with the shells, teeth, and skeletons of the animals most nearly resembling them which still lived in the Mediterranean sea. The plant-remains were also studied deeply in connexion with the leaves of the known existing vegetation. The result was that, although many observers still adhered to the long-prevalent belief, some of the most philosophical minds were compelled by strict reasoning to admit that the fossilia (Latin, " things dug up "), or fossils, as they were now commonly termed, were really the remains of the once-living animals and plants which they appeared to represent. Leonardo da Vinci, the well-known painter, was one of the first to support this opinion with unanswer¬ able arguments ; while Steno, a Professor in the University of Padua, more than a century later, made it impossible any longer to doubt his demonstration of the facts. Steno's collection was acquired by the English Gresham Professor, John Woodward, who bequeathed it to the University of Cambridge, where it is still preserved in the Sedgwick Museum. The true nature of fossils was thus settled by the beginning of the eighteenth century, and the next problem was to explain how the remains of sea-animals had been buried in the rocks far inland and at great heights among hills and mountains. For at least sixty years it was the prevailing opinion that all the pheno¬ mena could be accounted for by the Deluge recorded in the Pentateuch. There were, however, manylLffficulties in accepting this explanation, and the discussions at the time led to a most detailed study of the manner in which the fossils were grouped and distributed in the different kinds of rock. Observations accumulated at a remarkable rate, until, by the end of the eighteenth century it became quite clear that these animals and plants whose remains had been fossilized could not have lived

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all together at one time, but belonged to many different periods of the earth's history. Their destruction and burial, therefore, could not be ascribed to any single great catastrophe. It was demonstrated that during past ages the distribution of land and sea, mountains and plains, had frequently changed—that, in fact, rain, rivers, waves, currents, volcanoes, and phenomena like earthquakes, were continually altering the earth's surface, even under the eyes of man himself. The fossils were proved in most cases to be buried in displaced portions of sea-bottom, and in the mud of dried-up lakes ; and it was realized that the relative ages of these deposits could be determined by the order in which they lay one upon another. Thus arose the true " science of the earth ", which was named Geology by De Luc * in 1778. An English civil engineer, William Smith (1769-1839), was perhaps the first to realize fully the possibilities of this new branch of learning. His profession necessitated much travel through the country, and his interest in the distribution of fossils in the different kinds of rock led him to make a large collection, which was acquired by the British Museum in 1816, and is now exhibited in the Department of Geology. His published maps and writings prove that the various features of the landscape, in districts where fossils occur, are naturally carved out of layers of rock, which are simply old sea-beds or lake-beds piled one upon another, the oldest at the bottom, the newest at the top, each containing its own definite and invariable set of fossils. They also show that in most cases when these old sediments were raised into dry land, they were tilted in various ways from their originally horizontal position ; so that it is often possible in a short walk to pass over the cut edges of many successive layers, perhaps hundreds of feet in thickness, representing immense periods of time. While Smith and others were busily engaged in collecting fossils and observing their distribution, Blumenbach, Cuvier, Lamarck, Brongniart and other naturalists were occupied with a detailed study of the fossils themselves. They soon demon¬ strated that, while most of these petrified remains could be interpreted by comparing them with the life of the present world, a large proportion represented animals and plants no longer existing. They also observed that the older the fossils, the more strikingly different they were from any animals and plants now living. It therefore became evident that fossils

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afforded a means of discovering the past history of life on the earth—of determining the gradual stages of which our present animals and plants have become what they are, and have assumed their present geographical distribution. Thus was attained the " science of ancient life which was named Palaeontology by H. D. de Blainville and Fischer von Waldheim in 1834. The Department of Geology in the British Museum chiefly deals with fossils from the latter point of view, and attempts to explain the main features in the life of the Present by reference to that of the Past.

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries A GEOLOGICAL TIME-SCALE, WITH EXAMPLES OF FOSSILIFEROUS ROCKS. RELATIVE LENGTHS OF EPOCHS

Range in Time Eras. Epochs. British. AS REPRESENTED BY THICKNESS OF ROCKS. oe Liee-Groupk.

TERTIARY. 1,000 ft. K, HOLOCENE Blown sand, alluvium, beaches, tufa, iieat, shell beds, etc., as now forming. CRETACEOUS. 2,500 ft.

a JURASSIC. 5,000 ft. PLEISTOCENE Alluvium, etc., as above; valley-gravels, boulder-clays, brick-earth. Norfolk Forest-bed. TRIASSIC. .'1,000 ft. PLIOCENE . Norwich and Red Crags. Coralline Crag ; Lenham Beds. PERMIAN. 1.500 ft.

MIOCENE .

CARBONIFEROUS.

OLIGOCENE . Hempstead. Bembridge. 12,000 ft. Osborne and Headon.

Barton EOCENE . and Bagshot. Bracklesham. Alum Bay Beds. London Clay ; Thanet Sands. DEVONIAN. -l.,000 ft.

CRETACEOUS Upper Chalk (Senonian). Middle Chalk (Turonian). SILURIAN. Lower Chalk ; Chalk Marl (Cenomahian). Upper Greensand ; Red Chalk; Gault. 7,000 ft. ctf Lower Greensand. Atherfield Clay. Q Wealden. z o u JURASSIC Purbeck ; Portland Scone and Sands. Kimmeridge Clay. Corallian Limestone ; Ampthill Clay. Oxford Clay. ORDOVICIAN. Kellaways Rock. Cornbrash ; Forest Marble ; Great Oolite I Estua- 15,000 ft. Inferior Oolite | rine. Upper Lias. Mid Lias, Marlstone, Cleveland Ironstone. Lower Lias.

TRIASSIC White Lias, Penarth Beds Waterstones, Elgin Sandstone, Tea-green Marls New

Pebble Beds, Variegated Sandstone . Red Sand¬ PERMIAN stone. Mngnesian Limestone .... CAMBRIAN. Red Marls and Sandstones, Penrith Beds 12,000 ft.

CARBONI¬ Coal Measures .... FEROUS Millstone Grit; Yoredale Beds Culm. Mountain Limestone

DEVONIAN Upper Devonian || Middle ,. I Old,Red Sandstone.

Lower ,,

SILURIAN Downton and Ludlow Series. Wedlock and Woolhope Series. Tarannon and Llandovery Series.

ORDOVICIAN Bala, Cliirbury and Caradoc Series. PRECAMBRIAN. Llandeilo and Middleton Series. Arenig, Shelve, and Skiddaw. Extent unknown.

CAMBRIAN Tremadoe and Shineton Beds. Lingula Flags. Menevian Series. Harlech, Caerfai, and Hartshill Series.

PRECAMBRIAN A large series of rocks of which only the uppermost ha ve yielded fossils, and those for the most part obscure, as the worm burrows in the Longmynd.

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries A G U J D E

TO THE FOSSIL BIRDS, REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

GALLERY No. 2-FOSSIL BIRDS

Remains of birds are very rare among fossils, except in comparatively modern deposits on land ; and even under these circumstances they are usually quite fragmentary. They occur most commonly in swamps, such as the English Fenland ; in the bed of silted-up lakes ; and in caverns and fissures. They are only found by rare accident in the marine and fresh-water deposits of an earlier geological date.

Class II.—AVES.

Sub-Class I.—Ornithurae.

The English Prehistoric and Pleistocene birds, so far as known from the local deposits just mentioned, were essentially similar to those which have lived in this country during historic times. Of special interest, however, is the discovery of remains of the pelican in the Fenland and in Yorkshire, and in refuse heaps on the site of an ancient British village near Glastonbury. It is also worthy of note that the great auk or gare fowl (Alca impennis), which became extinct in 1844, has been found in deposits in the north of England, Scotland, Jersey, and Ireland ; and a complete skeleton of this bird, discovered by Professor John Milne in a guano deposit on Funk Island, off Newfoundland, is exhibited in a special Case marked KK, near the S.E. window. Among older remains of European flying birds exhibited in Table-case 13 may be noted a leg-bone of an albatross (Diomeclea) from the Red Crag of Suffolk ; bones of flamingo-like birds (Palceloclus, Phcenicopterus), a species of ibis, ducks, and other 1

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birds from the Miocene of France ; and various eggs and feathers in Miocene freshwater limestones and lignite from France and Germany. Still older is the unique collection of remains of Lower Eocene birds from the London Clay exhibited in the same Table-case. These fossils chiefly represent fish-eating sea-birds, among which Odontopteryx and Prophcethon are especially noteworthy. The skull of Odontopteryx (Fig. 1) is remarkable for its strongly serrated jaws, the little pointed processes of bone being doubtless originally covered by similar elevations of the horny beak, which would act like teeth in dealing with the slippery prey. This bird was probably related to the living gannets. Prophcethon resembles a modern tropic bird, but has relatively larger hind

Fig. 1.—Skull and lower jaw of Odontopteryx toliapica, with bony denticles on jaws, from the London Clay of Sheppey ; two-thirds nat. size. (Table-case 13.)

legs. Like the other fossils of the London Clay, these birds indicate a subtropical climate in the south of England at the time when they lived here. From the London Clay there is also part of a large skull named Dasornis londiniensis by Owen, who thought it might perhaps belong to a Ratite bird like the ostrich. More satisfactory remains of a large running bird, Gastornis, from the Lower Eocene of England, France, and Belgium, suggest affinities with the geese rather than with the ostriches. A plaster cast of the nearly complete skeleton of another running bird, Diatryma steini, seven feet high, from the Lower Eocene of Wyoming, U.S.A., is also exhibited in a separate case. From another Eocene formation, in Southern Nigeria, there is the breast-bone of the largest known flying bird, Gigantornis eaglesomei, probably with a span of wings not less than twenty feet (Table-case 13).

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The earliest of all true and typical birds hitherto discovered are represented in Table-case 13 by a few bones of Enaliornis

Fig. 2.—Skeleton of a toothed flightless bird, Hesperornis regalis, from the Cretaceous of Kansas, U.S.A. ; about one-eightli nat. size. (After Marsh.) (See Table-ease 13.)

from the Cambridge Greensand (Upper Cretaceous) and by vertebrae, a pelvis, and limb-bones, with plaster casts of other bones, of Hesperornis from the Chalk of Kansas, U.S.A. The

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vertebrae with their saddle-shaped articular ends are especially well preserved. These fossils seem to belong to swimming birds like the existing divers |Colymbus) ; and the larger bones from

Fig. 3.—Skeleton of a toothed flying bird, Ichthyornis victor, from the Cretaceous of Kansas, U.S.A.; one-half nat. size. (After Marsh.)

Kansas indicate a species, II. regalis (Fig. 2), which would measure from three to four feet in length. A large drawing of a skeleton restored by the discoverer, Professor 0. C. Marsh, is

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framed near the window. Hesperornis has teeth in a groove in each jaw, though the extremity of its upper jaw is toothless, and would probably be covered with the usual horny beak. The bird must have been flightless, as indicated by its flattened breast-bone (sternum). A little flying bird with keeled breast¬ bone, Ichthyornis (Fig. 3), has also been found in the Kansas Chalk, and is represented in Table-case 13 by both breast-bone and wing-bones. Its teeth are in distinct sockets, and some of its vertebrae are biconcave. Among quite recently exterminated Carinatae from the southern hemisphere, the rails from New Zealand (Aptornis), the Chatham Islands (Diaphorapteryx), and Mauritius (Aphanapteryx), are of

Fig. 4.—Restored skull and lower jaw of Phororhachos longmimus, from the Santa Cruz Formation of Patagonia ; one-sixth nat. size. (Case AA.)

great interest on account of their close resemblance to each other and to the living weka rail (Ocydromus) of New Zealand. As they are all unable to fly, it is difficult to understand how they reached such widely separated islands. They are illustrated by various specimens in Table-case 13a, and by complete skeletons of Aptornis and Diaphorapteryx in a special Case marked BB. With these rails there also lived flightless geese and coots on the islands of the Southern Ocean. An incomplete skeleton of the large flightless goose (Cnemiornis calcitrans) from New Zealand is mounted in Case JJ ; and there is a reconstructed skeleton of a coot (Palceolimnas Chatham,ensis) from the Chatham Islands in Wall-case 25. Other remains of the same birds and their allied genera are arranged in Table-case 13a. They and

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the smaller kinds of moas in New Zealand were probably the food of a large and powerful bird of prey (Harpagomis moorei), of which the greater part of a skeleton is mounted in Case LL. A reconstructed skeleton, with plaster casts of the head and foot, of the extinct dodo (Didus ineptus) or flightless ground- pigeon of Mauritius, is exhibited in Case CC, and there are other bones in Wall-case 25. To a somewhat earlier geological period must be assigned the extinct cariamas and other birds from the Santa Cruz and other Tertiary Formations of Patagonia, which are comprised in the Ameghino Collection in Table-case 12a. Phororhachos, the best-known genus, is characterized by a very large head and a small body, as shown by the associated parts of a single individual here exhibited. One of the largest species, Phororhachos longissimus, is represented by a nearly complete lower jaw and the sharp tip of the upper jaw, which are enough to justify the model of a restored skull and mandible of this bird mounted in an adjacent special Case (AA). The model (Fig. 4) measures nearly two feet in length, and is much larger than the head of any other known bird. The use of the powerful hooked beak is unknown. Plaster casts of limb-bones of an allied genus, Brontornis, are exhibited in Wall-case 25.

Order.—DROIVHEOGNATHZE.

The Ostrich-like flightless birds were much more numerous and more widely distributed in the Pleistocene period than they are at the present day. They were especially characteristic of the southern hemisphere, and some of them attained a gigantic size. These birds were most numerously represented in New Zealand, where they survived until the arrival of the Maories, and may even have existed in some places at the time of Captain Cook's visit in 1777. They are referred to in many native legends under the name of " Moa ", but they remained unknown to science until 1839, when the shaft of a small thigh-bone, now exhibited in Table-case 12, was described by Owen. He recog¬ nized that this bone belonged to a flightless bird of a heavier and more sluggish kind than the ostrich, and to which he later gave the name Dinornis strutMoides (" huge bird like an ostrich "). By the exertions of the Hon. Walter Mantell and numerous later explorers a wonderful series of Dinornithidee of many genera,

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries B.M. GUIDE FOSS. BIRDS, REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS. PLATE I.

Skeleton of the Gigantic Moa (Dinomis maximus) from New Zealand; one seventeenth nat. size. (Case GG.)

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries B.M. GUIDE FOSS. BI11DS, REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS. PLATE II.

Fossil Lizard-tailed Bird, Archceopteryx macrura. from the Lithographic Stone (Upper Jurassic) of Eichstadt, Bavaria; about one-quarter nat. size. (Table-case 13.)

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species, and varieties lias gradually been discovered, and these birds are now well represented in the collection. Of the largest species, Dinornis maximus, there is a nearly complete- skeleton of one individual 8 feet 7 inches in height in Case GO (see Plate I). With this is placed another complete skeleton of one of the smallest species, Anomalopteryx parva, only three feet in height. There is also a stuffed specimen of a kiwi (Apteryx), which is the sole survivor of the Ratitse in New Zealand at the present day. In boxes on the floor of the case are some of the bony rings of the windpipe found with the fossil skeletons. The skeleton of a medium-sized bird with very stout legs, Palapteryx (Pachyamis) elephantopus, is mounted in Case FF, and in front of this there is a small slab of sandstone from a hardened beach bearing the footprint of one of the moas. Skeletons of two more slender small species, Anomalopteryx didiformis and Palapteryx {Emeus) gravipes, are exhibited in Case HH. There are also various more fragmentary specimens of Dinornithidre in Wall-cases 23 and 24 and in Table-case 12. In this last may be noticed, besides eggs and feathers, the mummified remains of the head, neck, and legs of a small species (Anomalopteryx didina) from a very dry fissure-cavern in Otago. This specimen shows, in addition to the skin, the bony (sclerotic) plates round the eye, the tracheal rings of the windpipe, and the sheath of the claws. Many of the more fragmentary bones were obtained from the old cooking-places of the Maories, who seemed to have hunted and fed upon the moas. As shown by the fine skeleton of Dinornis maximus (Plate I), the wing is more reduced in the Dinornithidae than in any other known birds. There is nothing beyond a small scapulo- coracoid bone, which does not even bear a socket for the limb. The feathers agree much more closely with those of the Australian emus and cassowaries than with those of the New Zealand kiwis. In the Australian region there were emus in the Pleistocene period. There was also another large flightless bird, Genyornis newtoni, of which remains have been discovered near Lake Callabonna, South Australia. As shown by a hind limb in Wall-case 24, it had a remarkably slender inner toe. It lived with the small-toed, quadrupedal marsupial, Diprotodon, men¬ tioned in the ' Guide to Fossil Mammals '. Large flightless birds were also abundant in Madagascar at a quite recent geological period, although none now survives in that island. They seem to have been most closely similar to the Apteryx and moas of New Zealand, and one species, JEpyornis

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titan, of which there are limb-bones in Wall-case 25 and a plaster cast of a limb on Stand II, probably exceeded in size the largest of the New Zealand birds. The same Case also contains remains of Mullerornis. A specimen of moderate dimensions, Mpyornis hildebrandti, is represented in Case DD by a recon¬ structed skeleton, which exhibits a short and broad breastbone, like that of Apteryx, with remains of a very small wing. Eggs of Mpyornis are not uncommon in the sand bordering the lakes of Madagascar, and they are sometimes washed out during stormy weather. Under these circumstances they float on the water and are picked up by the natives. Fine examples are shown in Case DD. The largest' measures three feet in its largest circumference by two feet six inches in girth, and its liquid contents would equal a little more than two gallons. Such eggs would probably be laid by the largest species, Mpyornis titan and A. maximus, but it is worthy of note that in the New Zealand Apteryx the egg is enormous compared with the size of the bird that lays it (see Case GG). The two-toed ostriches, which are now confined to Africa and Arabia, ranged into the Indian and south-eastern European regions in Pliocene times. Remains of Struthio asiaticus from the Siwalik Formation of India are placed with the skeleton of a modern ostrich in Case EE. They also survived in China until historic times, and the egg of a very large species, from mud on the bank of the Yangtse-kiang in Honan, is exhibited in Case EE. A small piece of limb-bone from the Eocene of the Fayum, Egypt, exhibited in Table-case 12, probably represents an ancestor of the Madagascar Mpyornis, which has been named Eremopezas eocaenus.

Sub-Class II.—Saururae.

Birds are proved by their structure to lie closely related to reptiles ; and many of the extinct reptiles exhibit peculiarities which are now exclusively confined to birds. It is therefore interesting to observe that the oldest known birds, which date back to the latter part of the Jurassic period, approach the reptiles more nearly than any existing birds in at least four respects. They are peculiar in (I) the possession of true teeth, (2) the biconcave or flat-ended shape of their vertebral, (3) the completeness of three clawed fingers in the wing, and (4) the elongated, not tufted, shape of the tail. In allusion to the last- mentioned feature they are named Saururai ('" reptile-tails ").

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries Fig. 5.—Diagrammatic sketch of the fossil Lizard-tailed Bird, Archceo- pteryx macrura, from the Lithographic Stone (Upper Jurassic) of Eichstadt, Bavaria ; about one-quarter nat. size, a, acetabulum ; 6, cast of brain-cavity of skull; c, ribs ; cr, carpals ; /, femur ; fu, furcula ; h, humerus ; i, ilium ; mt, tarsometatarsus ; p, phalanges of foot; r, radius ; sc, scapula ; t, tibia ; u, ulna ; 1,2, phalanges of hand. (Table-case 13.)

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Of these primitive birds only two satisfactory specimens have hitherto been discovered, both in the Lithographic Stone of Bavaria, which is of the same geological age as the Kimmeridge Clay of England. They seem to belong to two species of one genus, and the first specimen, representing Archceopteryx macrura of Owen, is shown in Table-case 13. The piece of limestone in which the skeleton is preserved has split along the plane of weakness caused by the presence of the fossil itself, so that some of the bones adhere to one face while other portions are retained by the counterpart slab. It is thus necessary to exhibit the two slabs side by side, the one supplementing the other. As shown by the accompanying photograph (Plate II) and the explanatory diagram (Fig. 5), there is a typical bird's " merrythought "

Fro. G.—Skull and lower jaw of Archceopteryx siemensi, showing teeth, from the Lithographic Stone (Upper Jurassic) of Eichstadt, Bavaria ; nat. size. (After Dames.) Original in Berlin Museum. (Plaster cast in Table-case 13.)

(furcula) between the wings, and the hind leg is exactly that of a perching bird. The long tail, however, comprises a row of twenty slender vertebrae, each bearing a pair of feathers. Owing to the fine grain of the stone, the feathers both of the wings and the tail are perfectly displayed in impressions, which were made when the actual feathers were originally buried in the soft limy mud. The cast of the brain-cavity may be seen and, on the counterpart, a small portion of the toothed jaw is visible. Of the second specimen of the Archceopteryx, now in the Berlin Museum, a plaster cast is placed next to the first example in Table-case 13. It retains the head, which is quite bird-shaped, though its jaws are provided with teeth in sockets (Fig. 6). It also exhibits the three clawed fingers of the wing. A photograph of the specimen is fixed head downwards on the wall near the window, to show the lizard-like sprawl assumed by the skeleton

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at the time it was buried. The Berlin specimen has been thought by some authorities to belong to a new genus named Archceornis.

GALLERIES Nos. 3, 4, 5, (»-FOSSIL REPTILES

Reptiles, or " creeping things are appropriately named when the existing world alone is considered. It is true that most lizards run with great rapidity on land, while a few (such as Draco) glide through the air from branch to branch among trees. It is also true that some crocodiles are both good runners and expert swimmers. All these animals, however, progress with a distinctly gliding or sinuous creeping motion, and so soon as they stop the whole weight of their body rests directly on the ground. Their limb-bones are tipped with a cap of cartilage or gristle, and are not united by well-fitting joints like those of mammals or birds. Consequently, the limbs are used merely for progression or balancing, and do not serve either for habitual support of the body or for many of the other purposes to which they are adapted among the higher warm-blooded animals just mentioned. The predecessors of these " creeping things ", presumably including their ancestors, are revealed by fossils, and prove to be remarkably different from those which now survive. During the Secondary or Mesozoic Period of the earth's geological history reptiles occupied the place in the economy of Nature that has since been usurped by mammals and birds. There were land-reptiles, both great and small, with supporting limbs as effective as those of an elephant or of an ostrich. Some of these were massive vegetable-feeders as ponderous as ground- sloths ; others were slim carnivores as agile as cats ; while a few were clearly adapted for hopping or jumping. There were also sea-reptiles with paddles formed solely for swimming, and some of these animals had the outward shape of dolphins or porpoises, while others were of unique proportions, and a few might have passed for the traditional sea-serpent. More¬ over, there were numerous true flying reptiles with well-developed wings supported by bones of a texture and construction now peculiar to birds.

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The Secondary period was, therefore, the " Age of Reptiles just as the Tertiary period is the " Age of Mammals and Birds Indeed, the casual observer on entering the Galleries of Fossil Reptiles may be pardoned for asking the reason why many of them are actually placed in the cold-blooded Reptilian Class and not among the warm-blooded mammals or birds. The brief explanation is that they show a combination of peculiarities in the 'skeleton which is exclusively characteristic of reptiles in the existing world. Although some of the huge Dinosaurs bear an outward resemblance to mammals, they cannot be associated with those quadrupeds, because their lower jaw consists of several pieces and is hinged to the skull by a large separate bone (the " quadrate "), while their ankle-joint is not at the root of the toes, but between the two rows of ankle-bones. The Ichthyo- saurs are not fishes, because their nose-passages and their chest- bones show that they breathed by lungs ; while they are not porpoise-like mammals, because their lower jaw consists of several pieces, and their cheek is covered with separate bones which encircle the peculiar " quadrate" bone. The Ptero¬ dactyls are not birds, because well-preserved fossils prove that they had no feathers, while their wings were arranged on a different pattern : and they are not flying mammals, or bats, because they exhibit the complexity of the lower jaw and its connexions already mentioned as characteristic of walking and swimming reptiles. In short, the modern snakes, lizards, crocodiles, turtles and tortoises are merely the degenerate survivors of a race which no longer occupies foremost rank. They give very little idea of the Class Reptilia as it was at its most flourishing period.

Class III.—KEPTILIA.

Order I —SQUAMATA.

Sub-Order 1.—Ophidia.

The snakes (Table-case E. Gallery 3) appear to be essentially, if not exclusively, Tertiary reptiles, and their fossil remains are both rare and fragmentary. Fine portions of the vertebral column of sea-snakes (Palwophis) from the Lower Eocene (London Clay) of Sheppey are exhibited; and there are also some detached

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vertebrae of another large sea-snake (Pterosphenus), which is found with Zeuglodon in the Eocene both of Alabama, U.S.A., and of the Fayum, Egypt. The largest known snake is an extinct kind of python, Gigantophis garstini, from the Middle Eocene of the Fayum, represented by vertebrae and a portion of jaw, which seem to show that the animal attained a length of not less than thirty, and possibly as much as sixty feet.

Sub-Order 2.—Lacertilia.

Ordinary lizards are not definitely known before the Tertiary period, but a few detached jaws from the Purbeck Beds (.Macellodus), and from the Chalk (Coniasaurus), may perhaps belong to reptiles of this kind. Like those of the snakes, all their fossil remains are very fragmentary, and a typical collection is exhibited in Table-case F. Some of the early Tertiary lizards are interesting on account of their distribution. Iguana, for example, which is now characteristic of tropical America, is represented by fossils in the Upper Eocene of Hampshire and in the Oligocene Phosphorites of France. Among Pleistocene species Megalania prisca (or Varanus), from the river deposits of Queensland, is noteworthy as being an unusually large lizard, its length being probably not less than six feet, and so approaching that of the Komodo " dragon ", Varanus komodoensis.

Sub-Order 3.—Dolichosauria.

During the Cretaceous period there were numerous swimming sea-reptiles, which seem to have been neither snakes nor lizards, but intermediate between these modern groups. They were of two kinds—one with a small head, rather slender neck, and lizard-like limbs—the other with a large head, short and stout neck, and well-formed paddles. The first kind is represented by small reptiles, which are named Dolichosauria (" long lizards ") in allusion to their elongated shape. The backbone is indeed snake-like, and the vertebrae when found isolated have sometimes been mistaken for those of snakes. Dolichosaurus itself is represented in Table-case F by a fine specimen from the Chalk of Burham, Kent. There is also a nearly complete skeleton of a closely related animal, Adriosaurus, in hard limestone of Neocomian age, from Lesina, Dalmatia. 2

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Sub-Order 4.—Pythonomorpha.

The second group of Cretaceous swimming reptiles just mentioned comprises large animals, shaped more or less like elongated porpoises or ichthyosaurs. Their skull resembles that of a lizard, but the jaws are as loose as those of snakes for swallowing bulky prey, while some of the palate-bones bear recurved teeth. The teeth themselves are large and conical, and firmly fixed by swollen bases to the supporting jaws (Fig. 7). The eye is surrounded by a ring of " sclerotic

Fig. 7.—Jaws of Mosasaurus camperi, from the Upper Chalk of Maas¬ tricht, Holland; about one-fifteenth nat. size. (Wall-case 1.)

plates The vertebrae are united by shalioiv ball-and-socket joints, the ball being posterior. Both pairs of limbs and their supports are fundamentally like those of a lizard, but modified into effective paddles (Fig. 8). The toes are flattened from side to side, lengthened by a multiplication of the joints, and destitute of claws. There is no armour, except perhaps a partial covering of thin scales. The typical genus is Mosasaurus (" Meuse-reptile ") itself, so named because it was first found in the Chalk of Maastricht in the valley of the Meuse. This is represented in Wall-case 1, not only by a plaster cast of the skull and jaws of M. camperi, now in the Paris Museum (Fig. 7), originally described by Cuvier, but also by numerous other remains of the same species from Maastricht, including a fine

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries twenty-fifthW.(AfterS.aboutWilliston.)onenat.(Wall-casesize. Fig. 1.) 8.—SkeletonMosasaurian(PlatecarpusfromaofUpperCretaceousthecoryphams),Kansas,U.S.A.of

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piece of jaw presented more than a century ago by Dr. Peter Camper, the celebrated Dutch anatomist. Mosasaunis camperi must have been a very large animal, probably not less than fifty feet in length. Teeth and other fragments of Mosasaurus and allied genera (Leiodon, etc.) are also exhibited from the English Chalk. Instructive portions of the skeleton of a smaller Mosasaurian, Platecarpus (Fig. 8), from the Chalk of Kansas, U.S.A., are also shown. A hind paddle of Tylosaurus, from the same formation and locality, illustrates the nature of the Mosa¬ saurian limb. There are also from the Kansas Chalk a skull and part of a skeleton of Clidastes, a relatively small animal shaped remarkably like a snake, but with the usual paddles, and with a deepening of the spines of the hindmost tail-vertebrae, which suggests that it was originally provided with a vertical tail-fin. Fragments of jaws of other genera from the Greensand of New Zealand indicate the wide range of the Mosasaurians in the Cretaceous sea.

ORDER II —PTEROSAURIA.

True flying reptiles lived throughout the greater part of the Secondary period, and are known by many nearly complete skeletons from the Lias of England and Germany, the Litho¬ graphic Stone (Kimmeridgian) of Germany, and the Chalk of Kansas, U.S.A. They form the Order Pterosauria (" wing- reptiles") or Ornithosauria ("bird-reptiles"), and are commonly referred to as Pterodactyls, because Cuvier gave the name of Pterodactylus ("wing-finger"), to the first specimens when he originally described them and recognized their true nature. In these reptiles (Wall-cases 1,2; Table-cases 1-4, Gallery 4) the skeleton is very light, and composed of hard, dense bone like that of birds of flight; while the vertebrae and limb-bones have well-fitting joints, and are hollowed to receive air from the lungs. The head is shaped like that of a bird, and similarly fixed at right angles to the neck. The brain is comparatively small, but in the arrangement of its parts it bears a most striking resemblance to the brain of a bird. The neck is stout and mobile, its large vertebrae being united by ball-and-socket joints, in which the ball is posterior. The body is relatively small, and the tail varies in extent, being sometimes long and slender, sometimes very short. The wings are disproportionately large, and the wing-membrane is supported by the much- elongated fifth finger, while the other fingers remain small or

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even rudimentary. The breast-bone is expanded as in birds, and keeled in front to accommodate the muscles for flapping the wings. The hind limbs are usually weak, and four of the slender toes bear claws. No armour of any kind has been noticed even in the finest known specimens from the Lithographic Stone of Bavaria, which exhibit clear impressions of the smooth wing-membrane, but one specimen is known which seems to have had a covering of short fine hair. The latest Pterodactyls are the largest, and are best known by skeletons from the Chalk of Kansas. They are well illus¬ trated by a fine pair of wings of Pteranodon, which are mounted on a picture of the complete skeleton in Wall-case 2 (Fig. 9). The outlines and proportions of the bones painted in this picture

Fig. 9.—Skeleton of a toothless Flying Reptile (Pteranodon occidentalis), from the Upper Cretaceous of Kansas, U.S.A. ; about one fifty-fourth nat. size. (Wall-case 2.)

are based partly on specimens in American museums, partly 011 imperfect remains in Table-case 4 and Wall-case 1. The jaws form a sharp, toothless beak, and the head rises behind into a prominent crest. The breast-bone is short and broad, with the keel in front; and the shoulder-blade on each side is firmly fixed to the baokbone to strengthen the socket in which the wing works. The wing-fingers, of which the actual bones are shown, are immense, and the supposed extent of the membrane they originally supported is indicated by colour. The total expanse of the wings is about eighteen feet, and it is thought that the principal muscles which raised them upwards had their origin in the crest at the back of the head. Three diminutive fingers with conspicuous claws occur as mere splints grafted on the basal piece of each wing-finger. The hind legs are weak, and could scarcely have supported the whole weight of the animal

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when at rest or moving on the ground. The remains of Ptera- nodon in Wall-case 1 and Table-case 4 include imperfect skulls and mandibles, and the hind legs associated with the wings and breast-bone. All the specimens from the Kansas Chalk are

Bavaria; nat. size, a, pubic bone. (Table-case l.j

flattened in the rock and broken by pressure ; but a few bones of similar gigantic Pterodactyls from the English Chalk have their central cavity filled with rock, and so preserve their original shape. An incomplete humerus from the Chalk of Burham, Kent, in Table-case 4 is especially noteworthy in this respect: where sharply cut across in three places it displays the extreme

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thinness of the dense bony wall, and also exhibits traces of an internal framework of delicate struts to strengthen the expanded upper end. Most of the English Cretaceous Pterodactyls (Ornilhocheirus) were provided with large teeth in sockets, as shown by portions of jaws from both the Chalk and the Cambridge Greensand. Some of their American contemporaries were also toothed. The Jurassic Pterodactyls are much smaller than those which followed them in the Cretaceous period. Some of the short- tailed forms (Pterodactylus, Fig. 10), from the Lithographic Stone of Bavaria, exhibited in Table-case 1, are, indeed, no larger than sparrows or thrushes. All are provided with teeth

Fig. 11.—Restoration of a long-tailed Flying Reptile (Rhamphorhyn• chus phyllurus), from the Upper Jurassic (Lithographic Stone) of Eichstadt, Bavaria ; one-seventh nat. size. (After 0. C. Marsh.)

in sockets, and all have three complete fingers with claws adjoin¬ ing the base of the wing-finger. Their first finger, or thumb, is commonly supposed to be reduced to the little spur of bone which turns inwards to support the piece of membrane originally extend¬ ing from the shoulder to the wrist. A long-tailed form (Rliam- phorhynclius), with the slender-toothed jaws ending in front in a pointed toothless beak, is represented at the bottom of Wall- case 2 by several portions of skeletons from the Lithographic Stone of Bavaria. The grain of this stone is so fine that some specimens of Rhamphorhynchus have been found displaying impressions of the smooth wing-membrane. A plaster cast of the best of these fossils, now in the Yale University Museum, is exhibited, and justifies the late Professor Marsh's restoration of the animal reproduced in Fig. 11. It will be noted that there is a rudder-like expansion of the skin at the end of the long tail.

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Another long-tailed Pterodactyl (Dimorphodon) is also represented in Wall-case 2 by some well-preserved portions of skeletons in slabs of Lias from Lyme Regis, Dorset. Its head is dispropor¬ tionately large and of remarkably light structure, with large teeth in sockets in front, small teeth behind. Its hind limbs are also relatively large and stout; and its long tail is strengthened by bony tendons. A plaster cast of the skull of another Ptero¬ dactyl (Parapsicephalus purdoni), from the Upper Lias of Whitby, is noteworthy as displaying the shape and proportions of the brain (Table-case 1).

Order III - CROCODILIA. At the present day crocodiles live only in tropical and sub¬ tropical regions ; but in the early part of the Tertiary period they had a much wider distribution, perhaps in consequence of the greater extent of genial conditions at that time. There cannot be much doubt, for example, that during the Eocene period the climate in the latitude of southern England was sub¬ tropical. True crocodiles lived in the rivers at the mouths of which the .London Clay was deposited ; and skulls of Crocodilus spenceri are exhibited from this formation near Sheerness in the Isle of Sheppev (Table-case G ; Wall-case 2a). Alligators (Diplocynodon), closely related to those now existing in tropical America, are also represented by fine skulls (Wall-case 2a) and numerous other remains (Table-case 7) from the Upper Eocene sands of Hordwell Cliff, Hampshire ; while the same animals are proved by numerous fragmentary specimens to have survived in France and southern Germany until the beginning of the Miocene period. A large skull from the Miocene of Austria, of which a plaster cast is exhibited in Wall-case 3, is essentially identical with the skull of Tomistoma, which now survives only in the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago ; and some jaw fragments in Table-case 5, from the Middle Eocene of Bracklesham Bay, Sussex, labelled "Gavialis dixoni", appear to belong to a Tomi- stoma-like form rather than a Gavial. In warm countries where crocodiles still live, they were much more numerous and varied in former times than at the present day. There are, for example, several skulls and jaws of extinct kinds from the Eocene of Egypt; while a large collection from the Pliocene Siwalik formation of India includes, among other interesting specimens, the snout of a colossal extinct gavial, B.hamphosuchus crassidens, which must have attained a length of about fifty feet (Wall-case 1).

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The typical modern crocodiles (Eusuchia or " perfect croco¬ diles ") are peculiar in having their throat so constructed that they can keep their mouth open under water while drowning prey ; they are also characterized by vertebral united by ball- and-socket joints. A few Upper Cretaceous crocodiles agree with them in these features, a skull of Thoracosaurus from the

Fig. 12.—Skull of Crocodilus pcilustris, a species living in Western India and found fossil in the Pleistocene of the Narbada Valley. 1. Right side view. 2. Upper view. 3. Palate. All much reduced in size. E, opening of median Eustachian canal; N, posterior nares; 0, orbits ; P, palato-pterygoid vacuities ; T, supratemporal fossae ; V, basioccipital bone.

Greensand of New Jersey (plaster cast in Wall-case 3) showing the characteristic palate, while vertebrae from the Chalk of France and the Cambridge Greensand are of the typical concavo- convex pattern. All the Lower Cretaceous and Jurassic croco¬ diles, however, differ from those of more modern times in having the curious bony roof of the palate extending less far backwards, so that unless in their case a soft piece of palate was adapted to

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serve the same purpose as a plate of bone in the living crocodiles, they could not have kept their mouth open under water (compare Figs. 12 and 15). Their vertebrae were also more or less concave at both ends, not united by ball-and-socket joints ; and their whole skeleton in most cases suggests a more exclusively aquatic mode of life than that of the existing crocodiles. In fact, the only Mesosuchia (" intermediate crocodiles ")—as these reptiles are technically termed—which have the outward appearance of modern crocodiles and alligators, are a few obvious marsh- dwellers from the Wealden and Purbeck formations (Wall-case 3 ; Table case 8). Goniopholis, with its broad head and powerful teeth, may well have preyed on land-animals which came to drink from the waters it haunted ; while the dwarf Theriosuchus and Nannosuchus (Table-cases 9, 10) are associated in the Purbeck

Fig. 13.—Upper view of skull of a marine Crocodile (Metriorhynchus hastifer), from the Kimmeridge Clay of Normandy ; one-sixth nat. size, /r, frontal; la, lachrymal; mx, maxilla; na, nasal; or, orbit; pmx, premaxilla. (Allied species in Wall-case 3 and Case E>.)

Beds with numerous small land-mammals which would form most suitable food. All these marsli-dwellers were well armoured above and below with the usual thick, pitted, bony scutes, of which those on the back were firmly united by peg-and-socket joints as are the scales of ganoid fishes. Many of these scutes are exhibited in the collection, and they are well displayed on the slab of Purbeck stone containing Goniopholis (Wall-case 3), which was originally in Dr. Mantell's collection, and excited much interest in 1839 when he described it under the name of " the Swanage Crocodile ". The finest specimen of Goniopholis (Wall- case 3) was discovered by Mr. R. Wr. Hooley in the Wealden of Atherfield, Isle of Wight. The extreme adaptation of a crocodile for life in the sea is shown by Geosaurus and Metriorhynchus (Fig. 13) from the European

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Upper Jurassic rocks. These reptiles have the usual elongated snout of an aquatic animal, with rather large, laterally compressed teeth in sockets (Fig. 14) ; but the external bones of the head are not much sculptured, some, indeed, being quite smooth. Their backbone turns sharply downwards at the end of the tail, and must originally have borne a vertical triangular tail-fin, like that of Ichthyosaurus. Their fore limbs are very small and in the form of paddles or flippers, while their hind limbs are crocodilian in shape, but relatively large for hard swimming. Bony plates are absent, so that the skin must have been as smooth as that of an Ichthyosaur or a porpoise. The original skull and other bones of Geosaurus from the Lithographic Stone of Monheim, Bavaria, de¬ scribed by Sommerring in 1816 as the remains of a gigantic lizard (Lacerta gigantea), are exhibited in Wall-case 3. The finest known skeleton of Geosaurus, from the Lithographic Stone of Eichstadt, with traces of the skin and the tail- fin, is also exhibited in Wall-case 3. Examples of Metriorh.ynch.iCs, ob¬ tained from the Oxford Clay of Peterborough by Mr. Alfred N. Leeds, are shown in Case D. Some contemporary crocodiles, such as the slender Steneosaurus Fl°-14.—Tooth of Dakosaurus ,r, .v. 11 , i,T maximus, from the Kimme- (Case D), were well armoured, both ridgc Clay of Ely. nat. 8ize. above and below, but must also have (Table-ease 11.)' been essentially marine animals. The Lower Jurassic crocodiles (Teleosarus, Pelagosaurus and Mystrio- saurus) are similarly armoured. The scutes of the back are in one paired series of broad plates, while those of the belly are smaller, and polygonal, forming a plate of mosaic. Teleosaurus has very slender jaws with sprawling interlocking teeth, and is represented by several instructive fragments from the Great Oolite of Nor¬ mandy and the Stonesfield Slate of England (Wall-case 3 ; Table- case 11). Pelagosaurus (Fig. 15), with equally slender jaws, is known by good skeletons from the Upper Lias of England, France, and Germany. Fragmentary remains of a small species,

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P. typus, from Normandy, in Table-case 12, are specially valuable as illustrating the chief features of its bones ; and a model of a complete skeleton of the same species, exhibited in the Depart¬ ment of Zoology, Gallery of Reptiles, illustrates the general form and proportions of the reptile. The incomplete skeleton of Mystriosaurus from Whitby, in Wall-case 3, is interesting from the fact that it is the actual specimen described as an " Alligator " by Chapman and Wooller in the Royal Society's ' Philosophical

G. 15.—Skull of Pelagosaurus typus, from the Upper Lias of Nor¬ mandy ; one-quarter nat. size. Right side view, upper view, and palate. J'J, opening of median Eustachian canal; IV, posterior iiares ; 0, orbits ; P, palatine vacuities ; T, supratemporal fossie ; V, basioccipital bone. (After Owen.) (Table-case 12.) Transactions ' for 1758. The well-preserved specimen of Mystrio¬ saurus from the Upper Lias of Holzmaden, Wiirtemberg, in Wall-case 3, shows quartz pebbles in the stomach-contents which are stained black with the ink of eaten cuttlefishes. Though most abundant in the Jurassic rocks of Europe, similar crocodiles seem to have been widely distributed in Jurassic seas. A head of Steneosaurus exhibited in Wall-case 3 was obtained from a Jurassic formation in Madagascar. Beloclon (Fig. 16) and allied reptiles of the Triassic period have often been regarded as the primitive ancestors of the Crocodilia.

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The head of Belodon, as shown by fine specimens from the Upper Keuper of Wiirtemberg in Wall-case 3, certainly bears much resemblance to that of a long-snouted crocodile ; while the back is armoured with scutes which are quite crocodilian (see also Table-case 13). The bones supporting the limbs, however, are very different from those of crocodiles, and suggest a close relationship with the contemporary Dinosauria and Rhyncho- cephalia. Belodon and related genera occur not only in Germany

Fig. 10.—Skull of Belodon kapffi, upper and palatal views, from the Keuper of Wiirtemberg ; about one-eightb nat. size, mx, maxilla ; na, nasal; nar, external narial opening ; or, orbit; p.na, posterior nares ; p.or, pre-orbital vacuity ; pmx, premaxilla. (After H. von Meyer.) (Wall-case 3.)

and Switzerland, but also in many parts of the United States of America, while Stagonolepis is found in the Elgin Sandstones, Scotland (Wall-case 3).

ORDER IV.—DINOSAURIA.

The land-reptiles of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, and some of their predecessors in the Trias, are usually grouped together under the name of Dinosauria (" huge " or " terrible reptiles"). This order is not a natural one, for it is composed of two groups of reptiles of different origin and which display

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persistent differences in some important skeletal features. They are all most closely related to the crocodiles, but all of them possess well-formed limb-bones adapted in nearly all cases for the habitual support of the body on land. Some of the Dinosaurs were massive animals that must have walked on all fours, and are shown by their teeth to have been plant-feeders. Others, with slender, hollow bones, appear to have used only the hind limbs for progression ; and while some of these bipedal forms were clearly herbivorous, other forms had sabre-shaped cutting teeth, proving that they were active and fed on flesh. The comparatively large and often laterally compressed tail suggests that they were ordinarily amphibious in habit and were good swimmers. Each of the two main groups contains bipedal and quadrupedal forms, and it would appear that in each case the quadrupeds are descended from an early member of the bipeds.

a. Saurischia.

The first constituent group is the Saurischia (" reptile hips "), so called from the fact that the disposition of the bones of the pelvic girdle is on the usual reptilian tri-radiate plan. The Saurischia contains bipedal carnivorous forms (Theropoda) and large browsing quadrupeds (Sauropoda). It is interesting to note that in all these forms teeth are present in the front of the jaws, and where reduction of the tooth series has taken jflace the hinder teeth are those affected.

Sub-Order 1.—Theropoda.

The Theropoda (" beast-footed ") are the carnivorous Dino¬ saurs, with a lightly-constructed skeleton and sabre-like teeth in sockets. The fore limbs are always shorter than the hinder pair, and had prehensile claws. The tail is often laterally com¬ pressed as if for swimming, but was generally used as a balancing organ, as most of these dinosaurs seem to have walked habitually on their hind legs. Their hip-bones resemble those of crocodiles. Theropoda are found in all Mesozoic rocks both in Europe and in North America (Fig. 17), and have also been discovered in South America, South Africa, India and Mongolia, but they are repre¬ sented in the Museum only by fragmentary specimens: by a, plaster cast of the skull of the gigantic Tyrannosaurus rex, from the Cretaceous of Montana (Wall-case 8); and by a plaster cast

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Fig. 17.—Skull and mandible of aTheropodousDinosaur(Ceratosaurus nasicornis), left side-view, from the Upper Jurassic of Colorado, U.S.A. ; one-sixth nat. size, a, nostril; b, horn-core on nose ; c, preorbital vacuity ; d, orbit; e, lateral temporal fossa ; /, vacuity in mandible; t, transverse bone. (After 0. C. Marsh.)

of one nearly complete small skeleton of Com/psognatlius longipes, from the Lithographic Stone of Bavaria (Table-case 19). Most of the remains of Theropoda from the English Jurassic and Wealden rocks are referred to Megalosaurus, which was first found by Buckland in the Stonesfield Slate, near Oxford (Wall-case 8 and Table- case 19). The Cretaceous Tyranno- saurus must have been similar to Megalosaurus but of relatively large size, its skull measuring over four feet, and its body with the tail ''IG- I8- Tooth of Thecodon- about forty feet in length. There fh^UppehTri^o?BristX are also exhibited fragments or nat. size. (Table-case 19.) casts of Zanclodon, Thecodontosaurus (Fig. 18), Plateosaurus and other genera from the Trias of England and the Continent. A diminutive leaping dinosaur, Scleromochlus, from the Triassic Sandstone of Elgin, Scotland, also belongs to this group (Wall-case 9).

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Sub-Order 2.—Sauropoda. The large and stout unarmoured herbivorous Saurischian Dinosaurs, which walked on all fours, have small five-toed feet and are named Sauropoda (" reptile-footed "). As shown by discoveries of nearly complete skeletons in the Jurassic rocks of North America (Fig. 20), their head is quite small, at the end of a very long and tapering neck, while their body is short and high and ends in a remarkably elongated tail. They are the largest known four-footed animals, some of them attaining a length of

Fig. 19.—Skull and mandible of a Sauropodous Dinosaur (Diplodocus), left side-view, from the Upper Jurassic of Colorado, U.S.A. ; one- sixth nat. size. The cleft at the summit of the head is the nostril, and the large round vacuity is the orbit. The diminutive brain- case is behind and partly between the orbits. (After 0. C. Marsh.)

nearly ninety feet. Notwithstanding the light construction of many of their vertebrae, they must have been too heavy for much activity on land, and it seems most probable that they haunted the sea-shore, where they lived habitually in the shallow 'water, browsing on sea-weeds like the existing sea-cows (S.irenia). The blunt and feeble rake-like teeth would suffice for such feeding, while the long neck would enable the reptile to reach the surface of the water for breathing even when walking on the bottom at a considerable depth. A plaster cast of a partially restored skeleton of Diplodocus carnegii, from the Jurassic of Wyoming, U.S.A., presented by the late Andrew Carnegie, Esq., is mounted

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries PLATEIII

length,fromJurassic,UppertheU.S.A.Wyoming, Photograph(byT.J.Mr. Gallery,(Dinosaur GUIDEB.M. Pigg)aof Departmentof BIRDS,FOSS.REPTILESAMPHIBIANS,ASD inDinosaurianLand-Reptile(Diplodocusfeet84reproductionin.plasteraofcarnegii), Geology.)

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in the Dinosaur Gallery and exhibits all the characteristic features of the Sauropoda (Plate III). In end view the laterally compressed shape of the body is noteworthy, a strange contrast to the relative bulkiness of the largest warm-blooded quadrupeds or mammals. The nostrils open on the top of the head (Fig. 19), exactly as should be the case in an air-breather spending most of its time under water. The brain-case is remarkably small, and the brain cannot have been larger than the egg of an ordinary domestic fowl. In the feet the three inner toes bear large claws, and the two outer toes are diminutive. Diplodocus (" double beam") is so named because each posterior chevron bone (i. e. bone to cover and protect the blood-vessels on the lower face of the tail) consists of two separate bars slung in the middle—an arrangement unknown in any other animal when this Dinosaur was first discovered. Many portions of closely similar Sauropoda are exhibited from English Jurassic and Wealden rocks. The finest specimen is the greater part of a tail, with the left hind limb and associated right fore limb of Cetiosaurus leedsi, dis¬ covered by Mr. Alfred N. Leeds in the Oxford Clay near Peter¬ borough (Plate IV). The skeleton measures 10 feet 6 inches in height at the hip-region, and its total length when complete must have been nearly sixty feet. Detached bones of the same species from Peterborough, including a piece of the whip-like end of the tail bearing evidences of rheumatoid arthritis, are also shown ; and there are placed for comparison (on black bases in the same Case) a few bones of larger species of the North American Sauropoda, Diplodocus and Brontosaurus. The femur, tibia and fibula of Brontosaurus (Fig. 20) from the Upper Jurassic of Wyoming, are also mounted on Stand I, with plaster casts of the corresponding bones of Cetiosaurus oxoniensis from the Stonesfield Slate near Oxford (the original bones being in the Oxford Museum). A plaster cast of the fore limb of Cetiosaurus oxoniensis is mounted on Stand I.; while a plaster cast of the femur or thigh-bone of Ailantosaurus immanis, 6 feet 2 inches in length, from Colorado, is placed on Stand K. Omithopsis, from the English Wealden, is represented in Wall-case 4, in the long Fossil Reptile Gallery, by various remains from the Isle of Wight, including fine vertebrae, which display their remarkably light construction resulting from a complicated arrangement of thin struts and plates of bone. A few isolated specimens of the feeble teeth of Cetiosaurus and Omithopsis (Fig. 21) are shown in Table- case 15. There is also a plaster cast of a humerus of Tornieria

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries U.S.A.Wyoming, DinosaurSauropodousFig.Upperfrom20.—SkeletonJurassic(Brontosaurustheexcelsus)laof I,C.0.Gallery.)DinosaurStandMarsh.)(After(Seesize.nat.about;

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries IV.PLATE

PeterboroughClaysize.nat.one-fortiethaboutnear;

limbtailHindaofand B.M. Dinosaurian AMPHIBIANS.ANDREPTILESBIRDS,FOSS.GUIDE AlfredbyOxfordLeedsN.Mr.discoveredleedsi),inLand-Reptile(Cetiosaurusthe Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries REPTILES 39

africana (Stand J), 7 feet 1 inch in length, from the Lower Cre¬ taceous of Tendaguru, Tanganyika Territory, which must have belonged to a Sauropod over twenty feet high at the shoulder. The original bone was found with numerous bones of the same and other Dinosaurs, which are now in the Museums of Berlin and

Fig. 21.—Tooth of a Sauropodous Dinosaur, probably Oniithopsis hulkei, from the Wealden of the Isle of Wight, inner (a) and outer (b) views, nat. size. (Table-case 15.)

Stuttgart. A femur of Dicrceosaurus is one of the bones found by the British Museum Expedition to the same deposits. The Sauropoda had a very wide geographical range, and a few bones of species from Madagascar and Patagonia are exhibited in Wall-case 4.

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b. Ornithischia.

The second group of the Dinosaurs is known as the Ornithischia ("bird hips"), and is so named from the pelvic bones, which are arranged as in birds. That is, they form a quadri-radiate structure, in contrast to the tri-radiate pelvis of the previous group. It would appear that the Ornithischian Dinosaurs originated and developed quite independently of the Saurischian. Bipedal and quadrupedal forms also occur in this group, but both are herbivorous ; the former are known as Ornithopoda, and the latter as Stegosauria or armoured Dinosaurs. In the Ornithischia teeth are usually present in the back of the jaws, the reduction of the dental series always starting in front, where in many forms a horny beak is secondarily developed. This reduction should be compared with that of the Saurischia, see p. 30.

Sub-Order 1.—Ornithopoda.

The "bird-footed" Dinosaurs, or Ornithopoda, which were herbivorous, seem to have walked habitually on their hind limbs, which bear much resemblance to those of ostrich-like running- birds (Ratitse). They are well represented in the Museum by Iguanodon and Hypsilophodon from the Wealden and Lower Greensand of the south of England and neighbouring parts of the Continent; by Orthomerus and Rhabdodon from the Upper Cretaceous of Transylvania ; and by Trachodon from the Upper Cretaceous of Wyoming, U.S.A. Iguanodon (" iguana-tooth ") was named in 1825 by Mantell, who first discovered its teeth (Fig. 22), and recognized their close similarity to those of Iguana, a lizard now existing in Central America. Some of the actual teeth from the Mantell Collection, exhibited in Table-case 17, show various stages of wear, from the newly-cut crowns to mere flattened stumps, and obviously denote a vegetable-feeder. The earliest-discovered group of bones of the reptile, from Bensted's Kentish Rag quarry at Maidstone, is placed in the centre of Wall-case 7. This specimen was shattered by a shot fired in the hole still seen in the middle of the slab of rock, and the various pieces were collected and re-united with great skill by Mantell, who tried to interpret the bones by com¬ parison with the skeleton of Iguana. Subsequent discoveries, exhibited in Wall-cases 6, 6a, 7, prove that Mantell was misled

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Fig. 22.—Tooth of Iguanodon, outer view (a) and side-view (b), from the Wealden of Sussex; nat. size. (Table-case 17.)

in several respects, because Iguanodon is not in any way closely related to the existing lizards ; and a few nearly complete skeletons discovered in the Wealden of Bernissart, near Mons, Belgium, now in the Brussels Royal Museum of Natural History, show all the principal features of the-animal (Fig. 23). These

Fig. 23.—Skeleton of an Ornithopodous Dinosaur (Iguanodon bernissartensis), from the Wealden of Bernissart, Belgium, as mounted in the Natural History Museum, Brussels ; about one-eightieth nat. size. (Dinosaur Gallery.)

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skeletons were found at Bernissart under circumstances which suggest that the individuals they represent met their death by accident in a deep ravine. An exact plaster copy of one of them is exhibited in the Dinosaur Gallery. Its height as mounted is about fourteen feet, while its total length is approximately twenty- five feet. The large laterally-compressed head (Fig. 24) ends in front in a toothless beak, of which the lower half is supported by a separate " predentary bone " (Wall-case 7). The fore limbs are comparatively small, with slender shoulder-blades ; and each hand comprises five fingers, though the first of these (or thumb) is reduced to a bony spur, which, when originally found isolated,

Fig. 24.—Skull and mandible of Iguanodon bernissartensis, left side- view, from the Wcalden of Bernissart, Belgium ; about one-eighth nat. size. The oval nostril is seen in front, the orbit in the face above the hindermost teeth, and the deep and narrow lateral tem¬ poral fossa behind. The toothless predentary bone is shown at the front end of the mandible. (After Dollo.)

was supposed by Mantell to have been a horn on the nose. The hip-bones (pelvis) much resemble those of an ostrich in arrange¬ ment, but are not fused together as in the Ratite running birds, while a great pubic bone represents a mere knob in the latter. There are only three toes, the basal parts of which are arranged exactly as in young running birds before the parts consolidate (see examples of Dinornis mounted on the same stand as the skeleton). The tail is deep and laterally compressed, as if for swimming, and both this and the back are strengthened by partially bony tendons lying over the vertebral spines. All these

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries V.PLATE

Wight.IsleAtherfield,Gallery.)(Dinosaurof

Skeleton BIRDS,FOSS.ANDREPTILESAMPHIBIANS.GUIDEB.M. Land-ReptileDinosaurianHooleyW.R.Mr.bydiscoveredin(Iguanodontheatherfieldensis),aof Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore LibrariesVVealdenat .

■

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features are well displayed on the fine skeleton of a smaller form, Iguanodon atherjieldensis, from the Wealden of the Isle of Wight, which is mounted close to the plaster cast of the Belgian specimen (Plate V). The three-toed footprints of Iguanodon are not un¬ common in the Wealden rocks, and are sometimes found in the Purbeck Beds. Examples are shown in the Dinosaur Gallery. Ilypsilophodon is a diminutive Iguanodont, of which fine portions of skeletons are exhibited in Wealden sandstone from the Isle of Wight (Stand N and Table-case 18). It has teeth in front of the upper jaw, and its hind feet are four-toed. Among the remains of the Cretaceous genera Orthomerus and Trachodon, the powerful pavements of grinding teeth should be specially noted (Wall-case 8). Impressions of the tuberculated skin of Trachodon and a plaster cast of a " mummied " specimen are also interesting.

Sub-Order 2.—Stegosauria.

The armoured Dinosaurs or Stegosauria ("plated reptiles") are shown by their teeth to have been herbivorous, and they resemble the preceding sub-order so closely that there is little doubt that they are descended from a primitive bipedal form. The latest members of the tribe, discovered in the Upper Cretaceous of Wyoming and Canada, are the most heavily built, with a large horned head and a bony frill over the neck (Triceratops, Fig. 26, and Sterrholophus, Fig. 25). A restored model of the skeleton of Triceratops and an actual skull, with the lower jaw and some associated bones, are exhibited in the Dinosaur Gallery. Two plaster casts of its brain-cavity show the diminutive size of the brain. A skull of a smaller form, Mono- clonius, with perforated neck-frill, from the Upper Cretaceous of Alberta, Canada, is exhibited in Wall-case 5. One of the best-pre¬ served armoured Dinosaurs, as well as one of the most remarkable, is the specimen labelled " Scolosaurus cutleri" in the Dinosaur Gallery. The specimen was collected from the Upper Cretaceous of Alberta, Canada, and shows a wonderful development of protective spines and plates upon the body and tail. The spines- cence is particularly well shown on the right fore limb. The presumed general appearance of the animal during life is shown by the model in the same case. The American Jurassic Stego- saurus, with small head, is also well armoured with large bony plates and spines on the trunk. Its skeleton is closely similar

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Fig. 25.—Skull and mandible of a horned Dinosaur (Sterrholophus flabellatus), left lateral view, from the Cretaceous of Wyoming, U.S.A. ; about one-twentieth nat. size, a, nostrils ; 6, orbit; c, supratemporal vacuity ;. e, small bony plates round the occiput ; h, the left horn-core of the pair above the eyes ; h', horn-core on nose ; p, predentary bone ; q, quadrate bone ; rostral bone. (After O. C. Marsh.)

to that of Omosaurus, from the Kinrmeridge and Oxford Clays, of which fine specimens are exhibited in Wall-case 5. Some of the bones from the Oxford Clay of Peterborough may indeed belong to Stegosaurus, and provisionally they have been so named. In

Fig. 26.—Restored skeleton of a horned Dinosaur (Triceratopsprorsus), from the Cretaceous of Wyoming, U.S.A. ; about one-eightieth nat. size. (After 0. C. Marsh.)

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Wall-case 5 are also Mantell's original specimens of Hylceosaurus, from the Wealden of Sussex ; and in Wall-case 4 there is another Wealden Stegosaurian, Polacanthus foxi, discovered by Rev. William Fox in Barnes Chine, Brixton, Isle of Wight. The latter specimen lacks the forequarters, but shows the paired series of sharply pointed spines on the back, a continuous bony shield over the hip-region ornamented with symmetrically arranged bosses, and another paired series of spines on the slender tail. A plaster cast of the hip-shield, to show its structure, is placed on the back of Wall-case 5. The oldest known Stegosaurian, Scelidosaurus harrisoni, from the Lower Lias of Charmouth, near Lyme Regis, is represented by a Fig. 27.—A single upper tooth of Scelidosaurus nearly complete skeleton in a slab harrisoni, from the Lower of hard rock in Case 0 in the Lias of Charmouth, Dor¬ Dinosaur Gallery. This reptile must set ; twice nat. size. have measured about twelve feet in length, and its armour is comparatively feeble. The snout of the long head is broken away from the fossil exhibited, but a few of the teeth (Fig. 27) are preserved in the hinder part of the jaws. A model of the supposed life-appearance is on view in the same case. Various small fragments of Stegosauria are also placed in Table-case 16.

ORDER V.—RHYNCHOCEPHALIA.

The little lizard-shaped Tuatera (Sphenodon or Ilatteria), now living on islands off the coast of New Zealand, is the sole survivor of an important group of reptiles which first appeared in the Permian period, had a wide distribution in the Triassic period, and still existed both in Europe and North America at least as late as the deposition of the Chalk. These reptiles closely resemble some of the Triassic Theropodous Dinosauria, but their teeth are not fixed in sockets and not confined to the edge of the jaw, while the ribs are single-headed. Hyperodapedon (Fig. 28) is Triassic both in Britain and in India, and is represented in Wall-case 9 by a fine skeleton of H. gordoni in a slab of sandstone from Elgin, also by fragments from various other localities. Rhynchosaurus, from the Trias of Grinshill, Shropshire (Table-case 14), is smaller

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Era. 28.—Skull and mandible of Hyperodap&don gordoni; upper view (a), right side-view (b), and mandibular symphysis from below (o), from the Triassic of Elgin ; one-quarter nat. size, d, dentary ; /, frontal"; j, jugal; l.t.f, lateral temporal fossa; na, nasal; nar, nostril; orb, orbit; pa, parietal; pmx, premaxilla ; prf, prefrontal; ptf, postfrontal; pto, post-orbital; s.t.f, supra-temporal fossa. (After A. S. Woodward.) (Wall-case 9.)

than Hyperodapedon and equally well known. There is also a good skeleton of the smaller Pleurosaurus from the Upper Jurassic Lithographic Stone of Bavaria (Wall-case 9).

Order VI.—THEROMORPHA or ANOMODONTIA. The most characteristic reptiles of the Permian and Triassic periods are intermediate in organization between the early Amphibia and the true Reptilia and Mammalia of later times. They are sometimes named Anomodontia (" irregular toothed "), in allusion to the varied and unusual character of their teeth,

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while they are usually described as Theromorpha (" beast- shaped"), from their evident relationship to the warm-blooded mammals or "beasts". They approach mammals (i) in the reduced size of the quadrate bone and of the adjoining bones in the lower jaw, (ii) in the frequently well-formed single bony bar or "malar arch" over the biting muscles of the cheek, (iii) in the shape of the shoulder-blade, (iv) in the fusion of the hip-bones into a single innominate bone on each side, (v) in the presence of a prominent elbow, and (vi) in the structure of the feet. The nearest surviving relatives are probably the degenerate Monotreme Mammalia (Echidna and Ornithorhynchus) of the Australasian region, which have blood less warm than other mammals, possess only incipient milk-glands, and lay eggs. Numerous remains of Anomodontia have been found in South Africa, India, the European continent (especially Russia), Scotland and North America. The principal specimens in the Museum were obtained from the Karroo Formation of South Africa, where they were first discovered by Andrew Geddes Bain.

Sub-Order 1.—Theriodontia.

The most mammal-shaped of these ancient quadrupeds are those with cutting or piercing front teeth like incisors, with enlarged corner teeth like canines, and with comparatively complex side teeth like premolars and molars. These teeth are, indeed, quite mammalian in appearance (hence the name "Theriodontia" or "beast-toothed"), but they were not replaced during life in the same way as among mammals. They are especially well shown in the fine specimen of Cynognathus crateronotus (Case T) obtained by Professor H. G. Seeley from the Karroo Formation of Cape Colony. The dog-shaped head of this animal is enormous compared with the size of the back¬ bone, which is stiffened by wide overlapping ribs just in front of the hip region. There are two occipital condyles at the back of the skull for union with the backbone, as in the Amphibia and Mammalia. Most of the limb-bones of the fossil have been lost. Cynognathus, Lycosaurus, JElurosaurus (Fig. 29) and certain other genera (Table-case 31) were doubtless carnivorous ; but Diademodon, Gomphognathus and their allies (Table-case 32) have grinding teeth as if for a vegetable or mixed diet. The remarkably mammalian fore limb named Theriodesmusphylarckus (Table-case 32) belongs to one of the Theriodonts. 4

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Fig. 29.—Right side-view of skull and mandible of a Theriodont (JElurosaurus felinus), two-thirds nat. size, with two upper teeth, nat. size (a, b), from the Triassic Karroo Formation of Beaufort West, Cape Colony. Behind the large orbit the back part of the skull is broken away. (After Owen.) (Table-ease 34.)

Fig. 30.—Skull and mandible of Dicynodon lacerticeps (a) and Aulaco- cephalodoii baini (b), left side-view, from the Triassic Karroo Forma¬ tion of Cape Colony ; one-third nat. size. (Table-case 33.)

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A plaster cast of the large skull of a Theriodont, Inostransevia alexandri, from the Permian of the Northern Dwina, N.E. Russia, mounted on the top of Wall-case 10, is especially noteworthy.

Sub-Order 2.—Dicynodontia.

The Dicynodonts (" double-dog-toothed ") have a beak like that of a turtle, but most of them are also provided with a pair of tusks, growing throughout life, at the side of the upper jaw. Their occipital condyle is trefoil-shaped, as in the Chelonia. Dicynodon (Fig. 30a) occurs in the Karroo Formation of South Africa, and is represented by incomplete skeletons and fine skulls in Wall-case 10 and Table-cases 31-33. Aulacocephalodon (Fig. 30b) is a contemporary reptile without tusks. Gordonia (Table-case 32), from the Trias of Elgin, Scotland, has diminutive tusks. Lystrosaurus is a tusked Dicynodont in which the position of the external nostrils near the orbits suggests an aquatic mode of life. A ring of sclerotic plates is conspicuous in the eye, and the limbs are feeble. Several skulls of Lystrosaurus, from the Karroo of South Africa, are exhibited in Wall-case 10 and Table-case 33.

Sub-Order 3.—Dromasauria.

Some of the Theromorphs were of slender build, having short skulls with large orbits, slender limbs and a long tail. Some forms were toothed, others toothless. A cast of a good example of the former, Galechirus scholtzi, is shown in Table-case 31.

Sub-Order 4.-—Dinocephalia.

This sub-order comprises large animals, often nearly ten feet long, with sprawling limbs and of herbivorous or carnivorous habits. The plant-feeders are represented in the Museum by remains of Tapinocephalus atherstonei (Wall-case 11a) from the Karroo of South Africa ; while teeth of a possibly carnivorous member of this group, Tilanosuchus, are exhibited in Table-case 31.

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Sub-Order 5.—Pelycosauria. Certain of the Permian Theromorpha, Dimetrodon and Nao- saurus, from the Permian of Texas, U.S.A. (Table-case 14), are interesting representatives of the Pelycosauria. They have

F:g. 31.—Anterior view of dorsal vertebra of Naosaurus claviger, from the Permian of Texas, U.S.A.; one-sixth nat. size, ce, centrum or body of vertebra. (Fragments in Table-case 14.)

conical, somewhat compressed teeth in sockets. Their vertebrae are remarkable for the length of their neural spines, which often bear lateral processes (Fig. 31).

Order VII.—COTYLOSAURIA.

The Cotylosaurians are a group of primitive reptiles, largely of Permian age, and nearly related to the Amphibia. One of the best known genera is Pareiasaurus("helmet-cheek reptile").

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries VI.PLATE

CapeFontein,TamboerColony(CaseV.)ofsize.nat.one-fourteenthabout; CotylosaurianSkeletonLand-Reptileofa FOSS.GUIDEB.M.ANDREPTILESBIRDS,AMPHIBIANS. baini),(PareiasaurusSeeleyG.Prof.bydiscoveredinH.Karroothe Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore LibrariesFormation Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries REPTILES 55

The well-preserved skeleton of Pareiasaurus baini (Plate VI), discovered by Professor Seeley in the Karroo Formation of Cape Colony, exhibits most of the principal characters of the skeleton (Case V). Other portions of Pareiasaurus.in Case U are also important. The cheek is completely covered with bone, and the pineal foramen for a median eye in the top of the head is especially large. There is only a single occipital condyle. The teeth extend from the margin of the jaw over most of the bones of the palate. Remains of the ribs show that they were single- headed. Pareiasaurus is a verymassive animal, usually from eight to ten feet in length, and seems to have been a vegetable-feeder, with limbs almost as completely adapted for digging as those of a mole. It is found in South Africa, but allied genera are known by nearly complete skeletons discovered by Professor Amalitzky in northern Russia. A plaster cast of a Russian skull is mounted on the top of Wall-case 10. The head bones are coarsely sculp¬ tured, and the head of an apparently allied animal, Elginia, from the Trias of Elgin, is not only sculptured, but also armoured with large bony horns or spines (Wall-case 10). A diminutive Cotylosaur, Procolophon (Table-case 30), from the Karroo Formation of Cape Colony, exhibits much resemblance to Pareiasaurus, but belongs to another family. Its head-bones are not sculptured, and its pineal foramen for the median eye and its orbits are enormous. Telerpeton, from the Trias of Elgin, Scotland (Table-case 30), is closely related to Procolophon ; and a nearly similar animal, Sclerosaurus, has been found in the Lower Trias of Switzerland.

ORDER VIII.—SAUROPTERYGIA.

A group of aquatic reptiles closely related both to the extinct Anomodontia and to the surviving Chelonia was abundantly represented in all the seas of the Mesozoic period. It is known as the Order Sauropterygia (" reptile-finned"), because the swimming paddles in all its representatives comprise only the usual four or five reptilian toes, which are not supplemented by other little bones as in the paddles of the contemporary Ichthyop- terygia, though the joints of each toe are multiplied (see p. 63). The general characters of the Order are especially well shown by the skeletons of Cryptocleidus in Cases R, S, while more technical points are illustrated in Table-cases 24 to 29. The head varies

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in size, but is usually small, and the conical teeth are fixed in deep sockets round the margin of the jaws. The vertebrae (Fig. 32) are slightly biconcave. Although the neck is always distinct and often long and slender, it must have been almost inflexible, and could not have assumed the graceful curves sometimes ascribed to it in fanciful restorations. The body is barrel- shaped, and its lower face, between the ends of the ribs, is strengthened not only by the expanded plates of bone which support the paddles, but also by many intervening rows of

Fig. 32.- Hinder neck-vertebra of Plesiosaurus, front and side-views, from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis ; two-thirds nat. size, pr.z, prezygapophysis ; pt.z, post-zygapophysis. (Table-case 27.)

abdominal ribs. The tail is short, and is known to have been provided with a small rhomboidal fin-membrane extended in a vertical plane (Fig. 33). The joints (phalanges) of the toes which form the paddles are more numerous than usual, as in the modern whales and porpoises. There is no trace of armour. The latest Sauropterygia of Cretaceous age seem to have been world-wide in distribution, but are illustrated in the collection only by fragments. Among these may be mentioned the well- preserved shoulder-girdle, with the neck and part of the skull, of Leptocleidus superstes, from the Weald Clay, Berwick, Sussex

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries Or -a

LowerLiastheof specimenanotherof Fig. LymeRegis; inspecies,now 33.—SkeletonPlesiosaurusbodyindicatedoftail-fininmacrocephalus,fromoutlinewithofandshading, Thehasbeentail-finaboutone-eighteenthinsize.nat.onlyseenone MuseumNaturaltheHistory,Berlin.of

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(Case S). The powerful teeth of Polyptychodon (Fig. 34), from the Chalk, Greensand, and Gault, are also noteworthy (Table-case 26). In the Upper Jurassic there are the large-headed short- necked Pliosauria, besides the small-headed long-necked Plesio- sauria. Pliosaurus itself must have been a gigantic reptile, the skull and jaws of P. grandis, from the Kimmeridge Clay, measuring six feet in length, while those of P. ferox, from the Oxford Clay, are not much smaller (Case Q). Peloneustes (Fig. 35a), with a slender snout, is an allied animal from the

Fig. 34.—Tooth of Polyptychodon interruptus, from the Cambridge Greensand ; one-half nat. size. A portion of the ribbed enamel of the crown is shown on the right, nat. size. (Table-case 26.)

Oxford Clay, represented by a nearly complete skeleton and other remains in Case Q. Simolestes, also from the Oxford Clay, in the same case, has a blunt snout. Cryptocleidus (Plate VII), well represented by the two skeletons from the Oxford Clay of Peterborough already mentioned (Cases R, S), does not differ much from the Liassic Plesiosaurus (Fig. 33), except in the relations of the bones supporting the fore limbs. Plesiosaurus and closely similar genera from the English Lias are represented by a unique series of skeletons in Wall-cases 12, 13, 14. The plaster cast of a partially restored skeleton of Plesiosaurus cramptoni, from the Upper Lias of Whitby (original in National Museum, Dublin), shows the large size sometinies attained.

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries VII.PLATE

S.)(CasePeterboroughClayOxfordsize.nat.one-twentiethabout;near ReptileMarinePlesiosaurianSkeletonaof B.M. (Cryptocleidus AMPHIBIANS.ANDREPTILESBIRDS,FOSS.GUIDE inLeedsN.theAlfredMr.bydiscoveredoxoniensis),

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This specimen measures 22 feet in length, and the span to the tip of the paddles is 14 feet. A large part of a nearly similar skeleton, discovered in the Upper Lias of Northampton by Mr. H. G. Thornton, is placed on the wall above Wall-case 8.

Fig. 35.—Mandibles of Sauropterygia, upper view, without teeth. (a) Peloneustes philarchus, from the Oxford Clay of Peterborough ; one-eighth nat. size, (b) Thaumatosaurus indicus, from the Upper Jurassic of India ; one-seventh nat. size, (c) Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus, from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis ; one-quarter nat. size.

An excellent skeleton of a Plesiosaur. Macroplata, from the Lower Lias of Warwickshire, and a model showing the supposed appearance during life, are exhibited in Case Q at the entrance of Gallery 6.

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The Triassic Sauropterygia (Table-cases 24, 25) comprised not only typical aquatic reptiles such as Nothosaurus (Fig. 36) and Pistosaurus from the German and Italian Muschelkalk, but also

Fig. 36.—Skull and mandible of Nothosaurus mirabilis, right side-view, from the Muschelkalk of Germany ; one-sixth nat. size. (Table- ease 24.)

smaller reptiles with limbs less completely adapted for swimming. These are commonly regarded as the ancestors of the Plesiosaurs, and as proof that they were descended from land animals.

Fig. 37.—Skeleton of an early Sanropterygian (Lariosaurus balsami), from the Muschelkalk of Perledo, Como, Italy ; one-eighth nat. size. Original in Munich Museum. (Plaster cast on wall near Table-case 24.)

Lariosaurus (Fig. 37) and Neusticosaurus are typical examples. Of Nothosaurus and Pachypleurosaurus several excellent skeletons are exhibited.

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ORDER IX.—PLACODONTIA.

The skulls named Placodus and Cyamodus (Fig. 38), from the Muschelkalk (Middle Trias) of the European continent (Table- case 29), are very similar in many respects to those ofAnomodonts. The teeth, which are remarkably like those of certain fishes, are large grinding plates extending over the palate, and would doubtless be used for crushing shell-fish. The vertebrae and

Fig. 38.—Skull of Cyamodus laticeps, upper view (a) and palatal view (b), from the Muschelkalk of Baireuth, Germany ; one-quarter nat. size. (Table-case 29.)

limb-bones, however, of the reptiles to which these skulls belong, are much like those of the Nothosaurians, and the Placodonts appear to be early Sauropterygia which took to eating molluscs.

ORDER X.—ICHTHYOPTERYGIA.

Fish-shaped or porpoise-shaped aquatic reptiles lived with the Sauropterygia and were equally cosmopolitan. They form the Order of Ichthyosauria ("fish-reptiles") or Ichthyopterygia (" fish-finned"), and the toe-bones in the paddles are not only pressed together into a mosaic, but are also supplemented by other small bones (Fig. 43). These reptiles (Fig. 39) are well illustrated by a unique collection of skeletons, chiefly from the English Lias, in Wall-cases 15, 16, 17, and by smaller fragments

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries c*

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Fig. 40.—Skull and mandible of Ichthyosaurus zetlandicus, from the Upper Lias of Normandy ; about one-quarter nat. size. -4, orbit; ang, angular ; d, dentary ; Fr, frontal; J, jugal; k, articular ; Md, mandible ; 3Ix, maxilla ; N, nares ; Na, nasal; op, splenial; Pa, parietal; Pmx, premaxilla ; Por, post-orbital; Prf, prefrontal; Ptf, post-frontal; QuJ, quadratojugal; S, supratemporal fossa; Scl, sclerotic ring ; Sq, squamosal; St, supratemporal. (After Zittel.) (Table-case H.) in Table-cases 20 to 23. The large head (Fig. 40) is shaped like that of a porpoise, with an elongated snout and with powerful conical teeth (Fig. 41) set in a groove along the edge of the jaw. The nostril is just in front of the enormous eye, which is streng¬ thened by a ring of sclerotic plates to help in focusing for varying distances. There is a conspicuous pineal foramen for a median eye in the top of the head (see skull in Table-case 21). The vertebrae (Fig. 42), which are very numerous, short, and biconcave, are shaped like those of a fish to ensure flexi¬ bility of the backbone. The neck is quite short, while the vertebrae of the tail are sharply turned down at some distance from the end, to support a triangular Fig- 41.-—Tooth of Ichthyosaurus .. , , 1 l-ii. u campylodon, from the Lower vertical tail-fin, which has been chalk of Folkestone; nat. size. seen in a few well-preserved speci- (Table-case 20.) mens from the German Lias and Lithographic Stone. Both pairs of paddles (Fig. 43) are always present, but the hinder pair is often small. The skin must have 5

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been quite smooth, without armour, and it is shown in some German specimens (see Wall-case 15) to have formed a smooth triangular fin in the middle of the back, as in modern porpoises. The small Triassic Ichthyosaurs, such as Mixosaurus (Table- case 23), suggest that they, like the Plesiosaurs, were descended from land animals. In some important respects the skull and teeth resemble those of the Labyrinthodont Amphibia (p. 78). The Liassic Ichthyosaurs, of which a fine series is exhibited in Wall-cases 15, 16, 17, are typical members of the Order and sometimes attain a very large size. The skeleton of Ichthyosaurus

Fig. 42.—Body or centrum of anterior dorsal vertebra of Ichthyo¬ saurus, viewed in section, from the front and from the left side ; from the Kimmeridge Clay of Wiltshire; one-half nat. size. (Table-case 20.)

platyodon, from the Lower Lias of Stockton, Warwickshire, presented by Sir Michael H. Lakin, Bart., measures 22 feet in length; while vertebrae at the bottom of the same Wall-case and a skull in Gallery 3 (pedestal lettered B) belong to much larger individuals. A nearly complete small skeleton from the Lower Lias of Street, Somersetshire (Plate VIII), is an especially good example of a slender-nosed species (Wall-case 15). An equally good specimen of an allied species from the Upper Lias of Wiirtemberg, at the bottom of the same Wall-case, is interesting as showing six embryos within the ribs, and this with a plaster cast of an adult with a well-preserved embryo prove that these reptiles were viviparous. An adjacent specimen from Wiirtemberg has been prepared by Dr. B. Hauff to show the skin, fins, and other soft parts. Two fragments from the Lower Lias of Barrow- on-Soar, Leicestershire (Wall-case 17 and Table-case 21), also exhibit the fin-membrane round the -bones of the fore paddle.

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries VIII.PLATE

15.)(Wall-casesize.nat.one-eleventh

IchthyosaurianMarineSkeletonaof ANDREPTILESBIRDS,FOSS.GUIDEB.M.AMPHIBIANS. Street,LiasLowerfrom(IchthyosaurusSomersetshiretenuirostris),theofabout; Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries REPTILES 69

Typical Ichthyosaurs seem to have ranged upwards to the Chalk, and fragmentary remains of the later species are exhibited in Table-case 20. Some of the Upper Jurassic genera, however, both in Europe and in North America, are almost toothless and

O O O

Fig. 43.—Right fore (a) and hind (b) paddles of Ichthyosaurus inter¬ medins, from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis ; one-third nat. size. c1, c2, centralia; f, fibula; f1, fibulare; h, humerus; i, inter¬ medium ; r, radius ; r1, radiale ; t, tibia ; t1, tibiale ; u, ulna ; u1 ulnare. (After Lydekker.)

have broad paddles, which must have been rendered very flexible by a persistent rim of cartilage round each of the constituent bones. Ophthalmosaurus, of which there is a nearly complete skeleton in Case D, is a typical and well-known example from the Oxford Clay of Peterborough (see also Table-case 23).

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Coprolites, or pieces of fossilized excrement, are found in the Lias where remains of Plesiosaurs and Ichthyosaurs occur, and are often regarded as referable to these reptiles ; but many of them are marked by a spiral line, which bears witness to the spiral form of the membrane in the intestine through which they originally passed, and they were therefore probably left by the contemporary Sharks. They contain numerous scales of ganoid fishes which have been eaten, and a collection of them is exhibited in Table-case G.

ORDER XI.- CHELONIA. The tortoises and turtles date back to the Triassic period, when already they seem to have assumed their most characteristic features. Fragments of a typical Chelonian shell (Chelytherium obscurum) are exhibited from the Keuper Sandstone near Stuttgart, Germany (Wall-case 19).

Fig. 44.—Carapace or dorsal shield of a small Tortoise (Hardella thurgi), from the Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills, India ; reduced in size. The wavy lines show the divisions (or sutures) between the bones ; the firm lines indicate those between the overlying horny shields, c 1-8, costal bones; m 1—11, marginal bones; n 1-8, neural bones ; nu, nuchal bone ; py, pygal bone ; spy 1, 2, suprapygal shields. (After Lydekker.)

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Sub-Order 1.—Trionychoidea. The three-clawed mud-turtles appear with all their typical characters in the Eocene both of Europe and North America. Well-preserved shells and other remains of Trionyx from the Upper Eocene of Hampshire are exhibited in Wall-case 18.

Sub-Order 2.—Cryptodira. Most of the known extinct Chelonia. like the majority of existing tortoises and turtles, belong to the sub-order Cryptodira (" hidden-necked "), in which the head is retracted by curvature of the neck in a vertical plane. The pelvis in these reptiles is not directly connected with the ventral armour or plastron.

Fig. 45.—Lower view of the skeleton of the existing Logger-head Turtle (Thalassochelys caretta); much reduced in size.

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The ordinary marsh and land tortoises first occur in Eocene rocks, where modern kinds are associated with several extinct genera. Typical specimens are shown from the London Clay of Sheppey in Table-case Y. Large tortoises (Testudo ammon) are also exhibited from the Upper Eocene of Egypt (Wall-case 19); and there are still larger specimens (T. grandidieri) from caverns in Madagascar (Stands AA, BB). The largest known tortoise is Testudo (Colossochelys) atlas, from the Lower Pliocene

Fig. 46.— Carapace or dorsal shield of a small Turtle (Chelone benstedi) from the Lower Chalk of Burham, Kent; about one-third nat. size. (Table-case Y.)

of the Siwalik Hills, India, represented by fragments in Wall-case 19, and by a restored model of the shell (Stand Z), which measures eight feet in length. Like all other tortoises, this must have been a vegetable feeder. The last survivor of the tortoises in England was Emys orbicularis, of which shells have been found in Pleistocene deposits in Norfolk and Suffolk. This species still survives in southern Europe. The earliest typical turtles are of Cretaceous age, and fine specimens of the large Chelone hoffmanni are exhibited from the Upper Chalk of Maastricht, Holland (Wall-case 18). Fragments of similar turtles, with remains of smaller species such as Chelone

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries b.m. guide foss. birds, reptiles and amphibians. plate ix.

Skulls of Two Species of a Horned Tortoise (Miolania).

a. Miolania argentina, from the supposed Cretaceous of Chubut, Argentina. b. Miolania oiveni, from the Pleistocene of Queensland. (Wall-case 19.)

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benstedi (Fig. 46), also occur in the English Chalk (Table-case Y). Well-preserved parts of a large turtle, Protostega gigas, from the Chalk of Kansas, U.S.A., are also exhibited in Wall-case 18 ; and a plaster cast of the skull of a still larger species, Archelon ischyros, from the Chalk of South Dakota, U.S.A., is mounted on the top of the same Case. A gigantic true turtle, Eosphargis gigas, is represented by a well-preserved skull and other remains from the London Clay of Sheppey. There are also small species of extinct genera of true turtles in the same formation (e. g. Argillochelys). The fresh-water Ghelydra, now confined to the warmer parts of the New World, has been discovered in the Upper Miocene of Oeningen, Baden (Wall-case 19).

Sub-Order 3.—Pleurodira. The existing Chelonia which withdraw their head by bending the neck sideways to rest within the margin of the shell, are now confined to the southern hemisphere ; but in Tertiary times they were also common in the northern hemisphere. Various fragmentary remains, including shells of Podocnemis from the Eocene of Egypt, are exhibited in Wall-case 19. The most noteworthy extinct genus is the horned Miolania, which occurs not only in the Pleistocene of Queensland (Plate IX) and Lord Howe Island (400 miles distant from the Australian coast), but also in the Pleistocene of Walpole Island (100 miles S.E. of New Caledonia), and in rocks of supposedly Cretaceous age in Chubut, in Argentina (Plate IX). The tail in this reptile is armoured with thick bony rings like those of the extinct South American armadillo, Glyptodon. As Miolania must have been a land-animal, its discovery in regions so remote as Australia and South America is sometimes cited as one proof of the former existence of a great Antarctic continent uniting the lands in question. Sub-Order 4.—Amphichelydia.

Most of the Jurassic and Wealden Chelonia are somewhat intermediate between the Cryptodira and Pleurodira, and have been provisionally placed in a separate sub-order. Among typical examples may be mentioned Pleurosternum from the Purbeck beds of Swanage and Platychelys from the Lithographic Stone (Kimmeridgian) of Bavaria (Wall-case 19). Skulls of Rhinochelys are common in the Cambridge Greensand.

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GALLERY 5-FOSSIL AMPHIBIANS

The frogs, newts, salamanders and their allies are intermediate in all essential respects between reptiles and fishes. It is there¬ fore interesting to note that the Class Amphibia, to which they belong, attained most importance in Carboniferous and Permian times, between the Devonian period, when fishes were the highest kind, of life, and the Triassic period, when the " Age of Reptiles " dawned. Since Triassic times, indeed, the Amphibia seem to have been degenerate and insignificant animals, and the geological record is so incomplete that it furnishes none of the links connecting these later Orders with the Order that represented the Class in its prime.

Class IV.—AMPHIBIA.

Order I.—ANURA or ECAUDATA.

The frogs and toads, or tailless Amphibians, seem to have undergone scarcely any essential change since the Eocene and Oligocene periods. Fine specimens both of adult individuals and tadpoles are exhibited from the Oligocene of Teruel, Spain, and the Lower Miocene lignite of Rott, near Bonn, and impressions of the soft parts often surround the fossils (Table- case W). Palceobatrachus is an extinct toad representing a family intermediate between certain existing groups.

Order II—URODELA or CAUDATA.

The newts and salamanders have also changed but little since the Eocene and Oligocene periods. They are proved, indeed, to date back to the end of Jurassic times by a single skeleton (Hylccobatrachus croyi) from the Wealden of Bernissart, Belgium, now in the Natural History Museum, Brussels. Newts are exhibited from the Lower Miocene of Rott, near Bonn (Table- case W), and among the salamanders there is a large specimen of Andreas scheuchzeri (Fig. 47) from the Upper Miocene of

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Fig. 47.—Skeleton of a gigantic Salamander (Andrias scheuchzeri) from the Upper Miocene of Oeningen, Baden; one-tenth nat. size. " Homo diiuvii testis" of Scheuchzer. (Wall-case 11.)

Oeningen, Baden, in Wall-case 11. This gigantic salamander is closely related to a species still surviving in Japan. Another specimen of the same animal, now in the Teyler Museum, Haarlem, was described by Scheuchzer in 1726 as Homo diiuvii testis—" man a witness of the deluge "—-as he mistook it for the skeleton of a human being drowned in the Flood.

ORDER III.—STEGOCEPHALI.

As already mentioned, the most important Amphibians are those which flourished in the Carboniferous and Permian periods, and disappeared at the end of the Trias. They must have resembled crocodiles and salamanders in outward appearance, and they are known as Stegocephalia (" roofed-heads "), because the space for their biting muscles is always roofed by plates of bone, arranged much like those of the contemporary paddle- finned fishes. The skull is nearly always pitted or sculptured like that of a crocodile, and is marked with symmetrically- arranged grooves for slime-canals. There is always a pineal foramen. The palate resembles that of the modern Amphibia, and, as in the latter, the skull is fixed to the backbone by a pair of occipital condyles. The clavicles and interclavicle are expanded into large breast-plates, which are usually sculptured ; and behind these there is nearly always an armour of small bony scales arranged in a chevron pattern. Remains of Stegocephalia are found in nearly all parts of the world, including Australia.

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Sub-Order 1.—Temnospondyli.

The largest and most typical Stegocephalia possess powerful conical teeth, which are curiously complicated in structure. Each tooth is a hollow cone, with the wall folded inwards in numerous vertical pleats, which are crumpled where crushed together. In allusion to this peculiarity, which is well shown by a tooth of Mastodonsaurus in Table-case X, the animals are named Labyrinthodontia (" labyrinth-toothed ") (Fig. 49).

Fig. 48.—Skull of Mastodonsaurus giganteus, upper view with sculpture omitted, from the Lower Keuper of Wiirtemberg ; about one-eighth nat. size. Ep, lateral supratemporal; Fr, frontal; Ju, jugal; L, lachrymal; Mx, maxilla ; Na, nasal; P, parietal; Pr.f, prefrontal ; Pt, postfrontal; Pt.o, post-orbital; Q.J, quadratojugal; S.T, prosquamosal; S.Oc, inner supratemporal; Sq, squamosal. The double lines indicate slime-canals. (After E. Fraas.)

The largest Labyrinthodonts are those from the Upper Trias of Wiirtemberg referred to Mastodonsaurus. The skull of M. giganteus (Fig. 48) sometimes measures four feet in length. A plaster cast of a smaller skull is exhibited on the top of Wall-case 11, and fragments of actual bones and teeth of the same genus are placed in Table-case X. Capitosaurus is another well-known Triassic genus, comprising species of smaller size, represented in Wall-case 11 by skulls from Germany, while the closely similar

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genus Cyclotosaurus is illustrated by a well-preserved skull from the Keuper Sandstone of Stanton, near Uttoxeter, North Staffordshire. Metoposaurus, from the Trias of Wiirtemberg, has the eyes far forward in the head. Rhytidosteus and Bothriceps, from the Trias of South Africa and Australia respectively (Table- case X), are also noteworthy. In the same case are good skulls of Lydekkerina from the Lower Trias of the Orange Free State, South Africa. The Permian Labyrinthodonts in the collection belong chiefly to Archegosaurus and Actinodon, and are interesting as showing parts of the body and limbs. The remains of Archegosaurus

Fig. 49.—Transverse section of a segment of a tooth of Mastodon- saurus giganteus, from the Lower Keuper of Wiirtemberg ; highly magnified. (After Owen.) (Table-ease X.)

decheni, in nodules from the Lower Permian of Rhenish Prussia, are especially well preserved. The backbone is incompletely formed, each vertebra consisting of three or more pieces, sur¬ rounding a large persistent strand of notochord, much like the vertebra of Actinodon from France (Fig. 50), and that of Eryops, from Texas, in Table-case X. The ribs are short, and evidently did not completely encircle the trunk, so that in breathing the animal must have swallowed air like a frog. The ends of the limb-bones were originally cartilaginous, and hence are not preserved in the fossils. Traces of gill-arches can sometimes be seen in young specimens, proving that Archegosaurus resembled modern Amphibia in breathing by gills during the earlier part of its life. The specimens both of Archegosaurus and Actinodon

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are flattened in the rock, but the bones of Eryops in the Permian of Texas are easily extracted, and can be mounted to show their original relationships. A plaster cast of a skeleton of Eryops thus reconstructed in the American Museum of Natural History, New York, is exhibited in Wall-case 11. It is probable that Seymouria, represented in the collection by an interesting skeleton from the Lower Permian of Texas, is referable to this Sub-Order and not to the Cotylosaurian Keptiles.

Fig. 50.—Vertebra of Actinodon rochei, left lateral (a) and posterior (b) views, from the Lower Permian of France ; about nat. size. al, lateral expansion of neural arch ; c, facette for rib ; c.r, neural canal; d, transverse process of neural arch ; ic, hypocentrum or intercentrum ; n, neural spine ; not, space originally occupied by notochord; pl.c, pleurocentra; ,9, suture between neural arch and spine; za, zp, anterior and posterior zygapophyses. (After A. Gaudry.)

Among the remains of Carboniferous Labyrinthodonts an uncrushed skull of Loxomma, obtained by Mr. George Maw from ironstone in the Coal Measures of Coalbrookdale, is particularly interesting (Wall-case 11). Owing to their imperfect ossification, nearly all the skulls of these animals are flattened by pressure in the rock. Other remains of Loxomma and Antliracosaurus are

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries amphibians 81

exhibited from the English Coal Measures, and these include short biconcave vertebrae which resemble those of Ichthyosaurus, except that they are pierced by a hole for a remnant of the notochord. In Wall-case 11 there is also an incomplete skeleton of PholicLogaster from the Lower Carboniferous of Scotland. The limbs of the Lower Carboniferous Labyrinthodonts are scarcely known.

Sub-Order 2.—Lepospondyli (Microsauria). In Upper Carboniferous and Lower Permian rocks there are remains of numerous small lizard-shaped Stegocephalia, named Microsauria (" little lizards"), which are in some respects intermediate between the Amphibia and the true Reptilia. The skull is typically Stegocephalian, with two bony occipital condyles, and with the teeth comparatively simple in structure. The vertebrae are constricted cylinders, and the ribs are some¬ times as long and slender as in a lizard. Remains of Microsauria were first discovered inside decayed tree-stumps in the Coal Measures of South Joggins, Nova Scotia, where the little animals had evidently been trapped by accident. Numerous skeletons have since been found in Coal Measures of other localities both in North America and Europe and in the Lower Permian Coal Measures of Bohemia. Some of the original bones of Hylerpeton discovered by Sir William Dawson in the decayed trees in Nova Scotia are exhibited in Table-case W. Specimens of Keraterpeton are also shown from the Coal Measures of Kilkenny and Staffordshire ; and there are electrotypes of this and several other kinds from the Lower Permian of Bohemia. Most of the Bohemian specimens are pyritized, so that they cannot be permanently preserved. Dr. Anton Fritsch devised the ingenious plan of making electrotypes from the moulds in the shale from which the decayed bones had been removed, and the exact copies of these fossils now exhibited are the result of his work. Remains of Dolichosoma and Ophiderpeton, forms shaped like snakes and destitute of limbs, are exhibited in Wall-case 11.

Sub-Order 3.—Phyllospondyli (Branchiosauria).

The Branchiosauria (" gilled lizards ") are so named because traces of the gill-supports are always conspicuous in young individuals. Tliey are small animals like salamanders, with 6

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries 82 FOSSIL BIRDS, REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

barrel-shaped vertebrae and short ribs. They are known from the Lower Permian of France, Saxony, Bohemia, and Moravia, and the Coal Measures of England and America. . Numerous specimens of Branchiosaurus from Saxony are exhibited in Table-case W; and there is one individual from Bohemia showing an impression of the long soft tail on the black shale in which the skeleton is embedded. The relatively large Melaner- ■peton from Moravia is also represented by typical examples.

FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS

Under certain circumstances footprints may be preserved as fossils, and in some rocks of Permian and Triassic age the only evidence of life is afforded by such footprints. There are many of these fossils in the collection, and scarcely any of them can

Fig. 51.—Footprints of Cheirotherium barthi, with sun-cracks, from the Bunter Sandstone of Hessberg, Saxony ; about one-tenth nat. size.

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS 83

yet be ascribed to the animals that made them. A long series of small footprints is seen on a slab of red sandstone from the Permian of Poltimore Quarry, near Exeter. Most of the foot¬ prints from the English and German Trias (Fig. 51) are shaped somewhat like impressions of a human hand, and hence are referred to an unidentified Gheirotherium ("hand-beast"). There are small prints for the fore feet and large prints for the hind feet, and a close examination of the tracks shows that the " opposable thumb " is on the outer side of the foot, so really corresponds with the little finger or little toe of man. Some¬ times, as on the fine, slab from Storeton, there are clear impres¬ sions of the tubercular skin of the feet. On one slab there is also a mark of the tail. The so-called Ichnium sphcerodactylum from the Permian of Thuringia is a nearly similar footprint, and is scattered over a large slab of red sandstone, which also exhibits suncracks and rainprints. Small five-toed footprints with slender toes, from the Trias of Storeton, probably belong to the Rhynchocephalian, Rhynchosaurus articeps. Three-toed footprints from the Trias of North America were probably made by Dinosaurs. Some large three-toed footprints of lyuanodon, from the Wealden of Sussex and Dorset, are placed for com¬ parison near the mounted skeletons, and there is, on an adjacent stand, a slab of Purbeck Stone bearing similar impressions. For comparison with the fossil footprints, Sir Charles Lyell obtained from the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, the interesting series of fragments of a dried modern mud-flat showing rainprints and the footprints of birds.

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries INDEX

A. Coniasaurus, 17 Actinodpn, 79 Coots, 5 Adriosaurus, 17 Coprolites, 70 ^Elurosaurus, 49 Cotylosauria, 52 iEpyornis, 11, 12 Crocodiles, 24 Alca, 1 Crocodilia, 24 Alligators, 24 Crocodilus, 24 Amphibia, 7(3 Cryptocleidus, 55, 58 Andreas, 76 Cryptodira, 71 Anomalopteryx, 11 Cyamodus, 63 Anomodontia, 48 Cyclotosaurus, 79 Anthracosaurus, 80 Cynognathus, 49 Anura, 76 Aphanapteryx, 5 B. Apteryx, 11, 12 Dakosaurus, 27 Aptornis, 5 Basornis, 2 Archseopteryx, 13, 14 Diademodon, 49 Archseornis, 15 Diaphorapteryx, 5 Archegosaurus, 79 Diatryma, 2 Archelon, 75 Bicraeosaurus, 39 Argillochelys, 75 Bicynodon, 51 Atlantosaurus, 35 Bicynodontia, 51 Aulacocephalodon, 51 Bidus, 6 Aves, 1 Bimetrodon, 52 Bimorphdon, 24 B. Binocephalia, 51 Bclodon, 28 Binornis, 6, 11 Birds, 1 Binosauria, 29 Bothriceps, 79 Binosaurs, 16, 29-47 Branchiosauria, 81 Biomeda, 1 Branchiosaurus, 82 Biplocynodon, 24 Brontornis, 6 Biplodocus, 32 Brontosaurus, 35, 36 Bolichosauria, 17 Bolichosaurus, 17 C. Bolichosoma, 81 Capitosaurus, 78 Bromaeognathae, 6 Can data, 76 Bromasauria, 51 Ceratosaurus, 31 Cetiosaurus, 35 E. Cheirotherium, 83 Ecaudata, 76 Chelone, 72 Elginia, 55 Chelonia, 70 Emeus, 11 Chelydra, 75 Emys, 72 Chelytherium, 70 Enaliornis, 3 Clidastes, 20 Eosphargis, 75 Cnemiornis, 5 Eremopezus, 12 Colossochelys, 72 Eryops, 79 Compsognathus, 31 Eusuchia, 25

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries INDEX

F. M. Footprints, 82 Macellodus, 17 Frogs, 76 Macroplata, 61 Mastodonsaurus, 78 G. Megalania, 17 Megalosaurus, 31 Galechirus, 51 Melanerpeton, 82 Gastornis, 2 Mesosuehia, 26 Gavialis, 24 Metoposaurus, 79 Geese, 5 Metriorhynohus, 26 Genyornis, 11 Microsauria, 81 Geosaurus, 27 Miolania, 75 Gigantophis, 17 Mixosaurus, 60 Gigantornis, 2 Moa, 6 Gomphognathus, 49 Monoclonius, 45 Goniopholis, 20 Mosasaurs, 18 Gordonia, 51 Mosasaurus, 18 Miillerornis, 12 H. Mystriosaurus, 27 Hardella, 70 Harpagornis, 6 N. Hatteria, 47 Nannosuehus, 26 Hesperornis, 3, 5 Naosaurus, 52 Homo diluvii testis, 77 Neustieosaurus, 02 Hylseobatrachus, 70 Newts, 76 Hylaeosaurus, 47 Nothosaurus, 62 Hylerpeton, 81 Hyperodapedon, 47 0. Hvpsilophodon, 40, 45 Odontopteryx, 2 Omosaurus, 46 I. Ophiderpeton, 81 Ichnium, 83 Ophidia, 10 Ichthyopterygia, 03 Ophthalmosaurus, 09 Ichthyornis, 4, 5 Ornithischia, 40 Ichthyosauria, 63 Ornithocheirus, 23 Ichthyosaurs, 10, 63-70 Ornithopoda, 40 Ichthyosaurus, 64 Ornithopsis, 35 Iguana, 17 Ornithosauria, 20 lguanodon, 40, 83 Ornithurae, 1 Inostransevia, 51 Orthomerus, 40

K. Keraterpeton, 81 Pachyornis, 11 Paehypleurosaurus, 62 L. Palaelodus, 1 Lacerta, 27 Palaeobatraclius, 76 Lacer.tilia, 17 Palaeolimna, 5 Lariosaurus, 02 Palaeophis, 16 Leiodon, 20 Palapteryx, 11 Lepospondyli, 81 Parapsicephalus, 24 Leptocleidus, 56 Pareiasaurus, 52 Lizards, 17 Pelagosaurus, 27 Loxomma, 80 Pelican, 1 Lyeosaurus, 49 Peloneustes, 58 Lydeklcerina, 79 Pelycosauria, 52 Lystrosaurus, 51 Phrenieopterus, 1

Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries INDEX

Pholidogaster, 81 Seymouria, 80 Phororhachos, 6 Simolestes, 58 Phyllospondyli, 81 Snakes, 16 Pistosaurus, 62 Sphenodon, 47 Placodontia, 63 Squamata, 16 Plaeodus, 63 Stagonolepis, 29 Platecarpus, 20 Stegocephalia, 77 Plateosaurus, 31 Stegosauria, 45 Platychelys, 75 Stegosaurus, 45 Plesiosaurus, 58 Steneosaurus, 27 Pleurodira, 75 Sterrholophus, 45 Pleurosaurus, 48 Struthio, 12 Pleurosternum, 75 Pliosaurus, 58 T. Podocnemis, 75 Tapinocephalns, 51 Polacanthus, 47 Teleosanrus, 27 Polyptychodon, 58 Telerpeton, 55 Procolophon, 55 Temnospondyli, 78 Prophsethon, 2 Testudo, 72 Protostega, 75 Thalassochelys, 71 Pteranodon, 21 Thecodontosaurus, 31 Pterodactyls, 16, 20 Theriodesmus, 49 Pterodactylus, 20 Theriodontia, 49 Pterosauria, 20 Theriosuehus, 26 Pterosphenus, 17 Theromorpha, 48 Pythonomorpha, 18 Theropoda, 30 Thoracosaurus, 25 R. Titanosuchus, 51 Rails, 5 Toads, 76 Reptiles, 15 Tomistoma, 24 Rhabdodon, 40 Tornieria, 35 Rhamphorhynchus, 23 Tortoises, 70 Rhamphosuclius, 24 Trachodon, 40, 45 Rhinoehelys, 75 Triceratops, 45 Rhynchoeephalia, 47 Trionychoidea, 71 Rhynchosaurus, 47, 83 Trionyx, 71 Rhytidosteus, 79 Tuatera, 47 Turtles, 70 S. Tylosaurus, 20 Tyrannosaurus, 30 Salamanders, 76 Saurisehia, 30 U. Sauropoda, 32 Urodela, 76 Sauropterygia, 55 Saururse, 12 V. Scelidosaurus, 47 Varanus, 17 Scleromochlus, 31 Sclerosaurus, 55 Z. Scolosaurus, 45 Zanelodon, 31

ADLARD AND SON. LIMITED. 21, HART STREET, LONDON, W.C.

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