MASARYK UNIVERSITY OF BRNO FACULTY OF EDUCATION

Bachelor thesis

Brno 2007

Jan Martinec

MASARYK UNIVERSITY OF BRNO FACULTY OF EDUCATION

Department of English language and Literature

Navajo culture today: Surviving, disappearing or adapting?

Bachelor thesis

Brno 2007

Written by: Jan Martinec Supervised by: Aaron Marc Collier, B.A.

2 Bibliography MARTINEC, Jan. Navajo culture today: Surviving, disappearing or adapting? ; Bachelor thesis. Brno: Masaryk University, Faculty of Education, Department of English Language and Literature, 2007. 50 pages, 5 pages of attachments. The supervisor of Bachelor thesis is Aaron Marc Collier, B.A.

Annotation The Diploma thesis “Navajo culture today: Surviving, disappearing or adapting?” deals with differences in the lifestyle and culture of the Native American tribe of Navajo, comparing the current situation with the past. The introduction offers basic information on account of Navajo society as far as demographics and social structure is concerned. A brief history overview of the Navajo Nation is included, as well. In the theoretical part, areas of culture, education, government, society, economy, lifestyle and social problems are addressed respectively. These particular categories are always approached from the past, as well as today point of view. That enables consequent comparison of each category in the practical part of thesis. Used sources include both printed materials and internet websites of various government agencies, private companies or even personal. In the conclusion, there are formulated results of the study, based on the data stated in the previous text. Culture and lifestyle of the Navajo tribe is approached with respect as it certainly deserves.

Key words Culture, Lifestyle, Navajo, Diné, Four Corners, Indian, Native, Southwest

3

Declaration

I hereby proclaim that I wrote this thesis myself and that all the outside sources of information have been cited.

I agree with the placing of this thesis in the Masaryk University Brno in the library of the Department of English Language and Literature and with the access for studying purposes.

In Brno, 20 July, 2007 Jan Martinec

4

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank my supervisor, Aaron Marc Collier, B.A., for his support, patience and help. The thesis would have been unlikely to arise without his guidance and encouragement.

5 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 7 1.1. The topic ...... 7 1.2. Choice of sources ...... 7 1.3. Procedure ...... 7 1.4. Native American culture ...... 8 1.5. Basic information on Navajo people ...... 9 1.6. Brief history overview ...... 10 2. THEORETICAL PART ...... 12 2.1. Culture ...... 12 2.1.1. Past ...... 12 2.1.2. Today ...... 15 2.2. Education ...... 20 2.2.1. Past ...... 20 2.2.2. Today ...... 21 2.3. Government and Society ...... 24 2.3.1. Past ...... 24 2.3.2. Today ...... 24 2.4. Economy ...... 26 2.4.1. Past ...... 26 2.4.2. Today ...... 27 2.5. Lifestyle and Social Problems ...... 30 2.5.1. Past ...... 30 2.5.2. Today ...... 30 3. PRACTICAL PART ...... 33 3.1. Culture ...... 33 3.2. Education ...... 34 3.3. Government and society ...... 35 3.4. Economy ...... 36 3.5. Lifestyle and Social Problems ...... 36 4. CONCLUSION ...... 38 5. LIST OF WORKS CITED ...... 39 6. LIST OF ATTACHMENTS ...... 45 7. ATTACHMENTS ...... 46

6 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. The topic Perhaps every man has strong memories from his childhood years and emotions connected with them. For many of us, playing Indians and cowboys is one of the best remembered. Well, I was always one of the Indians and somehow, this sense of identity has changed in the course of years and developed into a deep interest in the culture, history and lifestyle of the Native Americans. Therefore, when considering the topic for my Bachelor thesis on the field of Cultural Studies, this was naturally the first idea that immediately came to my mind. A nation’s culture and lifestyle is an intriguing topic for research, even more so when the nation in question is an ancient tribe with thrilling history and colourful palette of cultural background, including art, crafts, music, dancing and much more. Adding the quickly changing living conditions and surrounding environment of Navajo people, the motivation for choosing this particular topic is clear.

1.2. Choice of sources It proved to be very difficult to find books, magazine articles and/or other printed sources of information on this topic. Especially information regarding the latest development in the American Indian and particularly Navajo matters, their society and lifestyle was almost impossible to obtain otherwise than from the Internet. Nonetheless, a number of valuable Internet sites were collected that were qualified, mostly official webs of various government agencies as well as non-profit organizations, but most importantly – they were up-to-date. Some of these sites perhaps may not fulfil the demands of credibility or professionalism as far as education is concerned, but it can be argued that a sincere opinion of a Navajo Native be just as valuable and qualified as any academic opinion of a non-Native educator or official, for who else would be more suitable to speak on behalf of Navajo culture, than Navajos themselves?

1.3. Procedure Firstly, some basic facts will be presented about Navajo history, lifestyle and culture. A brief history overview is also included simply because it is an integral part of any nation’s culture (provided we understand nation’s culture in the wider sense, i.e. not 7 just arts and crafts, but also lifestyle and the development of the nation’s self- awareness). Secondly, the theoretical part will compare the current state of affairs with the past. As for the past, it is very difficult to choose one particular period in the history due to lack of detailed information. Mostly, an attempt will be made to highlight certain points and areas, which underwent the most significant changes during the course of time. Areas compared have been chosen to represent the Navajo culture and lifestyle in its complexity; however they are not necessarily exhaustive. Next, the practical part will analyze and formulate some obvious changes that have happened in the Navajo society and culture during the time. These shifts in the nation’s culture and lifestyle will help us reveal the current status quo, latest trends and from that – in conclusion - deduce the most probable direction, in which today’s Navajo Nation is headed.

1.4. Native American culture This bachelor thesis focuses on today’s culture and lifestyle of Native Americans in the USA, more specifically the Navajo tribe. There are many aspects to culture in general, regardless of which nation is concerned. In the wider sense every nation’s culture is made by literature, art, crafts, songs, but also by social order, architecture, style of living, clothing, providing food, religion, customs etc. It is really interesting to see how much all these different aspects of tribal life have changed over the last few centuries. Obviously, there are many tribes living in the USA today - to be exact, 561 federally recognized tribes (Federal Register, Volume 72, Number 55 dated March 22, 2007, 72 FR 13648). These include for instance California group, Southwest group, Plains group, Eastern woodlands group, Northwest Coastal Indians or Inuit peoples. These numerous tribes lived in the country for hundreds of years and they all continually developed and maintained their specific culture and lifestyle. The traditional gender roles were common in most of Native American tribes. However, there were also certain nations and tribes that preferred matriarchal social order. The differences among particular areas and tribes were actually quite significant.

8 The same also applied to architecture. While Indians in Eastern woodland areas preferred large wooden buildings, groups from the area of Great Plains commonly used their typical tee-pees (a light and portable wooden structure, covered with buffalo skin). This was fully in accordance with their daily lifestyle, based on following the ever- moving herds of bison. Last, but certainly not least in the south-west Pueblo peoples (later influencing Navajos) built impressive buildings made of adobe (clay and straw) and sand – the materials which were most easily accessible for them. As far as religion is concerned, it might generally be described as spirituality. Once again, although differences among particular tribes were (and still are) vast, their beliefs have always inclined towards nature, surrounding them and connected with their everyday rituals. Animistic spirituality was also part of their common life. Music and art together with storytelling has always been a primary bearer of Native traditions, legends and myths. This is how the sense of identity and their own background was continually developed in children and youngsters. Considering the fact that there are basically no written remains of Native origin from the pre-Columbian period, it is widely believed that their history was passed on almost exclusively by the word of mouth and also by art. Songs and traditional dances were relatively simple, but very spontaneous. Music was sometimes accompanied by drums or other musical instruments, including various flutes and rattles. Large meetings where many musicians, singers and dancers participated were called pow-wows. Here, many types of songs were performed, such as crow-hops, sneak-up songs, grass-dances, honour songs, intertribal songs, two-steps, welcome songs, war songs or going-home songs. Other specific Amerindian art included pottery, paintings, jewellery, weavings, sculptures, basketry and carvings; and reflected their rich history as well as their inner world, beliefs and daily life. (45)

1.5. Basic information on Navajo people Navajo tribe is the largest group of indigenous people in the North America - there are more than 270,000 Navajo people living in the USA today (276,775 according to the 2000 census). That is also one of the reasons for choosing this particular tribe as a topic of this thesis. More importantly, their culture and lifestyle is relatively well recorded and therefore it is generally easier to compare the current status with the past.

9 The word “navahú” (meaning “fields adjoining a ravine”) was reportedly first used by the Tewa Pueblo Indians, who originally resided in the area, and consequently adapted in the Spanish expression “Apaches de Navajó”. The Navajo themselves, however, prefer to call themselves Diné , which is often translated as "the people."

Today, the Navajo Nation country in the Southwest of the USA is by far the largest reservation in the U.S., with over 17 million acres (27,000 sq miles) of land, and a human population of over 170,000. (72) It is often argued that the Navajo people and Apache used to be a single ethnic group. This is mostly based on the fact that both these tribes speak a similar language, called Southern Athabascan. Although it is difficult to identify the exact time, it is commonly believed today that they have moved into the present area between 1200s and 1500s AD. They traded goods with neighbouring Pueblo nations (who, by the way, had lived in the area long before Navajos arrived). The first contact with white Europeans that we know of happened in the early 17 th century, probably during 1620s. (65)

1.6. Brief history overview Just like other Apachean tribes residing nowadays in the US Southwest, the Navajos belong to the Athabascan group, living originally in today’s western Canada. They were nomads, hunters and gatherers, living in small bands. Although the exact date of their arrival to the Southwest is uncertain, many archaeologists today suggest that they settled in the so-called Four Corners area (place where corners of four states meet today: Utah, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico) during the 13 th to 16 th century. Apparently they shared this land with descendants of the Ancient Pueblo peoples (Anasazi) – Hopi, Zuni etc. Newly arrived Navajos called this country Dinétah. However, these small groups of people were not really Navajos as we know them today – not until the early 18 th century. Their economy was mostly based on farming (the traditional crops being corn, beans, squash and tobacco) but also hunting and gathering of wild plants. Besides that, they also traded with (and sometimes raided) Pueblo Indians and after arrival of Spanish in the 17 th century with them, too. In the 1750´s Utes and Comanches from the north attacked them and Pueblos and drove them to canyon lands of today’s northeast Arizona. It seems likely that there they became acquainted with herding domestic animals, weaving, pottery-making, and constructing

10 stone masonry hogans, thanks to Pueblo Indians. New concepts of religion and ceremonies were also transferred. By the middle of 19 th century Navajos kept large herds of sheep, roughly estimated at hundreds of thousands animals. Despite frequents conflicts with Spanish- Americans, their livestock flourished and sheep corrals were scattered all over their territory. Still, agriculture, hunting and gathering remained a substantial part of their economy. Navajo population rose significantly, as well – up to perhaps 10,000 people. However, their lifestyle changed with the rise of importance of herding. As opposed to their previous custom of living in a single, relatively permanent camp near their fields, people began using separate summer and winter camps where forage and water were available for their stock. Increased raiding of Spanish-American herds (and vice-versa) plus following conflicts in the effect led to the Navajo War of 1863-64 and subsequently to the infamous “Long walk of the Navajos” when 9,000 men, women and children were forced to walk 300 miles east in harsh conditions until they reached Fort Sumner near Bosque Redondo where they were imprisoned for four years, until 1868. At least 200 of them died during the walk. Due to continuous problems on the reservation this whole project was eventually declared failure and Navajos were allowed to return to Dinétah (their homeland) after signing the Treaty of Bosque Redondo on 1 st June 1868. It is ironic that this entire harsh and negative experience in the final effect made their tribe stronger, more unified and self-aware then ever before. Upon return to their country guarded by four sacred mountains, they were granted 14,000 sq km of land and later were able to increase the size of their reservation up to over 70,000 sq km. In spite of all the hardships, in a relatively short time they managed to achieve high level of prosperity, and by the end of the 19 th century, their population doubled from 9,000 to approximately 18,000. (65) By the early 1950s changes in lifestyle were quite apparent. Hogans (the traditional houses made of mud, straw and wood) were increasingly used for ceremonial purposes only, while in housing these were replaced by Anglo-style ranches. Many Navajos have chosen to move to cities such as Window Rock, Shiprock, Kayenta, Tuba City, Ganado, and Fort Defiance because of relatively easier living conditions. Their economy has been since transformed from self-sufficient to more market-oriented production, and further to a wage work and welfare economy. There have also been negative changes, of course. Excessive grazing led to soil erosion and following impoverishment. (47)

11 2. THEORETICAL PART

2.1. Culture

2.1.1. Past Language Navajo language (Diné bizaad ) belongs to the Na-Dené family. Today, it is widely spread and used in Arizona, New Mexico, and other regions of the American Southwest. Navajo language belongs to the Southern Athabascan (Apachean) subfamily. Na-Dené is a Native American language family which includes mainly the Athabaskan languages (Northern, Pacific Coast, and Southern); also Eyak (extinct), Tlingit (endangered, with roughly 500 speakers), and possibly Haida (which is, however, disputed). (36) There is still much dispute going on today regarding the classification of Native American languages. In accordance with Joseph H. Greenberg's controversial classification of the languages of Native North America (Joseph H. Greenberg Language in the Americas . Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987), Na-Dené- Athabaskan is believed to be one of the three main groups of Native languages spoken in the Americas, representing a distinct wave of migration from Asia to the Americas. The other two groups are Eskimo-Aleut family and much discussed Amerind group. As it is also suggested today by some scientists, the migration of Na-Dené peoples from East Asia occurred approximately six to eight thousand years ago, in other words – about four thousand years after the previous arrival of other Native Americans, here called Amerind nations. (37) What appears to be certain, however, is the fact that Navajos migrated (as a part of Na-Dené peoples) from Siberia across Bering Strait (Bering land bridge at the time) during ice age and then gradually spread across Alaska and West Canada until they reached their present location in the Southwest of the USA, probably between 1200s and 1500s AD. The Navajo language has always played an important role in their culture, considering the fact that their history, religion and teaching were passed on solely by word of mouth. Aside from that, there were moments when their language was equally important for the entire country. During World War II, a code based on Navajo language was used by famous Navajo code talkers to send secure military messages over radio. This code has never been broken by the enemy. (55)

12

Arts and crafts Traditional Navajo arts and crafts were sandpainting, weaving and basket weaving. Songs and dancing were also a part of everyday life. The art of weaving is believed to come originally from the Ute tribe or other Pueblo tribes, but there is not enough evidence to support this theory. Navajos themselves believe that it is a gift of Spiderwoman (deity from their Mythology). The fact is that even the first Spanish explorers who visited the region in the early 17 th century, mentioned seeing beautiful Navajo blankets. The Navajo people created some of the finest textiles in North America, using an upright loom. Navajo blankets were renowned throughout North America for their beauty and utility, being soft and warm, and because of the natural lanolin in the wool, water resistant as well. Originally, patterns and colours on almost all blankets were scarce. As a matter of fact, there is no evidence today of using any native dyestuff prior to 1850. Even after that date, most common colours were yellow, blue and green. The first use of red colour (in a ravelled blanket called Bayeta) was in the late 1700s. So- called Chief’s blanket (which is really misleading, considering the fact that Navajos have never had any tribal chiefs) was very popular, and its pattern has developed over the years. Spanish and Mexican culture influenced another type of blankets, called Serape . Later, in the 1880s when Navajos returned to Dinetah area, another important change occurred, when aniline dyed, commercially spun wool yarn from Germantown, Pennsylvania was brought to the reservation. This significantly increased the colour palette available to the Navajo and eliminated need for shearing, spinning, and dying. J.B. Moore created a new style when he combined traditional Navajo motifs with then very popular Oriental patterns and displayed it at his Trading Post for other weavers to see. This style became also very popular. In 1930s and 40s tourism was a booming industry and Navajo blankets and rugs (decorative rugs were now in greater demand then the original blankets) were selling at roadside stands and generating nice income for weavers and their families. (42)

Silversmithing is said to have been introduced to the Navajo while in captivity at Fort Sumner in Eastern New Mexico in 1864. Probably the first but certainly the best known Navajo silversmith was Atsidi Sani. Jewellery was firstly made of copper, but later silver quickly became popular. Tools were hard to obtain initially and the craftsmanship

13 was difficult. By the start of 20 th century, silver jewellery was frequently combined with turquoise and shell. Bracelets, tobacco flasks, necklaces, bow guards gradually evolved into earrings, buckles, bolos, hair ornaments and pins. (42)

Religion and Traditions The Navajo religion is very specific in that it is closely connected with their country and must be practiced in the traditional Navajo homeland named Dinetah. Navajo people have always believed that the creator instructed them never to leave the land among four sacred mountains surrounding this area. (23) To the south is Mount Taylor; to the west are the San Francisco Peaks; to the east is Blanca Peak, and to the north is Hesperus Peak. There is a sacred object and a colour representing each of the four cardinal directions. To the east is the white morning sky; its precious stone is white shell. To the south is blue and turquoise. To the west is yellow, and the corresponding stone is yellow abalone. To the north is black and jet. The religion was also connected with surrounding nature. Ceremonies were often performed in form of ritual sandpainting, accompanied by songs and chants.

Creation Stories These have always been an integral part of Navajo religion and culture. There are several versions of the Navajo Creation story which is quite extensive and is also included in their ceremonies and chants. While it is not the purpose of this work to explain the matter in great detail (it would not be possible, either), let us just focus on the key points. The Blessingway ceremony (taking about two days in its full form) explains the creation of the First world and progression of beings through Second, Third and Fourth world. It acquaints the listener with all the deities, including the Holy people, First Man, First Woman, Coyote, Sun bearer, White shell woman and also Changing woman – probably the most popular deity of all. According to legend, she was the one to create first Navajo people from small pieces of her skin and to teach them the Blessingway ceremony. The other half of Navajo traditional song ceremonial complexes is Enemyway ceremony , which is used to discourage and repel bad ghosts. Besides these ceremonies, there are also chants in which rattle is used. These generally focus on curing and can be further divided into Holyway (restoring health), Evilway (repelling

14 evil) and Lifeway (treating injuries after accidents). This classification is, however, only approximate because some of the chants were originally part of the ceremonies. (49)

Healing ceremonies These were usually performed to eliminate the dangerous powers and to restore physical and spiritual balance. These curative ceremonies, which could sometimes last up to nine days, had to be performed in a traditional hogan solely by a medicine person. He/she often used sandpaintings and herbal remedies made from local minerals and plants to heal the patient. The use of local plants for Navajo ceremonies even further illustrates the tight connection of this nation to the area and the importance for the Navajos to remain on their sacred land.

Hogan Hogans – traditional dwellings – were also sacred and their construction referred to Navajo religion: four posts represented the sacred mountains, while floor represented Mother Earth and the dome-like roof was a reference to Father Sky. Navajos made their hogans in the traditional fashion until the 1900s, when they started to make them in hexagonal and octagonal shapes.

2.1.2. Today Language Today, the Navajo language is still widely spoken by Navajos of all ages, with over half of the Navajo population speaking the Navajo language at home. Many parents still pass on the Navajo language to their children as a first language, and as such, the Navajo are one of the very few Native American tribes that still use the native language of their tribe as a form of everyday communication. There are, of course, attempts to promote the language. Major role in keeping their language alive has KTNN (Navajo radio station), NNTV 5 (Navajo cable TV) and continuous effort of the Department of Education to implement Navajo language in school curricula. Significant role here also belongs to other non-profit organizations, such as Navajo Language Academy. (53) There is even a free true type font (Navajo Times Roman) available on the Internet at < http://www.navajocentral.org/navajofont.html >. (27)

15 However, the use of their language among the Navajo youth is declining, and therefore it is still considered to be moderately endangered. Its decline is caused by several factors such as English as a primary language in school, television and other media, or living away from home. (20) Especially in urban areas outside of reservations, increasing number of younger Navajos start to shift towards the English language. The influence of the outside English speaking culture is overwhelming. Children and youngsters often perceive Navajo language as something outdated, connected with older generations, poverty and simple lifestyle deep in the “rez”. Even worse, many parents today are convinced that English is more important for their children’s career and future life, supposing that Navajo language ought to be taught in schools only as a second language. Even on the reservation, Census data indicate that between 1980 and 1990 the proportion of Navajos aged 5-17 who spoke only English rose from 12% to 28%, and by 2000, the figure reached 43%. (55) Today, while adults over 40 are mostly bilingual and older people over 60 often speak only Navajo; younger generations mostly have only limited or passive knowledge of their native language. Children and teenagers therefore do not hear much of Navajo at home from their parents, and consequently are either non-speakers, or they only start to learn their own language at school. Despite the effort to maintain the Navajo, many young people today prefer using English, or newly formed variety of English, called Navajo English. As it is matter with the Black English or Spanish English, many Navajo English speakers are able to speak standard American English as well, and switch between these two according to social context.

Arts and crafts Even nowadays, Navajos are widely known for their sandpainting , performed for healing ceremonies and as a part of other spiritual activities. They are also renowned for their beautiful weaving (today mostly decorative rugs and baskets) and for making silver and turquoise jewellery . These arts have become inseparable part of their culture and also economy. As for traditional basket weaving , about decade ago this art form has almost disappeared here. One of those who revived this skill and helped keep it alive is Mary Holiday Black and her family, living near Bluff, Utah. Not only they make woven baskets but also pass on the knowledge and skills to younger generations, thus preserving this traditional Navajo art for future. (82)

16 As for the music , their contemporary popular music scene is one of the strongest in native music today. Naturally, young people tend to listen to and also perform modern music. Today, Navajo bands cover the genres of punk, metal, hardcore, hip hop, blues, rock, death metal, stoner rock, country, and even traditional. One very positive fact is that many musical bands today find their niche in a special blend of traditional and modern melodies, thus creating their own original type of music. This trend has met with a great success and bands like Blackfire (who on their tour across Europe have already visited the Czech Republic twice, the last time in June 2007), Ethnic De Generation, Downplay, Mother Earth Blues Band, Tribal Live and other musicians are in this way bringing traditional music closer to the interest of the younger Navajo generations as well as worldwide audience. Rap music has conquered the world today, and this of course regards Navajo culture, as well. Tribe II Entertainment, a rap duo from Arizona, Mistic, Rollin´, Lil' Spade and Shade can rap entirely in their native tongue; however, their bilingualism brings them closer to even wider audience. Among one of the most famous and successful musicians of Navajo origin definitely belongs also R. Carlos Nakai, a Native American flutist, who has been nominated for four Grammy Awards and holds two Gold records. (56) Traditional music survives still, mostly thanks to gatherings and celebrations, but it is also a part of daily life for many Navajos. Children songs and a special type of songs called Peyote are vastly popular and well known even outside Navajo community. Other arts are mastered by many Navajos today, as well. One of these is modern Native literature. Authors such as Shonto Begay, Sherwin Bitsui, Vee F. Browne, Hershman John, Geri Keams, Johnny Rustywire, Luci Tapahonso, Laura Tohe, Elisabeth Woody and others strive to maintain their culture alive and bring it in a new, written form especially to younger readers. (19)

Religion and Traditions Navajoland and especially area of Dinetah is still considered sacred by all Navajos even today. As was mentioned before, it is surrounded by four traditionally sacred mountains: Mt. Blanca near Alamosa, CO to the east, Mt. Taylor near Grants, NM to the south, San Francisco Peak near Flagstaff, AZ to the west, and Mt. Hesperus in the La Plata Mountains of CO to the north. These are today also represented on the Navajo Nation flag and Great Seal.

17 Therefore even these days, traditional Navajo way religion is practiced by many Navajos, both old and young. Other religions include Christianity, Native American Church (using Peyote rituals) and others. Customs and traditions, such as storytelling, respecting elders etc. are still being treasured and passed on within families and clans. The Navajo Village Heritage Center is another one of effective attempts to promote their traditional lifestyle. It is an authentic recreation of an old time Navajo home site, consisting of a female hogan, a male hogan, a bread oven, a sweat lodge, and a shade house. Members of six Native families comprise the majority of the staff here. At the Navajo village visitors can take a tour and get acquainted with the culture and traditions of the Diné (Navajo). They hear about the Navajo Creation Story and the progression through its four worlds. They will also learn about silversmithing, rug weaving, living on Mother Earth and appreciating all things under Father Sky, and preparation of native foods. For dinner they can eat a traditional Navajo Taco consisting of a plate size piece of fry bread, smothered with chilli, cheese, lettuce, tomatoes, onions and salsa. Equally famous is blue corn mush or blue corn chips. During the dinned, visitors are entertained by the Red Moccasin Dancers. (69)

Hogan Today they are rarely used as actual dwellings, but are maintained primarily for ceremonial purposes. (49) On the other hand, even families living in modern style family houses in cities often own a hogan on the reservation. This further illustrates their need of keeping traditions alive and being in connection with their sacred territory.

Mass media The first native-owned, native-language station in the country, named KTDB, went on the air in Navajo (Diné Bizaad) from Pine Hill, New Mexico, in 1972. The current Navajo-language media include several Navajo-language radio stations, both public and private, as well as regular programming on local Christian radio. Navajo television station NNTV 5 produces around 4-5 hours of Navajo-language programming per week, ranging from current events to live broadcasts of the Navajo Nation Tribal Council sessions. Despite being an important aspect of Navajo language broadcasting, NNTV 5 was received by only 4,300 cable subscribers in 1996, only a small fraction of

18 an estimated population of 180,000. It was not until the establishment of KTNN AM- 660 Radio in 1986 that Navajo-language programming reached the entire Navajo Nation and speakers of all variations of Navajo.

Nowadays, KTNN's 50,000 watt clear signal allows it to broadcast well beyond Navajo Nation borders, especially at night, reaching cities as far away as Phoenix and Albuquerque. KTNN's broadcast range and position as "The Voice of the Navajo Nation" (owned by the Nation) puts KTNN in the difficult position of being responsible for providing high language standard. This is, nevertheless, difficult to deliver considering the vast differences between English and Navajo language. In terms of language maintenance, KTNN is the single-most important broadcaster of the Navajo language. This station has a Country & Western music format which fits the life-style on the reservation, but it also plays traditional and contemporary Native American music. Although it is a commercial radio station, it is bound to serve the needs of the Navajo people with bilingual broadcasts of news, livestock reports, the President's report, and public service announcements for ceremonies, Chapter meetings, and community events. Notwithstanding, the country and western format does not fit the tastes of many younger Navajos. These youngsters often prefer stations offering the latest music and pop culture, usually in English though. (78)

While commercial radio provides positive exposure for the Navajo people, on the other hand it also affects the way Navajo is spoken on the air by DJs and announcers, creating a peculiar type of Navajo sometimes defined as "Broadcast Navajo." The effects of this negative impact have not been properly studied yet. Recently, KTNN has started to broadcast live online at < http://www.ktnnonline.com/ >, spreading Navajo language and culture around the world. (35)

Sports Besides arts and crafts, there are many notable sportsmen among Navajos today, spreading Navajo awareness around the world. Some of them are mentioned below: Alvina Begay , 26, distance runner (Navajo): 2008 Olympic hopeful from Ganado, Ariz.; won 13 titles; graduated from Adams State (Colorado) College in 2003. Nadia Begay , 21, basketball (Navajo): 5-9 senior guard for Boise State from Kirtland, N.M.; New Mexico state high school player of the year as a senior; not related to

19 Alvina. Notah Begay III , 34, pro-golfer (Navajo-San Felipe-Isleta): Won four PGA Tour titles, last in 2000; earned $5.1 million; team-mate of Tiger Woods at Stanford. Not related to Nadia or Alvina. Brandon Leslie , 29, distance runner (Navajo): Eight-time All-American at Adams State (Colo.) College; 10,000-meter outdoor champion in 2000 Division II; 2008 Olympic hopeful. Dudley Yazzie , 24, boxer (Navajo): 2008 Olympic hopeful in light heavyweight division from Chinle, Arizona. (16) Nevertheless, despite the large potential among Navajo youth, there are many problems, as well – be it social and cultural background, lack of financial support and self-esteem or others. This, of course, applies for women even more. For many of today’s hopefuls, sport ends with high school. Quite often they are not prepared for higher level of both sport and study in the terms of their independence, self-reliance and determination. One of the factors that can also hold back their further development is their close connection to their community and native land. They are sometimes reluctant to leave all that behind and proceed to higher levels alone.

2.2. Education

2.2.1. Past Before the arrival of Europeans there was no written literature among Navajos, no written records. All the knowledge was passed on in oral tradition of telling stories. This fact, however, does not diminish the quality of their ancient teaching method – on the contrary, the lessons were very personal, intense and connected with real life, real people. During winter, when the children used to be inside much more, the Navajo told stories. Usually it was the elders and older ones who shared their knowledge and memories. But these stories were designed not only to entertain but to teach listeners as well. In this way, many lessons were taught through creation stories, constellation stories, coyote stories, stories of how the Navajos travelled way back in the creation days. Each of them usually contained an encoded moral.

20 In the late 19 th century there were many so-called Boarding schools established all over the USA with the purpose to educate Native American children according to white people’s Euro-American standards. These were frequently run by missionaries. The conditions at these schools were generally horrible. Children were taken away from their parents by force, often directly kidnapped and relocated to a strange and hostile environment. After getting haircut and uniforms, they usually received new names (often randomly chosen). They were forbidden to speak their native tongue anymore and severely punished if they ever did so. Their true religion had to be abandoned; instead they were taught Christianity. Besides of these traumatizing circumstances, there are also documented cases of sexual, physical and mental abuses at these schools. The idea behind all this was to completely rid the children of their culture and identity and assimilate them in the mainstream culture, to turn them into Indian Americans. Apart from the basic curriculum of reading, writing and arithmetic, there was vocational training available for boys and domestic science for girls. During summer, students were relocated to local farms and businesses to provide a low cost labour. The conditions at these overcrowded boarding schools were harsh. Children were often kept hungry and overworked. It is no wonder that student death rate here was on average 6.5 times higher then for other ethnic groups. The breakthrough in the legislative happened when the so-called Meriam Report (“The Problem of Indian Administration") was issued. It recommended changes in the education concept that would allow the students to live in more appropriate environment and to adapt to both native and mainstream society.

2.2.2. Today Even these days, in the age of television and PC games, Navajo children seem to enjoy narrated stories - especially animal and coyote (trickster) stories. But besides oral teachings, there is also a regular, modern educational system, of course. The Department of Diné Education operates under the direction of Superintendent of Schools (currently Dr. Tommy H. Lewis, Jr. who was appointed in this office by the Board of Education in 2006). The Navajo Sovereignty in Education Act was passed in July 2005 by Navajo Nation Council resolution CJY-37-05 and established the Department of Diné Education within the Executive Branch of the Navajo Nation. (20)

21 Its seat is in the Navajo Nation capital Window Rock, Arizona. There are 7 offices within the structure of the Department: - Office of Head start program - Office of Diné Science, Math and Technology - Office of Special Education Rehabilitation Program - Office of Navajo Nation scholarship - Office of Diné Youth - Office of Diné Culture, Language and Community services - Office of Navajo Nation Library

Education, and the retention of students in all school systems, is a significant priority these days because a major problem faced by the nation is a very high drop-out rate among high school students. Over 150 public, private and Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) schools serve students from kindergarten through high school. Most schools receive funding from the Navajo Nation under the Johnson O’Malley program. Besides that, post-secondary education and vocational training are available both on and off the reservation. The Nation also runs a local Head Start Program, the only educational program operated by the Navajo Nation government. This is a comprehensive child development program which serves children from birth to the age of 5, pregnant women, and their families. It is a child-focused program and has the overall goal of increasing the school readiness of young children in low-income families. Currently, 4,013 children ages 3-5 are enrolled in 205 Head Start centres and Home Base programs. 60 children ages 0-3 and 6 expectant mothers are enrolled in 5 Early Head Start centres across the Navajo Nation. Each year the 0-5 age population increases. Moreover, all 205 Head Start centres, 5 Agency offices, and the Central Administration are connected through a wireless network, provided by OnSat Native American Services, Inc. (58) This enterprise (and other projects, such as Web Warriors Project (see ) has been built upon the Bill and Melinda Gates´ Native American Access to Technology Program.

22 Besides Head Start program, there are eight types of primary to secondary establishments on Navajo Nation territory, including: Arizona Public Schools New Mexico Public Schools Utah Public Schools Bureau of Indian Affairs Public Schools Association of Navajo Controlled Schools Chartered schools Grant schools Private schools

It is certainly worth mentioning that besides primary and secondary schools, there is also a college run by the Navajo nation, called “Diné College”. This is a two- year community college which has its main campus in Tsaile in Apache County, plus seven other campuses on the reservation. Current enrolment is 1,830 students, out of which 210 are degree-seeking transfer students for four-year institutions. The college also includes the Center for Diné Studies, offering study of the Diné language, history, and culture in preparation for further studies and employment in a multi-cultural and technological world. Diné College serves residents of the 26,000 square mile Navajo Nation area. As a postsecondary educational institution, it awards Associate degrees and Certificates in areas important to the economic and social development of the Navajo Nation. In 1998, Diné College bestowed its first baccalaureate degrees under the Diné Teacher Education Program, accredited under a partnership with Arizona State University and provided at the Center for Diné Teacher Education at the Tsaile campus. In spring 1999, the state of Arizona amended its tax code to allow the distribution to Diné College of the Transaction Privilege Tax revenues collected on the Navajo Nation. Under this amendment, Diné College receives $1.75 million per year for 10 years for maintenance, renewal and capital expenses. (22) As a result of the continuous development in Navajo education system, some changes are taking place and obviously, others are yet to come. According to 2000 Census, 55.93 per cent of Navajo population over 25 has at least completed high school (secondary) education. 7.29 per cent of population has received Bachelor (or higher) degree.

23

2.3. Government and Society

2.3.1. Past From the history point of view, the structure of the Navajo society has always been largely a matrilocal system in which only women were allowed to own livestock and land. Once married, a Navajo man usually moved into his bride's dwelling and clan, for daughters were traditionally the ones who received the inheritance. Therefore, women had an important role in the society. Any children were said to belong to the mother's clan and take her name, and be "born for" the father's clan – this fact is even today mentioned in formal introduction, which is an important and interesting custom. (65) Through this formal introduction, a person is defined and relationships through clans are explained and established. Navajo doesn’t just say his/her name and place they are from, they also state their paternal and maternal clan, as well as paternal/maternal grandfather clans. (70) The four original clans were Towering House, Bitterwater, Big water and One- who-walks-around. Today there are about 130 clans. (33)

According to tradition, when two Navajos of the same clan met for the first time, they referred to each other as "brother" or "sister." That custom is still used today. Navajos that are cousins to each other in the American sense, think of each other as "brother" or "sister”. (70) Simply put, family relations were closer in Navajo culture than in average mainstream American family and also regarded wider range of relatives.

2.3.2. Today At present, the traditional clan and family structure and relations are still being followed to the large extent. In this respect, the Navajo society is quite invariable and the ancient customs are adhered to. One thing that is relatively new for their society though, is its present modern government structure. Current Diné government is unique in several ways. It was first formally established in 1923, but then The Diné have three times refused to establish a new government under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. Members twice rejected

24 constitutional initiatives offered by the federal government in Washington, first in 1935 and again in 1953. Consequently, Navajo Nation still does not have its own constitution today. This awkward situation led to a current constitutional push, organized by the Committee for a Navajo Constitution. The committee including three former leaders, Chairman Peter MacDonald, President Peterson Zah and President Kelsey Begaye, which was organized by student Ivan Gamble, is pushing for a constitution written and signed by the one hundred and ten chapters to de-centralize and balance the current government. (63) The online initiative petition can be signed online at: < http://www.navajoconstitution.com/index.htm >.

Regardless of the problems with the constitution, Navajo Nation conducts what is still believed to be the most sophisticated form of American Indian government today. It is divided into 5 Agencies (which match the five Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) agencies which support the Nation) and 110 Chapters, analogous to counties. The Nation's government at the capital in Window Rock was reorganized in 1991 and now has a three branch system: Executive, Legislative, and Judicial. The head of executive is President of Navajo Nation Joe Shirley, Jr. , now serving the second consecutive term in the office. The Vice-President’s name is Ben Shelly . (72) The executive offices are: Office of the Management and Budget, Office of the tax commission, Navajo Nation Washington office, Office of the Telecommunication regulatory commission. Executive is comprised of ten departments, identified as “Divisions.” The Divisions provide a broad range of governmental services to Navajo Nation members. Following is the list of the executive divisions : Division of Community development, Department of Diné Education, Division of Economic development, Environmental protection agency, Division of Public safety, Division of General services, Division of Health, Division of Human resources, Division of Social services, Division of Natural resources. (73) Legislative branch of government is Navajo Nation Council, which consists of 88 delegates representing the 110 Chapters, elected every four years by registered Navajo voters. Speaker of the 21st Navajo Nation Council today is the Honourable Lawrence T. Morgan, elected for the third consecutive time. The seat of the Council is also in

25 Window Rock, AZ inside beautifully decorated circular Council Chambers. When it is not in session, the legislative work is done by 12 so-called “standing committees”. Judicial Branch consists of a system of seven District Courts, seven Family Courts, seven Peacemaker courts, and a Supreme Court. It is headed by the Chief Justice of the Navajo Nation, who is appointed by the President, and confirmed by the Navajo Nation Council. On January 18, 1952, the Navajo Nation council adopted the Great Seal, designed by John Claw, Jr. of Many Farms, Arizona. The 50 arrowheads outlining the seal symbolize the tribe's protection within the 50 states. The opening at the top of the three concentric lines is the east; the lines represent a rainbow and the sovereignty of the Navajo Nation. Subsequently, on May 21, 1968, the Navajo Nation Flag was adopted, designed by Jay R. Degroat, a Navajo from Mariano Lake, New Mexico and selected from 140 entries. Local governance works through aforementioned 110 Chapters, which are geographically subdivided populations of tribal members. Thanks to the Local Governance Act tribal members are able to vote on local economic development issues, such as the granting of home and business site leases within the community and similar local issues. (74)

2.4. Economy

2.4.1. Past Traditionally, like other Apachean nations, the Navajo were semi-nomadic in the 1500s into the 1900s. Their clans had seasonal dwelling areas where they kept livestock. Besides that, their economy was mainly based on agriculture and gathering practices. Occasionally, Navajo groups may have formed trading or raiding parties, travelling relatively long distances. Major change in lifestyle came in the 19 th century, when travelling and new roads leading to their land made it possible to sell their artwork. Weaving, silversmithing and other trades were booming. During the 20 th century, rising number on Navajos sought and found wage paid work, often outside reservation.

26 2.4.2. Today The Navajo Nation economy today still includes many traditional trades such as sheep and cattle herding, fibre production, weaving, jewellery making, and art trading. Newer industries that employ tribal members include coal and uranium mining, even though the uranium market slowed near the end of the 20th century. The Navajo Nation's extensive mineral resources are among the most valuable held by Native American nations within the United States. There is also a downside to this enterprise – negative effects on the landscape and health of the people and animals. Hundreds of people are employed by Navajo Nation government in civil service and administrative jobs. Another important business within the reservation is the operation of roadside stands selling handmade crafts, especially on major highways or near major tourist attractions. Other Navajo members work at retail stores and other businesses, whether within the Nation's reservation or in nearby towns. Navajo Nation budget can be divided in two main parts: Internal (or the General Fund budget) and External. Internal budget was approximately USD 131 million in 2005, while the External budget was USD 312 million. Sources of revenue can be similarly divided: Internal revenue (mining – USD 71.3 million, taxes – USD 75 million) and External revenue (Federal, State and private grants and funds) accounting for approximately USD 300 million in 2005. (3) Mining is has been the main source of revenue for Navajo Nation in the past years. Black Mesa coal mine operated for 35 years, supplying energy for the Mojave generating station. These two operations closed down in 2005 due to conflicting pollution control restrictions. Besides many unemployed people, it also generated a multimillion financial gap in Navajo Nation’s budget. Pittsburgh and Midway Coal Company coal mine is another operation that will be closed in 2008. That will, of course, reduce the Navajo mining revenue even further (altogether, by approximately USD 60 million). The closure of these two mining companies will have very severe adverse effect on the revenue of the Navajo Nation, as these two operations account for over 30 percent of the Navajo Nation Government’s budget. The closure will also result in the loss of hundreds of high paying jobs. Suggestions were made to rent out allocated 2,400 slot machines, start an amusement park in the area or perhaps casinos. Navajo nation resisted for long time attempts to open and operate casinos on their territory. In 2004, nonetheless, people voted positively on allowing casinos on their land, while they proved to be a significant

27 source of income for the nation and hence the Navajo Nation Gaming Enterprise was created. Diné Power Authority (DPA) is also planning to build 1,500-megawatt power plant called Desert Rock at a cost of USD 2.2 billion. The construction of the plant is supposed to start its operation in 2010. This plant is designed to be environmentally safest in the United States, emitting only 3,500 tons of nitrogen oxide and sulphur dioxide annually – about 15 times less than the current ones.

In 1997, fifty-six percent of Navajo people lived below the poverty level and the per capita income was reported to be $5,599. To make things even worse, mere twenty- nine percent of personal income made on the Navajo Nation is spent on the reservation, which means that 71% of the Navajo money is spent in off-reservation communities. This is simply because the Nation lacks wholesale and retail outlets. In remote areas, the problem is further complicated by lack of transportation. Two main enterprises are trying to help improve this desperate situation: Navajo Nation Shopping Centers - NNSC (10 of them so far), and TSÉYI’ Shopping Center in Chinle.

Regrettably, high levels of unemployment persist on the Navajo Nation despite efforts to find ways to attract various types of businesses to locate on the reservation to create jobs and spur economic development. The Navajo Nation is challenged daily by the tasks associated with attracting businesses to an environment that has little or no infrastructure. On a regular basis, several businesses explore the possibility of locating to the Navajo Nation before realizing the obstacles of inadequately paved roads and the lack of electricity, water, and telecommunication services, not to mention limited police and fire protection. Key industries and employers on the Navajo Nation are presently in the following sectors: Agriculture, Service, Manufacturing, Government and Tourism.

Major employers can be divided into two broad categories: Tribal Enterprises and Private Sector Enterprises. There are thirteen enterprises on the Navajo Nation owned and operated by the Navajo tribe. These include: Navajo Agricultural Products Industries (NAPI), Navajo Nation Shopping Centers (NNSC), Navajo Housing Authority (NHA), Navajo Tribal Utility Authority (NTUA), The Navajo Nation Hospitality Enterprise (NNHE), Navajo Engineering and Construction Authority

28 (NECA), Navajo Nation Oil & Gas Company (NNOGC), Native Broadcast Enterprise (NBE), Navajo Arts & Crafts Enterprise (NACE), The Navajo Times Publishing Company, Inc. (NTPC), Diné Power Authority (DPA), Diné Development Corporation (DDC), Nova Corporation (NC). At this moment, the Navajo government is the largest employer on the Navajo Nation (6,061 Navajo employees as of 2004). Largest employers in the private sector are: Tooh Dineh Industries, Inc., Frontier Company, Ducommun Technologies, Four Corners Power Plant, Raytheon Missile Systems Company - NAPI Facility, Navajo Mine, Navajo Generating Station, The Pittsburg & Midway Coal Mining Co., and Peabody Energy's Arizona Mines. Other primary employers include State of Arizona, Navajo Area Indian Health Services (NAIHS), Office of Indian Education Program under the Bureau of Indian Affairs and State of New Mexico. (3)

According to the 2000 census, there is only 28.46% of Navajo population in the labour force, compared to 49.33% of the US population in general to be in the labour force. The numbers for Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah were 46.53%, 45.88%, and 49.66%, respectively. Unemployment rate on the Navajo Nation has always been high and has steadily been growing. For example, It was 42.16% in 2001, 46.07% in 2002 47.57% in 2003 and 48.04% in 2004 (8.4 times the US average!).

Once again, according to the 2000 census, median Navajo family income is USD 22,392 – less than half of the same figure for the USA (USD 50,048). Average per capita income is also significantly lower: USD 7,269 as opposed to USD 21,587 for the USA! More than 30% of Navajos are earning less than USD 10,000 a year (9.5 per cent in the USA). The same source states, that 42.9 per cent of Navajo families are living below poverty level. Again, this is in striking contrast with only 12.38 per cent for the USA. (3)

29 2.5. Lifestyle and Social problems

2.5.1. Past As already mentioned, Navajo were in the past mainly semi-nomadic people, gathering wild plants, hunting animals. Later, they became more involved in the agriculture and herding (mainly sheep), which gave impulse for weaving wool blankets. Navajo oral history indicates a long relationship with Pueblo people and a willingness to adapt new ideas into their own culture. Trade between these two cultures was important to both groups. By the mid 1500s, the Pueblos reportedly exchanged maize and woven cotton goods for bison meat, hides and material for stone tools from Athabaskans. There are reports, confirming the shift in economy, of Navajos having large numbers of livestock and large areas of crops by mid 1700s. In effect, mutual raids with neighbouring cultures belonged among the most remarkable social problems of those times. Their culture has been shaped in the last few hundred years of expanding their range, by refining their self identity and their significance to others. Contact with other cultures (Puebloan, Apache, Ute, Comanche, Spanish, white American and others) whether friendly or not, helped in creating their new lifestyle. (65)

2.5.2. Today There are approximately 270,000 Navajos in the USA, which makes them the largest federally recognized Indian tribe in the United States. According to the recent 2000 Census, an estimated 180,000 Navajos reside on the Navajo Nation territory. The Navajo population is increasing at quite a rapid pace. Demographically, the Navajo Nation is relatively young, as the median age is only 24 years. Several thousand non- members also reside and work on the reservation. The Navajo Nation is located on approximately 27,000 square miles, or 16.2 million acres. Navajoland, or Diné Bikeyah, is situated within the exterior boundaries of the states of Arizona, New Mexico and Utah, occupying parts of 13 counties in those states. The Navajo Nation has significant renewable and non-renewable natural resources, including surface and ground water, rangelands and forests, irrigated farmlands, lakes, fish and wildlife, and substantial reserves of coal, oil and natural gas. However, much of Navajoland is extremely remote and isolated, with little or no infrastructure. Other serious problems, obstructing further development of the Nation,

30 include unpaved roads, lack of electricity, water supply, plumbing facilities, utility gas, telecommunication, or public services. Even though infrastructure development has grown significantly through the years, affording Navajo families the modern conveniences of DSL, satellite television and even wireless access in some communities, the overall current state of affairs is still far from being sufficient. In present, most families live in detached single-family homes and mobile homes. These are commonly constructed of wood. Most homes were built during 1960s to 1980s, even though there are older buildings, as well. Due to the reservation's remote geographic location, many structures do not have telephone or public utility services and lack complete kitchen or plumbing facilities. According to the 2000 Census, of the 47,603 occupied housing units on the Navajo Nation, 31.9 percent lack complete plumbing facilities, 28.1 percent do not have complete kitchen facilities and 60.1 percent lack telephone service. There is a high demand for new low-cost homes (according to the US HUD, the average cost of a new home on a reservation was USD 125,000 in 2003). HUD Office of Native American Programs (ONAP) is a governmental agency offering information and assistance with providing affordable housing to Natives. Nonetheless, current living conditions on the reservation are still far from being satisfactory. (63)

Generally speaking, major social and health problems within Native American community across the USA - exceeding significantly the average rate for overall US population - include unemployment, alcoholism, tuberculosis, diabetes, accidents (often DUI related), suicide, health care access, poverty, poor educational achievement, insufficient public, social as well as health services, and substandard housing. The main federal government agencies dealing with these problems are: Bureau of Indian Affairs - BIA (Education, vocational and social services; police), Indian Health Service – IHS (Primary health, mental health, alcoholism and substance abuse), HUD Office of Native American programs etc. Important relevant local agencies are: Navajo Area Indian Health Services (NAIHS), Navajo Division of Health (NDOH), Navajo Housing Authority (NHA), Navajo Tribal Utility Authority (NTUA), Diné Development Corporation (DDC).

31 As for health conditions on the reservation, several types of cancer are found to be at rates higher than the national average on the Four Corners Navajo Reservation. Especially high are the rates of reproductive-organ cancers in teenage Navajo girls, averaging seventeen times higher (!) than the average of girls in the United States. It has been suspected that uranium mines, both active and abandoned, have polluted surrounding air and the water supply. Diabetes mellitus is a major health problem among the Navajo. Due to the lack of drinking water, people often overuse cheap sodas high in sugar. Medical researchers believe that increased consumption of carbohydrates, coupled with genetic factors and lack of exercise, play significant roles in the emergence of this chronic disease. Together with all other Native Americans, Navajo are more likely to be diagnosed with certain illnesses than white people. These include: stomach and liver cancer in men (2x), cervical cancer in women (1.2x), obesity, diabetes (2.3x), heart disease (1.2x), higher AIDS rates (1.4x), infant mortality rate (1.5x), stroke (1.6x). (71) Still other serious problems are alcohol and drug abuse, as well as rising suicide numbers, especially among young girls.

32 3. PRACTICAL PART Following text compares the previously given information, concludes and evaluates the changes, which occurred in course of time in each particular area mentioned above in the theoretical part.

3.1. Culture Navajo language is the most widely represented of Native American languages today. Even though more then a half of the population uses Navajo in their everyday life, there is a very dangerous trend of young people who do not have this vitally important contact with their native tongue and incline towards universally spreading English. These children and youngsters are surrounded by English at home, at school, they hear it on TV and radio, read it on the Internet, use it to write text messages on their cell phones. The impact of English in media, including modern music and films, is tremendous. Rising number of Navajo young generation speak English only. That is, in my opinion, the biggest threat by far to the future of Navajo culture today. Of course, there is continuing effort of Navajo Nation Department of Diné Education, to implement Navajo language into school curricula. However, while complex changes in educational system take some time, there is a serious concern that this entire generation of today’s students leave school system before the positive changes and their Native language reach and affect them. This would consequently create a large social gap between their children and older generations of Navajo speakers. And that would, in effect, further reduce their chances to possibly learn the language later on in life, because considering its complexity it is difficult to learn without personal contact with Native speakers. In other words, comparing the past and present of the Navajo language (Diné Bizaad), things are not going very well. The language itself is losing its status and popularity among younger Navajos. It is also threatened by unstable and ever-changing concept of its teaching. Therefore future in this particular area appears uncertain. Traditional arts and crafts such as rug weaving, silversmithing and basket weaving are even today a substantial source of income. Thanks to the apparent high demand for Navajo art products, future of these crafts seems to be secure. Other traditions, e.g. sandpainting, traditional music and storytelling, are a vitally important part of people’s religion and sacred rites. As such, they are – and hopefully will remain – protected, carried on and preserved for future generations, not just by the Navajo Nation government departments but first of all by all the Diné.

33 Navajo way religion connects people with their culture, their sacred land (Diné Bikeyah), their past and their future. It reminds them of who they are and how they came to be this way. Even Navajo who understand their language only a little or not at all, usually have the common knowledge of their history and religion. It defines them. It is a part of their identity. This knowledge is still passed on by the word of mouth, inside the families and clans. Despite the ongoing Americanization process, this oral tradition appears to be firmly fixated in their cultural conscience. How many Navajo people adhere to their old ways and rituals in everyday life, however, is questionable. Navajo owned and operated radio KTNN, as well as cable TV station NNTV 5 promotes the Navajo language and culture. That is good news, of course. Nonetheless, after studying and listening to the KTNN broadcasting online I must say that one would expect to hear much more Navajo language, even though I am aware of the station’s current C&W profile. Especially when considering the fact that it covers entire Navajo Nation area, this station could play vital role in presenting Navajo language to the younger generations, pointing their attention towards their own culture instead of English language and white people’s country music, as it apparently does now. As I already mentioned above, there are many contemporary Navajo bands and musicians, who could fulfil this purpose and draw attention of younger (and wider) audiences at the same time. In like manner, numerous young successful sportsmen promote Navajo self- esteem and positive attitude towards future among younger generations. To sum up, traditional culture, arts and crafts are striving to survive in today’s modern world with varying success. Irregardless, they are supported by a numerous nation that has persevered through the hard times of the last four centuries of contact with the white culture. This is a sufficient reason to believe that their culture may adapt in the future, but will not disappear.

3.2. Education It needs to be stressed out, that the situation in education is gradually improving. The Head Start child development program for pre-school children, mothers and expectant mothers is an excellent example. Another achievement is obviously operation of Diné College, offering higher education to Navajo people at eight campuses, directly on the reservation. This is very important, as it enables Navajo students achieve higher education directly on reservation, without the necessity to leave their sacred homeland.

34 Especially important in the sense of preserving the original culture and keeping it alive appears to be the Center for Diné Studies. On the other hand, several sources mention generally unsatisfactory state of affairs at primary and secondary schools. Two of the problems are quite outstanding: unresolved approach to teaching (in) Navajo language, and high drop-out rate among (especially high school) students. While the latter problem appears to also have wider social context and its solution requires more complex approach, the former one certainly can (and should) be resolved as soon as possible by creating a thoroughly prepared curriculum that would be comprehensive and binding for each designated type of school. The topic certainly deserves full attention of responsible government officials and a prompt, professional solution. All in all, educational system of Navajo Nation has already achieved significant improvements and other success stories will certainly follow, provided that the aforementioned matters are solved soon.

3.3. Government and Society The traditional family values and customs are steadily incorporated into the minds of Navajos and in this respect the negative influence of the outside white world has had minimal impact on their society so far. In this particular area, the old ways of clan and family lifestyle are clearly surviving. At the same time, there have been huge changes in the government of the entire society as a whole. As has already been mentioned, current Navajo Nation government structure belongs to one of the most developed among Native tribes in the USA. There are, however, matters that ask for immediate resolution – the Constitution, to name one. Besides that, this relatively new form of government (new for Navajos) learns step by step to balance its powers and very likely has good prospects for years to come. Naturally, the government with its powers is shifting the balance in traditional concept of the society. Thus the result is a changing, adapting society structure. Hopefully, this adaptation will further result in a stronger, more compact and responsibly self- governing nation.

35 3.4. Economy Navajo Nation economy shifted through the years from originally agriculture based to a new, more diversified type. The largest sources of revenue today are of course external – grants and funds. Internal sources of revenue are made equally by mining industry and taxes. Current changes in legislative initiated restructuring of the economy, and redirected the attention towards new possibilities on the market: gaming industry, tourism, services and energy production. All these represent also many new job opportunities. Traditional arts and crafts, as well as agriculture, will remain an integral part of Navajo Nation economy. As a part of the development strategy, let us just hope that in the upcoming years Navajo Nation Division of Economic Development will receive increased funding, compared to the present state of mere 1.06% of Executive branch’s total budget. Navajo nation is also facing extremely high unemployment rate, resulting in widespread poverty and consequently leading to serious health and social problems on the reservation. These will be further discussed in the next chapter. In conclusion, Navajo people have never had easy life. Their daily economy - related problems shifted from bad weather, pest, war and raids to unemployment or cheap labour. All in all, the society is slowly adapting - with certain difficulties - to the new conditions. Nonetheless, with the right government and labour management chances are that they will once again become a thriving nation.

3.5. Lifestyle and Social Problems In spite of large natural resources on the reservation, well-organized government and significant sources of income from outside grants and funds, as well as mining industry etc., the infrastructure of Navajoland is in unsatisfactory condition. Very often, it is compared to the one of underdeveloped countries of the Third World. Unpaved, dusty roads, lack of water supply, plumbing facilities, utility gas, telecommunication, transportation etc. makes living in this dry and remote location extremely difficult. Adding low family income, lack of job opportunities in the area and resulting poverty, it is no wonder that there are so many suicides, school drop-outs, alcoholism, and drug abuse on the other side of this sad equation. Navajo population lives unhealthy lifestyle due to these harsh living conditions and the result is high rate of civilization diseases connected with this disturbing situation. This vicious circle of socio-economic

36 deficiency needs to be broken as fast as possible. Apparently, the changes that took place in this particular area were mostly negative. Navajos have been forced into a new, hostile situation and the transition from their originally simple but balanced and healthy lifestyle to modern day “civilized” way of life has clearly had a destructive effect on their health. Their old customs and connections were often broken, which resulted in one of the most serious problems Navajo Nation faces today. To speak about adapting here would be inappropriate. As far as lifestyle is concerned, their society is struggling to survive under the given circumstances.

37 4. CONCLUSION Navajo Nation with its estimated 270,000 members is the largest federally recognized tribe in the USA today. In the past, a strong sense of tribal identity kept Navajo culture and social structure intact for centuries. The Diné people have been remarkably successful at preserving their unique culture, despite overwhelming influence of the American mainstream supported by the latest technologies. Regretfully, there are growing trends within the Navajo society today that jeopardize the survival of this ancient and amazing culture. One of them is significant decrease of Navajo speakers among youth. This is even more alerting in association with minimum of Navajo language (Diné Bizaad) spoken at schools, in public and media. Another negative factor is insufficient promotion of traditional Navajo values and culture among young. Last but not least, it is low socio-economic background, causing many subsequent problems, e.g. frustration, low self-esteem, school drop-outs, alcoholism, drug abuse or even suicides. All these things can be helped – it will not be easy, but it can and must be done. The sooner, the better. None of us knows what future brings. Surviving, disappearing or adapting? Survival of the ancient lifestyle in its original form seems impossible or, at the very least, unlikely. Disappearing is out of question. Adapting, then? Yes, it appears that the only possibility for the Navajo lifestyle and culture today is adapting. The real question, though, is: adapting into what ? What seems to be certain is that Diné people will stay on their sacred land, fighting for better tomorrow as they always have. With the current increasing birth rate, their numbers are likely to rise and with good leadership, without doubt their socio-economic status will gradually improve, as well. Future will prove if they also manage to preserve their language, beliefs and rituals; keep them alive. That will, eventually, determine whether they become a) “fully naturalized” US citizens with Navajo ancestors or b) proud members of Navajo Nation with all the convenience of modern establishment, economy and infrastructure, yet with own, well-preserved and used specific language, culture and lifestyle. I wish them the latter.

Let’s just hope that their extraordinary culture will prevail and thus keep us amazed and thrilled for many years to come.

38 5. LIST OF WORKS CITED

1. Berkhofer, Robert F., Jr. The white man’s Indian . Images of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present . New York: Vintage Books, 1979.

2. Buyers, Tim; Hubbard, John The Navajo Health and Nutrition Survey: Research that can make a difference. American Society for Nutritional Sciences. The Journal of Nutrition, 1997.

3. Choudhary, Trib 2005 – 2006 Comprehensive Economic Development Strategy of the Navajo Nation. Navajo Nation Division of Economic Development, 2006.

4. Deloria, Vine, Jr. American Indian policy in the twentieth century . Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992.

5. Deloria, Vine, Jr. Custer Died for Your Sins – An Indian Manifesto . New York: Avon books, 1972.

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44 6. LIST OF ATTACHMENTS

1) The Navajo Nation map 2) Diné College graduation numbers by site 3) Educational Attainment on the Navajo Nation by race 4) Educational Attainment (NN, AZ, NM, UT, USA) 5) Homicide and Suicide rates on the Navajo Nation 6) Income and Poverty comparison in the US and Navajo Nation 7) The Navajo Nation government organization chart 8) The Navajo Nation employment by sectors of economy 9) Languages spoken at home in Native American families

45