1 Introduction

Notes

1 Introduction

1. I. Gilcher-Holtey makes the comparison of 1968 with 1789 implicit in her title, (1998) 1968—Vom Ereignis zum Gegenstand der Geschichtswissenschaft (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht) which was inspired by F. Furet’s (1980) 1789—Vom Ereignis zum Gegenstand der Geschichtswissenschaft (Frankfurt am Main: Ullstein). 2. A. Feenberg and J. Freedman (2001) When Poetry Ruled the Streets: The French May Events of 1968 (Albany: State University of New York Press), p. 150. 3. This work will designate the non-activists who interacted with the student movement in a variety of ways, the “establishment” rather than the typical “Establishment” that connotes those who were wholly opposed to the student New Left. The literature written on and by the activists is extensive. For example, L. S. Feuer (1969) The Conflict of Generations: The Character and Significance of Student Movements (New York: Basic Books); G. Dietze (1970) Youth, University and Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press); P. Knott (ed.) (1971) Student Activism (Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown); S. M. Lipset (1971) Rebellion in the University (Chicago: University of Chicago Press); G. Statera (1975) Death of a Utopia: The Development and Decline of Student Movements in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press); M. Kolinsky and W. Patterson (eds)(1976) Social and Political Movements in Western Europe (London: Croom Helm); A. Touraine (1978) La voix et le regard: sociologie des mouvements sociaux (Paris: Nouvelle); P. Ortoleva (1988) Saggio sui movimenti del 1968 in Europa e in America: con un’ antologia di materiali e documenti (Rome: Editori Riuniti); W. Kraushaar (2000) 1968 als Mythos, Chiffre und Zäsur (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition); I. Gilcher- Holtey (2001) Die 68er-Bewegung: Deutschland, Westeuropa, USA (Munich: Beck); A. Feenberg and J. Freedman (2001) When Poetry Ruled the Streets; and G. Horn (2007) The Spirit of ’68: Rebellion in Western Europe and North America, 1956–1976 (Oxford: Oxford University Press). 4. W. Mausbach (2002) “Historicising ‘1968’,” Contemporary European History, vol. XI, 182. 5. Historian of contemporary Italy, Nicola Tranfaglia has also remarked on the lack of interest that scholars of 1968 have shown toward the establishment, in particular the deliberations of Italy’s politicians found in the Atti parlamentari. N. Tranfaglia interviewed in G. Santomassimo (ed.) (1989) “Il Sessantotto: una storia difficile,” Passato e Presente, vol. XIX, 19. 6. “… there is no doubt that the things most true about the Sessantotto were tied to oral communication. This renders the reconstruction of the Sessantotto only through written documents very difficult.” G. DeLuna interviewed in G. Santomassimo (ed.) (1989) “Il Sessantotto: una storia difficile,” Passato e Presente, vol. xix, 20. 7. For examples of the literature emphasizing the global aspects of 1968, see J. Califano (1970) The Student Revolution: A Global Confrontation (New York:

141 142 Notes

W. W. Norton); G. Katsiaficas (1987) The Imagination of the New Left: A Global Analysis of 1968 (Boston: South End Press); D. Caute (1988) Sixty-Eight: The Year of the Barricades (London: Hamish Hamilton); R. Fraser (1988) 1968: A Student Generation in Revolt (London: Chatto and Windus); R. V. Daniels (1989) Year of the Heroic Guerilla: World Revolution and Counterrevolution in 1968 (New York: Basic Books); C. Fink, P. Gassert, and D. Junker, (eds) (1998) 1968: The World Transformed (Washington, DC: Cambridge University Press); A. Marwick (1998) The Sixties: Cultural Revolution in Britain, France, Italy, and the United States, c. 1958–1974 (Oxford: Oxford University Press); J. Suri (2003) Power and Protest: Global Revolution and the Rise of Détente (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press); and M. Kurlansky (2004) 1968: The Year That Rocked the World (New York: Random House). 8. M. Kurlansky (2004) 1968: The Year That Rocked the World, p. xvii. 9. On the role of the media in globally disseminating ideas and images of protest, see the introduction of C. Fink, P. Gassert, and D. Junker (eds) (1998) 1968: The World Transformed, pp. 9–13. 10. M. Klimke and J. Scharloth (eds) (2008) 1968 in Europe: A History of Protest and Activism, 1956–1977 (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan), p. 4. 11. A. Marwick (2004) “1968 and the Cultural Revolution of the Long Sixties (c. 1958–1974),” in G. Horn and P. Kenney (eds) Transnational Moments of Change: Europe 1945, 1968, 1989 (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield), p. 83. 12. E. J. Hobsbawm noted that by the end of the year 1968, over fifty-two books and articles had already appeared on the May events in Paris, see (1973) Revolutionaries: Contemporary Essays (New York: Meridian Books), p. 234. 13. For an excellent study of the ways that the media shaped the actions of protesters and the course of the US student movement see T. Gitlin (1980) The Whole World is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press). For a comparative analysis of the students’ battles with the conservative press in West Germany and Italy see S. Hilwig (1998) “The Revolt Against the Establishment: Students Versus the Press in West Germany and Italy,” in C. Fink, P. Gassert, and D. Junker (eds) 1968: The World Transformed, pp. 321–49. K. Fahlenbrach takes an anthropological and sociological approach to examining the ways that the popular media changed the lifestyles and habits of protesters in the 1960s in (2002) Protest-Inszenierungen: visuelle Kommunikation und kollektive Identitat¨en in Protestbewegungen (Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag). Media theorist M. Brasted uses frame theory to compare the ways that two different newspapers constructed the 1968 Democratic Convention protests in Chicago in (2005) “Framing Protest: The Chicago Tribune and the New York Times during the 1968 Democratic Convention,” Atlantic Journal of Communication, vol. XIII, 1–25. 14. “Sessantotto” the Italian word for sixty-eight has, like its French and German equivalents, come to mean the entire period of student activism stretching from the mid-1960s to the early 1970s with its apogee of student rebellion in the magic year, 1968. 15. P. Bourdieu (1988) On Television (trans. P. P. Ferguson) (New York: The New Press); E. S. Herman and N. Chomsky (1988) Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (New York: Pantheon Books); and M. McLuhan and Q. Fiore (1967) The Medium is the Massage (New York: Bantam Books). Notes 143

16. R. Finnegan (2006) “Family Myths, Memories and Interviewing,” in R. Perks and A. Thomson (eds) The Oral History Reader, Second Edition (London: Routledge), p. 179. 17. H. Arendt (1969) On Violence (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World). 18. In particular the priest Don Lorenzo Milani’s (1967) Lettera a una professoressa, (Firenze: Libreria Editrice Fiorentina) detailed the sad state of education in a small rural town near Florence in a work that became standard reading for student activists. A. Marwick also notes the material disparities between the city and country in Italy in (1998) The Sixties. 19. G. Ricuperati (1991) “La Politica Scolastica Italiana dal Centro-Sinistra alla Contestazione Studentesca,” in A. Agosti, L. Passerini, and N. Tranfaglia (eds) La cultura e i luoghi del ’68 (eds) (Milan: Franco Angeli), p. 426. 20. P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy: Society and Politics, 1943– 1988 (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan), pp. 340–44 and 351. 21. International War Crimes Tribunal, Bertrand Russell, and Jean Paul Sartre (1968) Das Vietnam-Tribunal (Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt). 22. A. Touraine (1971) The May Movement: Revolt and Reform, May 1968—the Student Rebellion and Workers’ Strikes—the Birth of a Social Movement (trans. L. F. X. Mayhew) (New York: Random House), pp. 22–27. 23. R. Rossanda (1968) L’anno degli studenti (Bari: De Donato). 24. R. Aron (1969) The Elusive Revolution: Anatomy of a Student Revolt (trans. G. Clough) (New York: Praeger). 25. In German, Linksfaschisten, see Jürgen Habermas (1969) “Kongress ‘Hochschule und Demokratie’,” in Protestbewegung und Hochschulreform (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp), pp. 137–49. 26. See, for example L. Labedz (1968) “Students and Revolutions,” Survey, vol. LXVIII, 3–28; E. Scheuch (1969) “The Liberation from Right Reason,” Encounter, vol. XXXII, 56–61; G. Dietze (1970) Youth, University and Democracy; W. Karl (1970) “Students and the Youth Movement in Germany: Attempt at a Structural Comparison,” Journal of Contemporary History, vol. V, 113–27; S. M. Lipset (1971) Rebellion in the University; G. Statera (1975) Death of a Utopia; L. Feuer (1969) The Conflict of Generations; S. N. Eisenstadt (1971) “Generational Conflict and Intellectual Antinomianism,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. CCCXCV, 68–79. 27. For example sociologist C. Levitt continued to place much emphasis on generational conflict in his study of student movements in Canada, West Germany, and the United States in (1984) Children of Privilege: Student Revolt in the Sixties (Buffalo, NY: University of Toronto Press). 28. See, for example R. Fraser (1988) 1968 and D. Caute (1988) Sixty-Eight. 29. P. Piccone (1988) “Reinterpreting 1968: Mythology on the Make,” Telos, vol. LXXVII, 7–43. 30. I. Juchler’s (1996) Die Studentenbewegung in den Vereinigten Staaten und der Bundesrepublik Deutschland der sechsziger Jahre: Eine Untersuchung hinsichtlich ihrer Beeinflussung durch Befreiungsbewegungen und theorien aus der Dritten Welt (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot) explores the influence of the ideologies of Third World revolutionaries on student activists in the US and West Germany. W. Kraushaar (1998) (ed.) Frankfurter Schule und Studentenbewegung: Von der Flaschenpost zum Molotowcocktail 1945–1995 (Hamburg: Rogner & Bernard) documents the rela- tionship between student activists and the Frankfurt School. 144 Notes

31. M. Kimmel’s (1998) Studentenbewegungen der 60er Jahre. Frankreich, BRD, und USA im Vergleich (Vienna: WUV Universitätsverlag) uses social movement theories to balance an understanding of global and national causes of student unrest. 32. D. Della Porta (1995) Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State: A Comparative Analysis of Italy and Germany (New York: Cambridge University Press), pp. 183–84. 33. See C. Fink, P. Gassert, and D. Junker (1998) 1968: The World Transformed and I. Gilcher-Holtey (1998) 1968: Vom Ereignis zum Gegenstand der Geschichtswissenschaft. 34. See P. Ortoleva (1991) “Le Culture del ’68,” in A. Agosti, L. Passerini, and N. Tranfaglia (eds) La Cultura e i luoghi del ’68, pp. 38–61 and A. Marwick (1998) The Sixties. 35. A. Marwick’s (1998) The Sixties offers a few anecdotal examples of non-student reactions to the counterculture. 36. W. Kraushaar (2000) 1968 als Mythos, Chiffre, und Zäsur. 37. Term from M. Kurlansky’s (2004) 1968: The Year That Rocked the World, the author was an eyewitness to events of 1968. W. Mausbach has pointed to the continued influence of 68ers on the literature of the 1960s, in (2002) ‘Historicising 1968’ Contemporary European History, vol. XI, 177–78. 38. A. Feenberg and J. Freedman (2001) When Poetry Ruled the Streets; G. Koenen (2001) Das rote Jahrzehnt: Unsere kleine deustche Kulturrevolution 1967–1977 (Cologne: Kiepenheuer & Witsch); and M. Donnelly (2005) Sixties Britain: Culture, Society and Politics (London: Pearson). 39. See, for example the chapters on “Terrorism,” “The Women’s Movement,” and “The Environmental Movement,” in M. Klimke and J. Scharloth (eds) (2008) 1968 in Europe. 40. G. Horn and P. Kenney (eds) (2004) Transnational Moments of Change: Europe, 1945, 1968, 1989 and M. Klimke (forthcoming) The “Other” Alliance: Global Protest and Student Unrest in West Germany and the US, 1962–1972 (Princeton: Princeton University Press). 41. S. Lipset (1971) Rebellion in the University, p. 495. 42. S. G. Tarrow (1989) Democracy and Disorder: Protest and Politics in Italy, 1965–1975 (New York: Oxford University Press), pp. 5–9. 43. L. Falossi and F. Loreto (2007) Due bienni rossi del Novecento 19–20 e 68–69. Studi e interpretazioni a confronto (Rome: Ediesse). 44. R. Lumley (1990) States of Emergency: Cultures of Revolt in Italy from 1968 to 1978 (London: Verso). P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy. The sociologist G. Galli has argued that the demonstrations of the 1960s were merely a reaction to the stalemate among the general political structures in Italy in (1970) “The Student Movement in Italy,” (trans. P. E. Peacock), The Human Context, vol. II, 494–505. 45. J. Kurz and M. Tolomelli (2008) “Italy,” in M. Klimke and J. Scharloth, (eds) 1968 in Europe, pp. 83–84. 46. J. Kurz and M. Tolomelli, “Italy,” in M. Klimke and J. Scharloth (eds) 1968 in Europe, p. 92. Some examples of these autobiographies and memoirs are G. Viale (1978) Il Sessantotto: Tra rivoluzione e restaurazione (Milan: G. Mazzotta); M. Boato (1979) Il 68 è morto. Viva il 68!: prima del ’68, origini del movimento studentesco e della nuova sinistra: dopo il ’68, abbiamo sbagliato tutto…? (Verona: Bertani); M. Capanna (1988) Formidabili quegli anni (Milan: Notes 145

Rizzoli); L. Passerini (1996) Autobiography of a Generation: Italy, 1968 (trans. L. Erdberg) (Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press), originally appeared as (1988) Autoritratto di Gruppo (Firenze: Giunti). 47. In English “La cultura e i luoghi del ’68” can be translated as “The culture and places of ’68.” 48. This Turin group includes media theorist Peppino Ortoleva, political scien- tist Marco Revelli, and historian Luisa Passerini. 49. L. Passerini (1996) Autobiography of a Generation: Italy, 1968. 50. L. Bobbio (1987) “Il movimento del 1968 nell’Università,” in L. Bobbio, F. Ciafaloni, P. Ortoleva, R. Rossanda, and R. Solmi (eds) Cinque Lezioni sul ’68 (Torino: Dossier di RS), pp. 12–14. 51. Revelli mentions a feeling of “euphoria and power” experienced by the occupants of the Palazzo Campana during the first weeks of the occupation, in (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino. Gli Esordi: La Comunità Studentesca di Palazzo Campana,” in A. Agosti, L. Passerini, and N. Tranfaglia (eds) La cultura e i luoghi del ’68. 52. P. Ortoleva (1988) Saggio sui movimenti del 1968 in Europa e in America. 53. For similar global explanations of the student revolts, see A. Schnapp and P. Vidal-Naquet (1971) The French Student Uprising, November 1967–June 1968: An Analytical Record. (trans. M. Jolas) (Boston: Beacon Press); L. Feuer (1969) The Conflict of Generations; J. Califano (1970) The Student Revolution; D. Caute (1988) Sixty-eight; R. Fraser (1988) 1968; and C. Fink, P. Gassert, and D. Junker (eds) (1998) 1968 The World Transformed. 54. For a critical discussion of the “68ers” hold over the historiography and market of student protest literature, see P. Piccone (1988) “Reinterpreting 1968: Mythology on the Make,” 7–43. 55. M. Tolomelli compares student interactions with workers in West Germany with those in Italy, (2001) Repressiv getrennt oder organisch verbun¨det: Studenten und Arbeiter1968 in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und in Italien (Opladen: Leske & Budrich); D. Giachetti (2002) Anni Sessanta comincia la danza: giovani, capelloni, studenti ed estremisti negli anni della contestazione (Pisa: BFS); G. Horn analyzes student activists’ links with French and Italian workers in (2004) “The Working-Class Dimension of 1968,” in G. Horn and P. Kenney (eds) Transnational Moments of Change: Europe 1945, 1968, 1989, pp. 95–118. 56. L. Lanzardo (1997) Cronaca della Commissione operaia del Movimento studentesco torinese: dicembre 1967-maggio 1968 (Pistoia: Centro di documentazione Pistoia). 57. A recent collection of oral interviews offers a wide range of personal testimony by those who were involved with the student movement but were not leaders: F. Cerocchi and Circolo Gianni Bosio (eds) (2006) Un anno durato decenni: vite di persone comuni, prima, durante e dopo il ’68 (Rome: Odradek). 58. L. Passerini (1996) Autobiography of a Generation: Italy, 1968, p. 152.

2 The Italian Student Revolts, 1967–68

1. The Ministry of Public Instruction in Rome wanted to confer a degree in “political and social sciences with an emphasis in sociology,” see G. Horn (2007) The Spirit of ’68, pp. 74–77. 146 Notes

2. V. Spini (1972) “The New Left in Italy,” Journal of Contemporary History, vol. VII, 52. 3. L. Lindlar, “1968 and the German Economy,” p. 13, Table 2. Unpublished paper presented at the German Historical Institute’s Conference “1968: The World transformed,” May 1996, Wissenschaftszentrum, Berlin. 4. G. Mammarella (1964) Italy after Fascism: A Political History 1943–1963 (Montreal: Mario Casalini), pp. 344–52. As late as 1969, only 22 percent of Italy’s university students came from working-class homes; in G. Galli (1970) “The Student Movement in Italy,” 497. Also see P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy: Society and Politics, 1943–1988 (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan). 5. G. Galli quoted in F. P. Belloni (1971) “Dislocation in the Italian Political System: An Analysis of the 1968 Parliamentary Elections,” The Western Political Quarterly, vol. XXIV, 130. 6. For an explanation of the problems of the Italian left see A. De Grand (1989) The Italian Left in the Twentieth Century: A History of the Socialist and Communist Parties (Bloomington: Indiana University Press) and T. Perlini (1971) “Left-Wing Culture in Italy since the Last War,” (trans. G. Nowell- Smith), 20th Century Studies, V, 6–17. 7. R. Boston (1969) “The Italian Chaos,” New Society, vol. CCCXLVII, 788. 8. D. Caute (1988) Sixty-Eight, p. 59. 9. The hesitancy of Italian politicians to enact university reforms is well documented in G.Galli (1970) “The Student Movement in Italy,” 494–95. Minister Gui in Atti Parlamentari: Discussioni (Camera dei Deputati) vol. 40 (December 5, 1967), p. 41233. [Hereafter abbreviated as AP.] 10. The PSU was a short-lived union of the old Socialist Party (PSI) and the Social Democratic Party (PSDI). 11. G. Martinotti (1969) “The Positive Marginality: Notes on Italian Students in Periods of Political Mobilization,” in S. M. Lipset and P. Altbach (eds) Students in Revolt (Boston: Houghton Mifflin), p. 186. 12. G. De Luna (1991) “Aspetti del Movimento del ’68 a Torino,” in A. Agosti, L. Passerini, and N. Tranfaglia (eds) La cultura e i luoghi del ’68 (Milan: Franco Angeli), pp.190–91. 13. Although the percentage of young people attending universities in Italy was comparable to the rest of Europe, only 44 percent ever received their degree. See R. Boston (1969) “The Italian Chaos,” 788 and G. Galli (1970) “The Student Movement in Italy,” 497–99. 14. M. Revelli (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino. Gli Esordi: La Comunita’ Studentesca di Palazzo Campana,” p. 215. 15. See S. Hilwig (2001) “Are you calling me a fascist? A Contribution to the Oral History of the 1968 Italian Student Rebellion,” Journal of Contemporary History, vol. XXXVI, 581–97. 16. F. P. Belloni (1971) “Dislocation in the Italian Political System,” 114–35. Also the doctrine of Catholic Action which appeared in works such as Don Lorenzo Milani (1967) Lettera a una professoressa stressed an active humanist Catholicism to solve the problems of poverty in rural Italy. 17. Catholic Church and W. J. Gibbons (1963) Pacem in Terris. Peace on Earth: Encyclical Letter of His Holiness Pope John XXIII (New York: Paulist Press). Notes 147

18. L. Milani (1967) Lettera a una professoressa. Historian John Foot has noted that Milani’s work shows that the student revolt of the late 1960s was not entirely an urban phenomenon unconnected with rural Italy. Remarks at the University of Leeds Conference, “Memories of 1968: International Perspectives,” April 16–18, 2008. 19. R. Lumley (1990) States of Emergency, pp. 82–84. 20. G. Horn emphasizes the theories of Marcuse and Mills in the students’ manifestos see (2007) The Spirit of ’68, pp. 80–81. P. Ginsborg notes that along with Marcuse, Marx’s earlier works and Mao’s writings served to form the basis of the students’ critique, (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, p. 306. 21. G. Galli (1970) “The Student Movement in Italy,” 496. 22. For an excellent discussion of the role of Third World revolutionary ideology in the formation of student ideology, see S. Dalmasso (2001) “Il quadro internazionale” in S. Dalmasso (ed.) La stagione dei movimenti: [gli anni Sessanta e Settanta]: atti dei convegni, Cuneo, Palazzo della Provincia, 25 febbraio 2000, 23–24 febbraio 2001. (Cuneo: Istituto storico della Resistenza in Cuneo e provincial), 29–45. 23. R. Niccolai (2001) “Quando la Cina era vicina: l’influenza dle pensiero di Mao nella sinistra rivoluzionaria degli anni Sessanta e Settanta,” in S. Dalmasso (ed.) La stagione dei movimenti, 47–63. 24. G. Galli (1970) “The Student Movement in Italy,” 495–96. For the condition of southern immigrant workers in Turin see G. De Luna (1991) “Aspetti del Movimento del’ 68 a Torino,” p. 198. 25. M. Revelli (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino. Gli Esordi,” pp. 240–41. 26. Book sales statistic in R. Boston (1969) “The Italian Chaos,” 789. Herbert Marcuse (1964) One Dimensional Man (Boston: Beacon Press). 27. See Chapter 1 for a discussion of the Center-Left coalition and D. Caute (1988) Sixty-Eight, p. 61. 28. Leonard Weinberg (1995) The Transformation of Italian Communism (New Bunswick and London: Transaction Publishers), pp. 34–35. 29. G. De Luna cites student leaders Guido Viale and Luigi Bobbio on the role of Gramsci’s “long march through the institutions” in (1991) “Aspetti del Movimento del ’68 a Torino,” p. 198. D. Caute notes the influence of the West Berlin SDS on the ideology of Italian activists in (1988) Sixty-Eight, p. 59. 30. S. Hellman, “The ‘New Left’ in Italy,” in M. Kolinsky and W. E. Paterson (eds) (1976) Social and Political Movements in Western Europe (London: Croom Helm), pp. 243–73. T. Perlini (1971) “Left-wing Culture in Italy Since the Last War,” 6–17. 31. V. Spini (1972) “The New Left in Italy,” 58. 32. For essays describing the conflict between the New and Old Left in Italy in the 1960s and afterward, see G. Paolini and W. Vitali (eds) (1977) PCI, Classe Operaia e Movimento Studentesco (Florence: Guaraldi Editore). 33. For a very thorough account of the student movements throughout Italy in the 1960s, see J. Kurz (2001) Die Universität auf der Piazza. Entstehung und Zerfall der Studentenbewegung in Italien 1996–1968 (Cologne: SH-Verlag). 34. R. Boston (1969) “The Italian Chaos,” 789. 35. Perhaps the students sought to ruffle Catholic consciences by calling their list of demands “Theses,” similar to the work of Martin Luther. Sapienza was 148 Notes

an old name for the University of Pisa, see V. Spini (1972) “The New Left in Italy,” 60. 36. M. Revelli (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino. Gli Esordi,” pp. 213, 250. 37. G. Galli (1970) “The Student Movement in Italy,” 494. 38. Ibid, 500. 39. DeRossi, the daughter of a wealthy building contractor, admitted, “I come from a bourgeois family, a wealthy family.” See L. Passerini (1996) Autobiography of a Generation, pp. 24–25. 40. C. Levitt (1984) Children of Privilege, p. 4. 41. M. Revelli (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino. Gli Esordi,” p. 224. 42. S. M. Lipset (1969) “The Possible Effects of Student Activism on International Politics,” in S. M. Lipset and P. Altbach (eds) Students in Revolt (Boston: Houghton Mifflin), p. 512. 43. P. Vidal-Naquet, Esquisse d’une revolution, quoted in M. Revelli (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino. Gli Esordi,” p. 241. 44. M. Revelli (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino. Gli Esordi,” p. 226. 45. L. Passerini (1996) Autobiography of a Generation, p. 69. 46. Diego Marconi in L. Passerini (1996) Autobiography of a Generation, pp. 71–72. 47. See M. Revelli (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino. Gli Esordi,” pp. 242–43. Luisa Passerini argued that the scandal, laughter, and sarcasm of the rebels all helped to undermine authority, (1988) “Le mouvement de 1968 comme prise de parole et comme explosion de la subjectivité: le cas de Turin,” Le Mouvement social, vol. CXLIII, 50–55. 48. L. Passerini (1996) Autobiography of a Generation, pp. 147–48. 49. P. Ortoleva (1991) “Le culture del ’68,” in A. Agosti, L. Passerini, and N. Tranfaglia (eds) La cultura e i luoghi del ’68, p. 46. 50. Il Corriere della Sera, February 20, 1968, p. 1. 51. La Stampa, May 24, 1968, p. 2. 52. Il Corriere della Sera, February 20, 1968, p. 1. 53. P. Ginsborg’s section, “Anni di Piombo (The Years of the Bullet)” (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, pp. 379–87. 54. L’Osservatore Romano, February 25, 1968, p. 4. 55. J. Kurz and M. Tolomelli (2008) “Italy,” p. 89. 56. For the Paris May and also the Chicago Democratic Convention civil unrest, see I. Gilcher-Holtey (1998) “May 1968 in France: The Rise and Fall of a New Social Movement,” and A. Brinkley (1998) “1968 and the Unraveling of Liberal America,” in C. Fink, P. Gassert, and D. Junker (eds) 1968: The World Transformed (Washington, DC: Cambridge University Press). 57. See G. Galli (1970) “The Student Movement in Italy,” 501; M. Revelli (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino. Gli Esordi,” pp. 240–41; and C. Oliva and A. Rendi (1969) Il Movimento Studentesco e le sue lotte (Milan: Feltrinelli), pp. 21–22. 58. See C. Oliva and A. Rendi (1969) Il Movimento Studentesco e le sue lotte, p. 28 and La Stampa, March 2, 1968, p. 1. 59. C. Oliva and A. Rendi (1969) Il Movimento Studentesco e le sue lotte, p. 28. 60. D. Caute (1988) Sixty-eight, pp. 61–62. For an analysis of the West German students’ conflict with Axel Springer’s press see S. Hilwig (1998) “The Revolt Against the Establishment: Students Versus the Press in West Germany and Notes 149

Italy,” in C. Fink, P. Gassert, and D. Junker (eds) 1968: The World Transformed, pp. 321–49. 61. Il Corriere della Sera, April 28, 1968, p. 1. 62. M. Revelli (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino: Gli Esordi,” p. 246. 63. C. Oliva and A. Rendi (1969) Il Movimento Studentesco, pp. 37–38. 64. In the autumn of 1968, there was an increase in the number of protests among high school students who demanded many of the same rights as their older siblings had done the previous spring. D. Caute (1988) Sixty-Eight, p. 350. 65. For a humorous and critical examination of the occupations of the 1990s that were led by a group called “La Pantera” or the “Panther,” see the film (1997) Tutti giù per terra. 66. P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, pp. 308–09. 67. A. Marwick (1998) The Sixties, p. 11. 68. L. S. Feuer (1969) The Conflict of Generations. 69. Psychoanalysts Morton Levitt and Ben Rubenstein have argued that the student leaders came from generally wealthy backgrounds with permissive parents and that once in college they reverted back to an Oedipal phase and their attacks on “corporate liberals, etc.” is merely an attack on their fathers. See M. Levitt and B. Rubenstein (1971) “The Student Revolt: Totem and Taboo Revisited,” Psychiatry, vol. XXXIV, 156–67. 70. A. Marwick (1998) The Sixties, pp. 493–94. 71. D. Giachetti (2001) “Capelloni, studenti, estremisti: i giovani degli anni Sessanta,” in S. Dalmasso (ed.) La stagione dei movement, p. 65. 72. La Stampa, November 29, 1967, p. 5. 73. P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, p. 303. 74. Paul Piccone argued that the counterculture of the 1960s distinguished itself from past generational conflicts by its metamorphosis into a political movement. See P. Piccone (1988) “Reinterpreting ’68: Mythology on the Make,” 9. 75. P. Ortoleva (1991) “Le culture del ’68,” p. 52. 76. Guido Viale quoted in G. De Luna (1991) “Aspetti del Movimento del ’68 a Torino,”, pp. 199–200. 77. Fiorella Farinelli quoted in L. Passerini (1996) Autobiography of a Generation, p. 29. 78. J. La Palombara (1987) Democracy, Italian Style (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press). 79. G. Galli (1970) “The Student Movement in Italy,” 495. 80. Il Risveglio quoted in G. De Luna (1991) “Aspetti del Movimento del ’68 a Torino”, pp. 201–202. 81. L’Osservatore Romano, December 1, 1967, p. 5. 82. P. Hebblethwaite (1995) “Pope Pius XII – Chaplain of the Atlantic Alliance?” in C. Duggan and C. Wagstaff (eds) Italy and the Cold War: Politics, Culture and Society, 1948–58 (Washington, DC: Berg), p. 68. 83. L’Osservatore Romano, February 2, 1968, p. 6. 84. Although Pope John XXIII called for a political truce between Catholics and Communists in the mid-1960s, the Church’s condemnation of spiritual atheism and immorality remained consistent. For the postwar Church’s views on Communist atheism and Western immorality see P. Hebblethwaite (1995) “Pope Pius XII,” pp. 67–69. 150 Notes

85. The Socialists had first proposed a referendum on divorce in 1965, in 1969 the PCI supported the referendum and in December 1970, divorce was made legal in Italy; see P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, p. 328. 86. A. Marwick (1998) The Sixties, pp. 680–81. 87. N. Z. Davis (1975) “Women on Top,” in N. Z. Davis (ed.) Society and Culture in Early Modern France: Eight Essays (Stanford: Stanford University Press). 88. D. Godineau (1993) “Daughters of Liberty and Revolutionary Citizens,” in G. Duby and M. Perrot (eds) A History of Women, vol. 4, (trans. A. Goldhammer) (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press). 89. La Stampa, April 25, 1968, p. 2. 90. L. Passerini (1988) “Le mouvement de 1968 comme prise de parole et comme explosion de la subjectivitè,” 59. 91. K. Fahlenbrach (2002) Protest-Inszenierungen, pp. 32–37. 92. For a brief discussion of the Situationists’ role in the student movements, see T. Hecken and A. Grzenia (2008) “Situationism,” in M. Klimke and J. Scharloth (eds) 1968 in Europe, pp. 23–32. 93. Il Corriere della Sera, May 19, 1968, p. 15. 94. See L. Passerini’s section, “The Gender Gap,” in (1996) Autobiography of a Generation, pp. 95–100 and F. Haug (1986) “The Women’s Movement in West Germany,” New Left Review, vol. LV, 50–74. 95. Giorgina Levi interviewed by the author. Turin: April 14, 1997. 96. See A. Marwick on youth movements as a cultural industry in (1998) The Sixties, p. 18. 97. Maria Valabrega interviewed by the author. Turin: June 6, 1997.

3 The Case of Turin I: Defending the Ivory Tower

1. For examples of the authoritarian and aloof bearing of the professors, see R. Fraser (1988) 1968, pp. 57–59. 2. Nicola Tranfaglia interviewed by the author. Turin: June 20, 2002. 3. Guido Quazza (1970) Piani di Studio (Florence: La Nuova Italia), p. 9. 4. In her own work on civil unrest in Italy and Germany, Donatella Della Porta has argued that official sources provide a kind of “thick description” of events that cannot be found in the discontinuous coverage of the media. See D. Della Porta (1995) Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State, p. 18. 5. Nicola Tranfaglia noted that Guido Quazza, professor of education; Norberto Bobbio, professor of law; Aldo Garoshi, Franco Venturi, and Passerin d’Entreves were all ex-partisans. Interview with the author. Turin: June 20, 2002. 6. Nicola Tranfaglia noted that the long silence among academics on the sub- ject of fascism was not really broken until 1975 and may have been due to a Freudian “elaboration of mourning.” Interview with the author. Turin: June 20, 2002. 7. Pasquali was a noted philologist and linguist. Quoted in Quazza (1970) Piani di Studio, n. 15, p. 62. 8. Quazza generally agreed with the student movement’s theory that the university system helped maintain the dominance of the elite, see (1970) Piani di Studio, pp. 10, 16. Notes 151

9. Nicola Tranfaglia interviewed by the author. Turin: June 20, 2002. 10. Anonymous author (1968) “Un rettore di stile franchista,” Resistenza: Giustizia e Libertà, vol. XI, 1. 11. Other examples can be found in the actions of the Rectors of the Freie Universität Berlin, Hans Joachim Lieber and Ewald Harndt as well as the Minister of Education Missoffe’s attempts to alleviate tensions at the University of Nanterre by building a new swimming pool shortly after the first protests at the suburban university in 1967. See J. Tent (1988) The Free University of Berlin (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press) and G. Statera (1975) Death of a Utopia. 12. Guido Viale, one of the student leaders in Turin remembered, “Allara preferiva … scarabocchiare l’intera pagina del libretto” in A. Papuzzi, “E a Torino professori da zero in condotta,” La Stampa, April 29, 1998 in “Media ’68 Rassegna stampa” http://www.media68.net/ita/press/press47. htm (accessed August 12, 2008). 13. Guido Viale noted that Grosso was an “esperto lanciatore dei libretti univer- sitari degli studenti che bocciava,” ibid. 14. La Stampa, December, 3 1967, p. 9. 15. Guido Viale, praised Bobbio noting that he, “impartiva impeccabili lezioni di dizione,” in A. Papuzzi, “E a Torino professori da zero in condotta.” 16. N. Bobbio and F. Pierandrei (1964) Introduzione alla Costituzione: testo di educazione civica per le scuole medie superiori (Bari: Laterza), for some of his essays see P. Calamandrei (1966) Scritti e discorsi politici. A cura di Norberto Bobbio (Florence: La Nuova Italia). 17. Norberto Bobbio interviewed by the author. Turin: April 23, 1997. 18. G. Quazza (1968) “Nella protesta dei giovani lo spirito della resistenza,” Resistenza: Giustizia e Libertà, vol. IX, 3. 19. Verbali del Senato Accademico dal 13 Dicembre 1963 al 15 Dicembre 1969, Università di Torino, pp. 250–51. [Hereafter abbreviated VSAUT] Gribaudi’s words are filled with disease imagery similar to those of Mirella Mammano in chapter 3, see her letter to the Corriere della Sera, February 28, 1968, p. 5. 20. R. Lumley (1990) States of Emergency, p. 87. 21. M. Revelli (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino. Gli Esordi”, pp. 219–20. 22. Rector Allara quoted in VSAUT (February 10, 1967), p. 166. 23. VSAUT (February 13, 1967), pp. 167–68. 24. VSAUT (February 16, 1967), p. 172. 25. VSAUT (February 23, 1967), pp. 175–76. 26. Quazza (1970) Piani di Studio, p. 10. 27. Revelli (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino. Gli Esordi,” pp. 219–20. 28. VSAUT (February 25, 1967), p. 178. 29. For the Nanterre situation see R. Fraser (1988) 1968, pp. 146–50. 30. VSAUT (November 27, 1967), p. 242. 31. “… una minoranza di insoddisfatti, dato che la maggior parte degli studenti ha partecipato numerosa alle lezioni che si sono svolte nel corso della mat- tinata.” Allara in VSAUT (November 27, 1967), p. 243. 32. Ibid., pp. 243–44. 33. Ibid. 34. Ibid. 35. Ibid., p. 245. 152 Notes

36. Peppino Ortoleva interviewed by the author. Turin: April 18, 1997. 37. VSAUT (November 30, 1967), p. 249. 38. VSAUT (December 4, 1967), p. 252. 39. VSAUT (December 23, 1967), pp. 257–58. 40. Ibid., p. 257. 41. Ibid., p. 259. 42. Ibid. 43. VSAUT (December 30, 1967), p. 260. 44. Norberto Bobbio interviewed by the author. Turin: April 23, 1997. 45. “Neppure contro i fascisti il rettore Calamandrei volle chiamare la polizia,” Anonymous author (1968) Resistenza: Giustizia e Libertà, vol. III, 5. 46. A. Feenberg and J. Freedman (2001) When Poetry Ruled the Streets, pp. 16–17. 47. VSAUT (December 30, 1967), p. 261. At the time of his suspension from the university, Vittorio Rieser was a young graduate assistant in the Department of Sociology who worked on the labor movement in northern Italy. Although he sympathized with the students of the Palazzo Campana, he also took an academic interest in the occupation. Rieser remembered the sense of com- munity in the Palazzo Campana and viewed the occupation as a “laboratory in which previously non-politicized students became politicized.” Contrary to the beliefs of the Senato, Rieser noted that many non-militant students did stop by the Palazzo Campana and voted to continue the occupation. Vittorio Rieser interviewed by the author. Turin: June 2, 1997. 48. Fondazione Vera Nocentini, personal papers of Luigi Bobbio, “Luigi Bobbio no. 106 (2), 1963–69.” 49. S. Woolf (1968) “Student Power in Italy,” New Society, vol. CCLXXXVIII, 487. 50. C. Oliva and A. Rendi (1969) Il Movimento Studentesco e le sue lotte, pp. 23–24. 51. Norberto Bobbio (1968) “Un dialogo difficile ma necessario,” Resistenza: Giustizia e Libertà, vol. I, 7. 52. See Chapter II for a discussion of the public reaction to student attacks on the crucifix. VSAUT (January 13, 1968), p. 267. 53. Ibid. 54. Ibid., p. 269. 55. VSAUT (January 27, 1968), p. 274. 56. VSAUT (February 19, 1968), p. 278. 57. Ibid., p. 279. 58. For more information on operaismo, see Chapter 2. 59. VSAUT (February 19, 1968), pp. 279–80. 60. VSAUT (February 21, 1968), p. 282. 61. Athos Goidanich used this term in the Senato Accademico’s meeting of November 27, 1967. See VSAUT (November 27, 1967), p. 243. 62. VSAUT (February 27, 1968), p. 283. 63. According to Rector Allara some students had broken into professors’ offices looking for examination books, see VSAUT (February 27, 1968), p. 284. For the movement of the students into Turin’s streets see M. Revelli (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino. Gli Esordi,” p. 248. 64. Guido Viale cited in G. De Luna (1991) “Aspetti del Movimento del ’68 a Torino,” p. 196. 65. M. Revelli (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino: Gli Esordi,” pp. 244–45. Notes 153

66. G. Martinotti (1969) “The Positive Marginality: Notes on Italian Students in Periods of Political Mobilization,” pp. 196–97. 67. Guido Viale cited in M. Revelli (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino: Gli Esordi,” p. 233. 68. G. De Luna (1991) “Aspetti del Movimento del ’68 a Torino,” p. 199. 69. VSAUT (February 29, 1968), p. 285. 70. For a brief description of the “Battle of the Valle Giulia,” see A. Marwick (2004) “1968 and the Cultural Revolution of the Long Sixties (c.1958 – 1974),” in G. Horn and P. Kenney (eds) Transnational Moments of Change: Europe 1945, 1968, 1989, pp. 84–85. 71. Verbali del Consiglio della Facultà di Magistero dell’ Università di Torino (March 4, 1968), pp. 165–66. 72. G. Quazza (1970) Piani di Studio, p. 11. 73. VSAUT (March 12, 1968), p. 293. 74. C. Oliva and A. Rendi (1969) Il Movimento Studentesco e le sue lotte, pp. 32–33. 75. Professor Dellepiane, Dean of the Faculty of Medicine in VSAUT (April 2, 1968), p. 299. 76. VSAUT (April 2, 1968), pp. 299–301. 77. VSAUT (April 8, 1968), pp. 310–11. 78. Norberto Bobbio interviewed by the author. Turin: April 23, 1997. 79. VSAUT (April 8, 1968), p. 309. 80. VSAUT (April 19, 1968), p. 315. 81. Ibid., pp. 317–18. The bold reforms planned by the Senato had, in part, been encouraged by the Minister of Public Instruction in Rome, Luigi Gui, who authorized all university rectors in Italy to make autonomous reforms until the federal government passed a comprehensive national reform plan. See VSAUT (April 10, 1968), p. 313. 82. VSAUT (April 23, 1968), p. 319. 83. Ibid., p. 320. 84. La Stampa, April 24, 1968, pp. 1–2. 85. VSAUT (3 May 1968), p. 323. 86. Ibid., p. 326. 87. For a detailed case study of one of the inter-disciplinary experimental courses entitled “Il problema del potere nel Novecento,” see G. Quazza (1970) Piani di Studio, pp. 20–59. 88. VSAUT (May 13, 1968), pp. 328–29. 89. VSAUT (May 17, 1968), p. 340. 90. Proposals 1–5 abolished attendance requirements, allowed students to interpolate professors, and set aside up to 6 days a year for discussion of university problems; Proposals 6–7 offered more seminars in place of lec- tures; Proposals 8–12 regulated exam procedures, allowed for group exams (however each student would receive an individual grade), and allowed students to retake exams; Proposals 13–18 abolished the sottotesi (undergraduate thesis), stipulated that synthetic, non-primary source essays could submitted for the tesi di laurea, and set aside space within the university for student meetings; Proposals 19–21 established evening courses for working students and proposed the construction of satellite locations throughout Piedmont for students living outside of Turin; Proposal 22 promised students that a joint commission of students and faculty would 154 Notes

be formed to “examine due contributions from the students”—a retreat from full parity requested by the radical students. VSAUT (May 27, 1968), pp. 346–49. 91. Known in Italian as the “Biennio Rosso,” for more information see Chapter 1. 92. VSAUT (June 6, 1968), p. 350. 93. N. Bobbio (1968) “Arduo il dialogo con gli studenti,” Resistenza: Giustizia e Libertà, vol. I, 5. 94. M. Revelli (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino. Gli Esordi,” p. 225. 95. Andrea Liberatori interviewed by the author. Turin: May 28, 1997. 96. VSAUT (November 27, 1967), p. 245. 97. M. Revelli (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino. Gli Esordi,” p. 246. 98. V. Spini (1972) “The New Left in Italy,” 60. 99. The University of Turin student movement’s Carta rivendicativa, section 9. a and 9. b, cited in Il Nostro Tempo, anno XXIII (February 4, 1968), 6. 100. Quote from the Turin student movement’s Giornalino (February 16, 1968) cited in G. De Luna (1991) “Aspetti del Movimento del ’68 a Torino,” p. 191. 101. Translation by the author. L. Bobbio (1987) “Il movimento del 1968 nell’Università,” p. 18. 102. See Todd Gitlin’s chapter, “Certifying Leaders and Converting Leadership to Celebrity,” in (1980) The Whole World is Watching, pp. 146–79. For Mario Capanna’s memoirs see his (1988) Formidabili Quegli Anni. 103. P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, pp. 303–04. 104. Luigi Bobbio in R. Fraser (1988) 1968, p. 222.

4 The Case of Turin II: A City Reacts from Precinct to Parish

1. See R. Lumley (1990) States of Emergency, pp. 64–66; P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, p. 303. 2. For an excellent collection of Turin workers’ views toward fascism, see L. Passerini (1984) Torino operaia e Fascismo (Bari: Gius Laterza e Figli). 3. Giovanni Alasia, former head of the Turin Chamber of Labor, interviewed by the author. Turin: April 24, 1997. 4. P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, pp. 250–53. 5. Marco Revelli’s father, Benevenuto, noted that his son’s protest organization Lotta Continua had originally been called Nuova Resistenza. Benevenuto and Anna Revelli interviewed by the author. Cuneo: April 11, 1997. 6. Guido Viale, one of the leading activists in Italy, noted several incidents of police violence in 1968. See G. Viale (1978) Il Sessantotto: Tra rivoluzione e restaurazione, pp. 39, 44. 7. General DeLorenzo had been head of the Italian counter-espionage service agency (SIFAR) and had attempted to overthrow the government with the help of the Army and the carabinieri in 1964. The carabinieri did not par- ticipate and remained in their barracks. See M. Clark (1996) Modern Italy 1871–1995, Second Edition (London: Longman), pp. 51–54 and 341–43. 8. See P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, pp. 251–53. 9. Prefettura di Torino Gabinetto: Mazzo Categoria 9B/1 Busta no. 52: Personale Questura 1966–68. [Hereafter abbreviated as PT: PQ no. 52] Notes 155

10. R. Lumley (1990) States of Emergency, p. 209. 11. Angelo Gentile was born near Reggio Calabria in 1925 and eventually became a telecommunications specialist in the Polizia di Stato in Turin. Interview by the author. Turin: June 11, 1997. 12. Angelo Gentile interviewed by the author. Turin: June 11, 1997. “Le mani- festazioni degli studenti hanno provocato una nostalgia del Fascismo e del passato politico perchè I cittadini si sentivano abbandonati dallo stato che non li difendiva dai facinorosi che bloccavano tutte le attività del centro delle città. Erano I padroni assoluti e nessuno poteva reagire per il pericolo di soccombere di fronte a quegli scalmanati che singolarmente erano conigli ma nella massa diventavano leoni capaci di distruggere e colpire ogni cosa.” Translation by the author. 13. Ibid. 14. S. Medici (1979) Vite di poliziotti (Torino: Einaudi), pp. 96–97. 15. In a conversation with Senore Patero at the Associazione 5 Corpi di Polizia, Patero used the phrase “figli di papà” consistently in reference to the activists. Interview by the author. Turin: June 3, 1997. 16. The Piazza Statuto demonstrations in Turin had been directed against the owners and managers at FIAT and prefigured the violent unrest of the Autunno Caldo strikes of 1969. 17. Benevenuto Revelli interviewed by the author. Cuneo: April 11, 1997. 18. Vittorio Rieser interviewed by the author. Turin: June 2, 1997. 19. Ibid. 20. Armando Altomare interviewed by the author. Turin: July 3, 1997. 21. Ibid. 22. For the professors’ reactions to the student occupations, see Chapter 3. 23. Prefettura di Torino: Gabinetto Mazzo Busta no. 184: Notiziario Sindacale, January 17, 1968. [Hereafter abbreviated as PT: NS no. 184]. 24. PT: NS no. 184, March 1, 1968. 25. PT: NS no. 184, January 9–April 19, 1968. Levi, who had been a secondary school instructor in Turin, entered Parliament in 1963 and became the Secretary for Public Instruction of the Communist Party. She had supported the activists from the very beginning and felt that the majority of the profes- soriate, both conservative and leftist, did not understand the students. 26. PT: NS no. 184, March 8, 1968, see pp. 42–43 for a discussion of the press coverage of the demonstration. 27. See PT: NS no. 184, February 18, 1968. 28. Niccola Seminarra interviewed by the author. Turin: June 9, 1997. 29. A report from March 6, 1968 noted that two officers received injuries and one had to be hospitalized after a demonstration at the Politechnico. Another demonstration at La Stampa’s editorial offices led to the injury of several police officers. PT: NS no. 184, March 6 and 8, 1968. 30. PT: NS no. 184, February 1 and 2 and March 9, 1968; and PT: PQ no. 52, March 6, 1968. 31. Benevenuto Revelli, father of an activist recalled seeing a disheveled and bloodied student in the Turin train station after a police evacuation of the Palazzo Campana, interview with the author. Cuneo: April 11, 1997. For another example of former activists who recalled police violence see Laura DeRossi in L. Passerini (1996) Autobiography of a Generation, p. 79. 156 Notes

32. G. Viale (1978) Il Sessantotto: Tra rivoluzione e restaurazione, pp. 43–44. 33. The PSU was a union of the Social Democrats (PSDI) and the Socialists (PSI) formed in 1966, however, it fared poorly in the elections of 1968 and split back into its component parties. See P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, pp. 280 and 326. 34. PT: NS no. 184, April 28, 1968. 35. PT: PQ no. 52, May 30, 1968. 36. PT: PQ no. 52, June 21, 1968. 37. PT: PQ no. 52, February 26, 1968. 38. PT: PQ no. 52, May 13, 1968. 39. Bianca Guidetti-Serra became a communist while working as a social worker in Turin during the war and joined the women’s arm of the Resistance, Gruppi nella Defensa di Donna. She received her law degree three weeks before the fall of fascism in 1943 and made her legal career defending workers at FIAT against unfair labor practices and fighting for the removal of old Fascist laws. Bianca Guidetti-Serra interviewed by the author. Turin: June 10, 1997. 40. Bianca Guidetti-Serra interviewed by the author. Turin: June 10, 1997. 41. Riccardo DiDontao, the national vice-president of Intesa was charged in the Florence Court of Appeals with “occupation of public buildings” under article 633 of the Penal Code which carried a penalty of 15 days to two years in prison, and “interruption and disturbance of a public office” under article 340 of the Penal Code, which carried a penalty of 1–5 years in prison. Almost all the charges were eventually dropped. See L’Unità, January 24, 1968, p. 4. 42. D. Della Porta (1998) “Police Knowledge and Protest Policing: Some Reflections on the Italian Case,” in D. Della Porta and H. Reiter (eds) Policing Protest: The Control of Mass Demonstrations in Western Democracies (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota), p. 247. 43. Marica Tolomelli (2001) Repressiv getrennt oder organisch verbündet: Studenten und Arbeiter 1968 in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und Italien (Opladen: Leske & Budrich), p. 163. 44. G. Galli (1970) “The Student Movement in Italy,” 503. 45. Andrea Liberatori interviewed by the author. Turin: May 28, 1997. 46. Recollection of Giorgina Levi, PCI Deputy for Turin in 1968. Interview by the author. Turin: April 14, 1997. 47. See V. Spini (1972) “The New Left in Italy,” 66. 48. Bruno Manghi (1991) “Il ’68, gli studenti e il movimento operaio,” in A. Agosti, L. Passerini and N. Tranfaglia (eds) La cultura e i luoghi del’68 (Milan: Franco Angeli), pp. 360–62. 49. For examples see R. Lumley (1990) States of Emergency, pp. 209–14. 50. P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, p. 309. 51. Marica Tolomelli (2001) Repressiv getrennt oder organisch verbündet, pp. 156–63. 52. G. Horn notes that in 1967, 2.24 million Italian workers went on strike; in 1968, 4.50 million workers went on strike; and in 1969 during the peak of the “Hot Autumn,” 5.5 million workers went on strike. See his chapter, (2004) “The Working Class Dimension of 1968,” in G. Horn and P. Kenney (eds) Transnational Moments of Change: Europe 1945, 1968, 1989, pp. 99–100. Notes 157

53. G. Horn (2007) The Spirit of ’68, pp. 114–15. 54. In “Documento 9” of Liliana Lanzardo (1997) Cronaca della Commissione operaia del Movimento studentesco torinese, dicembre 1967-maggio 1968 (Pistoia: Centro di Documentazione di Pistoia), pp. 36–40. The Lega Studenti e Operai listed four reasons why the Turin students objected to a major connection with the workers: (i) the movement was too “immature” for this type of work, (ii) the movement can really only be an “auxillary” to the traditional union organizations, (iii) the movement is not politically homogeneous and is unable to carry a homogeneous position vis-a-vis labor and would create confusion within the factories, (iv) the attempts to ally with the workers has taken away space from the work in the universities. 55. Ibid. 56. L’Unità, February 26, 1968, p. 2. 57. “In particolare la classe operaio pùo e deve intervenire nella lotta perchè tutti possano studiare.” Translation by the author, L’Unità, February 28, 1968, p. 2. 58. L. Lanzardo (1997) Cronaca della Commissione operaia del Movimento studentesco torinese, dicembre 1967-maggio 1968, p. 10. 59. G. Galli (1970) “The Student Movement in Italy,” 503. 60. Andrea Liberatori interviewed by the author. Turin: May 28, 1977. 61. Giorgina Levi interviewed by the author. Turin: April 14, 1997. Also see P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, p. 307. 62. Giovanni Alasia interviewed by the author. Turin: April 24, 1997. 63. L. Lanzardo (1997) Cronaca della Commissione operaia del Movimento studentesco torinese, dicembre 1967-maggio 1968, pp. 5–6. 64. Ibid., pp. 7–8. 65. Peppino Ortoleva interviewed by the author. Turin: April 18, 1997. 66. Vittorio Rieser, a former graduate student in sociology in 1968 and currently an official of the CGIL in Turin, noted that despite vast class differences between the students and the workers, both shared a powerful rejection of authority in the late 1960s. Interview by the author. Turin: June 2, 1997. Giampiero Carpo, a skilled worker at FIAT and militant labor activist also noted that the student movement’s critique of authoritarianism helped spur on the workers’ strikes in 1969. See the testimony of Giampiero Carpo in: G. Polo (1989) I Tamburi di Mirafiori: Testimonianze Operaie attorno all’ Autunno Caldo alla FIAT (Turin: Cric Editore), p. 116. 67. L. Lanzardo (1997) Cronaca della Commissione operaia del Movimento studentesco torinese, dicembre 1967-maggio 1968, pp. 12, 17. 68. G. De Luna (1991) “Aspetti del Movimento del ’68 a Torino,” pp. 192–93. 69. B. Manghi (1991) “Il ’68, gli studenti e il movimento operaio,” p. 363. 70. Parlanti cited in G. Polo (1989) I Tamburi di Mirafiori, p. 64. 71. G. Polo (1989) I Tamburi di Mirafiori, pp. 109–113. 72. M. Tolomelli (2001) Repressiv getrennt oder organisch verbündet, pp. 203–04. 73. Ibid., 205. 74. L. Lanzardo (1997) Cronaca della Commissione operaia del Movimento studentesco torinese, dicembre 1967-maggio 1968, p. 8. 75. Ibid, p. 11. 76. Documento 13 in L. Lanzardo (1997) Cronaca della Commissione operaia del Movimento studentesco torinese, dicembre 1967-maggio 1968, p. 62. 158 Notes

77. Antonioni had migrated to Turin from the poor farm regions near Piacenza and had not been raised in the culture of the urban working class. Cited in G. Polo (1989) I Tamburi di Mirafiori, p. 82. 78. L. Lanzardo (1997) Cronaca della Commissione operaia del Movimento studentesco torinese, dicembre 1967-maggio 1968, pp. 13–14. 79. Former FIAT worker, Luciano Parlanti, interviewed by the author. Turin: May 5, 1997. 80. Documento 1 in L. Lanzardo (1997) Cronaca della Commissione operaia del Movimento studentesco torinese, dicembre 1967-maggio 1968, pp. 21–22. 81. Documento 6 in L. Lanzardo (1997) Cronaca della Commissione operaia del Movimento studentesco torinese, dicembre 1967-maggio 1968, p. 26. 82. “Il mondo di unversitari era un mondo veramente diverso che il mondo del lavoro.” Luciano Parlanti interviewed by the author. Turin: May 5, 1997. 83. Documento 13 in L. Lanzardo (1997) Cronaca della Commissione operaia del Movimento studentesco torinese, dicembre 1967-maggio 1968, pp. 58–59. 84. “… gli operai della FIAT non sono dei bambini—anche se molti li trattano così.” Documento 12 in L. Lanzardo (1997) Cronaca della Commissione operaia del Movimento studentesco torinese, dicembre 1967-maggio 1968, p. 50. 85. “Se dieci studenti portano avanti questa cosa, avranno l’appoggio degli operai. Ma cento studenti che ci vogliono guidare non l’avranno mai.” Documento 12 in L. Lanzardo (1997) Cronaca della Commissione operaia del Movimento studentesco torinese, dicembre 1967-maggio 1968, p. 56. 86. Giovanni Alasia interviewed by the author. Turin: April 24, 1997. 87. Documento 12, “Riunione Studneti e Operai, 12 maggio 1968,” in L. Lanzardo (1997) Cronaca della Commissione operaia del Movimento studentesco torinese, dicembre 1967-maggio 1968, p. 56. 88. Cited in G. Polo (1989) I Tamburi di Mirafiori, p. 80. Lumley also noted the southern workers efforts to create their own organizations and forms of protest outside the usual union channels at the Pirelli factory, see R. Lumley (1990) States of Emergency, pp. 183–91. 89. R. Lumley (1990) States of Emergency, p. 83. 90. Giovanni Alasia interviewed by the author. Turin: April 24, 1997. Also see P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, pp. 309–10. 91. R. Lumley (1990) States of Emergency, p. 211. 92. B. Manghi (1991) “Il ’68, gli studenti e il movimento operaio,” p. 365. 93. Former member of Lotta Continua and sociology assistant at the University of Turin, Vittorio Rieser, also believed that many of the workers organized in 1968 by the radical student groups later were elected as shop-floor repre- sentatives to the labor unions and demanded greater changes for the workers. Interview by the author. Turin: June 2, 1997. 94. “… era il sessantotto … perchè poi c’era stato il pasticcio con gli studenti.” Luigi Addari interviewed by Enrica Capussoti as part of an oral history project focusing on the workers in Turin. Turin: December 18, 1995. 95. “1968—ahh un anno buono anche quello … hanno spaccato tutto gli studenti allora.” Francesco Gattino interviewed by Enrica Capussoti. Turin: December 18, 1995. 96. Luciano Parlanti interviewed by the author. Turin: May, 5 1997. 97. G. Horn (2007) The Spirit of ’68, pp. 112–13. Notes 159

98. M. Tolomelli (2001) Repressiv getrennt oder organisch verbündet, pp. 316–17. 99. Peppino Ortoleva interviewed by the author. Turin: April 18, 1997. 100. M. Tolomelli (2001) Repressiv getrennt oder organisch verbündet, pp. 252–53. 101. For example see G. Horn (2007) The Spirit of ’68, p. 113. 102. The workers of Turin struck and remained within their workplaces beginning in March 1943 and later after Mussolini’s arrest in July. See P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, pp. 10–17. 103. Vittorio Rieser interviewed by the author. Turin: June 2, 1997. 104. Giovanni Alasia interviewed by the author. Turin: April 24, 1997. 105. Daniela Torresini interviewed by the author. Perugia: March 17, 1997. 106. M. Capanna (1998) Formidabili quegli anni, p. 27. 107. “L’ubbidienzza non è più una virtù” cited in I. Lana (1968) “Senza Vangelo il futuro degli studenti in rivolta?,” from the Catholic weekly, Il Nostro Tempo May 19, 1968, p. 2. 108. “Il Cattocomunismo,” http://web.genie.it/utenti/i/interface/CattoCom. html (accessed May 10, 2008). 109. Don Giuseppe Tuninetti interviewed by the author. Turin: May 5, 1997. 110. “L’avvenire è già presente nei giovani: in essi si può leggere come in un microcosmo, i segni dei tempi. …Nella società contemporanea, i giovani esercitano una forza (vim exercent) di grande importanza. Le circostanze della loro vita e la mentalità e gli stessi rapporti con la propria famiglia sono grandemente mutati. …I giovani hanno preso coscienza del proprio potere, accelerando non poche trasformazioni ed esigono una loro participazione, non quali soggetti passivi di una pedagogia ben intenzionata, ma quali artefici della propria promozione culturale, sociale, e politica.” Paul VI cited in V. Morero (1968) “L’avvenire è già presente nei giovani ma evitiamo il mito del giovanilismo,” Il Nostro Tempo, April 14, 1968, p. 7. 111. “La gioventù possiede un potenziale di grandissimo valore che gli adulti devono riconoscere e utilizare; ma i giovani dall’altra, non possono prescindere dalla storia e dalla necessità di acquisire una preparazione che, senza rifiutare il consiglio dei padri e dei maestri, eviti loro di ripetere gli errori che essi stessi criticano.” Paul VI, Ibid. 112. Don Giuseppe Tuninetti interviewed by the author. Turin: May 5, 1997. 113. See Chapter 2, “Traditional Values under Attack—The Emerging Counterculture.” 114. See D. Della Porta (1995) Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State, p. 60.

5 The National Dimension I: Constructing an Image of Protest

1. K. Fahlenbrach (2002) Protest-Inszenierungen, p. 176. 2. In particular, the stunning photographs of the French ‘68 by Bruno Barbey, an independent photographer for Magnum, have subsequently been reprinted in many of the books on the student movement. http://www. magnumphotos.com/Archive/C.aspx?VP=XSpecific_MAG.ExhibitionDetail_ VPage&pid=2TYRYDKUU22I (accessed February 11, 2008). 3. K. Fahlenbrach (2002) Protest-Inszenierungen, pp. 237–43. 160 Notes

4. T. Gitlin (1980) The Whole World is Watching. 5. M. Brasted (2005) “Framing Protest: The Chicago Tribune and the New York Times during the 1968 Democratic Convention,” 5. 6. T. Gitlin (1980) The Whole World is Watching, pp. 27–28. 7. P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, p. 291. 8. According to Paul Ginsborg, 49 percent of Italian families owned television sets in 1965 and this number rose to 82 percent by 1971. See P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, Statistical Appendix, Table 9, p. 432. 9. P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, pp. 240–41. 10. See the Preface and Chapter 1 of E. S. Herman and N. Chomsky (1988) Manufacturing Consent, pp. xi–35. 11. “The Press: Opinions are sacred,” in (1967) “Italy Catches Up: A Survey by the Economist,” The Economist, vol. CCXXII, (March 18, 1967), after p. 1044, xxix. 12. See G. Mazzoleni’s chapter on the Italian mass media in B. S. Ostergaard (ed.) (1992) The Media in Western Europe (London: Sage), pp. 123–42. For more on the Springer Press’ conflict with the West German students see S. Hilwig (1998) “The Revolt Against the Establishment: Students Versus the Press in West Germany and Italy,” pp. 321–49. 13. M. Grandinetti (1996) Un giornale, un’azienda La Stampa dal 1945 ad oggi (Turin: Gutenberg 2000), p. 210. 14. G. Mazzoleni’s chapter in B. S. Ostergaard (ed.) (1992) The Media in Western Europe, p. 128. 15. For an exhaustive administrative history of the Corriere della Sera, see G. Licata (1976) Storia del Corriere della Sera (Milan: Rizzoli Editore). 16. E. Bettiza (1999) Via Solferino: La vita del Corriere della Sera dal 1964 al 1974 (Milan: Arnoldo Mondadori), p. 102. 17. G. Spadolini “Offesa,” in Il Corriere della Sera, (March 22, 1972) cited in E. Marcucci (1998) Giornalisti Grandi Firme (Roma: RAI-ERI), pp. 456–57. 18. E. Marcucci (1998) Giornalisti Grandi Firme, pp. 453–55. 19. E. Bettiza (1999) Via Solferino, p. 97. 20. For an excellent biography of De Benedetti see A. Papuzzi and A. Magone (2008) GiDiBì: Giulio De Benedetti: il potere e il fascino del giornalismo. Saggi (Roma: Donzelli). 21. Statistical data from the periodical (1968) Resistenza: Giustizia e Libertà, vol. X, 3. ENI stands for National Agency for Hydrocarbons, a public corpo- ration that ran the oil refining industry and later expanded its interests to become one of Italy’s largest companies. 22. Ibid. 23. Peppino Ortoleva interviewed by the author. Turin: April 18, 1997. 24. Maria Valabrega interviewed by the author. Turin: June 6, 1997. 25. Valabrega characterized the protest years as “wonderful,” “full of strong ide- als” that were all lived in “good faith” and that only a small number had taken dangerous paths like the Red Brigades. Interview with the author. Turin: June 6, 1997. 26. On the Springer Press’ editorial policies against students and the German Left see H. D. Müller (1969) Press Power (trans. J. A. Cole) (London: Macdonald), pp. 182–83. 27. P. Bourdieu (1998) On Television, p. 7. 28. Peppino Ortoleva interviewed by the author. Turin: April 18, 1997. Notes 161

29. L. Passerini (1996) Autobiography of a Generation, p. 141. 30. A partial collection of copies of l’Anti-Stampa can be found in the papers of Marcello Vitale (Fondo Marcello Vitale) housed in the Centro Studi Piero Gobetti, Turin. 31. Quoted in M. Revelli (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino. Gli Esordi,” p. 213. 32. S. Woolf (1968) “Student Power in Italy,” 487. 33. Centro Studi Piero Gobetti, Fondo Marcello Vitale sui movimenti politici e sociali degli anni Sessanta e Settanta: “Commentiamo l’articolo comparso su ‘La Stampa’ del 3 dicembre 1967 dal titolo ‘Negli atenei va difesa la libertà del docente,’ firmato da Giuseppe Grosso.” A cura del Comitato d’ Agitazione. Box W2, Folder I. 34. Il Corriere della Sera, March 12, 1968, p. 8. 35. L’Osservatore Romano is the Vatican’s daily newspaper. Article cited in June 3–4 edition, 1968, p. 4. 36. K. Fahlenbrach (2002) Protest-Inszenierungen, p. 177. 37. La Stampa, March 2, 1968, p. 1 38. Il Corriere della Sera, March 2, 1968, p. 1. 39. Translation by the author. Centro Studi Piero Gobetti, Fondo Marcello Vitale: Box N1, Folder II, l’Anti-Stampa (March 2, 1968). 40. Il Corriere della Sera, March 26, 1968, p. 8. 41. Il Corriere della Sera, April 18, 1968, p. 9. 42. For a description of the Piazza Statuto demonstrations, see P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, pp. 251–53. 43. For examples see A. Portelli (1997) The Battle of the Valle Giulia: Oral History and the Art of Dialogue (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press), pp. 192–98. 44. Photo and article in La Stampa, March 8, 1968, p. 2. 45. Centro Studi Piero Gobetti, Fondo Marcello Vitale: Box I4, Folder II, l’Anti- Stampa (March 8, 1968). 46. C. Oliva and A. Rendi (1969) Il Movimento Studentesco e le sue lotte, p. 28. 47. D. Caute (1988) Sixty-eight, pp. 61–62. 48. The word “hooligan” comes from the violent career of Irishman Patrick Hooligan, a street thug who terrorized residents of Southwark, London, in the late nineteenth century. 49. See S. M. Lipset’s essay on the parabolas of protest in modern Italian history in S.M. Lipset and P. Altbach (eds) (1969) Students in Revolt, pp. 495–521. 50. Centro Studi Piero Gobetti, Fondo Marcello Vitale: Box I4, Folder II, l’Anti- Stampa (February 8, 1968). 51. For a discussion of Jürgen Habermas and the controversy surrounding his remarks at the Kongress Hochschule und Demokratie (1967) see H. Marcuse (1998) “The Revival of Holocaust Awareness in West Germany, Israel, and the United States,” in C. Fink, P. Gassert, and D. Junker (eds) 1968: The World Transformed, p. 429 and Note 38. 52. R. Lumley (1990) States of Emergency, p. 73. 53. R. DeFelice (1977) Interpretations of Fascism (trans. B. H. Everett) (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), pp. 14–54. 54. S. H. Barnes (1972) “The Legacy of Fascism: Generational Differences in Italian Political Attitudes and Behavior,” Comparative Political Studies, vol. V, 41–57. 162 Notes

55. On the remnants of Mussolini’s fascism in the postwar era see G. De Luna and M. Revelli (1995) Fascismo/Antifascismo: Le idée, le identità (Florence: La Nuova Italia); C. Duggan and C. Wagstaff (eds) (1995) Italy in the Cold War: Politics, Culture and Society, 1948–1958 (Washingston, DC: Berg), pp. 3–6; S. M. Di Scala, who noted that the PCI even allowed former fascists to join their party after the war, (1999) “Resistance Mythology,” Journal of Modern Italian Studies, vol. IV, 67–72; J. E. Miller (1999) “Who Chopped Down that Cherry Tree? The Italian Resistance in History and Politics, 1945–1988,” Journal of Modern Italian Studies, vol. IV, 37–54; and P. Ginsborg, who noted that nostalgia for the Fascist regime remained strong in the south and had contributed to the electoral success of the Fronte dell’ Uomo Qualunque (Common Man’s Front) in (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, pp. 98–100. 56. See M. Revelli (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino. Gli Esordi.” 57. G. De Luna (1991) “Aspetti del Movimento del ’68 a Torino,” p. 194. 58. La Stampa, “Specchio dei tempi,” December 5, 1967, p. 2. 59. Centro Studi Piero Gobetti, Fondo Marcello Vitale sui movimenti politici e sociali degli anni Sessanta e Settanta: “Commentiamo l’articolo comparso su ‘La Stampa’ del 3 dicembre 1967 dal titolo ‘Negli atenei va difesa la libertà del docente,’ firmato da Giuseppe Grosso.” A cura del Comitato d’ Agitazione. Box W2, Folder I. 60. Nicola Tranfaglia interviewed by the author. Turin: June 22, 2002. For a full description of Freud’s concept of the “elaboration of mourning” in relation to memories of war, see F. Fornari (1975) The Psychoanalysis of War (Bloomington: Indiana University Press), p. 51. 61. Avanti! November 30, 1967, p. 8. 62. La Stampa, “Specchio dei tempi,” December 3, 1967, pp. 1 and 2. 63. M. Revelli (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino. Gli Esordi,” p. 216. 64. La Stampa, “Specchio dei tempi,” February 21, 1968, p. 2. 65. Ibid. 66. La Stampa, March 3, 1968, p. 2. 67. The cornuto gesture signifies to the targeted audience that they are a cuckold. 68. “Mamma, Manganello, Malafede,” in Centro Studi Piero Gobetti, Fondo Marcello Vitale, l’Anti-Stampa (February 12, 1968), Box I4, Folder II. 69. La Stampa, “Specchio dei tempi,” March 14, 1968, p. 2. 70. Police and legal records in Turin have indicated that very few of the university activists resorted to the levels of violence as suggested by this analogy, see Chapter 4 on the police. 71. Il Corriere della Sera, May 18, 1968, p. 8. 72. See Il Corriere della Sera, March 2, 1968, p. 1; La Stampa, March 2, 1968, p. 1; and L’Osservatore Romano, March 3, 1968, p. 8. 73. La Stampa, March 2, 1968, p. 1 and L’Osservatore Romano, March 3, 1968, p. 8. 74. Centro Studi Piero Gobetti, Fondo Marcello Vitale, l’Anti-Stampa (March 2, 1968), Box N1, Folder II. 75. G. Mazzoleni’s chapter on the Italian mass media in B.S. Ostergaard (ed.) (1992) The Media in Western Europe, pp. 124–30. 76. R. Lumley (1990) States of Emergency, pp. 39–40. 77. See Chapter 4, “The Case of Turin II: A City Reacts from Precinct to Parish.” 78. M. Kurlansky (2004) 1968: The Year That Rocked the World, p. 355. Notes 163

79. B. G. Myerhoff (1971) “The Revolution as a Trip: Symbol and Paradox,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. CCCXCV, 114–16. 80. See “Laughter and Games,” in L. Passerini (1996) Autobiography of a Generation, pp. 76–80. 81. For a scathing criticism of the student Left see R. Aron (1969) The Elusive Revolution. 82. Corriere della Sera, May 15, 1968, p. 5. 83. Corriere della Sera, May 16, 1968, p. 5. 84. Pier Paolo Pasolini’s poem, “The PCI to the Young!!” continues for over 180 more lines, quoted in Ben Lawton and L. K. Barnett (trans.) (2005) Heretical Empiricism (Washington, DC: New Academia Publishing), p. 150. Originally appeared in L’Espresso, April 16, 1968, Nuovi Argomenti X (April–June 1968), and Il Corriere della Sera, June 12, 1968, p. 3. 85. Corriere della Sera, June 28, 1968, p. 3. 86. R. Aron (1969) The Elusive Revolution. 87. K. Fahlenbrach (2002) Protest-Inszenierungen, p. 177. 88. B. G. Myerhoff (1971) “The Revolution as a Trip: Symbol and Paradox,” 108–111. 89. For a description of the sciopero bianco from the perspective of a professor, see Chapter 3. 90. M. Revelli (1991) “Il ’68 a Torino. Gli Esordi,” p. 220. 91. L. Passerini (1996) Autobiography of a Generation, pp. 76–77. 92. For a short description of the influence of the Provos, see N. Pas (2008) “Subcultural Movements: The Provos,” in M. Klimke and J. Scharloth (eds) 1968 in Europe, pp. 13–21. 93. La Stampa, May 10, 1968, p. 2. 94. La Stampa, July 9, 1968, p. 3. 95. La Stampa, February 1, 1968, p. 5. 96. La Stampa, March 26, 1968, p. 2. 97. Laura DeRossi interviewed in L. Passerini (1996) Autobiography of a Generation, pp. 24–25. Laura DeRossi later wrote a critical commentary on Passerini’s book in a periodical called Indice in which she claimed Passerini had taken much of the interview out of context. DeRossi claimed that although she came from a wealthy family, her father was not a repressive, conservative “padrone” as may have been implied in Passerini’s work. 98. Corriere della Sera, April 10, 1968, p. 5; the word “signori” in Italian denotes more than simply gentleman, in this case, it also implies in a sarcastic man- ner that the students are part of the city’s elite. 99. Centro Studi Piero Gobetti, Fondo Marcello Vitale, l’Anti-Stampa (January 26, 1968), Box I4, Folder II. 100. In Italian, “tifosi” refers to crazed soccer fans. The word comes from the Italian word for typhoid because these fans often act like they have a kind of illness. 101. Centro Studi Piero Gobetti, Fondo Marcello Vitale, l’Anti-Stampa, “I Due Bracci della Tenaglia,” (February 8, 1968), Box I4, Folder II. 102. An archival note attached to a copy of l’ Anti-Stampa from February 14, 1968 indicated that 3000 copies of the article had been distributed. Fondo Marcello Vitale, Box I4, Folder II. 164 Notes

103. P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, p. 291. 104. L’Unità, February 28, 1968, p. 2. 105. L’Unità, January 21, 1968, p. 10. 106. For example, Lotta Continua, a radical left-wing student-worker organization created in 1968 in Turin, had been founded originally as Nuova Resistenza. Benevenuto Revelli interviewed by the author. Cuneo: April 11, 1997. 107. Giovanni Alasia, former chairman of the Turin Chamber of Labor, interviewed by the author. Turin: April 24, 1997. 108. L’Unità, February 26, 1968, p. 3. 109. L’Unità, November 29, 1967, p. 8. 110. L’Unità, March 26, 1968, p. 2. 111. The “terrible fiancés” in La Stampa, April 3, 1968, p. 2. 112. L’Unità, January 21, 1968, p. 4. 113. Ibid. 114. L’Unità, February 24, 1968, p. 2. 115. Ibid. 116. L’Unità, March 2, 1968, p. 1.

6 The National Dimension II: Italy’s Politicians Confront the Issue of University Reform

1. See G. Quazza (1977) “Sessantotto, scuola e politica,” Rivista di storia contemporanea, vol. VI, 234–54. 2. G. Ricuperati (1991) “La Politica Scolastica Italiana dal Centro-Sinistra alla Contestazione Studentesca,” pp. 403–34. 3. P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, p. 309. 4. See Chapter 3. 5. See G. Canestri (1977) “Scuola e politica in Italia dalla Resistenza al Sessantotto,” Rivista di storia contemporanea, vol. VI, 29–52. 6. Based on a 1951 survey, in P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, p. 410. 7. G. Ricuperati (1991) “La Politica Scolastica Italiana dal Centro-Sinistra alla Contestazione Studentesca,” pp. 404–07. 8. It is important to note that only a minority of students continued on to the liceo. G. Canestri (1977) “Scuola e politica in Italia dalla Resistenza al Sessantotto,” 29. 9. P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, pp. 409–15. 10. O. J. Groeg (ed.) (1980) Who’s Who in Italy 3rd Edition (Milan: Who’s Who in Italy), p. 269. 11. Gui received his laurea in history and philosophy from the Augustinianum dell’ Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore in 1937 and later attended the Scuola di perfezionamento in Filosofia of the Università Cattolica. See M. C. Bouvier and G. Ronconi (eds) (1994) Tra Ragione di Stato e Ragione dell’ Uomo: contributi per una cultura della pace offerti a Luigi Gui per l’ottantesimo compleanno (Padua: La Garangola), p. 103. 12. G. Ricuperati (1991) “La Politica Scolastica Italiana dal Centro-Sinistra alla Contestazione Studentesca,” p. 419. Notes 165

13. I. Giordani and S. S. Taylor (eds) (1958) Who’s Who in Italy 1st Edition (Milan: Intercontinental Book and Publishing), p. 500. 14. G. Ricuperati (1991) “La Politica Scolastica Italiana dal Centro-Sinistra alla Contestazione Studentesca,” p. 18. 15. I. Giordani and S. S. Taylor (eds) (1958) Who’s Who in Italy 1st Edition, p. 60. 16. Gaetano Pieraccini, a Socialist, had been appointed Minister of the Budget to help keep the fragile center-left coalition together and had advocated a more systematic, long-term plan for the federal budget. The Pieraccini Plan for the economy ultimately died with the center-left government in 1968. P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, pp. 280–81. 17. Atti Parlamentari: Discussioni (Camera dei Deputati) vol. 41 (January 16, 1968), p. 42346. [Hereafter abbreviated as AP.] 18. Gui presented this data on university enrollments to the Camera dei Deputati:

Enrollments Full-time Part-time 1959–60 176,193 71,524 1960–61 191,790 76,391 1961–62 205,965 82,010 1962–63 225,796 86,548 1963–64 240,234 94,447 1964–65 259,338 101,069 1965–66 297,783 107,155 1966–67* 329,326 115,000 1967–68* 350,000 120,000

*Projected data from AP vol. 41 (January 17, 1968), p. 42427.

19. I. Giordani and S. S. Taylor (eds) (1958) Who’s Who in Italy 1st Edition, p. 380. 20. The Italian laurea is similar to a Master’s Degree in the United States, and the more recently introduced laurea breve is the equivalent to an American or English undergraduate degree. 21. On the conservative nature of the Gui Bill see P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, p. 303 and G. Ricuperati (1991) “La Politica Scolastica Italiana dal Centro-Sinistra alla Contestazione Studentesca,” pp. 421–22. 22. G. Ricuperati (1991) “La Politica Scolastica Italiana dal Centro-Sinistra alla Contestazione Studentesca,” p. 420. 23. Socialist Deputy Sanna was severely critical of the government’s behavior during the Valle Giulia incidents, claiming that Gui had conspired with the Rector of the University of Rome to call in the police and force immediate passage of the Gui Bill. Socialist Tristano Codignola also charged the Rector of the University of Florence with conspiring with police to break up a peaceful demonstration in Florence. See AP vol. 43 (March 1, 1968), pp. 44581–82 and 44583–84, respectively. On Codignola’s reform efforts after 1968, see G. Ricuperati (1991) “La Politica Scolastica Italiana dal Centro- Sinistra alla Contestazione Studentesca,” p. 424. Christian Democratic Deputy Magri defended the Rector of Rome’s actions, supported Gui’s Bill 166 Notes

2314, and echoed Minister of the Interior Taviani’s declaration that “We live, and intend to live in a democratic state!” AP vol. 43 (March 1, 1968), p. 44590. 24. AP vol. 40 (December 7, 1967), pp. 41319–34. In an article entitled “La riforma Sullo e i problemi dell’ Università,” a PCI work group articulated the theoretical basis of the Communists’ reform plans, noting that access to schools and universities should be opened to all so that the education system would no longer remain a system of perpetuating class hierarchy, see Rinascita, V (January 31, 1969), 12. 25. Salvatore Valitutti was born in 1907 near Salerno and taught history and politics before becoming the Vice-Chancellor of the University for Foreigners in Perugia. Valitutti was elected a deputy to Parliament in 1963 and under the Andreotti and Cossiga governments, in the 1970s and 1980s, he held the position of Minister of Public Instruction, see O. J. Groeg (ed.) (1980) Who’s Who in Italy 3rd Edition, p. 507. According to Giuseppe Ricuperati, Valitutti was instrumental in constructing an anti-Gui Bill alliance within the Chamber of Deputies, see G. Ricuperati (1991) “La Politica Scolastica Italiana dal Centro-Sinistra alla Contestazione Studentesca,” p. 421. 26. See remarks of Antonio Capua in AP vol. 40 (December 11, 1967), p. 41412. 27. Translation by the author. See remarks by Salvatore Valitutti in AP vol. 41 (January 16, 1968), p. 42356. 28. One month prior to Rossi’s death, a group of Communist deputies had attempted to renew the debate on educational reform following protests at the Liceo Parini in Milan. See remarks of Deputies Ingrao, Rossanda, Berlinguer, Natoli, Levi in AP vol. 22 (March 25, 1966), pp. 21616–17. 29. C. Oliva and A.Rendi (1969) Il movimento studentesco e le sue lotte, p. 16. 30. Translation by the author. AP vol. 23 (April 27, 1966), pp. 22578–79. 31. AP vol. 23 (May 17, 1966), pp. 23246–47. 32. The modern parts of the University of Rome had all been constructed during the Fascist period. AP vol. 23 (May 18, 1966), pp. 23322–27. 33. AP vol. 23 (May 18, 1966), p. 23328. 34. AP vol. 23 (May 18, 1966), pp. 23330–31. 35. AP vol. 23 (May 18, 1966), pp. 23331–33. 36. AP vol. 23 (May 18, 1966), pp. 23333–34. 37. AP vol. 23 (May 18, 1966), pp. 23343. 38. AP vol. 23 (May 18, 1966), pp. 23346. 39. AP vol. 23 (May 18, 1966), pp. 23346–52. 40. AP vol. 23 (May 18, 1966), pp. 23366. 41. AP vol. 23 (May 18, 1966), pp. 23366. 42. AP vol. 33 (April 4, 1967), pp. 32961–69. 43. AP vol. 34 (April 19, 1967), pp. 33587–90. 44. Della Porta may have made this claim in an effort to draw stronger parallels to her corresponding case study of political violence in West Germany, see D. Della Porta (1995) Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State, p. 192. 45. Translation by the author, AP vol. 40 (November 28, 1967), p. 40950. 46. AP vol. 40 (December 5, 1967), p. 41214. 47. See remarks by Deputies Grilli (MSI), Vedovato (DC), Ferrara-Cariota (PLI), and Barba (DC) in AP vol. 40 (December 5, 1967), pp. 41215–36. 48. AP vol. 40 (December 7, 1967), pp. 41319–34. Notes 167

49. AP vol. 40 (December 11, 1967), p. 41398. 50. AP vol. 40 (December 12, 1967), p. 41433. 51. Deputy Maria Cinciari Rodano (PCI) passionately defended the students of the Palazzo Campana and demanded an explanation for the police repres- sion. AP vol. 41 (January 10, 1968), p. 42129. 52. Deputy Biaggi Francantonio (PLI) hinted on January 9 that the issue of university reform would probably have to wait for the next legislature. AP vol. 41 (January 9, 1968), p. 42095. 53. AP vol. 41 (January 11, 1968), pp. 42216–47. 54. On the earthquake and its aftermath, see P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, pp. 345–47. 55. The Liberals’ vote to stop passage of the Gui Bill no. 2314 to the amendment phase was defeated by 291 nays (PSU, CD) to 183 yeas (PCI, PLI, PSIUP), AP vol. 41 (January 17, 1968), p. 42459. 56. On the amendment debates, see AP vol. 41 (January 18, 1968), p. 42503–39. On the passage of Article 8 on university departments, see L. Gui (1973) Libro bianco sull’ università (Rome: Abete), p. 376. 57. For the DC’s interpellation see AP vol. 41 (January 19, 1968), p. 42588; PCI’s interpellation: AP vol. 41 (January 24, 1968), pp. 42667–88; PSI’s interpellation: AP vol. 41 (January 25, 1968), pp. 42745–64. 58. Gui cited in C. Oliva and A. Rendi (1969) Il movimento studentesco e le sue lotte, p. 25. 59. Translation by the author. L’Unità, January 27, 1968, p. 1. 60. R. Rossanda (1968) L’anno degli studenti and A. Touraine (1968) Le Mouvement de mai ou le Communisme utopique (Paris: Éditions du Seuil). 61. AP vol. 42 (February 7, 1968), p. 43190. 62. L’Osservatore Romano, February 12, 1968, p. 7. 63. C. Oliva and A. Rendi (1969) Il movimento studentesco e le sue lotte, p. 28. 64. AP vol. 43 (March 1, 1968), p. 44575. 65. AP vol. 43 (March 1, 1968), pp. 44576–77. 66. See Deputy Aldo Natoli (PCI) in AP vol. 43 (March 1, 1968), pp. 44577–80. 67. Ibid. 68. AP vol. 43 (March 1, 1968), p. 44582. 69. See Deputy Sanna (PSI) and Codignola (PSI) in AP vol. 43 (March 1, 1968), pp. 44581–87. 70. Deputy Magri (DC) translated by the author in AP vol. 43 (March 1, 1968), pp. 44590–91. 71. AP vol. 43 (March 1, 1968), pp. 44593–94. 72. C. Oliva and A. Rendi (1969) Il movimento studentesco e le sue lotte, pp. 29–31. 73. Ibid., 37–38. 74. G. Quazza (1977) “Sessantotto, scuola e politica,” 248. 75. V. Spini (1972) “The New Left in Italy,” 64. 76. G. Canestri (1977) “Scuola e politica in Italia dalla Resistenza al Sessantotto,” 36. 77. G. Quazza (1977) “Sessantotto, scuola e politica,” 248. 78. P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, pp. 280–81. 79. See Chapter 5, Notes 71 and 72. 80. Amendola quoted in Rinascita in June 1968, cited in P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy, p. 307. 168 Notes

81. Cited in G. Quazza (1977) “Sessantotto, scuola e politica,” 247. 82. Nicola Tranfaglia interviewed by the author. Turin: June 20, 2002. 83. Ibid. 84. Norberto Bobbio interviewed by the author. Turin: April 23, 1997. 85. Communication to the author from Angelo Galeano, Davide Borsa, and Cristina Visentin, students at the University of Turin in the 1990s. 86. P. Ginsborg (2003) Italy and Its Discontents: Family, Civil Society, State: 1980– 2001 (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan), pp. 232–33.

7 Conclusion: Revolution or Rebellion?

1. The “establishment” has been defined in this study as the professors, police, press, workers, politicians, and parents of the activists. 2. A. Feenberg and J. Freedman (2001) When Poetry Ruled the Streets, p. 4. 3. See Chapter 5, “The National Dimension I: Constructing an Image of Protest.” 4. N. N. Korzh (2001) “Representation of Historical Knowledge in Collective Memory,” (trans. M. E. Sharpe) Journal of Russian and East European Psychology vol. XXXIX, 70. 5. For the charges that the professors in Italy represented a group of oligarchs or university Mafiosi, see (1967) “Youth who complain but do not rebel,” in “Italy Catches Up: A Survey by the Economist,” The Economist vol. CCXXII (March 18, 1967), xxix. 6. See Chapter 3, “The Case of Turin I: Defending the Ivory Tower.” 7. R. Lumley (1990) States of Emergency, pp. 84–85. 8. See remarks by Giovanni Alasia and Robert Lumley in Chapter 4, “The Case of Turin II: A City Reacts from Precinct to Parish.” 9. G. Martinotti (1969) “The Positive Marginality: Notes on Italian Students in Periods of Political Mobilization,” pp. 194–95. 10. See Chapter 6, “The National Dimension II: Italy’s Politicians Confront the Issue of University Reform.” 11. In France, a major reforms in university teaching were passed on November 7, 1968; see G. Paolini and W. Vitali (eds) (1977) PCI, Classe Operaia e Movimento Studentesco, p. x. Major reforms were also enacted for the Free University of Berlin offering the students parity with professors in planning the future of the university; see J. Tent (1988) The Free University of Berlin, pp. 344–45. 12. G. De Luna (1991) “Aspetti del Movimento del ’68 a Torino,” p. 208. 13. See R. Lumley (1990) States of Emergency, pp. 79 and 87. 14. Giancarla Cicoletti, professor of sociology at the University of Perugia, interviewed by the author. Perugia: March 17, 1997. 15. D. Caute (1988), Sixty-Eight, pp. 58–62. Pope Pius XII, in sharp contrast to his successor, John XXIII, was a fervent anticommunist as described by P. Hebblethwaite in his essay (1995) “Pope Pius XII,” pp. 67–75. 16. See his memoir: M. Capanna (1998) Formidabili quegli anni. 17. On the Milan case, see R. Lumley (1990) States of Emergency, pp. 217–23 and for Turin, see L. Lanzardo (1997) Cronaca della Commissione operaia del Movimento studentesco torinese, dicembre 1967–maggio 1968. 18. See Chapter 3, “The Case of Turin I: Defending the Ivory Tower.” Notes 169

19. For examples of police and student violence, see Alessandro Portelli’s chapter, “I’m Going to Say It Now: Interviewing the Movement,” in (1997) The Battle of the Valle Giulia, pp. 183–98. 20. Norberto Bobbio interviewed by author. Turin: April 23, 1997. 21. K. Ross (2002) May ’68 and its afterlives, pp. 57–58. 22. R. Lumley (1990) States of Emergency, pp. 73–74. 23. See Chapter 5, “The National Dimension I: Constructing an Image of Protest.” 24. La Stampa, “Specchio dei tempi,” March 14, 1968, p. 2. 25. La Stampa, February 21, 1968, p. 2, and March 3, 1968, p. 2. 26. R. Lumley (1990) States of Emergency, pp. 342–43. 27. L’Unità, January 21, 1968, p. 10. 28. See Chapter 6, “The National Dimension II: Italy’s Politicians Confront the Issue of Reform.” 29. P. Piccone, “Reinterpreting 1968: Mythology on the Make,” 11. 30. See S. Hilwig (1998) “The Revolt Against the Establishment,” pp. 321–49. 31. Maria Valabrega interviewed by the author. Turin: June 6, 1997. 32. P. Piccone (1988) “Reinterpreting 1968: Mythology on the Make,” 40–43; G. Ricuperati concluded that as far as the student movement was concerned, “in each country they battled with social realities and political responses that were very diverse,” in (1991) “La Politica Scolastica Italiana dal Centro- Sinistra alla Contestazione Studentesca,” p. 426; and S.M. Lipset’s final view that “the small minority of them [student activists] that is impelled to be activist has concentrated the fire of its attack on domestic ills,” in (1971) Rebellion in the University, pp. 509–10. 33. Former Communist Deputy Rossana Rossanda called the left-wing terrorists of the 1970s, such as the Red Brigades, the “unwanted children” of the protests begun in the 1960s; see D. Della Porta (1995) Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State, p. 23. 34. Maria Valabrega interviewed by the author. Turin: June 6, 1997. 35. Marco Revelli is a professor of political science. Luisa Passerini is a professor of history. One of the former writers for Anti-stampa, Peppino Ortoleva, now writes books on the mass media, and Luigi Bobbio is a lawyer in Turin. Massimo D’Alema was nineteen years old in 1968 and a member of the Communist Youth Federation. He held the position of President of Italy’s Council of Ministers (Prime Minister) from October 21, 1998, to April 25, 2000. Bibliography

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Addari, Luigi 75 Canestri, Giorgio 128 Agnelli family 59, 60, 64, 71, 83, 91 capelloni 26–27 Alasia, Gianni 69, 74–75, 77, 135 Capanna, Mario 56, 77, 137 Allara, Mario 34, 36, 38–47, 49–53, Carpo, Giampiero 71 56, 62, 134, 137 Catenacci, Elvio 60–61, 63 Altomare, Armando 62–63 Catholic Action 9, 116 Amendola, Giorgio 69, 100, 128 Cattocomunismo (Catholic Anni di piombo (Years of Lead) 22 communism) 78 Antifascism 13, 36–37, 59, 82, CGIL (Italian General Confederation 132, 137, 140; see CLN and of Labor) 70 Resistance Chamber of Deputies 15, 114, Anti-Stampa (student publication) 117–118, 122, 136 86–87, 90, 92, 95–96, 99, Chomsky, Noam 83 106, 139 Christian Democrats see DC 9, Antonioni, Dino 72, 75 13–15, 85, 100, 106, 114–118, Arendt, Hannah 4 120–122, 124–127, 129, 136 Aron, Raymond 6, 102, 104, 108 Church 2, 9, 29, 43, 77–79, 94, 115, Autunno Caldo see ‘Hot Autumn’ 129, 134; (1969) Canova, Don Mario 28–29; Avanzini, Federico 24, 49, 64, 91 Cardinal Cicognani 78; Cardinal Pellegrino see Pellegrino, ‘baby boomers’ 6 Cardinal Michele 77–79, 134; Badaloni, Maria 116 Clergy 11, 28, 59, 77–79; Barnes, Samuel 94 Pope John XXIII 9, 15–16, 115; Barriera di Milano 59, 70 Pacem in Terris 16; Battle of the Piazza Statuto 59–60, 76 Pope Paul VI 78; Battle of the Valle Giulia 23–25, Pope Pius XII 137; 49–50, 56, 69, 71, 80, 89–91, Second Vatican Council 93, 98, 101, 112, 117, 125–128, (1962–65) 16, 77–78 136–137 CISL (Italian Confederation of Berlinguer, Luigi 117, 122 Workers’ Unions) 75 Bettiol, Giuseppe 123 Civitas (journal) 116 Biennio Rosso see Red Years CLN (Committees of National Bobbio, Luigi 10, 44, 55, 57, 59, Liberation) 38 62–63, 104, 109–110, 137 Codignola, Tristano 117, 120, Bobbio, Norberto 36–38, 43, 45, 126–127, 129 50–51, 54, 57, 63, 129–130, 138 Cogestione 51 Bourdieu, Pierre 81, 86 Cold War 4, 14, 38, 86, 93, Bozzi, Aldo 119 98, 112, 140 Bravo, Anna 43 Commissione Operaia (Workers’ Commission) 68 Cacciatore, Francesco 119 Committees of National Liberation Cafo, Giuseppe 61, 63, 65 see CLN 38

179 180 Index

Common Market 13 direct democracy 15, 18, 37–39, 135 Communità del Vandolino 77 Divorce 5, 30; Communists see PCI Amendment 123–124; (Partito Communista Italiano) Film, Divorce—Italian Style 30 6, 9, 13–19, 29, 31, 37–38, 40, Dutschke, Rudi 18, 25; 53–54, 63, 65, 68–70, 74–75, ‘long march through the 79, 81–84, 86, 93, 99–102, institutions’ 18, 25 107–109, 112 113, 114, 116–119, 121–129, 131, 138 Einaudi, Luigi 37 contadini (farmers) 75 Ermini, Giuseppe 117, 120 Il Corriere della Sera 24, 32–33, 81, eskimo (jackets) 28 83–84, 87–93, 97–99, 101, 105, l’Espresso 101 107–108, 112, 137–138; ‘Establishment’ 1–4, 11, 24, 26, 60, Bettiza, Enzo 84; 66–67, 93, 95–96, 127, Crespi family 83; 131–132, 134, 139–140 Spadolini, Giovanni 83–84 Costa, Angiola Massucco 118, Fahlenbrach, Kathrin 30, 80–81, 89, 122–123, 128 102, 133 Counterculture 5, 7, 21, 26, 28–31, Fanfani, Amintore 13, 18 33, 79; Farinelli, Fiorella 28 beatniks 26; Fascism 4, 6, 9, 15, 35–36, 43, 53, capelloni 26–27; 76, 93–97, 99, 102, 106–107, Dylan, Bob 29; 112–113, 122, 126, LSD 29; 132–134, 138–140; marijuana 26; ‘March on Rome’ 94–95 Rock-n-Roll 26, 29; Federal Republic of Germany 5, 13; Seger, Pete 29 see Dutschke, Rudi; Cruciani, Achille 122 see Ohnesorg, Benno; Cultural Revolution 17, 19, 22, Free University of Berlin 33; 28, 98 Protests in 7, 23, 25, 32, 93, 108, 127, 131; D’Alema, Massimo 140 Springer Press 84, 86 Davis, Natalie Zemon 30 Feltrinelli, Giangiacomo 17, 99 DC (Democrazia Cristiana; political Ferrara, Maurizio 68, 108 party) 13, 19, 115, 117–119, Feuer, Lewis 26 123–124, 129 FGCI (Italian Federation of De Gaulle, Charles 5, 25, 71, Communist Youth) 74 124, 138 FIAT (Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Delfino, Raffaele 119 Torino) 11, 25, 57, 59–60, 64, Della Porta, Donatella 7, 65, 79, 121 68–76, 83–85, 91–92, 134–135, De Lorenzo Affair 60 137, 139; De Luna, Giovanni 2, 15, 48, 70, 136 figli di papa 62, 69–70, 79, democracy 5, 15, 17–18, 20, 35, 125, 135 37–40, 69, 95, 99, 102, 118–119, Mirafiori plant 25, 74, 76; 122, 125, 133, 135, 138 workers 2, 5, 9, 11, 13, 18, 20, 22, Democratic National Convention 24–25, 33, 44, 53, 57–60, 62, (1968) 24 64–77, 79, 82–85, 91–92, 94, De Rossi, Laura 20, 37, 56, 62, 99–100, 105–106, 132, 134– 104–105, 109–110 135, 137, 139 Index 181 filocinesi (Maoists) 52, 65, 75, 84, 91, Foco theory 17 93, 96–98, 101, 106, 111, 120, Gui, Luigi 14–15, 19, 23–25, 39, 138–139 41, 53, 112, 115–118, 120, Finnegan, Ruth 4 122–129, 136 Firpo, Luigi 34 Guidetti-Serra, Bianca 66 Florence 19, 24, 43, 83, 92, 122, Gullini, Giorgio 36, 39, 50, 52, 124, 139 63, 134 France 4, 14, 18, 26, 68, 71, 94, 100–101, 116, 119, 124, 130, Habermas, Jürgen 6, 93; 136, 138; Linksfaschismus Cohn Bendit, Daniel 44, 138; (left-wing fascism) 93 Events of May 68, 71, 101, Hebblethwaite, Peter 29 124, 138; Ho Chi Minh 17, 71, 89, 92 Grenelle Accords 68; Horn, Gerd-Rainer 11–12, 68, 96 Latin Quarter 5, 23, 80, 132; ‘Hot Autumn’ 25–26, 67–68, 71, 75 Le Figaro 24, 93; March 22 Movement 44; Il Manifesto 124 Nanterre 32, 40, 44, 132; Il Messagero 108 Sorbonne 33, 43–44 Il Risveglio 28 Frankfurt School 5, 7, 16 Ingrao, Pietro 120 Frassati, Pier Giorgio 95 Intesa 15, 74, 79 Freud, Sigmund 26; Italian General Confederation of FUCI (Italian Federation of Catholic Labor see CGIL University students) 63 Italian Confederation of Workers’ Unions see CISL Galli, Giorgio 14, 28 Genoa 13, 19, 108, 119, 124 Journalists 2, 11, 80, 82, 84, 86, Getto, Giovanni 63 101 Gentile, Angelo 61–62, 65, 139 Giachetti, Diego 11, 26 King, Martin Luther 22 Ginsborg, Paul 9, 59, 75, 115, Korzh, N.N. 133 128, 130 Kraushaar, Wolfgang 133 Gitlin, Todd 24, 56, 81, 85, 107, 133 Kurlansky, Mark 3 Gobetti, Piero 95 Kurz, Jan 9, 22 Godineau, Dominique 30 Goffman, Erving 81 L’Osservatore Romano 29, 79, 81, 88, Goidanich, Athos 36, 38–39, 41, 47, 98, 134 50, 52, 134, 139 La Stampa 27, 31, 33, 36, 46, 61, 64, Gonella, Guido 115–116 71–72, 81, 83–87, 91–93, 95–99, Gramsci, Antonio 16, 18, 54, 72, 95, 103–105, 110, 112, 137–139; 108; Lanzardo, Liliana 11, 69–70, 72, 74 The Prison Notebooks 18 La Palombara, Joseph 28 Grand Coalition 5, 121 Law of 3 December 1947 119 Grosso, Giuseppe 36–37, 41–42, 45, Lega Studenti e Operai (League of 50, 53–55, 134; Students and Workers) 67 see also Turin, Mayor of 36, Lenin 16, 68, 108 40–41, 134 lentocrazia 14 Guevara, Ernesto “Che,” 17, 21, 27, Leone, Giovanni 127 55, 99, 114; Letter to a Professor 16 182 Index

Levi, Giorgina 31, 63, 69, 118, Mottura, Andrea 46–47 121–122, 124, 128 movimento studentesco 3, 25, 49, 53, Levitt, Cyril 20 85, 133 Liberals 13–15, 94, 117–118, Mussolini, Benito 21, 33, 53, 59, 61, 121–123 67, 94–95, 97, 102, 133 Liberatori, Andrea 54, 67, 69, 79 Myerhoff, Barbara 100, 102 Lipset, Seymour Martin 8, 20 Longo, Luigi 69 Naples 19, 124 Lotta Continua (Continuous Struggle), Napolitano, Giorgio 128 11, 67–68, 71, 73, 76, 135, 137 NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Lumley, Robert 9, 16, 75, 138 Organization) 13 Natoli, Aldo 125–126 MSI (Italian Social Movement; La Nazione 24, 81, 92 political party) 14, 84, 94, Negarville, Massimo 137 119–121; Neofascists 14, 19, 53, 82, 94–96, Missini 19, 94, 96 121–122, 133, 137; also see MSI Magri, Domenico 126 Nicosia, Angelo 120 Manghi, Bruno 67, 70–71, 75 Nenni, Pietro 19, 64, 98, 118 Mao, Tse Tung 16–17, 19, 22, 27, New Left 3, 5, 7, 9, 13, 16–20, 47, 55, 92–93, 96–98, 100–101, 28–29, 34, 77, 82–84, 93–94, 106, 108, 114, 138 96, 99–103, 106, 108, 132, Maoism 48, 52, 75, 79, 82, 84, 101, 138, 140 106, 120; see also filocinesi Newspapers 2–4, 11, 22–26, 30, Marconi, Diego 21, 46–47 32–33, 35, 44, 49, 52, 54, 56, Marcuse, Herbert 16–17, 55, 90, 61, 63–65, 70, 72–73, 80–89, 96, 100; 91–114, 118, 124, 128, 131–140; One Dimensional Man 17 ‘protest paradigm’ in 81–82, Marshall Plan 12 86–87, 89, 94, 99, 106, 112, 133; Martinotti, Guido 48, 135 see Chomsky Noam; Marwick, Arthur 3, 8, 26 see Gitlin, Todd; Marx, Karl 16, 18, 72, 74, 96 see Il Corriere della Sera, Il Manifesto, Marxism 5, 9, 16–18, 29, 68, 82, 89, La Nazione, L’Osservatore 93–94, 99–102, 118, 136 Romano, La Stampa, l’Unità Mausbach, Wilfried 2 Nozzoli, Serena 21 Mazzini, Giuseppe 20 Nuova Resistenza see Lotta Continua Medici, Sandro 62 Nuova Sinistra see ‘New Left’ Memory (collective, nostalgic, numerus clausus 14, 116, 130 popular; of 1968) 8, 36, 63, 75, 134, 139, 140 Ohnesorg, Benno 19 Mexico 1 Old Left 28, 84, 106, 129 Mezzogiorno 67 Operaismo 18–19, 47 Milani, Don Lorenzo 16 oral history 2, 10 Mills, C. Wright 16 Ortoleva, Peppino 10, 22, 28, 41, 70, Minh, Ho Chi 17, 71, 89, 92 85–86, 103 miracolo economico 8, 13, 59 Monarchist 38 PCI (Italian Communist Party) 6, 9, Montanti, Antonio 122 13, 16–19, 29, 31, 35, 37–38, 40, Moro, Aldo 114, 117, 121, 123, 125, 54, 63, 65, 68–70, 75, 81–83, 127–128 93, 99–102, 107–109, 112–113, Index 183

116–118, 120, 122–126, Protesters 1–3, 7, 10, 19–20, 23–24, 128–129, 131, 138 30, 36, 43, 59–61, 64, 66, 68– PSI (Italian Socialist Party) 9, 13–16, 70, 76, 82, 84, 89, 91–92, 95, 19, 64–65, 68, 74, 97, 99–100, 100, 102, 106–108, 111–113, 118–119, 125–27, 138 123, 132–133, 135, 137–140 PSDI (Italian Democratic Socialist Provos 103 Party) 127 PSIUP (Italian Socialist Party of Quazza, Guido 35–39, 41, 43, 45–46, Proletarian Unity) 65, 68, 74, 49–50, 52–53, 57, 114, 128, 134 119, 122, 126 Quaderni Piacentini 18, 48 PSU (Unified Socialist Party) 18, 64, Quaderni Rossi 18 117, 127, 129, 136 Pajetta, Giancarlo 65 Red Years (Biennio Rosso) 9, 53 Palazzolo, Giovanni 120 Resistance (Anti-fascist) 3–4, 22, 28, Panzieri, Raniero 16, 18 35–38, 46, 52, 56, 58–59, 63, Papi, Giuseppe 118 87–89, 93–95, 107–108, 112, Parlanti, Luciano 70–71, 73, 76, 135 115, 119–120, 129, 132, 137–139 Pasolini, Pier Paolo 69, 101, Resistenza (journal) 37, 43, 45, 54 104–105, 108, 113 Revelli, Benevenuto 62 Pasquali, Giorgio 35 Revelli, Marco 10, 17, 20–21, 23, 39, Passerini, Luisa 10–11, 21, 30, 86, 47–48, 54–55, 59, 95, 102, 137 100 Revolutions of 1848 1, 20, 102 Pellegrino, Cardinal Michele Ricuperati, Giuseppe 114 77–79, 134 Rieser, Vittorio 43, 76 Piccone, Paul 7, 139 Rock-n-Roll 26, 29 Police 2, 5, 11, 17, 20, 22–24, 33, 36, Rome 2, 14, 19–20, 22, 24, 26–27, 38–39, 41–46, 49, 52, 54, 31–32, 39, 42, 49–50, 56, 58, 59–66, 68–69, 73, 79–80, 85, 61–62, 64–65, 77, 84, 88–89, 87–89, 91–92, 94, 98–101, 93–95, 98, 101–102, 111–112, 106–107, 110–13, 117–121, 114, 116–121, 125, 137–138 123–126, 131, 134–39; Rossanda, Rossana 6, 116, 118, 121, Carabinieri 24, 33, 59–61, 64–65, 124, 128 91, 106, 110; Rossi, Paolo 19, 118–121 Polizia di Stato 60 Roszak, Theodore Youth and the Great Politica (journal) 124 Refusal 26 Politicians 2, 4, 11, 49, 83, 86, 89, Ruffini, Mario 37 99–100, 104, 113–115, 119, Rumor, Mariano 127 122, 125–127, 129–31, 138–139 Russell, Bertrand 5 Portelli, Alessandro 91 Potere Operaio (Workers Power) Sanna, Carlo 119, 126 11, 67, 76, 135, 137 Sartoris, Pietro 36, 38 Press see Newspapers Sartre, Jean-Paul 5, 102 Professors 2, 10–11, 14–15, 20–22, Scelba Law of 1952 119 25, 34–40, 42–43, 45–55, 63, Second World War 4, 6, 9, 12, 14, 66, 74, 79, 100, 103, 105–106, 59, 65, 100, 120, 138 114, 116–118, 120–122, 126, Seminara, Niccola 64 128, 130, 135, 138–40; Sessantotto 2–3, 8, 10–11, 30, 40, 47, Senato Accademico 34, 43, 46–47, 80–81, 83, 85–86, 107, 129, 50–57 131–133, 137, 140 184 Index

Sessantottini 16, 45, 140 University of California at Silvana, Fazio 63 Berkeley, 3, 17, 132; Situationists 31, 89, 102 War in Vietnam 4, 5, 7, 9–10, 24, Socialists see PSI, PSDI, PSIUP, PSU 34, 38, 51, 64, 70–71, 79, 106, Stalinism 5, 27 108, 121, 124, 132, 140 DeBenedetti, Giulio 84; Universities 4, 5, 9–11, 15, 19–23, Valabrega, Maria 33, 85, 139 25, 29, 32, 34–36, 38, 41, 43–44, 57–58, 62, 64, 76, 93, Tarrow, Sidney 8–9 99, 101, 106–107, 114–118, Taviani, Paolo Emilio 119, 125 120–125, 127–130, 136–137; Television 3, 47, 80–82, 86, 101 Catholic University of Milan, La Terzmondismo (Third Worldism) Cattolica 77, 134, 137; 17, 82 Enrollments 5, 14, 116–117, 130; Togliatti, Palmiro 16, 69 Florence (University of) 19, 24, 43, Tolomelli, Marica 9, 11, 22, 83, 122, 124, 139; 66, 68, 71 Law 910, 127, 129–130; Torresini, Daniela 77 Milan (State University of) 19, Touraine, Alain 5–6, 124 21–25, 38, 56, 84, 87, 92, 97, Tranfaglia, Nicola 34, 95, 129 122, 136, 139; Trento (Trent) 12, 19, 77, 109 Bramantesco Gate 87–89; Tuninetti, Don Giuseppe 77–79 Perugia (University of) 137; Turin 2–4, 9–11, 13, 17, 19–25, 28, Pisa (University of) 19, 28, 55, 30–33, 34–57, 58–79, 85–87, 110, 122; 90–91, 93–94, 99, 104, 109, 111, Tesi della Sapienza 55; 114, 120–122, 124, 128–129, Reform Bill 2314 (GuiPlan) 14–15, 131–132, 134–137, 139–140; 25, 117–118, 120–124, Chamber of Labor 38, 64, 69, 126–127, 129; 74, 77; Rome (University of) 14, 19, Court of Appeals 42, 46; 22–23, 31, 49–50, 56, 88, 101, Juventus, 65; 111–112, 118–120, 125, 137 Mayor of (Giuseppe Grosso) See Battle of the Valle Giulia 36, 40–41, 45, 54, 134 Faculty of Architecture 23, 49, 112 Paratore, Ettore, professor 101 UGI (Union Goliardica Italiana) Rector Pietro D’Avack 23, 49, 15, 40, 79 112, 125, 137 UNURI (Unione nazionale degli Trent (University of) also studenti) 15 Trento 12, 19, 77, 109 Unified Socialist Party see PSU ‘contromessa’ (anti-mass) 77 L’Unità 54, 67–69, 77, 81–83, Turin (University of) also Università 107–113, 124, 138 di Torino 9–11, 19, 22, United States 7, 18, 20, 24, 26, 32–33, 34–35, 39, 44, 47, 28–29, 32, 56, 81, 83, 100, 107, 49–50, 53–54, 56, 59, 63, 66, 121, 131–133; 77, 95, 120, 128–129, 132, Columbia University 33; 136–137 Grant Park, Chicago 1968 24, 80; Academic Senate (Senato Humphrey, Hubert, Vice President’s Accademico) 19–20, 34, 36, visit to Europe (1967) 121; 39, 43–44, 46–47, 49–51 Students for a Democratic Society Assistants 39–40, 43, 47 (SDS) 107; Aula Magna 45, 47, 63 Index 185

Bomb threat (alleged) 22, 51–52, Vietnam War 4–5, 7, 9–10, 24, 34, 96 38, 51, 64, 70–71, 79, 106, 108, Campus occupations 20–25, 29, 121, 124, 132, 140 33, 38–44, 46–50, 54–56, 63, Viola, Tullio 63 65–67, 76–77, 87, 91, 95, Voce Operaia (Worker’s Voice) 122, 126, 128, 137 (journal) 70 Carta Rivendicativa (Charter of Demands) 45, 55, 64, 139 Warsaw Pact 16 Faculty of Architecture 22 Weber, Max 118 ‘guerilla phase’ 23, 48 Welch, Raquel 31 Interfacultà 37, 42 West Germany see Federal Republic of La Mandria decision 19, 32, Germany 40–41, 136 Women 5, 29–31, 37, 118, 140 Palazzo Campana 20–22, 24, 30, Donna e Società (journal) 30 38–45, 47, 49–51, 53, 55, 61– Feminism in the universities 5, 63, 67, 72–73, 87, 91, 95–96, 29–31, 140 110, 122, 137–138 Patriarchy 29, 31 Palazzo Nuovo 25 Role in demonstrations 29–31 Polytechnic University 64, 73 Workers 2, 5, 11, 13, 18, 20, 22, Rector see Allara, Mario 24–25, 33, 44, 53, 57, 58–60, Scioperi bianchi (white strikes) 62, 64–77, 79, 82–85, 91–92, 44, 50, 56, 102–103 94, 99–100, 105–106, 132, 134–135, 137, 139 Valabrega, Maria 33, 85, 139 See Hot Autumn Valitutti, Salvatore 118, 120, 123, 126 FIAT 11, 25, 57, 59–60, 64, 68–76, Viale, Guido 28, 47–48, 51, 56, 103 83–85, 91–92, 134–135, 137, 139 Contro l’Università 48 Pirelli 137