1 Introduction
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Notes 1 Introduction 1. I. Gilcher-Holtey makes the comparison of 1968 with 1789 implicit in her title, (1998) 1968—Vom Ereignis zum Gegenstand der Geschichtswissenschaft (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht) which was inspired by F. Furet’s (1980) 1789—Vom Ereignis zum Gegenstand der Geschichtswissenschaft (Frankfurt am Main: Ullstein). 2. A. Feenberg and J. Freedman (2001) When Poetry Ruled the Streets: The French May Events of 1968 (Albany: State University of New York Press), p. 150. 3. This work will designate the non-activists who interacted with the student movement in a variety of ways, the “establishment” rather than the typical “Establishment” that connotes those who were wholly opposed to the student New Left. The literature written on and by the activists is extensive. For exam- ple, L. S. Feuer (1969) The Conflict of Generations: The Character and Significance of Student Movements (New York: Basic Books); G. Dietze (1970) Youth, University and Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press); P. Knott (ed.) (1971) Student Activism (Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown); S. M. Lipset (1971) Rebellion in the University (Chicago: University of Chicago Press); G. Statera (1975) Death of a Utopia: The Development and Decline of Student Movements in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press); M. Kolinsky and W. Patterson (eds)(1976) Social and Political Movements in Western Europe (London: Croom Helm); A. Touraine (1978) La voix et le regard: sociologie des mouvements sociaux (Paris: Nouvelle); P. Ortoleva (1988) Saggio sui movimenti del 1968 in Europa e in America: con un’ antologia di materiali e documenti (Rome: Editori Riuniti); W. Kraushaar (2000) 1968 als Mythos, Chiffre und Zäsur (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition); I. Gilcher- Holtey (2001) Die 68er-Bewegung: Deutschland, Westeuropa, USA (Munich: Beck); A. Feenberg and J. Freedman (2001) When Poetry Ruled the Streets; and G. Horn (2007) The Spirit of ’68: Rebellion in Western Europe and North America, 1956–1976 (Oxford: Oxford University Press). 4. W. Mausbach (2002) “Historicising ‘1968’,” Contemporary European History, vol. XI, 182. 5. Historian of contemporary Italy, Nicola Tranfaglia has also remarked on the lack of interest that scholars of 1968 have shown toward the establishment, in particular the deliberations of Italy’s politicians found in the Atti parlamentari. N. Tranfaglia interviewed in G. Santomassimo (ed.) (1989) “Il Sessantotto: una storia difficile,” Passato e Presente, vol. XIX, 19. 6. “… there is no doubt that the things most true about the Sessantotto were tied to oral communication. This renders the reconstruction of the Sessantotto only through written documents very difficult.” G. DeLuna interviewed in G. Santomassimo (ed.) (1989) “Il Sessantotto: una storia difficile,” Passato e Presente, vol. xix, 20. 7. For examples of the literature emphasizing the global aspects of 1968, see J. Califano (1970) The Student Revolution: A Global Confrontation (New York: 141 142 Notes W. W. Norton); G. Katsiaficas (1987) The Imagination of the New Left: A Global Analysis of 1968 (Boston: South End Press); D. Caute (1988) Sixty-Eight: The Year of the Barricades (London: Hamish Hamilton); R. Fraser (1988) 1968: A Student Generation in Revolt (London: Chatto and Windus); R. V. Daniels (1989) Year of the Heroic Guerilla: World Revolution and Counterrevolution in 1968 (New York: Basic Books); C. Fink, P. Gassert, and D. Junker, (eds) (1998) 1968: The World Transformed (Washington, DC: Cambridge University Press); A. Marwick (1998) The Sixties: Cultural Revolution in Britain, France, Italy, and the United States, c. 1958–1974 (Oxford: Oxford University Press); J. Suri (2003) Power and Protest: Global Revolution and the Rise of Détente (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press); and M. Kurlansky (2004) 1968: The Year That Rocked the World (New York: Random House). 8. M. Kurlansky (2004) 1968: The Year That Rocked the World, p. xvii. 9. On the role of the media in globally disseminating ideas and images of pro- test, see the introduction of C. Fink, P. Gassert, and D. Junker (eds) (1998) 1968: The World Transformed, pp. 9–13. 10. M. Klimke and J. Scharloth (eds) (2008) 1968 in Europe: A History of Protest and Activism, 1956–1977 (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan), p. 4. 11. A. Marwick (2004) “1968 and the Cultural Revolution of the Long Sixties (c. 1958–1974),” in G. Horn and P. Kenney (eds) Transnational Moments of Change: Europe 1945, 1968, 1989 (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield), p. 83. 12. E. J. Hobsbawm noted that by the end of the year 1968, over fifty-two books and articles had already appeared on the May events in Paris, see (1973) Revolutionaries: Contemporary Essays (New York: Meridian Books), p. 234. 13. For an excellent study of the ways that the media shaped the actions of pro- testers and the course of the US student movement see T. Gitlin (1980) The Whole World is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press). For a comparative analysis of the students’ battles with the conservative press in West Germany and Italy see S. Hilwig (1998) “The Revolt Against the Establishment: Students Versus the Press in West Germany and Italy,” in C. Fink, P. Gassert, and D. Junker (eds) 1968: The World Transformed, pp. 321–49. K. Fahlenbrach takes an anthropological and sociological approach to examining the ways that the popular media changed the lifestyles and habits of protesters in the 1960s in (2002) Protest-Inszenierungen: visuelle Kommunikation und kollektive Identitat¨en in Protestbewegungen (Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag). Media theorist M. Brasted uses frame theory to compare the ways that two different news- papers constructed the 1968 Democratic Convention protests in Chicago in (2005) “Framing Protest: The Chicago Tribune and the New York Times dur- ing the 1968 Democratic Convention,” Atlantic Journal of Communication, vol. XIII, 1–25. 14. “Sessantotto” the Italian word for sixty-eight has, like its French and German equivalents, come to mean the entire period of student activism stretching from the mid-1960s to the early 1970s with its apogee of student rebellion in the magic year, 1968. 15. P. Bourdieu (1988) On Television (trans. P. P. Ferguson) (New York: The New Press); E. S. Herman and N. Chomsky (1988) Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (New York: Pantheon Books); and M. McLuhan and Q. Fiore (1967) The Medium is the Massage (New York: Bantam Books). Notes 143 16. R. Finnegan (2006) “Family Myths, Memories and Interviewing,” in R. Perks and A. Thomson (eds) The Oral History Reader, Second Edition (London: Routledge), p. 179. 17. H. Arendt (1969) On Violence (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World). 18. In particular the priest Don Lorenzo Milani’s (1967) Lettera a una professoressa, (Firenze: Libreria Editrice Fiorentina) detailed the sad state of education in a small rural town near Florence in a work that became standard reading for student activists. A. Marwick also notes the material disparities between the city and country in Italy in (1998) The Sixties. 19. G. Ricuperati (1991) “La Politica Scolastica Italiana dal Centro-Sinistra alla Contestazione Studentesca,” in A. Agosti, L. Passerini, and N. Tranfaglia (eds) La cultura e i luoghi del ’68 (eds) (Milan: Franco Angeli), p. 426. 20. P. Ginsborg (2003) A History of Contemporary Italy: Society and Politics, 1943– 1988 (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan), pp. 340–44 and 351. 21. International War Crimes Tribunal, Bertrand Russell, and Jean Paul Sartre (1968) Das Vietnam-Tribunal (Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt). 22. A. Touraine (1971) The May Movement: Revolt and Reform, May 1968—the Student Rebellion and Workers’ Strikes—the Birth of a Social Movement (trans. L. F. X. Mayhew) (New York: Random House), pp. 22–27. 23. R. Rossanda (1968) L’anno degli studenti (Bari: De Donato). 24. R. Aron (1969) The Elusive Revolution: Anatomy of a Student Revolt (trans. G. Clough) (New York: Praeger). 25. In German, Linksfaschisten, see Jürgen Habermas (1969) “Kongress ‘Hochschule und Demokratie’,” in Protestbewegung und Hochschulreform (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp), pp. 137–49. 26. See, for example L. Labedz (1968) “Students and Revolutions,” Survey, vol. LXVIII, 3–28; E. Scheuch (1969) “The Liberation from Right Reason,” Encounter, vol. XXXII, 56–61; G. Dietze (1970) Youth, University and Democracy; W. Karl (1970) “Students and the Youth Movement in Germany: Attempt at a Structural Comparison,” Journal of Contemporary History, vol. V, 113–27; S. M. Lipset (1971) Rebellion in the University; G. Statera (1975) Death of a Utopia; L. Feuer (1969) The Conflict of Generations; S. N. Eisenstadt (1971) “Generational Conflict and Intellectual Antinomianism,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. CCCXCV, 68–79. 27. For example sociologist C. Levitt continued to place much emphasis on generational conflict in his study of student movements in Canada, West Germany, and the United States in (1984) Children of Privilege: Student Revolt in the Sixties (Buffalo, NY: University of Toronto Press). 28. See, for example R. Fraser (1988) 1968 and D. Caute (1988) Sixty-Eight. 29. P. Piccone (1988) “Reinterpreting 1968: Mythology on the Make,” Telos, vol. LXXVII, 7–43. 30. I. Juchler’s (1996) Die Studentenbewegung in den Vereinigten Staaten und der Bundesrepublik Deutschland der sechsziger Jahre: Eine Untersuchung hinsichtlich ihrer Beeinflussung durch Befreiungsbewegungen und theorien aus