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Social Work : Systemic Ethical Implications

Rosalie V. Otters Ph.D., MSW, D.Min. (LCSW) University of Arkansas at Little Rock [email protected]

Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics, Volume 10, Number 2 (2013) Copyright 2013, Association of Social Work Boards (ASWB)

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Abstract may result from working in a larger higher educa- The ethical significance of power differences tional system. Systemic goals may diverge from between students, social work educators, and the those of both the social work and the higher educational system needs to be more fully individual social work educator. Social work ethics explored. All social workers, including educators, for the educator in higher education must recog- must follow the National Association of Social nize the systemic issues the educator faces in this Workers (NASW) Code of Ethics. A systemic ethic environment. of relational responsibility enhances student/fac- ulty ethical conduct. 2. The NASW Code of Ethics as Guide for Social Work Key words: NASW Code of Ethics, Social Work Education Educators, System of Higher Education, Harass- The NASW Code of Ethics states that “a ment and Bullying, Ethic of Relationships historic and defining feature of social work is the profession’s focuses on individual wellbeing “Kindness as a public virtue, built upon a commit- in a social context and the wellbeing of society” ment to social justice, embraces critique.” (Clegg (NASW, 2008, Preamble). Found here are the six & Rowland, 2010, p. 723) core values of social work: , social justice, 1. Introduction dignity and worth of the person, importance of human relationships, integrity, and competence. All social workers, whether working under Together they form the foundation for the social supervision or in an independent practice, are work mission, reflecting “what is unique to the to adhere to the National Association of Social social work profession.” All social workers are Workers (NASW) Code of Ethics. This includes responsible for enacting the Code of Ethics. Most social workers who supervise and educate. Yet considerations of social work ethics reflect the most case studies and ethical are geared practice responsibilities of social work profes- toward those in the field rather than the social sionals: “The Code socializes practitioners new to work educators responsible for developing new the field to social work’s mission, values, ethical social workers. Social work educators in higher principles, and ethical standards….Ethical respon- education have extensive responsibilities to social- sibilities flow from all human relationships, from ize, teach, and gatekeep for the profession, but it the personal and familial to the social and profes- is not clear how these responsibilities interact with sional” (NASW, 2008, Purpose). systemic higher education responsibilities as well The Code of Ethics includes the responsi- as personal goals. Of special concern is the bilities of the social work faculty: “Social work- lack of focus on the possible ethical dilemmas that ers promote social justice and social change…

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2013, Vol. 10, No. 2 - page 58 Social Work Education: Systemic Ethical Implications [through] direct practice, community organiz- and field instructors on students’ professional ing, supervision (emphasis added), consultation, socialization” (p. 277). A better understanding of administration, advocacy, social and political faculty ethical relationships and responsibilities action, policy development and implementation, is needed, because they are central to modeling education (emphasis added), and research and professional social work for students (Clifford evaluation” (NASW, 2008, Preamble). The Code & Royce, 2006), and because faculty themselves of Ethics emphasizes that supervisors, professors, are part of the larger system of the academic and field instructors must have the appropriate . knowledge and skills, be mindful of boundaries, Overall, it continues to appear that “the avoid inappropriate relationships, and evaluate the historical investment of social workers in challeng- performance of student supervisees in a “fair and ing issues of power and oppression has not facili- respectful” way (NASW, 2008, 3.01-3.03). tated the examination of abuses of power within Protection against student grade inflation the social work profession. “Sensitivity to these and other competency concerns are recognized issues actually may have increased resistance to ethical goals to protect the public (Homonoff, such painful self-examination” (Jacobs, 1991, p. 2008; Sowbel, 2011). Case studies of ethical di- 130). Most of the emphasis on social work ethics lemmas have offered a needed emphasis on deci- is in the social world beyond that of higher educa- sion-making for social workers (Dolgoff, Loewen- tion rather than of the systemic ethical relationship berg, & Harrington, 2007; Strom-Gottfried, 2007), outcomes between faculty or field instructors and but often do not fully explore systemic power dif- students (Kircher, Stilwell, Talbot, & Chesbor- ferences found in hierarchical relationships beyond ough, 2011). the case itself. It is rare to find an examination of ethics for academics, though Strom-Gottfried and 2.1 Some Indicators of Bullying in D’Aprix (2006) have examined common ethical Professional Social Work dilemmas for social workers in higher education. Bullying is defined by the Norwegian Another study of ethical cases filed with NASW social scientist Stale Einarsen as “the systematic from 1986 through 1998 found a small percentage persecution of a colleague, a subordinate, or a (under 4 %) involved students filing a complaint superior, which, if continued, may cause severe against faculty or field supervisors (Strom-Gott- social, psychological, and psychosomatic problems fried, 2000). Though this is a very small percent- for the victim” (1999, p. 17). These hostile and age, the differences in power between faculty or aggressive behaviors may or may not be physical field instructors and students were not explored. but do lead to a victimization and stigmatization Few studies examine the implications for of the recipient. Bullying, Einarsen observes, may students of quality field director training, though alternately be called mobbing, emotional abuse, many learn “on the ” and through “trial and harassment, mistreatment, and victimization. In the error” (Deal & Clements, 2006; Raskin & Ellison, United States, the term harassment may be used 2011). The Council on Social Work Education instead of bullying, though often in the narrower (CSWE, 2010) now designates field as thesigna - context of sexual harassment. Bullying, however, ture pedagogy of social work, which should give is much broader than sexual harassment and there an added impetus to focusing on the social work may not be any gender or sexual aspect to it. Bul- educator in class and field. Barretti (2004) com- lying can be done by either the superior or inferior ments that “though social work has always stressed in the social , though it is usually an issue the importance of relationships in the change of superior power and control. The person who is process, it is curious that so little empirical inquiry bullied may feel humiliation and distress, which has been directed to the critical influence of faculty can interfere with both personal and occupational

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2013, Vol. 10, No. 2 - page 59 Social Work Education: Systemic Ethical Implications performance. The systemic aspect of bullying themselves been the objects of bullying in the isolates the victim from the rest of the group, who workplace. Van Heugten (2010) explored, 17 New then tend to further the bullying process either Zealand social workers who had been bullied at directly by harassment or indirectly by ignoring or their workplace. Bullying in this study resulted disparaging the contributions of the victim. Einars- from stressful changes in the workplace as a result en finds that, to one observing this process, it may of status uncertainty and competition for positions appear that the bullied person is at fault for the and power. Christie (2009), another New Zealand situation, acting in a less than professional manner researcher, found little previous literature on social and even deserving to be treated in this way. work supervisor/supervisee roles in remediating Bullies target those whom they find threat- abusive experiences for the supervisee. This study ening because the victim refuses to be subservi- found a lack of support for the bullied social work- ent, may have better skills, is liked more than the ers by their supervisors. Kenny (2007) reported bully, or has exposed some weakness of the bully, that social service staff in Britain were “the third perhaps even an unethical or illegal activity. Such largest group of callers to a national advice line for victimized workers may be less confrontational, workplace bullying, accounting for more than 800 finding it difficult to protect themselves once they cases over the eight years it ran” (p. 16). are attacked (Namie, 2007). In the United States, Roscigno, Lopez and Hodson (2009) found and federal laws protect certain classes of that one is vulnerable to bullying not only when employees (e.g., gender, race, age, disability, one belongs to a less protected out-group (a minor- ethnicity, ) from harassment under risk ity in a low hierarchical position) but also when of a lawsuit; however, most bullying involves an the workplace itself is disorganized with unclear unprotected group member or is instigated by a role and responsibility mandates. In such organiza- protected group member. For example, women tions, the division of labor is ambiguous and even may target other women, although a high percent- contradictory. There are unclear power relation- age (80%) of women who are targeted are targeted ships, making the environment ripe for bullying by superiors of either gender (Namie, 2007). behavior to emerge. They state that bullying more Few studies of social worker harassment commonly targets female staff members where or bullying exist either in field or in higher educa- women continue to have less status than men and tion (Kircher, Stilwell, Talbot, & Chesborough, are culturally perceived as less competent and 2011). A small study in the United States found more compliant in the face of aggression. Much of that sexual harassment of social workers at work social work is organizationally in flux due to the was a common occurrence. Out of half of a NASW nature of social work itself, as well as challenging chapter membership, 27% reported experiencing economic times. Women form the large major- sexual harassment at work by co-workers (May- ity of social workers (81%) but, as with women pole, 1986). Harassment must be defined as more in general, earn less than male social workers for than sexual, rather as a power play for social con- the same position (Whitaker, Weismiller & Clark, trol. This study is unusual because of its focus in 2006). an American setting on harassment or bullying in American researchers have been more a social work workplace. The potential for bully- successful reviewing school or workplace bully- ing in social work is often related to status inequity ing where the social worker or other professional and organizational context in supervisory bullying. is in the role of helper (Meyer-Adams & Conner, Much of social work is dependent on such hierar- 2008; Namie, 2007); however, in European societ- chical relationships. ies, workplace bullying has become an important Three studies or reports outside the United area for research in a variety of professional fields, States have focused on social workers who have including nursing (Randle, 2003), business (LaVan

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2013, Vol. 10, No. 2 - page 60 Social Work Education: Systemic Ethical Implications & Martin, 2007), and social work (Kenny, 2007). workers in colleges and universities earn less than The British Commonwealth, as well as some West- their male counterparts (National Association of ern European countries, appear to be especially at- Social Workers Center for Workforce Studies and tuned to the term bullying, perhaps because it was Social Work Practice, 2011). adopted in Britain in the late 1980s (Namie, 2007). 4. Responsibilities to Students 3. The Academic System and Power Differentials According to the NASW Code of Ethics, the social work educator has the responsibility to con- In higher education, more men hold ad- sider both the wellbeing of the student as well as vanced positions than women. Women are more the wellbeing of society (NASW, 2008, Preamble). likely than men to be non-tenured instructors More specifically, educators must consider the six or assistant professors than in higher academic core values of social work: service, social justice, positions. Two Canadian articles have examined dignity and worth of the person, importance of bullying in academia. McKay, Arnold, Fratzi, and human relationships, integrity, and competence. Thomas (2008) have researched workplace bully- First, teaching itself is a service. The objects of ing with a survey sent to faculty, instructors, and this service are students, the specific higher edu- librarians at a Canadian university. The results cational entity, as well as the discipline of social document that workplace bullying is a systemic work and clients. Systemically, the educator will concern for those who are newly hired or unten- also be serving the larger community. Second, ured. The costs of this behavioral phenomenon social justice is the goal of the educator, sought include academic employee turnover, less respect at each systemic level from micro through macro and loyalty for the university by employees and systemic social levels. Social work seeks to help students, as well as modeling negative behaviors students develop their abilities in a world that is for students who may then carry these role behav- often unjust. Social work educators also seek to iors into a future workplace setting. change unjust social structures through research A second Canadian research study is an and advocacy. Third, all students have their own ethnography delineating the techniques of normal- dignity and worth, whether they are diligent and ization that university professors use when accused quick learners or less focused and have difficulty of bullying practices (Nelson & Lambert, 2001). grasping new concepts. This core value is very Bullying may be self-interpreted as a normal way much also a systemic value where the educator of behaving, or even as necessary. That study ob- seeks to act as a role model throughout the higher served how organizational structure and university educational system and larger community. Fourth, values protect this behavior by discouraging the the importance of human relationships is also a bullying label itself. Instead, the bully is seen as core educator emphasis which encompasses all having a right to own opinion as part of the univer- the other core values. More important than suc- sity academic freedom mandate. In this scenario, cessful students or a successful social work career the bully becomes the victim, needing protection, for an educator is the importance of working with while the person bullied becomes the bully. Un- others toward their goals as well as being with tenured professors and students, being lower in them on their life journey. Fifth, the integrity of the university hierarchy, are especially prone to the educator is the model for student socialization being the real victims in this process: “The ethos and development. If educators are not trustwor- of the university and the existence of tenure may thy, seeking their own career advancement before be seen to provide structural scaffolding for both the needs of others, all social levels, from student ivory tower bullying and its toleration within the to the wider community, will be stymied in their university” (p. 99). Ninety percent of female social development. Sixth and finally, the social work

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2013, Vol. 10, No. 2 - page 61 Social Work Education: Systemic Ethical Implications educator must be competent, seeking to develop with different loyalties and understandings of col- an expertise and focus in certain social work areas. lege, work, and life. They may have major The educator does not over-promise as an expert. concurrent responsibilities in all three of these As with the other core values, competency is a areas of life. Social work faculty, more used to value that has systemic implications for the higher middle class expectations of time and effort, may educational facility and the larger community. miss cues from these students who According to some social psychologists, are making major changes in their world views human beings are aggressive and territorial as and life practices at the same time as undertaking, well as loving and caring (DeLamater & Myers, often with little outside support, to meet extensive 2011). Therefore, it seems probable that abusive academic requirements. Some have poor writing relationships exist between social work educa- and mathematical skills or other difficulties that tors and students, between social work educators students from a more privileged academic and themselves, and between social work educators social background can find mystifying (Lareau, and others in their academic . Yet the 2007; Palmore, 2011). higher education literature, especially for Ameri- More than most other professional dis- can higher education, does not offer much insight ciplines, social work demands that the intern or into this powerful and potentially devastating ethi- supervisee be able to both defer to a superior and cal abuse of the social work relationship. Students, also take initiative. This process can be confusing as the lowest group in the social hierarchy, would and unclear for both the social work educator and presumably be most affected by a bullying atmo- the student. sphere within a higher education structure. Student Cousins (2010) explores the games of socialization can be a road to a negative re-social- avoidance and dominance that can be played ization and loss of self (Egan, 1989), as well as between the social work supervisor and super- to a professionally desirable socialization process visee, as well as how this can affect client services. which develops the ability to use oneself as a Interpersonal dynamics, which relate to the rela- in relationship building. tive power between the social work educator and The paradox here is that coming to higher student, must be considered of primary importance education as an undergraduate or graduate student in social work education. Also at issue is the con- may to some extent mean risking or perhaps even cern that social work educators themselves may losing independence and self-identity. By deferring not be getting the support and training needed to to teaching or supervising professionals, the stu- best work with students. dent hopes to emerge with a refurbished and re-so- cialized professional self at some future time. This 5. Gatekeeping Responsibilities paradoxical process can be especially significant for those students perceived as out-of-step because Gatekeeping procedures are necessary to they are different from the majority, whether these maintain quality in professional social work educa- differences are in appearance, knowledge, skills, tion. Social work educators – program adminis- or abilities. Such differences may not be applauded trators, classroom professors, field liaisons and by the majority or by those in charge. instructors, advisers, and adjunct faculty--must A particular issue for social work is the work together to create and carry out some quality ability of the profession to both encourage and control of the professionalization process. Gate- discourage any student who struggles with the keeping is vital in order to protect the public, espe- demands of integrating knowledge, skills, and val- cially those who are more likely to be vulnerable ues into a coherent professional self. Students, for because of their need. In addition, the gatekeeping instance, may be first generation college students process is important for students, as it gives them

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2013, Vol. 10, No. 2 - page 62 Social Work Education: Systemic Ethical Implications competency markers which can help them better as strengths. Although an experienced field instruc- understand both their assets and liabilities as they tor may get at certain performance behaviors social pursue a social work career. workers must master, competency-based educa- For those students who cannot make the tion involves more difficulty in discerning how to grade as future social workers, it is vital to spend develop social worker judgment and reflexivity time to counsel them out of the program. Solution- within the content of the specific case (Bogo et al., focused advising emphasizes student strengths and 2006). Standardized policies on sensitive student moves toward their hopes for the future (De Jong information and confidentiality are also needed & Berg, 2008). When there is a mismatch between (Duncan-Datson & Culver, 2005; Wayne, 2004). student abilities or effort and student hopes, help- Social work educators have an advising ing students find new directions is both ethical and role to aid students as well as a gatekeeping role a good administrative tactic. Students are not only for the profession and higher education (Moore, the raw material that is necessary for the higher Dietz, & Wallace, 2003). Formalizing relational education system to develop, but they also form rather than adversarial processes for performance part of the larger community in which the social reviews and grade appeals is necessary. Such work department and the higher education insti- processes should take up the concerns of both the tution itself must relate. Students are much less student and the school as represented by social likely to feel that they have been mishandled when work educators who are knowledgeable about the there has been an effort to help them move on. performance of the student. Students should be How much effort should be made by social encouraged to articulate a well-developed delivery work educators to work with students who are of their concerns, regardless of what decision may having difficulty keeping up with the three prongs ultimately have to be made. They should expect of social work education – knowledge, skills, and to get due procedural support from faculty at the values? Here, a developmental understanding of evaluation meeting as well as an objective appeal students can be helpful. While some social work process as needed. educators may try too hard to remediate students, The formalizing process for gatekeeping others may demand too much, too soon, as a kind does not stop after it is first created by students and of tough-love approach which can rapidly veer educators. Gatekeeping is a process as well as a into an abusive, bullying situation. Neither ap- product and “needs to be presented as a support for proach is, in the end, ethical. It is not ethical for faculty and students, not a punishment” (Urwin, any of the stakeholders (the public, higher educa- Van Soest, & Kretzschmar, 2006, p. 177). Faculty tion, faculty, or student) to ignore student fail- members need to hear of positive outcomes of ings, nor is it ethical to push students along, never student gatekeeping in order to encourage their ac- giving them enough time to absorb the complex tive participation. Social work educators as well as new cognitive, behavioral, and affective students can improve in their performance through they are undertaking. Because so much of social student classroom and field evaluative measures. work professionalization comes through devel- oping relationships with specific persons who 6. Educator Ethical have particular personalities, it may be important Considerations sometimes to give a student a second chance with Student affective development should also another field site and/or a second field instructor or be a major area for support and growth. Entering faculty liaison. students experience a high level of anxiety (Gel- Formalizing standards of competency man, 2004), especially at the graduate level, when through the new CSWE competency requirements they may be expected to perform both in class and may be a helpful first step. However, competency- in the field, often with little preparation for the based education has important limitations as well

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2013, Vol. 10, No. 2 - page 63 Social Work Education: Systemic Ethical Implications rigors of the graduate program. Though students Work Education (2010) specify field as the signa- learn values cognitively, behaviorally, and affec- ture pedagogy of social work, a number of discrep- tively, the affective realm is the most complex, ancies separate the implied primacy of this desig- since its foundation lies in an emotional under- nation and the reality of field placement: standing of oneself and others (Allen & Friedman, 2010). For both the social work educator and the • The social work field instructor as student, affective learning requires a process for educator is usually a voluntary position, handling conflicts between professional values and as pointed out above, risks a lack and doing tasks that are expected. This conflict of adequate time, energy, or training has been labeled professional dissonance (Tay- – especially advanced training in lor, 2007), a performance gap between what one developmental student models, as values or believes and what one is expected to do. well as the latest practice and Without a process for both the social work educa- research modalities. tor and student to discuss and get support when • Due to the economic times and the grappling with such conflicting responsibilities, nature of much of social work practice, either burnout or distancing is often the result. a lot of often occurs at service When distancing is the result, the danger increases agencies. Social workers are being that important responsibilities will be neglected asked to do more with less because of (Abramovitz, 2005; Gallina, 2010). downsizing and other fiscal constraints. The social work educator should lead, While field instructors in the past teach, and advise developmentally, both in class might have been given time release for and field (Allen & Friedman, 2010; Deal & Cle- working with students, this has become ments, 2006). In the classroom, the educator must less frequent. learn the best teaching style(s) for a given class • Turnover in agency positions burdens and, at times, for individual students. In the field, the field program coordinator at instructors and university liaisons must learn the the higher education site with more most up-to-date practices and theories as well as work and delivers the students less the best approaches for working developmentally consistency. with individual students. This means working to • Students may need more help foster successful outcomes for all students. The academically than in the past, with social work educator must begin where students many of them coming to social work are, as well as discern if and when students need programs with less time and more to consider moving on to another career in which outside responsibilities or unprepared academically for graduate school. they can better apply their talents. • The paperwork at agencies has Although student satisfaction with an increased because of the need to MSW program has been shown to be related to document and show evidence for all supervision quality (Kanno & Koeske, 2010), the work. quality of training for social work educators in the • Critical thinking is essential to good field has been uneven. At times, those supervising social work practice and may be hard field practice have been perceived as not need- for the field social work instructor to ing continuing education in the most recent social teach. work theories, models, and practices, a supposition • Cases, as a sign of the times, have criticized by both Brashears (1993) and Homonoff increasingly fast turnovers, which (2008). Although the Educational Policy and Ac- may make it difficult for the social work intern to develop relationships creditation Standards of the Council on Social with clients. This can give the field

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2013, Vol. 10, No. 2 - page 64 Social Work Education: Systemic Ethical Implications instructor more work in finding suitable (2004) found that social work researchers them- clients for the beginning intern and can selves are not able to offer a broad framework for make it harder for the intern to settle studying student socialization in the context of into a learning mode with clients. environmental forces. She also concludes, “Many • Financial downsizing is an issue for of the findings inadvertently suggest that what higher education staff and faculty, who social work students learn in their programs is not must adjust to do more with less. This increases the work for the field program necessarily what is intentionally taught but what coordinator and perhaps for the faulty faculty and field instructors model” (p. 277). Thus, member acting as a liaison between the social work educators have an ethical responsibil- agency and university. ity to develop their skills as educators who can • The scaling used to measure work with students in the field, in the classroom, competencies and practice behaviors in the higher education facility and in the larger has not been developed for reliability community. and validity (Wayne, Bogo, & Raskin, 2010). Different graders may grade 7. Academic Workplace competencies differently, especially Responsibilities as they get to know their student interns. The new competency grading, Social work educators have responsibili- therefore, may not be more accurate ties to both their social work departments and the than previous grading systems. In higher education organizations where they are addition, it may be reductionistic in nested. Within the academic setting, social work that it limits measures to individual educators must find ways to accommodate the de- behaviors rather than more complex mands of research, teaching, and service in order judgments about the overall case (Bogo et al., 2006). to reach tenure as well, as maintain and elevate • Faculty practice experience is another their academic status. Though a main purpose for possible issue, since fewer faculty have higher education is to educate students, many other extensive, or even at times any, practice responsibilities compete for faculty time, with experience. In some higher education greater and lesser rewards. As Robert Scott, presi- programs, most faculty never see a field dent of Adelphi University reminds us: “Just as a site, making it more difficult to relate checkbook can reveal the priorities of the holder, practice to either or research so can campus rewards reveal what is valued. In agendas which dominate the social what ways are the rewards of appointment, tenure, work program (Johnson & Munch, promotion release time, and sabbaticals – board 2010). decisions all – related to the goals of student learn- ing?” (Scott as cited in Reis, 2011). Appropriate supervision is essential for Academic collegiality, often called aca- students and beginning social workers to develop a demic citizenship, is now routinely emphasized, professional concept of self (Giddings, Cleveland, connecting the academic community to one an- & Smith, 2006, p. 105), in order to develop social other and the world beyond through networking work knowledge, skills. and values. Through the relationships and common projects. Bruhn, Zajac, use of critical thinking skills, the student learns Al-Kazemi, and Prescott (2002) posit an intersec- to integrate theories with practice. Poor supervi- tion between ethics and academic professionalism, sion may veer toward either a hands-off relation- and it is at this intersection that good academic ship with the social work student or, at the other citizenship lies. More than many other disciplines, extreme, an authoritarian and perhaps bullying social work education as a practice discipline and posture. By studying the literature on professional profession looks to both the academic community socialization of social work students, Barretti

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2013, Vol. 10, No. 2 - page 65 Social Work Education: Systemic Ethical Implications and the outside practice communities. It has been social structure, whether micro, mezzo, or macro, these practice communities that have traditionally and their interrelationships. given direction and impetus to the work done in An ethic of social work relationships comes the academic workplace. out of such an ethic of care and results in a social The academic workplace and the practice ethic. In lifting up kindness as an academic ethic community are two worlds which, while they can- for higher education, Clegg and Rowland (2010) not be blended, should not supersede one another. argue for the practice of academic caring as a Each is necessary for a viable social work disci- public virtue. They remind us that the word kind pline. To be truly collegial, the academic commu- comes from the word kin, to be related: “The good nity must look beyond itself to the larger world. In teacher, one who is perceived as having particular this way, it looks to its role in world citizenship, personal qualities beyond simply exercising due which is also how social work seeks to position care, appears to be the effective teacher by virtue of itself (NASW, 2008, 6.01 Social ). In the the personal not despite it” (p. 729). If I care about tension between social work as encouraging self- you, I will be able to critique your work honestly determination versus social work as encouraging and help you improve or find another goal. If I care social norms and control, the ethical dimension about you, I will respect you. This is my public, so- must always be the first concern. For instance, if we cial responsibility. The ethic of relationships binds were practicing social work in Nazi Germany, social us together, as kindred (caring, relational) spirits work would have a very different face than that in a and whole people, enhancing our contributions and democratic society (Johnson & Moorhead, 2011). abilities rather than pulling us down. The goal of higher education, among other 8. Toward a Systemic Ethic of ends, is to help students become citizens (Bruhn Relationship in Social Work et al., 2002). The definition of citizenship varies, Education because the structure of political systems and orga- nizations vary, but citizenship at its broadest goes Another way to look at the mandate to beyond nationality and toward that of being part of develop social work ethics is to look at the value the human community. Citizens create and add to of relationships as the foundation for the other five the common good. Social work seeks a world citi- core values. Social work is relational, seeking to zenship when it works for the common good. Jane connect each to the other at a human level (Hep- Addams, a founder of social work and a world citi- worth, 2010). A social of relationships zen, is a helpful guide here. Her social experiments must include an ethic of care as Gilligan (1982) set of first, settlement house living, and later, world forth in her pioneering feminist ethic, “In a Differ- peace advocacy, led her to believe in the solidarity ent Voice.” There she concluded that moral reason- of the human race. We are all related, kin to one ing can be based on women’s traditional reasoning another; without the advancement of the weakest as the norm just as easily as that of the traditional we cannot advance as a whole. Ethics, Addams male norm. While male reasoning seeks equality held, is social. Writing in “Democracy and Social and fairness, ethical analysis can instead begin Ethics,” she admonishes us: “To attain individual with the relationship, seeking balance between op- morality in an age demanding social morality, to posing positions. Gilligan concludes that an ethic pride oneself on the results of personal effort when of care emphasizes equity, differences, and need as the time demands social adjustment, is utterly to a missing half of the moral equation—balancing fail to apprehend the situation” (Addams, 2002, p. with responsibility, individualism with com- 6). Her life work was to help others to realize their munity, and autonomy with care. An ethic of care citizenship as part of humanity. This is also the life is relational and contextual, looking at all levels of work of the ethical social work educator.

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