Diálogo

Volume 5 Number 1 Article 5

2001

Mexico in the Context of the Transatlantic Slave Trade

Bobbie Vaughn

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Recommended Citation Vaughn, Bobbie (2001) " in the Context of the Transatlantic Slave Trade," Diálogo: Vol. 5 : No. 1 , Article 5. Available at: https://via.library.depaul.edu/dialogo/vol5/iss1/5

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This article is available in Diálogo: https://via.library.depaul.edu/dialogo/vol5/iss1/5 Mexico rural A in family in the TransatlanticContext of the

SIave Trade By Bobbie Vaughn

The presence of people of African When most think of the Trans-Atlantic or otherwise inadequate for the labor descent in Mexico, while a subject that slave trade that brought millions of intensive productive endeavors for which the slaves were used. In most of never ceases to fascinate me in my Africans to the , Mexico is rarely a country one thinks of. these countries, a mercantilist economy of studies, has scarcely raised an eyebrow When one considers the impact of the extraction converted many of these neither in Mexico, nor in the larger slave trade on , most of countries into export-exclusive economies. world. Part of this is due to the fact that the attention is placed on the countries Slave labor was the vehicle by which the their presence is largely unknown where we find very large Black treasures of the "" would be outside of the rural where the populations today. In , exploited: precious metals, sugar, coffee, majority of them live. Their numbers are one considers first and foremost, Brazil, cotton, etc. relatively small, and they have not and to a lesser extent, Colombia and generally made a point of making their possibly Venezuela. Attention then New Spain (the Spanish colony that roughly corresponds to contemporary presence widely known. In this article, I shifts to much of the , be they the Spanish-speaking countries such as Mexico) also participated in this will offer a brief historical foreground Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and mercantilist political economy, and of the Afro-Mexican population, Puerto Rico, or the French-speaking African slave labor was certainly primarily to situate their experience Haiti, or the English-speaking Jamaica, utilized. Particularly in earliest stages of within the larger framework of the Trinidad and Tobago, and Barbados. the slave trade—the 16th and early 17th TransAtlantic slave trade. The purpose These are countries where the Black centuries— Mexico played a prominent of this article, however, is to present presence has been large, if not the role. This was a time when the Spanish some ethnographic data on the majority, and they are places from Empire controlled nearly the entire contemporary populations of Afro- which immigrants have increasingly newly "discovered" hemisphere. Later, the Portuguese would begin to exploit . The vast majority of Afro- arrived to the and have played an increasing role in our popular Brazil unencumbered by the Spanish Mexicans reside on opposite coasts of culture, music, and sports. Crown, and the English would enter the Mexico—the Pacific Costa Chica , traffic in human bodies at full strength, and the Gulf Coast state of Veracruz. The vast majority of these Black peoples making the 18th century the peak of This article will treat both populations —a total of some 8.5 million!—arrived the Trans-Atlantic slave trade. But before in comparative perspective, and, instead to the hemisphere at some point the large-scale traffic in sugar, tobacco, of pretending to present a definitive between 1519-1867. As is well known, cotton, and human beings that would piece of ethnographic truth, I hope to these slaves were brought to augment, completely change the face of the raise questions, and pose issues for or replace an indigenous work force there lived a man named Juan— a slave who landed in Mexico in 1519. further research. that for various reasons (some cultural), was determined to be less cost-effective, The first African brought to New Spain entirely coastal one. However, the there is a less-developed idea as to how is said to be one Juan Cortés, a slave historical record evidences a large they (Blacks) came to live where they who accompanied the conquistador concentration of Blacks in urban are. Because of Veracruz's proximity to Hernán Cortés in 1519. The indígenas, centers. In fact, the majority of the the Caribbean, and the relatively apparently captivated by his dark skin, slaves in New Spain worked in the constant contact between Cuba and never having seen an African before, central mining centers of Guanajuato Veracruz since the colonial period, and took him for a god. Another of the and , as well as in the more importantly, in the last half early conquistadores, Pánfilo Narváez, metropolis of (see Ngou- century, Veracruz has always touted a brought a slave who is said to have Mve [1994] for Blacks in mines, and certain kinship with Cuba. Rather than carried with him the devastating Bowser [1975] and Seed [1982] for more offer a detailed narrative as to the smallpox epidemic of 1520. Juan Garret on urban Blacks in New Spain). circumstances under which they arrived was yet another of these early Black from Cuba, most Afro-Veracruzanos arrivals, and in addition to participating Africans were also deployed to the rural understand their origins as a matter of in defeat of the great Aztec City of coasts of Veracruz on the Gulf of common sense. One man, quite proud Tenochtitlán, is also thought to be the Mexico, and to the pacific coastal region of his Afro-Veracruzano heritage, over first man to sow wheat in Mexico. called the Costa Chica, comprising the the course of a long discussion with me Garret took part in various Spanish states of and . In remarked, "Pues, ya sabrás que los expeditions, including a trek to Veracruz, Black slaves were used negros vienen de Cuba. [Well, I'm sure Michoacán in 1523-1524, and Cortés' primarily in the labor-intensive sugar you know that the Blacks come from last great expedition to industry of in the late 16th, and Cuba]." I then suggested to him that in 1535-1536 (Gerhard 1978). early mid-17th century. In these sugar there is historical evidence of a slave processing mill and cane fields, African trade that brought Blacks directly from Perhaps the most illustrious of the early slaves were imported specifically to to Veracruz, and our discussion Black slaves in New Spain was replace Indian laborers. On the Pacific continued. Estebanico. Estebanico was part of an coastal plains, Blacks worked mainly as ill-fated expedition from Mexico City to ranchers and cowboys, for livestock was Why is it assumed that Black Veracruzanos Florida in 1528. Estebanico and 3 the primary economic activity of this come from Cuba? Why is Cuba generally Spanish soldiers survived shipwreck and region in the colonial period, and associated in Mexico, as a Black country? wandered lost for eight years. During continues to be important to the local Further ethno-historic research into those eight years, they wandered what economies today. 20th century Veracruz would likely is now the , and show that the immigration of a large northern Mexico, from the mouth of number of Cuban big band musicians the Mississippi River to the Pacific THE COSTA CHICA AND might lead us to some answers. In the , by way of , New Mexico, 1940s and 1950s a mambo craze swept , , and . He and VERACRUZ: ORIGIN his party survived and eventually returned to Mexico City, where a last expedition was organized. Estebanico NARRATIVES never returned from this one, and his The Costa Chica and Veracruz are where fate remains a mystery (Cue Cánovas the vast majority of Afro-Mexicans live 1963:48-49; Orozco Linares 1992:100- today, and here I will offer some 101; Simpson 1976:65-66). ethnographic notes that might serve as a point of departure for further analysis These early slaves were essentially and comparison. When I refer to Afro- personal servants of their Spanish Mexican communities or towns, I am masters. They were most likely taken referring to any number of towns in from , then transported to both the state of Veracruz, and the Seville, where they were Christianized, coastal plains of the states of Guerrero and learned Spanish. These slaves were and Oaxaca. These communities are not part of a mass slave trade. The slave home to significant concentrations of trade that changed the demographic people who self-identify as negro or face of Mexico began when the Spanish moreno. In Veracruz, these towns monarch, Carlos V, began issuing more would include (but are not limited to): and more asientos, or contracts , Mata Clara, El Coyolillo, between the Crown and private slavers, Jamapa, and Tierra Blanca. In the Costa in order to expedite the importation of Chica, the list is much larger, and a slaves in the 1590s. The Spanish Crown partial list would include: (Oaxaca state) would issue these contracts to foreign El Ciruelo, Collantes, Cerro de la slavers, who would then make deals Esperanza, Corralero, Santo Domingo, with the Portuguese, for they Tapextla, and Chacahua; (Guerrero controlled the slaving operations on the state) Cuajinicuilapa, Barajillas, West African coast. Maldonado, San Nicolás, Montesillos, Mexico, and the ambassadors of this and Tierra Colorada. new popular music genre were largely When one examines the geographic Black Cubans. I believe that further distribution of Afro-Mexicans today, it is In Veracruz, most Afro-Mexican people research into this phenomenon might tempting to assume that the Black that I have spoken with trace their suggest an emergent presence of Black experience in Mexico has been an origins to Cuba, while in the Costa Chica, musicians both in the urban ballroom Danza de los Diablos "El terrón and La minga." dancing scenes of Veracruz and Mexico narratives notwithstanding, they raise City, as well as in the Mexican media in provocative questions with which ETHNOGRAPHIC NOTES: general. It is my tentative view that the ethnographers need to struggle. There image of Blackness in Veracruz has seems to be next to no consciousness of W HAT TRADITIONAL much more to do with the 20th Century slavery among people in the Costa Cuban immigration than it does with Chica, nor any understanding of a link MUSIC CAN TEACH US the Afro-Veracruzano slave trade. The to Africa. Why, then is the ship narrative fact that a key element of Veracruzano so salient? Is this narrative part of a ABOUT CULTURE AND popular culture is the quintessentially larger oral history that has yet to be Cuban danzón suggests this Cuban gathered? In addition, there is ample influence.1 historical evidence to suggest the HISTORY importance of cimarrones, or runaway While they derive from the same legacy In the Costa Chica, no notion of Cuba is slave communities, in the Costa Chica. of slavery, the Blacks in the Costa Chica evoked to explain the origins of the However, Black people I have interviewed and those in Veracruz should probably Black presence. The Black Mexicans will do not mention such a past. How might be seen as two distinct communities invariably talk about any number of these Black communities differ from living in two different regions of shipwrecks from which their ancestors other African Diaspora communities Mexico. The cultural influences, ethnic escaped. Depending on what town they that clearly assert their cimarron milieu, geography, and economies are are from, the ship could have wrecked heritage? A larger question that might substantially different from one coast at El Faro, Puerto Miniso, or Playa serve as an important line of inquiry to the other. Rather than look solely for Blanca. Some older people have told me might ask the extent to which oral continuities that suggest a shared that a particular not-too-distant relative histories in slave societies allow a people African origin, I prefer to look at the of theirs came from that ship, and they to remember, as well as to forget. myriad differences that tease out the say the remains of the ship can still be fluidity and creativity of culture. Very seen. The historical inaccuracy of these little ethno-historical work has been undertaken that would explore possible zapateado sin moverse de un lugar/all are raked with a stick to keep rhythm, cultural or historical linkages between of them darkskinned Blacks and each of and a peculiar instrument called an the two populations. Most of the them dancing a tap-dance without arcusa. The arcusa is a large hollow scholarship on Afro-Mexicans has moving from their spot.) (Poblett gourd with a thin waxed stick fastened tended, rather, to focus on one coast or Miranda and Delgado 1992:v.2, 209)." to the mouth. As the musician strokes the other, and an analysis that would the stick, a low grunting sound is treat both regions would make an The son jarocho is not simply a relic produced. The dance's origins appear to important contribution. Here, I will give from the past, preserved by the older be in part of African origin, and it is a brief survey of some of the cultural generations, however. There are speculated that in the colonial era it elements which first strike one that visits countless performers throughout the was overtly part of an African cult to the two landscapes, paying attention central and southern parts of the state. the god Ruja. While no mention of Ruja primarily to musical traditions. In addition to Afro-Mexican towns, like or religious cults exists in the way the Unfortunately, since my own research El Coyolillo, and towns, like dance is performed today, it certainly focus is the Costa Chica, I can not present , the son jarocho is also dramatizes the more recent historical a systematic comparison with Veracruz, performed in indigenous communities conflicts between Black workers and having done less work there. in indigenous languages. Thus, the son cruel overseers. While the son jarocho is jarocho is an example of the confluence danced by Veracruzanos irrespective of Veracruz and the Son Jarocho of cultures in Veracruz, where the son, ethnic heritage, the danza de los diablos Perhaps the music that best personifies in spite of being a product of different is not performed, neither in indigenous, the culture of Veracruz is the son heritages or perhaps precisely because nor in mestizo communities, but is jarocho. Jarocho is the moniker by of this is embraced by nearly all essentially an Afro-Mexican tradition. which most Veracruzanos identify their Veracruzanos as an important part of regional identity, regardless of their their jarocho identity. A Costa Chica dance that is performed race. But the word's origins have by Afro-Mexicans and alike is the chilena.4 The chilena, as its name everything to do with Blackness. In the Diablos in the C osta Chica colonial era, the word was used to refer In the Costa Chica, one of the regional suggests, was introduced to the coast by to Blacks of mixed race (Aguirre Beltran dances that is most associated with the Chilean sailors in the mid 19th century. 1989 [1946]):169), and or to Blacks in negros is the danza de los diablos These sailors were most likely on their general. The son jarocho is a musical [dance of the devils]. While the dance is way to the California coast during the genera that has strong African performed in any number of Afro- gold rush, and stopped for a time in elements, as well as a lyrical structure Mexican towns in the region, the town . There, they taught their that suggests its European heritage. It is of Collantes is most renown for its music and dance, the cueca, to the a festive genre in which the center of performance of it. In Collantes, the Black dockhands, who spread their attention is the pairs of male and energetic dance is performed during interpretation of it throughout the female dancers who dance atop a wood Todos Santos [All Saints' Day] Costa Chica. The chilena is now considered platform. Their rhythmic stamping celebrations in November, and the the singlemost characteristic artform of provides the percussion to accompany the group of about 20 male dancers and 3 the Costa Chica. strumming of the all-important jarana, musicians wander through the streets, which is a smaller cousin of the guitar. stopping to dance in front of homes that wish to give them a small ofrenda CONCLUSIONS The most curious of the instruments is of money, or food. In contrast to What is missing in the literature, to my one that is almost certainly of African Veracruz's son jarocho, the danza de los knowlege, is a systematic comparison of origin: the marimbol3. The marimbol is diablos is not a couple's dance, but is a these musical forms to arrive at their a wood box with a round sound hole performance in which all participants origins. Clearly, their origins are cut in the center of it. Across this hole, a wear elaborate masks. The basic complex, and involve the meshing of at number of metal strips are attached. elements of the dance have 3 rows of least African, indigenous, and Spanish These metal strips are tuned to dancers, all dressed alike, executing a elements. While the goal of studying different pitches, and are plucked to syncopated stomping, all in unison, Afro-American communities is not produce a deep basslike sound. The while the terrón, also called the diablo simply to isolate out certain elements as marimbol provides a driving bassline for mayor, whips the dancers and otherwise "African" and others as indigenous, the music. The vocals are often a series intimidates them. In addition to the etc., the mysteries of these origins can of repeating verses sung by two male or terrón, there is the dancer called la supply a piece to the puzzle of female soloists, one responding to the minga, who is always a male dancer understudying these communities in other. A kind of melodic shouting in dressed as a woman in a long dress. La their totality. Another line of inquiry falsetto creates a curious vocal timbre. Minga is the terrón's wife, and flirts with respect to these cultural elements The themes are generally lighthearted with the dancers in order to get them is precisely the question of whether and love longs, and are often quite comical. into more trouble with her husband. how certain traditions come to be seen The popular song "La Bamba" is a There is a slapstick quality to the dance, as "black," and others as regional, or traditional son jarocho. I have found and the terrón will often go after national. How is it that certain traditions historical evidence of the son jarocho children in the audience to further garner a cultural capital at certain being danced as early as 1816 by blacks excite the laughing crowd. historical moments? For example, why in Veracruz, where the observer has there been a growing interest describes a large dance contest of men The instruments used in the danza de among people in Veracruz in learning and women. ("Todos negros atezados y los diablos are typically a harmonica, a the son jarochol Why is it that in the una y uno de ellos bailando un jicada, or a cow's jawbone, whose teeth last 5 years, dancers who dance the A A family in Veracruz h cuty o efr a festivals? at perform to country the The Afro-Mexican experience is varied varied is experience Afro-Mexican The Afro-Mexicans with Mexico's indigenous Mexico'sindigenous Afro-Mexicans with and Mexican-ness race and nationality. nationality. and race Blackness Mexican-ness and about thinking subverts conventional it ways some In complex. and communities is an important part of the the of part important is an communities research. of area fruitful a reclaiming this behind politics the of az d ls ibo ae increasingly are diablos los de danza h dmnn msio aoiy And majority? mestizo dominant the indigenous and , experience. this understand to effort be forms cultural would (rescate) of these rnfre b Ar-eias These Afro-Mexicans? by transformed of encounter the into research Further Mexico.inpluralism examination Further receiving invitations from throughout throughout from invitations receiving groups. What is the character of the the of character the is What groups. culturalnew of ait is Perhaps product the Afro-Mexican history, contemporary contemporary history, Afro-Mexican thought nationalist Mexican to central , to proximity varying in live Veracruz and Chica Costa the Blacks in while presenting yet another facet of of facet Diaspora. African another the yet presenting while with and groups, these among relations culture, and these new processes of of processes new these and culture, and understood politics)—be (and are race that of mestizaje—ideas ideas and prevailing mixing might how nationalism in the Mexican context, context, greater Mexican a the and in ethnicity, to race, nationalism of lead understanding will migration of examination An discourses. racial different encountering and States United the to migrating increasingly Blacks are Aguirre Beltrán, Gonzalo estudioetnohistorico. México City: Fondo de etr Hemisphere:Western Quantitative Studies. Cultura Económica. n Lima: Opportunity, Manumissionand and CITED S K R O W Bowser, Frederick P. CueCánovas, Agustín 1989 [1946] La población Mexico: de negra Princeton University Princeton: Genovese, eds. Press. andEngerman 1975The Free Person ofColor in Mexico City 1580-1650. In Race and Slavery in the the in Slavery and Race1580-1650. In Gerhard, Peter Figueroa Hernández, Rafael identidad.Xalapa, Veracruz: ConClave. 1963 Historia social y económica México, de Garrido. Hispanic American Historical Review 96 as mxcn: rncluain e transculturación mexicana: Salsa1996 1521-1854. Mexico: Trillas. deCultura. 58(3):451-459. e netgcoe Cetfca: Agencia Científicias: Investigaciones de México (1930-1950): Veracruzano Instituto Martre,Gonzalo 1978 A Black Conquistador Mexico: in Juan Ochoa Campos, Moisés Ngou-Mve, Nicolás Veracruz. Gro.: Gobierno del Estado Guerrero.de México: 1595-1640, Madrid: Consejo Superior 1997 Rumberos de Ayer: Músicos Cubanos en EspañoladeCooperación Internacional. Seed, Patricia Orozco Linares, Fernando 62(4):569-606. 1994 El Africa colonización la Bantu en de Simpson, Lesley Byrd Delgado Cultura Económica. de Estado del Gobierno Xalapa: relatos. olt Mrna Mrh, n Aa Laura Ana and Martha, Miranda,Poblett 97 a hln gerne , guerrense. chilena La1987 .Ayn itrse i mr information more in2. interestedAnyone 1992 Historia México. de Mexico: Panorama. 1992 Veracruz: Cien viajeros en crónicas y 1753. Hispanic American Historical Review 1982 Social Dimensions Race, of Mexico City 96 Muchos Mexicos.1976 Mexico: de Fondo . Fr oe n h Cbn nlec on influence Cuban the on more1. For h floig rus Sn e Madera, de Son groups: following the faithful sonthe to tradition would include be Suggestedto recordings attempt that Ricardo contact can jarocho son about Hernández 1996 Martreand Figueroa 1997. see culture,Mexico's popular er a: eto e ouetcó y Documentación de Centro at: Perry Enseñanza Son Jarocho A.C., del Galena Mono Blanco, and Chuchumbé. Veracruz1201, 96200, México. Jáltipan, 4.The best historywork on the chilenaof is Rebolledo, Octavio3. ofMarimbol player h l te ok ctd n h aoe article above the in works citedWhile the olwn bif uln suggests additional outlinefollowing brief td o te Afro-Mexican the ofstudy experience, the can serveas pointsfurtherfor departureof The majority academicof the haswork that tourdeforcein Afro-Mexican studies continues o e Gonzalo be Aguirre Beltrán'sto pioneering ok L Pbain er d México de Negra Población La work, The society. slave and history colonial trade andtrade addresses Africanthe tribal origins IC H P A R G IO L IB B intosubject. the inquiry may assistmaterials further in that ofeh u kindracialflesha of out to demography of Afro-Mexico on done been focused has on Aguirre Beltrán's study also uses census data (AguirreBeltrán 1989 [1946]), which presents f lcs ae t Mxc. n addition, Mexico.In to Blacks taken of WhiteGod (Palmer 1976), anotherimportant ih ouetto o te Mexican slave the of documentationrich S T N E M M O C colonial Mexico. Colin Palmer's Slaves ofthe otis priual rc tetet of treatment rich particularly a contains f h idgnu pol i Mexico. in This people indigenous the of monographon Afro-Mexican colonial history, faceof arise in slave insurrections. The other ofrestrictive the coloniallegislation aimed at containing studies that document the the document that studies containing discussion important also containsbook an Blackslave labor as compared withlabor the colonialera. motn historicalimportant is I will mention work Blacks result asaSpanishof wariness inthe presenceofBlacks Mexico throughout in the volume (1994) edited Montiel's Martinez travelledHaitito inhis ongoing search originsthe for ofthis instrument, has he and o d Mdr, s currently is researching Madera, de Son clues. utr o catl aaa ( Oaxaca coastal of culture vivid dancesdescription more can other this, and of and 1987, Campos Ochoa e on a a est ddctd o the dedicated to website a at foundbe tomzap.com/dance.html). http://www . Danza de los Diablos

With respect to the ethnographic treatments Gutiérrez Avila, Miguel Angel of contemporary Afro-Mexicans, the only 1988 Corrido y violencia: entre los published monograph specifically on the RESOURCES afromestizos de la Costa Chica de Guerrero y subject is Aguirre Beltrán's Cuijla: Esbozo Historical Works Oaxaca. México: Universidad Autónoma de Aguirre Beltrán, Gonzalo etnográfico de un pueblo negro (Aguirre Guerrero. Beltrán 1989 [1958]). This book treats the 1989 [1946] La población negra de México: estudio etnohistórico. Mexico City: Fondo de Costa Chica town of Cuajinicuilapa as it Moedano Navarro, Gabriel existed in the 1950s, and treats customs, Cultura Económica. 1988 El arte verbal afromestizo de la Costa traditions, language, and violence in the Chica de Guerrero: situación actual y region in some detail. A book by Veronique Carroll, Patrick J. necesidades de su investigación. Anales de Fla net, Viviré, Si Dios Quiere (Flanet 1977) 1991 Blacks in Colonial Veracruz: Race, Antropología 25:283-296. focuses primarily on indigenous communities Ethnicity, and Regional Development. in the Costa Chica, but offers rich Austin: University of Texas Press. Ethnography of Veracruz information about the sometimes Cruz Carretero, Sagrario antagonistic relations between indígenas Martínez Montiel, Luz María 1989 Identidad en una comunidad and Blacks. Other published ethnographic 1994 Presencia Africana en México. Mexico afromestiza del centro de Veracruz: La articles on the Costa Chica would include City: Dirección General de Culturas Populares población de Mata Clara. Tésis de Moedano Navarro's treatment of Afro- Licenciatura. Fundación Universidad de las Mexicans verse and music (1988), Althoffs Palmer, Colín A. Américas. study of language patterns among Blacks 1976 Slaves of the White God: Blacks in (1994), and Gutiérrez Avila's study of Afro- Mexico, 1570-1650. Cambridge: Harvard Cruz Carretero, Sagrario, et. al., Mexicans corridos and their violent content University Press. (Gutiérrez Avila 1988). 1990 El Carnaval en Yanga: notas y Ethnography of the Costa Chica comentarios sobre una fiesta de la negritud. México: Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y Ethnographic work on the Veracruz region is Aguirre Beltrán, Gonzalo las Artes. limited, but includes several published 1989 [1958] Cuijla: esbozo etnográfico de un articles, and some hard to find Mexican pueblo negro. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Martínez Maranto, Alfredo theses and reports. Among the published Económica. 1994 Dios pinta como quiere: Identidad y articles is Cruz Carretero's treatment of cultura en un pueblo afromestizo de carnaval in the town of Yanga (Cruz Althoff, Daniel Veracruz. In Presencia africana en México. L. Carretero 1990), and Winifield Capitaine's 1994 AfroMestizo Speech from Costa Chica, M. Martínez Montiel, ed. pp. 525-573. (Winfield Capitaine 1975) study of carnaval Guerrero: From Cuaji to Cuijla. Language México City: Dirección General de Culturas in the community of El Coyolillo. El Coyolillo Problems and Language Planning 18(3): 242- Populares. and questions of racial identity is the subject 256. of another ethnographic article by Martinez Winfield Capitaine, Fernando Maranto (Martinez Maranto 1994). The most Flanet, Veronique 1975 Notas sobre el carnaval en una interesting ethnographic work on Afro- 1977 Viviré, si dios quiere: un estudio de la comunidad negra de Veracruz. Cuadernos Veracruzanos is Cruz Carretero's as yet violencia de de la costa. Mercado, Afroamericanos, Universidad Central de unpublished thesis (Cruz Carretero 1989) Tununa, transí. Mexico: Instituto Nacional Venezuela, Caracas 1 (1):135-142. dealing with race in the Afro-Mexican town Indigenista. of Mata Clara.