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Article Title: Czech-American Protestants: A Minority within a Minority

Full Citation: Bruce M Garver, “Czech-American Protestants: A Minority within a Minority,” Nebraska History 74 (1993): 150-167

URL of article: http://www.nebraskahistory.org/publish/publicat/history/full-text/NH1993CAProtestants.pdf Date: 3/23/2015

Article Summary: There were few Czech-American Protestants, but they received the assistance of mainline American Protestant denominations in establishing congregations and building meeting houses. They perpetuated the use of the Czech language and did important charitable work.

Cataloging Information:

Names: František Kún, Jan Pípal, E A Adams, David S Schaff, Will Monroe, Gustav Alexy, Albert Schauffler, Vincenc Písek, A W Clark, Jaroslav Dobiáš, František B Zdrůbek, Bohdan A Filipi, Tomáš G Masaryk, J L Hromádka

Place Names: Bohemia; Moravia; Saunders and Colfax Counties, Nebraska; Ely, Iowa

Nebraska Czech Churches: Bohemian Brethren Presbyterian Church, Omaha; Czech Presbyterian Church, Prague; Czech Presbyterian Church, Wahoo; Zion Czech Presbyterian Church, Colfax County (later New Zion Church); Bethlehem Presbyterian Church, South Omaha; John Hus Church, Thurston; Weston Church, Saunders County

Czech-American Protestant Publications: Jednota, Besídka, Křesťanské listy, Český svĕt, Svornost, Husův lid

Keywords: Moravian Church, Evangelical Unity of the Czech Moravian Brethren, freethinkers, Union Theological Seminary, Oberlin Theological Seminary, Jan Pípal; Evangelical Union of Czech Presbyterian and Reformed Ministers, Jaroslav Dobiáš, František B Zdrůbek, Bohdan A Filipi, Unitarianism, Siman Act (1918), J L Hromádka

Photographs / Images: fig 32: communion table from the Bethlehem Presbyterian Church, South Omaha; fig 33: František Totušek marker in the Zion Czech Presbyterian Cemetery, Clarkson; fig 34: Protestant Postilla, a book of scripture and theological discourse, published in Czech in 1542 and brought to Pawnee County in 1893 by Josef Štĕpán; fig 35: family burial plot in the Czech Presbyterian Cemetery, Wahoo; fig 36: the Rev. Jan Pípal; fig 37: Bohemian crystal communion service and embroidered altar cloth brought to Colfax County for the Zion congregation by the Rev. František Kún; fig 38: Evangelical Bohemian-Moravian Brethren Congregation’s church (later the Zion Presbyterian Church) and cemetery, Clarkson; fig 39: Czech Presbyterian Church, Prague, built in 1898; fig 40: second New Zion Czech Presbyterian Church building, Clarkson, dedicated in 1923; fig 41: the Rev. Bohdan A Filipi

Czech-American Protestants:

During the years 1870 to 1920, into four parts. The first briefly de­ Czech-American Protestants differenti­ AMINOKlrlY scribes five distinct types of Czech ated themselves from Czech-American Protestantism in the United States. The freethinkers and Catholics and thought second discusses characteristics com­ of themselves as a minority not only WITHIN mon to Czech-American Protestants within the Czech ethnic minority but during the era of mass immigration within the American Protestant major­ from 1865 to 1914. The third examines ity.2 In 1910 freethinkers, including AMINORITY the organization, programs, and de­ socialists, constituted slightly over half nominational affiliation of Czech­ of the Czech-speaking American popu­ l American Protestant churches during lation of 531,193, Catholics at least By Bruce M. Garver the same period, with some emphasis forty percent, and Protestants no more upon those in Nebraska. The fourth than five percent.3 The variety of cause their numbers were so small and part treats developments, including Czech-American opinions on religion because most archival and published rapid acculturation, from 1920 to the and politics continues to fascinate information about them is written in present. scholars, but complicates their efforts Czech.6 The best general histories of At least five distinct groups of Czech to make generalizations that apply to Czechs in the United States briefly Protestant churches have developed in all Czech-Americans.4 discuss some Czech Protestant institu­ the United States. First is the Moravian Given the few Czech-American tions and leaders.7 More explicit infor­ church, the direct institutional and Protestants in 1920 in proportion to all mation on the same subjects may be doctrinal successor to the Unity of Czech-Americans (at least 23,000 or found in memoirs by Czech-American Brethren (lednota bratrska) established 3.7 percent of 623,000) or to all Ameri­ Protestants and freethinkers.s Histories in the fifteenth century in the Czech can Protestants (no more than one in of Czech Catholic parishes or religious lands by Petr Chelcicky and his follow­ 2,000), their history has received little orders in the United States seldom ers. During and after the Thirty Years attention. That history is nonetheless discuss Czech-American Protestants, War, these Brethren were forced into interesting, in part because the study of probably because so little fraternization exile by the Counter-Reformation, and any "minority within a minority" will or conflict occurred between adherents most settled in Protestant German shed some light on the larger minority, of the two faiths (fig. 33).9 The few principalities. Therefore the Moravian as in the case of the Czech Hussite and histories of Czech-speaking Protestants Brethren·were fairly well Germanized Czech Protestant traditions ' having in the United States have emphasized by the eighteenth century when many conditioned the development of Czech the development of individual congre­ of them settled in Pennsylvania and freethought and Czech Catholicism gations, like the pamphlet on Czech North Carolina. By the time mass (fig. 1).5 Moreover, the experience of Protestant churches in Nebraska by Dr. Czech emigration began to the United Czech-American Protestants differs laroslav Mrazek, pastor of Omaha's States after the Civil War, the Mora­ enough from that of most Protestant Bohemian Brethren Presbyterian vian church was a well-established and immigrants that it is worth examining Church from 1965 to 1969.10 The same closely-knit American sect. Though for its exceptional features. Besides is true of published studies on Czech­ aware of its Czech heritage, it had long the Slovaks, the Czechs were the only Americans in particular cities or ceased to be Czech in language or Slavic immigrants among whom were states. II Most discussion of Czech­ culture, and given its sectarian outlook Protestants. And, Czechs were the only American Protestantism in the above and limited resources, had neither the European Protestant immigrants who publications is to some degree based desire nor the means to seek recruits organized a majority of their churches upon the pioneering tum of the century among Czech or German immigrants. 13 and obtained most of their ministers work, Pamatnik ceskjch evanjelickjch The second group comprised the with extensive help from mainline cirkvi ve Spojenych statech (A Memo­ twenty-four independent congregations American Protestant denominations. rial Account of Czech Protestant established between 1864 and 1916 by Few scholarly surveys of American Churches in the United States), by Protestant Czech immigrants in the religious or immigration history men­ Vilem Siller, Vaclav Prucha, and R. M. state of Texas. These congregations tion Czech Protestants, probably be- DeCastello. 12 formed an "Independence Unity" in This article will discuss the develop­ 1903 and sixteen years later organized Dr. Bruce M. Garver is professor of history ment of Czech-American Protestantism themselves in a congregational polity at the University ofNebraska at Omaha. from 1865 to the present and is divided as the wholly independent Evangelical

150 Garver - Czech-American Protestants

Unity of the Czech Moravian Brethren. Methodists, 325 Disciples of Christ, and Nebraska second in 1900 and again Why did the Unity's 1,523 adult 150 members of the Reformed church, in 1917. 18 In those states with more members choose to do this? First, only and 796 members of the four congrega­ than one hundred members of Czech­ in Texas were Czech-speaking Protes­ tions without denominational ties. IS speaking congregations in 1900, Texas tants numerous and concentrated These Czech Protestants often worked ranked first and was followed by Illi­ enough to consider going it alone: they together to produce Czech-language nois, Nebraska, Iowa, New York, numbered at least one-sixth of all publications and to promote mission Minnesota, Ohio, Wisconsin, Mary­ Czech-American Protestants and con­ work. They lived primarily on farms or land, South Dakota, and Kansas. 19 In stituted over seven percent of the in small towns in Nebraska, Iowa, the proportion of these church members Czech-speaking population of Texas, Minnesota, Wisconsin, South Dakota, to all Czech-speaking inhabitants from by far the highest proportion in any and Kansas, and in eight cities: Chi­ 1910 through 1916, Texas was ahead of state. Second, most had come from cago, New York, Cleveland, Omaha, Maryland, Iowa, Nebraska, Minnesota, Moravia with such a strong sense of Minneapolis-St. Paul, Cedar Rapids, South Dakota, and New York.2o regional identity that they continued to and Baltimore. 16 Within each state, Czech-speaking distinguish themselves from Bohemian A fourth-and today the largest­ Protestants tended to be concentrated in Czechs. Finally, and most important, group of American Protestants of particular areas, like southeast central the Brethren were more sectarian and Czech ancestry are those who belong to Texas, central eastern Iowa, southeast­ doctrinally conservative than most mainline or evangelical American ern Minnesota, and southern Wiscon­ Czech-American Protestants and were denominations whose congregations sin. By 1900 in Nebraska, roughly more inclined to employ lay leaders in have no association with any Czech two-thirds lived in Saunders County or lieu of college-educated clergymen. tradition. These Protestants are more northern Colfax County. About one­ Relations between the Unity and the likely to be descended from former sixth lived in Omaha and an equal few Texas Czech Presbyterians were freethinkers or Catholics than from the number elsewhere in the state, mostly characterized more often by coopera­ original members of Czech-speaking in Thurston, Fillmore, Richardson, and tion than by conflict. Not until 1945 Protestant churches. They are the most Pawnee counties.21 did the Unity join the Federal Council difficult Czech-Americar. Protestants to Czech Protestant immigrants from of Churches; and it chose to affiliate identify, past or present, because they 1865 to 1914 had much in common. with the National Council of Churches are well acculturated and have indi­ All had been conscious in Austria­ only from 1956 to 1964. In 1959 the vidually joined established denomina­ Hungary of having belonged to an Evangelical Unity changed its name to tions for many reasons. Very frequently, often despised minority within a minor­ "the Unity of the Brethren in Texas," marriage with Americans of other than ity. Few were converts from Roman thus reflecting a typical 1950s Ameri­ Czech background determined Czech­ Catholicism or freethought, most hav­ can desire to downplay ethnicity. As Americans' religious preference. ing come from underground congrega­ late as 1965 the Unity, despite its The fifth and smallest group of tions resurrected after Joseph II's Edict distant historical ties to the Moravian Czech-American Protestants are those of Toleration in 1781. All knew about church, emphatically rejected a pro­ members of the two American congre­ the proscription of Protestantism during posal for merger. 14 gations affiliated with the Czecho­ the "period of darkness" (Doha temna) The third group of Czech-speaking slovak church. This church is episcopal from 1621 to 1781 and about the civil Protestant congregations were those in organization, unitarian in theology, disabilities suffered by Protestants until established with denominational ties and similar to Serbian Orthodoxy in its 1860, when the Habsburgs extended during the later nineteenth century, liturgy. It was established in Czecho­ full equality before the law to Protes­ primarily outside of Texas. By 1916, slovakia in 1919-20 by patriotic and tants, Eastern Christians, and Jews they numbered 122 congregations, 118 liberal Czech Catholic priests and laity (figs. 32, 33, 34). Even after that date, of which were affiliated with mainline who led more than half a million some had experienced harassment by American Protestant denominations. Czechs out of the Roman Catholic Catholics or Habsburg officials.22 They still conducted religious services church during the early 1920s. Its Czech Protestant immigrants re­ in Czech and claimed 7,583 adult tradition emphasizes Saints Cyril and ceived virtually no assistance from members and more than that number of Methodius and the Hussites much more Czech Protestants in Bohemia and Sunday school pupils. Of these adults, than the Protestant Reformation. I? Moravia. The latter did not exceed 3,647 were Presbyterians, 1,799 Bap­ In numbers of Czech-speaking Prot­ 120,000 in number, had the mentality tists, 973 Congregationalists, 689 estant congregations, Texas ranked first of beleaguered survivors, possessed

151 Nebraska History - FalllWinter 1993

little capital, and were divided between Calvinist, Lutheran, and old Unity of Brethren congregations. Because no Protestant theological seminary existed in the Czech lands from 1621 to 1919, there were few Czech-speaking Protes­ tant ministers, and most of these had been divinity students at the universi­ ties of Vienna, Halle, or Edinburgh.23 These 120,000 Czech Protestants comprised slightly more than two percent of the Czech population in Bohemia and Moravia according to the censuses of 1900 and 1910. In the United States from 1900 through 1920, Protestants comprised almost four percent of the total Czech-speaking population. This difference in percent­ ages may be accounted for by a high rate of Protestant emigration and the conversion of a few freethinkers and Catholics to Protestantism. The high incidence of Czech Protes­ tant emigration from Bohemia and Moravia was probably due less to religious discrimination than to the fact that most Czech Protestants were peas­ Fig.32. Communion table from the Bethlehem Presbyterian Church in South Omaha, ants who lived in isolated regions of made by George Podek of Phyliips, Wisconsin, 1928. The verse is Luke 22 :19. (Cour­ tesy Wilber (Nebraska) Czech Museum , NSHS C998.1-616) agricultural overpopulation and little or no manufacturing. Czech Protestant Fig.33. Symbols of Old World conflicts survived the immigration. The chalice­ and-bible motif combines two powerful symbols of Czech religious reform. Jan Hus and the Hussites in the fifteenth century gave communion in both kinds to the laity, symbolized by the Hussite chalice, as did the Protestants through­ out Europe a century later. Czech Prot­ estants also presented the Bible to lay worshipers in their own language. The engraved monument is in the Zion Czech Presbyterian Cemetery near Clarkson, . Nebraska . (D. Murphy)

152 Garver - Czech-American Protestants immigrants typically came to the contrasted markedly to the roughly one unprecedented and unwanted burden. United States in clusters of families in every two nominally Czech Catholic Most Czech Protestant immigrants from the same or nearby congregations immigrants who did so. This relatively banded together upon arrival to conduct in the only three areas of Bohemia and stronger commitment by Protestant Bible study or prayer meetings in the Moravia well populated by Protestants: Czech immigrants to their faith may be absence of any ordained Czech-speaking the Bohemian Moravian Highlands, the explained in part by their having long ministers. Sometimes, as in Silver adjacent Ciislav region of Bohemia, suffered persecution on account of it. Lake, Minnesota, and Tyndall, South and the Valassko region of east central Moreover, in Bohemia and Moravia Dakota, they established congregations Moravia.24 Emigrants from the latter they had been accustomed to raising all and cemeteries while seeking to obtain area predominated among Czech Prot­ of the funds needed to maintain their part-time or full-time clergymen (fig. estants in Texas; those from the first congregations, whereas Czech Catho­ 35). Because they wished to worship two regions predominated in Nebraska lics had become accustomed to a state­ in Czech, they usually did not join and other northern prairie states.25 subsidized church. Thus, Czech nearby Protestant churches, though Roughly four out of five Czech Protestant immigrants-like Irish some supplemented CZech-language Protestant immigrants attended Protes­ Catholic immigrants--expected to have prayer meetings by occasionally attending tant services or prayer meetings in their to build and support churches in the Protestant services in German or English. mother tongue. The approximately one United States, whereas some Czech Going to mass at a Czech-speaking in five who embraced freethought Catholic immigrants found this to be an Catholic parish was out of the question.

Fig.34. Rare Protestant Postilla. a book of scripture and theological discourse. published in the Czech language in 1542 and brought to Pawnee County. Nebraska. in 1893 by Josef Stepan. According to family tradition. the book was once baked inside a loaf of bread to save itfrom confiscation by Catholic Habsburg authorities. who sought to suppress Hussite and Protestant writings in the Czech language. (Courtesy descendants of the Stepan family. NSHS C998.1-601)

153 Nebraska History - FaIIlWinter 1993

Czech Protestant immigrants seldom Furthermore, they were grateful that nent Czech-speaking Protestant church associated with the only other Slavic­ the American Protestant establishment in the United States and the first out­ speaking immigrant Protestants, the was eager to help them develop Czech­ side of Texas.28 His knowledge of Slovak Lutherans, despite their mutu­ language publications and a learned Latin, Greek, and Hebrew enabled him ally intelligible languages. This oc­ Czech-speaking clergy. to teach part-time as professor of clas­ curred primarily because Czechs The only Czech-speaking clergyman sicalliterature at Western College in wished to have Czech-language ser­ before 1887 to visit the scattered rural nearby Western, Iowa. He continued to vices and a congregational or Czech Protestant communities in Iowa, serve the Ely parish until his death on presbyterian polity and because outside Wisconsin, Minnesota, Nebraska, and January 6, 1894.29 of Chicago and Cleveland, Czechs and the Dakotas was Frantisek Kun from With the exception of the Unity of Slovaks seldom settled in the same the Ely, Iowa, congregation near Cedar Czech Brethren in Texas, almost all areas. With the exception of their Rapids (fig. 37). He received most of Czech-American Protestants received cooperation during the two world wars his circuit-riding expenses from the the assistance of mainline American and the cold war in working for Czech religious associations for whom Protestant denominations in establish­ Czechoslovak independence, Czech­ he conducted worship services. His ing congregations, building meeting American and Slovak-American Prot­ periodic presence encouraged these houses, and obtaining ordained Czech­ estants usually preferred to go their associations to persevere in acquiring speaking ministers. They welcomed separate ways.26 members and in raising funds to estab­ this aid because they were too poor, too few in number, and, outside of Texas, too scattered geographically to accom­ plish these tasks on their own. More­ over, virtually all Czech Protestants except those in Texas were ecumenical in outlook. So long as they could conduct religious services in Czech and manage their own community churches, they affiliated with mainline denominations. The leaders of mainline American Protestant denominations recognized by the 1880s that Czech immigrants constituted a particularly fertile ground for missionary endeavor, given the presence of a small but devout Protes­ tant minority, the strength of Hussite and Protestant traditions in the Czech past, and because so many ostensibly Catholic Czechs were embracing free­ thought. Furthermore, as the number of all immigrants swelled from Fig.35. A/amily burial plot in the Czech Presbyterian Cemetery near Wahoo, Nebraska. (D. Murphy, NSHS H673.2-9007148:5) 2,812,191 in the 1870s to 5,246,613 during the 1880s and as more and more Czech Protestant immigrants experi­ lish churches. Born in Moravia in of them came from eastern and south­ enced an immediate improvement in 1825, Kun came to Iowa in 1856 deter­ ern Europe, many American Protestants their outlook and expectations upon mined to spread the gospel among his expressed concern lest their faith lose arriving in the United States. Though fellow countrymen on the western its ascendancy.3o One response was a they still constituted a tiny minority frontier, despite his having been growing demand, ultimately legislated within the Czech-American ethnic warned that America offered "no prom­ by Congress in the 1920s, to restrict minority, they were pleased to discover ising opportunities whatsoever for a immigration in favor of northern and that they now also belonged to the very Czech preacher."27 In 1867 he helped western Europeans. A second response large American Protestant majority. found at Ely, Iowa, the second perm a­ was positive and aimed to win converts

154 Garver - Czech-American Protestants to Protestant denominations among congregation's growth, charitable in mainline Protestant denominations. those "new immigrants" most suscep­ work, and public service. Prominent among Czechophile tible to proselytization by educated By 1901 sixty percent of all Czech­ missionaries and scholars in the Pres­ clergymen who could speak their lan­ speaking Protestant pastors in the byterian and Congregational churches guages. Earlier, German Methodism United States had graduated either from were E. A. Adams, Henry Albert and, to a lesser extent, German Congre­ Union or Oberlin, with the rest having Schauffler, A. W. Clark, David S. gationalism had been among the most come primarily from the universities of Schaff, Will Monroe, and Gustav successful ventures of this sort, as the Alexy. Adams, born in Northboro, former attracted 63 ,439 members by Massachusetts, in 1837, was the only 1898 and the latter 6,069 by 1900.31 one to achieve fluency in Czech, some­ In mission work with Czech Protes­ thing he accomplished during his de­ tant immigrants, the Presbyterians took cade in Prague as a missionary and the lead, followed by Congregational­ social workerfrom 1872 to 1882. In ists , American Baptists, Methodists, 1884 he pioneered in mission work and Disciples of Christ. Presbyterian­ among the Czechs of Chicago.J4 ism became the denominational choice Schauffler was born in Istanbul in 1837 of at least one-third of all Czech Prot­ to American missionary parents. After estant immigrants and of ninety percent spending several years in Prague with of those in Nebraska. Methodists Adams, he returned to Cleveland to established large Czech-language undertake mission work in that second congregations in Chicago, Cleveland, largest of Czech-American communi­ and Baltimore, while the American ties. He proposed and helped establish Baptists' concentrated their efforts in the nearby Slavic Department of the Chicago, where they worked success­ Oberlin Theological Seminary.35 A. W. fully among Slovak and Polish as well Clark was his right hand man. David as Czech immigrants.32 S. Schaff of the Western Theological Why did Presbyterians, Congrega­ Seminary wrote the first American tionalists, and American Baptists take biography ?f John Hus and lent his the lead in organizing Czech-speaking Fig.36. Rev . Jan Pfpal. (NSHS C998­ support to efforts by Presbyterians and congregations as denominational affili­ 131) Congregationalists to train Czech­ ates when there had been so little Cal­ speaking clergymen at Union and vinist influence in Czech history since Vienna, Edinburgh, and Halle. As Oberlin.36 Will Monroe did likewise. 1621? This initiative may be partly students at Union and Oberlin, most This noted American Slavophile, who attributed to learned Czechophiles in had spent summer "vacations" in the wrote histories of the Bulgarians and high church offices and to each service of small Czech Protestant the Czechs, became a friend and corre­ denomination's recognition that if congregations in the upper Middle spondent of T. G. Masaryk and other Czech-speaking congregations were to West and, after graduation, had fre­ turn of the century Czech Protestant grow, it would have to provide Czech­ quently found employment with them. intellectualsY Gustav Alexy, born in speaking clergymen. Toward this end, For example, from 1892 to 1895 Jan Hungary in 1832 and a refugee from denominational officers underwrote the Pfpal served as pastor of the Bohemian the 1848-49 Revolution, began mission recruitment of divinity students from Brethren Presbyterian Church in work in New York as a Presbyterian the Czech lands to study either at Omaha and from 1896 to 1905 jointly minister among Hungarian immigrants. Union Theological Seminary in New ministered to two churches in Saunders After 1874 he served Czech immigrants York or at the Slavic Department estab­ County, Nebraska-the Czech Presby­ as well, and recruited to Presbyterian­ lished in 1885 at the Oberlin Theologi­ terian Church near Wahoo and the ism the most influential and learned of cal Seminary.33 They also insisted on Prague Presbyterian Church (fig. 36). late nineteenth-century Czech clergy­ sending talented students to these or The training of so many pioneering men, Rev. Vincenc Pfsek.38 other fine American Protestant semi­ Czech-American Protestant pastors at Pfsek was boni in Malesov, Bohe­ naries, clearly understanding the great Union and Oberlin helped account for mia, in 1859, and had come to the extent to which a minister's quality of the fairly liberal and ecumenical out­ United States with his parents and mind and personality contributed to a look of Czech-speaking congregations brothers and sisters in 1873. Ordained

155 Nebraska History . FalllWinter 1993

Fig.37. Rev. Frantisek Kun brought the Bohemian crystal communion service and the embroidered altar cloth/rom Ely. Iowa to Colfax County. Nebraska. where it was used by both the Zion and New Zion congregations. (Courtesy New Zion Presbyterian Church. Clarkson. Nebraska; R. Bruhn. NSHS C998.I-673) as a Presbyterian minister in 1883, the $20,000 from Mrs. F. Phelps Stokes, he congregations of the northern trans­ learned, eloquent, and handsome Pisek was able to payoff the mortgage on Mississippi West and encouraged them soon won the confidence of the Presby­ that imposing church building within to establish permanent churches. terian hierarchy, their homeland mis­ ten years of its dedication on May 6, In 1887 Pisek traveled to Bohemia, sion board, and wealthy American 1888.39 Like Adams and Schauffler, where he struck up a partnership with philanthropists. Within five years he Pisek regarded Czech immigrant com­ Rev. C. Dusek, a Protestant minister in helped organize and build a meeting munities as a fertile field for mission­ Kolfn, to recruit graduates of Czech house for the John Hus Presbyterian ary endeavor. With the support of the gymnasia or universities to go to the Church in New York. Thanks to dona­ Presbyterian Board of Homeland Mis­ United States to study for the ministry tions of $5,000 from William Vander­ sions, and in Kun's footsteps with at Union or Oberlin Theological Semi­ bilt, $1,000 from Cornelius Vanderbilt, Kun's blessing, in 1889 Pisek visited naries. The following year, three re­ $5,000 from Elliott Sheppard, and the recently organized Czech Protestant cent graduates of the Kolfn

156 Garver - Czech-American Protestants

Gymnasium-Josef Bren, Vaclav Losa, sota, later returned to Bohemia and 1893 and moved seven miles west to and Frantisek Pokorny-<:ame to the Moravia to serve fellow Protestants.43 Table Rock, Pawnee County, in 1900. United States to commence divinity The development of Czech Protes­ Vilem Siller reported "very few" mem­ studies and during summers to assist tant churches in the upper Middle West bers in that year; and by the late 1920s, Czech Protestant settlers on the western is typified by those in Nebraska. Of the mission ceased regularly to employ prairies in establishing permanent the fourteen Czech-speaking Protestant visiting ministers and did not survive churches. During the nineties, ten congregations or missions established World War 11.44 more graduates of Czech gymnasia or in that state by 1924, ten survived until The remaining five Czech Presbyte­ universities came to Union or Oberlin 1972, and five up to the present. Two rian churches survived into the decade to study: B. A. Barta, Jarsolav Dobias, of the latter are in Saunders County and 1973 to 1982. The Bethlehem Church, Bohdan A. Filipi, F. Klapus, O. E. have shared ministers since the arrival founded in South Omaha in 1893, Kocian, A. B. Koukol, J. Miksovsky, of Rev. Jan Pfpal in 1896: the Presby­ existed as an independent unit until its Jaroslav Smetanka, Vilem Siller, and terian Church in Prague dates from "yoke-field" linkage with Park Forest O. Utikal. The first three served 1879 and the Czech Presbyterian Presbyterian Church in 1958 and its churches in Nebraska but only the Church near Wahoo from 1887. The absorption by that church in 1973. The second worked there until retirement.40 remaining three are New Zion Church Bohemian Brethren Presbyterian Four graduates of European divinity at Clarkson in Colfax County, founded Church in Omaha was established in schools came during the same period in 1888; the John Hus Church at Thur­ 1889 and disbanded ninety-three years and went promptly to work as pastors ston, organized in 1909; and the Meth­ later.45 The Weston Church in Saun­ in the United States. V. Hlavaty, Jan odist Episcopal Church in Milligan. ders County was established in 1887 Linka, and Jan Siller came from Vienna Only the latter was from its founding in and endured until 1976. Two churches and Edinburgh. Jan Pipal came from 1924 a church with a mixed Czech and in Colfax County survived in partner­ Vienna and served from 1892 to 1905 Anglo-American membership. ship until their demise in 1973: Czech in Nebraska. Twelve young Czech­ Eleven of the original fourteen immigrants in the northern tier of speaking ladies also graduated from the churches had affiliated with the Presby­ townships founded the Zion Church in Slavic Department of the Oberlin terian Church, North, the exceptions 1875; its affiliate in the Maple Creek Theological Seminary before dedicat­ being the Methodist Church in Milligan District was organized from 1915 to ing themselves to doing missionary and and two jointly managed Congrega­ 1921 and named for the Bethlehem social work among the Czech immi­ tional missions in predominately free­ Chapel, where John Hus had preached grants in town or country.41 thinking Saline County. The combined in Prague.46 Vicenc Pisek continued to serve as a membership of these missions in Wil­ Both Zion and Weston churches and minister and national spokesman for ber and Crete stood at nine in 1900 and their respective rivals, New Zion in Czech-American Protestantism. Dur­ never exceeded eleven before their Clarkson and the Czech Presbyterian ing World War One he went to Siberia demise in the early 1920s. Church near Wahoo, originated in 1887 as the American emissary to the Two short-lived Presbyterian mis­ in disputes within parent congregations Czechoslovak legions. After the war sions were located several counties over the location of meeting houses. he performed pastoral duties at the distant from areas heavily inhabited by When Czech Protestants in central John Hus Presbyterian Church until his Czechs. The small mission south of Saunders County could not agree on death in 1930. He had remained a Burwell at Sedlov was organized by the where to build their first meeting bachelor, but was renowned as "the divinity student, Bohdan Filipi, during house, each of the two largest factions marrying pastor" for the 11,582 mar­ the summer of 1900 but never attracted set up its own. Members of the first riages he performed in his lifetime.42 enough members to build a church or did so in the small town of Weston, From their inception, Czech-speaking hire a permanent minister. Its rural where they bought an old school house Protestant congregations in the United isolation, 110 miles from the nearest and converted it into a church. Mem­ States aimed to advance fellowship and Czech-speaking congregation, pre­ bers of the other faction built their charity in'an ecumenical spirit, conduct vented it from regularly obtaining church on donated farmland four miles Czech-language services and religious visiting Czech-speaking ministers and east of Weston and four miles south­ education, and to make some efforts to undoubtedly hastened its demise by the west of Wahoo, the county seatY A convert Czech freethinkers. A few early 1920s. Similar was the fate of the similar dispute occurred in the same ministers, like Jan Pfpal of Omaha and tiny Presbyterian mission that opened year among Czech Protestant settlers in Josef Krenek of Silver Lake, Minne­ in Humboldt, Richardson County, in northern Colfax County. In 1887 two­

157 Nebraska History • FaIIlWinter 1993 thirds of the members of Zion Church proposed to erect the meeting house on farmland within easy commuting dis­ tance by horse and buggy for a majority of members, which they commenced that same year (fig. 38). The other third contended that future growth could be assured only if the meeting house were to be built six miles distant in the thriving community of Clarkson. They organized themselves as New Zion Church in 1888. Each church dedicated its own meeting house in 1889.48 Time proved the wisdom of the smaller group's decision. Since the 1920s New Zion Church (fig. 40) has been the largest Czech Protestant con­ gregation in Nebraska, whereas Zion Church, after registering impressive growth during its first decade, gradu­ ally withered in rural isolation. These disputes, like a similar one among Czech Protestants in Silver Lake, Min­ nesota, led to the division of slender resources by no more than one hundred members. But the issue involved was not frivolous; many Czech Protestant immigrants undoubtedly remembered how in Bohemia or Moravia they had to walk great distances to church be­ cause the building of Protestant meet­ ing houses had been circumscribed by law from 1781 to 1860.49 Fig.3 8. Organized as the Evangelical Bohemian-Moravian Brethren Congregation By the tum of the century, pastors of near Clarkson, Nebraska, Zion affiliated with the Presbyterian church in 1895. The Czech-speaking Protestant congrega­ cemetery was dedicated in 1875, and the church building was constructed in 1887. tions had organized and developed one (D. Murphy) national and two regional organiza­ tions. Nationally in the mid-1890s, discuss mutual goals and problems.50 The Second Congress of September these pastors established the interde­ The First Congress of Czech Presby­ 1896, in Cedar Rapids, constituted nominational Evangelical Union of terian and Reformed Ministers met in itself as the Evangelical Union (Evan­ Czech Presbyterian and Reformed September 1893 in Racine, Wisconsin. jelickti lednota) with three standing Ministers. One of the regional associa­ The seventeen pastors and divinity committees: an executive committee, a tions, the independent Unity of Breth­ students and other delegates in atten­ special committee to solicit funds and ren, has been discussed above. The dance elected Vincenc Pisek as chair­ recruit new members, and an ecumeni­ other regional association, the Central man. After hearing reports on the cal committee to work with Czech­ West Presbytery, was composed of all progress of Czech divinity students and speaking ministers of other denomina­ Czech Presbyterian churches in six on church and mission work, the del­ tions to try to organize a conference of states of the upper Middle West. Rep­ egates resolved to establish closer all Czech-speaking ministers in the resentatives to this Czech regional personal ties with a view to facilitating United States.52 presbytery convened annually from cooperation in carrying out tasks pecu­ Czech-American Protestants re­ 1910 until its dissolution in 1948 to liar to Czech-speaking congregations.51 vealed great industry and audacity in

158 Garver - Czech-American Protestants the number and variety of Czech­ editorship of Joseph Barton, it had a ing to the United States in 1905.58 language publications they created. circulation of 1,830.56 By that time, it Three other Czech-language Protestant Their periodicals reached a peak in was publishing more articles in English periodicals did not survive the first numbers in 1909 and in circulation in than in Czech, having introduced En­ decade of the twentieth century.59 1925.53 The new Evangelical Union glish as a second language as early as In Czech-American communities resolved to support the publication of 1913. from 1865 to 1914, conflict as well as two periodicals established during the Mainline Protestant denominations cordiality characterized the relationship preceding year. Jednota (Union), subsidized Czech-language devotional of Czech Protestants to the freethinking dating from January 1895, provided a and Sunday school literature in addition majority and to the large Catholic fortnightly forum for discussing serious to the above and other periodicals. A minority. For Czech Catholics, free­ theological, social, and policy ques­ leading author of such materials was thought remained the principal adver­ tions. Besidka (The Alcove), which Jaroslav Dobias, editor of Ceskj svet sary.60 Relations between Czech first appeared in October 1895 in Balti­ (The Czech World), founded in 1905 Protestant and Catholic immigrants more, was an illustrated weekly for the and succeeded after 1907 by Cesko­ were sometimes strained, given Protes­ religious instruction of Czech-speaking slovanskj svet (Czecho-Slavonic tant memories of persecution by Catho­ Protestant youth. The former survived World), a popular "Protestant illus­ lic Habsburgs and given continued only three years due to inadequate trated magazine" published by the doctrinal disagreement between Protes­ funding and few subscribers. Besidka American Tract Society. Dobias, who tants and Catholics. Czech freethinkers also folded in 1898 but was revived eventually made a full-time career in as well as Catholics were somewhat two years later in New York by Vin­ religious journalism, was born in 1874 concerned about growing cooperation cenc Pisek with subsidies from the at Bukovec near Pardubice, Bohemia, between the majority of Czech­ Presbyterian Publishing Company.54 and was, like Losa, a graduate of the American Protestants and the American To replace Jednota, Rev. Vaclav High Gymnasium in KoHn and of Protestant establishment and the extent Losa, in his fifth year of service to New Union Theological Seminary. After his to which this might facilitate their Zion Church in Clarkson, Nebraska, ordination in 1896 he served three being assimilated by Anglo-American founded there in 1899 the monthly years as pastor of the Czech Presbyte­ denominations. Most freethinkers Kres(anske listy (The Christian Jour­ rian congregation of eighty members in regarded Czech Protestants at worst as nal). As its editor and publisher, he Tabor, Minnesota, before becoming the credulous ~d at best as occasional moved to Pittsburgh in 1900, with minister of the Bohemian Brethren allies in support of public education, funds from Presbyterian home mis­ Presbyterian Church in Omaha. After separation of church and state, and a sions, to make this magazine for sixty­ serving the seventy to eighty members critical assessment of Catholicism, six years the leading Czech-language of that church for seven years, he re­ especially the policies of Pius IX and Protestant publication in North signed in 1906 to take over as editor of Pius X. Freethinkers, like Protestants, America. Losa, born in 1867 in the successful Ceskj svet in New honored Hus and Komensky, but to the Nosislav, Moravia, had attended gym­ YorkY annoyance of Protestants, celebrated nasia in Brno and KoHn and had been Dobias also helped edit three of the the two primarily as patriotic heroes ordained in June 1891 after graduating six short-lived Czech-Protestant jour­ rather than as religious reformers. from Union Theological Seminary.55 nals founded in the first decade of the Nonetheless, in interpreting the Czech The above three periodicals had been twentieth century, including after 1909 past (notably in linking the Catholic preceded by the Kres(anskj posel the long-lived Radost (Joy), "a maga­ church to Habsburg repression) and (Christian Messenger), a Methodist zine for children of the Protestant assessing contemporary political issues, weekly "dedicated to the interests of faith." Another of these, Buditel (The Czech freethinkers and Protestants spiritual and Czech national uplift" Awakener), he edited with V. Cejnar of came closer to agreement than either published in Cleveland from March Georgetown, Texas, who from 1913 to group did with Czech Catholics. 1891 through 1892 and then in Chicago 1926 became the successor once re­ Czech-American Protestants were by editor F. J. Hrejsa through 1913. In moved to Dobias as pastor of the Bohe­ more troubled by the freethinkers' Texas the Evangelical Unity, predeces­ mian Brethren Presbyterian Church in materialism, Sabbath breaking, and sor of the Unity of Czech Moravian Omaha. Born in 1862 at Svinary near high incidence of, suicide than by their Brethren, began to publish the Bratrske Hradec KraIove, Bohemia, Cejnar anti-trinitarian, agnostic, or atheistic listy (Fraternal Journal) in January completed divinity studies at views. For several decades a debate 1902. Sixty years later, under the Neukirchen and Glasgow before com­ over the existence of God raged be­

159 Nebraska History . FaUlWinter 1993 tween Czech Protestant pastors and the the fervor or intolerance with which it amples are Tomas Capek in New York militant atheist Frantisek B. Zdriibek, was preached.64 Setting a good ex­ and the Serpan, Ptak, and Hruska fami­ co-founder and editor of the freethink­ ample and taking more subtle and lies in Omaha. Of all Christian doc­ ing Chicago daily, Svornost (Concord). tactful approaches would also be re­ trines, Unitarianism was the most Before his "conversion" to freethought quired when dealing with freethinkers compatible with Czech freethought in in the early 1870s, Zdriibek was an or Catholics. Protestant pastors who its encouragement of individualism, ordained Protestant minister who had mastered this approach, as did Vincenc dislike of doctrinal uniformity , and studied theology at a Catholic seminary Pisek in New York and Bohdan A. tolerance of agnostic or atheistic views. (fig. 66).61 Better relations were evi­ Filipi in Clarkson, usually won respect As in mainline Protestant denomina­ dent in daily encounters between ordi­ for themselves and their faith even tions, membership also provided social nary Protestants and the tolerant when they did not win adherents.65 respectability and facilitated contacts majority of freethinkers. In several Nonetheless, exhortations like Siller's with the Anglo-American business and communities, like Milligan, Nebraska, effectively inspired ministers and intellectual communities. Where no Czech Protestants were allowed to use laypersons to persevere patiently in Unitarian Church was present, as in the local ZCBJ hall for worship until arduous assignments. This is well such freethinking strongholds as Wil­ they were able to construct a meeting illustrated by Jaroslav Dobias's evalua­ ber and Milligan, Nebraska, some house.62 And Czech Protestant minis­ tion of the Czech community !Jf Omaha offspring of freethinking immigrants, ters, unlike Czech Catholic priests in 1900 during his second year as like those of the Sadflek family , affili­ before the 1930s, seldom discouraged pastor of the Bohemian Brethren Pres­ ated with liberal Protestant denomina­ parishioners from joining the Sokol or byterian Church: tions. Next to Unitarianism, free­ other freethinking fraternal associa­ Here the majority of Czechs are indiffer­ thinkers found Methodism offered the tions. As a tiny minority, Czech Prot­ ent to religion or are nonbelievers. greatest latitude in matters of doctrine estants could not, as did Czech Above all , they believe in formal danc­ but not much flexibility in matters of Catholics, establish their own Sokols, ing, picnics, and inordinate drinking. deportment. Presbyterianism and Even the youngsters of such folk are musical and theatrical groups, and being introduced to a life whose only Congregationalism were appealing benevolent societies as an alternative to pleasures are dancing and alcoholic given their democratic polities and those dominated by Czech freethinkers. beverages. We shall have to bear record of supporting Czech-language In 1900 Rev. Vilt~ m Siller defined witness here a long time before our publications. fellow countrymen learn that it is better Czech-speaking American Protestants' to serve the Lord than indulge in Czech ~ American Protestantism main tasks to be worldly delights.66 reached its zenith during the years 1914 to preach the gospel to all who are to 1929. Most Czech Protestant con­ prepared to li sten, to uplift the Czech Czech-American freethinkers of the gregations promptly supported efforts people, the majority of whom are mired first and second generations who even­ by a majority of Czech-Americans to down in materialism, and to redirect tually joined churches seldom appear to support Tomas G. Masaryk and the their thoughts to things more important and sublime. The Lord does not let have chosen established Czech-speaking Czechoslovak National Council abroad those who do his work go unrewarded. Protestant congregations. Precisely in the wartime struggle for Czecho­ However small such work may be, He how many embraced Roman Catholi­ slovak independence. Czech-American still blesses it; even if one's progress be cism or joined Protestant denomina­ Protestants applauded the disintegration unimpeded, one still cannot di sclaim it. We Czechs have always had difficulties tions is not known, perhaps as many of the Habsburg Monarchy and the and obstacles in abundance from within as twenty percent of all freethinkers in founding of a democratic Czechoslovak and from without. We must overcome a each instance.67 In most towns and Republic, whose President-Liberator crude low-minded materialism, free­ cities, no Czech-speaking Protestant Masaryk was a Protestant. Protestant­ thinking mendacity, religious formalism and indifference, worldliness, supersti­ church was at hand. And even where ism thrived in the Czech lands and tion, and lack of religious faith .63 such churches did exist, as in Omaha Slovakia for the first time since 1620, and Chicago, freethinkers or their as the Slovak Lutheran church and the Czech Protestant pastors made little descendants usually preferred liberal new Czechoslovak church and Czech progress in fulfilling the tasks defined Protestant churches. In Chicago, Brethren church grew rapidly.68 by Siller as they soon discovered what Cleveland, New York, and Omaha, After World War I, accelerated Czech Catholic priests had begun to Unitarianism was often the choice of acculturation and internal migration discern: Czech resistance to the gospel the freethinking lawyers, intellectuals, eventually reduced the membership of often increased in direct proportion to and businessmen. Outstanding ex­ many Czech-speaking American Prot­

160 Garver - Czech-American Protestants estant congregations and of many other World War rekindled some sense of eminent anti-Nazi Czech Protestant American churches whose members common identity and purpose among refugees, most notably the historian sought to maintain a continental Euro­ Czech-American freethinking, Catho­ Otakar Odlozilik and the theologian pean langu.age and style of life. lic, and Protestant intellectuals, as they and religious journalist J. L. Hromadka. During the 1920s English swiftly sought from 1939 through 1941 to help In 1940 these refugees fqunded the made inroads into Czech-speaking friends and relatives under Nazi rule National Union of Czechoslovak Prot­ Protestant congregations, Catholic and thereafter wholeheartedly sup­ estants in the United States and Canada parishes, and freethinking associations ported the American war effort. As and began publication of an intellectual for the same reasons that it made head­ individuals, Czech-American Protes­ Protestant Czech-language monthly, way against other foreign languages. Acculturation steadily accelerated as Congress began to restrict immigration and as Czech-Americans of the first and second American-born generations increasingly entered business or the professions. Decline of foreign lan­ guage use was much less a conse­ quence of the zealous Anglo-American advocacy of Americanization that followed U. S. entry into the First World War, a zeal reflected in legisla­ tion like the Siman language act of 1918 in Nebraska. 69 Even pride in the newly independent Czechoslovak Republic could not offset the irresist­ ible attractions of what came to be called the American way of life. Dur­ ing the 1920s Czech-American Protes­ tant congregations and Catholic parishes began to hold English- as well as Czech-language services. The Czech Presbyterian Church in Prague, Nebraska, initiated English-language services in addition to Czech in 1925 (fig . 39). New Zion Church in Clarkson, the Bohemian Brethren Presbyterian Church in Omaha, and the Fig.39. The Czech Presbyterian Church in Prague, Nebraska. Th e congregation Bethlehem Church in South Omaha organized in 1877, and constructed the present building in 1898. (D. Murphy, NSHS followed suit before the end of the H673 .2-9003/3 :1l) decade.7o The Great Depression took its toll on tants joined other Czech-Americans in Husuv lid (The People of Hus), to membership and contributions in many supporting the Czechoslovak National which they contributed articles, prima­ ethnic churches and associations. Their Council, the Czech National Alliance, rily on contemporary political and fortunes were more adversely affected and other organizations in denouncing religious issues.12 Their having by the Second World War, as extended Nazi barbarism, in extolling the virtues founded a new organization and a new military service increased the mobility of the prewar Czechoslovak Republic, monthly periodical is testimony that of ethnic youth and familiarized them and in insisting upon its resurrection their interests and expectations differed with mainstream American ways. after the war. 71 markedly from the fairly well accultur­ Though acculturation proved to be Czech-American Protestantism was ated Czech-American Protestant con­ an inexorable process, the Nazi occupa­ also reinvigorated during the Second gregations dating from the late 1900s. tion of Czechoslovakia and the Second World War by the arrival of several Because most refugees expected to

161 Nebraska History . FalllWinter 1993 return to positions of leadership in ers of the Czechoslovak church and language services. For example, Rev. postwar Czechoslovakia, their wartime several leaders of the Protestant Czech Donald Proett preached in English concerns had more to do with European Brethren church, including Professors exclusively at Wahoo and Prague than American developments. Husuv . Hromadka and J. B. Kozak, to cooper­ beginning in 1953; and Revs. Jaroslav lid nonetheless acquired a small but ate with the Communist authorities in Mrazek (1965-69) and Joseph Leffler loyal following among Czech-American founding the Czechoslovak Christian (1969-70) were the last ministers to Protestants, thanks primarily to its high Peace Conference and in denouncing give Czech sermons at Bohemian intellectual calibre. This helped insure American sponsorship of NATO and Brethren Presbyterian in Omaha.77 the postwar survival of Husuv lid until participation in the Korean War. Most The rural isolation of most Czech­ the Communist coup of February 1948 Czech-American Protestants disavowed speaking Protestant churches in the in Czechoslovakia produced a new Hromadka. Many, but proportionately upper Middle West may have helped outpouring of intellectual exiles, in­ fewer, Anglo-American Protestants their members maintain the Czech cluding Protestants like Milos Capek also did SO.74 Czechoslovak Commu­ language and nineteenth century Old and Erazim Kohak, and once again, nists curtailed the exchange of divinity World Czech culture through the first Otakar Odlozolfk, who in the fifties students and ministers and thereby five or six decades of the twentieth became a tenured professor of history unintentionally furthered the already century. However, this isolation at the University of Pennsylvania. The well advanced assimilation of Czech­ proved to be detrimental to Czech upheavals of the 1940s also brought to American congregations into mainline ethnic interests in the long run for the the United States Protestant ministers American denominations. This ex­ same reasons that it adversely affected who were destined to be among the last change was temporarily resumed in all commercial and religious institu­ Czech-speaking pastors in a number of 1968 and resurrected after 1989.75 tions in rural America from the Great Presbyterian congregations, including By 1945 in most Czech-American Depression through the 1980s: youth Milo~ Repka of the Bohemian Brethren congregations, English had supplanted moved away to find better opportuni­ Presbyterian Church in Omaha. These Czech as the language most often used ties elsewhere, in most cases in cities pastors and many of their contemporar­ in worship services and business meet­ without any Czech-American Protes­ ies subscribed to the Husuv lid as well ings. Czech-language services ceased tant congregations. Moreover, even in as to the venerable Kfes(anske listy, entirely in most of those congregations cities with such congregations, notably both of which criticized the ideology during the 1960s. The return of the Chicago, Cleveland, New York, and practice of the Czechoslovak Com­ highly Americanized youth who had Omaha, Cedar Rapids, and Baltimore, munist government. These two month­ fought in the Second World War or had all had become much less Czech lies merged in 1958 as the Kfes(anske worked away from home in war indus­ through merger and by the deaths of listy-Husuv lid, with roughly one thou­ tries coincided with the passing of older members. Even the biggest, like sand subscribers, thus gaining a new almost all remaining members of the New York's John Hus Presbyterian lease on life and staying in circulation European-born generations and their Church, experienced a declining and until 1965.73 American-born but Czech-speaking aging membership and attracted fewer The cold War and the Communist contemporaries who had helped estab­ upwardly mobile Czech-American takeover of Czechoslovakia in Febru­ lish the Czech-speaking Protestant youth than larger mainline Protestant ary 1948 led to a growing estrangement churches during the 1880s and 1890s.76 churches. between most Czech-Americans and For Czech Protestants in the upper Declining membership forced clo­ their European homeland, as Czecho­ Mississippi and Missouri valleys, 1948 sure of three of seven rural or small slovak Communists curtailed civil was a landmark year that saw not only town Nebraska Czech Presbyterian liberties, transformed the economy the Communist takeover of Czecho­ congregations by the mid-1970s. Zion according to Soviet practice, and firmly slovakia but the coincidental disband­ Church and its affiliate Bethlehem subordinated church to state. Divisions ing of the Central West Presbytery, Chapel joined nearby Webster Church within the Czech-American community which had for thirty-eight years so to form the "Church of the Second were intensified by the cold war and effectively fostered cooperation among Mile" in 1953. That church became a directly affected Czech-American the various Middle Western Czech lay mission in 1966 and disbanded in Protestants, especially in the celebrated Presbyterian churches. The 1950s, 1975. Weston Church began to employ case of Professor J. L. Hromadka. 1960s, and 1970s sawall such churches supply pastors from the Grace Bible Czech-American Protestants were hire their first non-Czech-speaking Institute of Omaha in 1952 and held its troubled by the decision of most lead­ ministers and discontinue Czech­ last service in 1976.

162 had declined to sixty-four, including forty-two women; with a budget of $4,706 and no Sunday school, the future looked bleak.81 This, the last predominately Czech Protestant church in Omaha, closed its doors in 1982.82 The John Hus Church at Thurston maintains worship and educational services with only slightly diminished membership. In 1991 it reported hav­ ing sixty members and fourteen church school pupils, down from seventy and twenty respectively in 1978.83 The Czech Presbyterian Church, four miles from the Saunders County courthouse in Wahoo, has continued to enjoy the support of families from nearby farms and towns. In 1900 it had 100 mem­ bers and has kept a fairly stable mem­ bership during the past quarter century-131 in 1968, 138 in 1971 , 133 in 1978, and 98 in 1991. Since 1953 Czech Presbyterian has shared ministers with the smaller Presbyterian Church in Prague, eighteen miles away. The latter, whose adult membership had been eighty in 1900, saw this membership and Sunday school enroll­ ment decliI)e respectively from fifty­ FigAO. The second New Zion Czech Presbyterian Church building in Clarkson. seven and fourteen in 1978 to Nebraska. dedicated in 1923. (NSHS C998-185) thirty-seven and five in 1991. In part­ Competition from larger suburban sionally conversed in Czech at the nership, despite declining membership, and downtown Protestant churches monthly coffee hour.18Park Forest the two Saunders County churches surely contributed to the decline and merged in September 1983 with the appear able to weather what will be demise by 1982 of the two Czech­ much larger Wheeler Memorial Presby­ difficult years ahead. 84 speaking Protestant congregations of terian Church, where an annual Czech The largest Nebraska Czech Protes­ Omaha. Located in the least Protestant dinner is still served by one of tant church since 1910 has been New part of Omaha, the Bethlehem Church Wheeler's three Mariners Groups.79 Zion Presbyterian Church in Clarkson, in South Omaha declined steadily after At Bohemian Brethren Presbyterian, whose membership grew from 102 in reaching its greatest size in 1928 with continuatio!1 of Czech-speaking ser­ 1900, to 359 in 1952, and a peak of 685 350 adults and children. In 1958 it vices through the 1960s was facilitated in 1968 (fig. 40). Thereafter member­ entered a "yoke-field pastorate" with by one pastor born in the Czech lands, ship has dropped at a steady rate from the Park Forest Presbyterian Church Rev. Milos Repka from 1958 to 1964 651 in 1971, to 501 in 1978, and 312 in and closed its old meeting house after and by Rev. Jaroslav Mrazek from 1991. It has had no Czech-speaking merging in 1973 with Park Forest. By 1965 to 1969.80 After the departure of ministers since the retirement of Rev. 1971 Bethlehem's membership had their successor, Joseph Leffler, in 1970, Bohdan A. Filipi in 1952; and the . fallen to forty-eight and its operating Sunday services were conducted exclu­ majority of parishioners of Czech budget to $5,688. At the new Park sively in English by three supply pas­ origin has decreased. The beloved Forest Church (seventy-five members tors, Ronald Hawkins to 1974, Howard Reverend Filipi was the last pioneer and a budget of $12,232 in 1978), some Svoboda to 1980, and E. Lee Nelson to Presbyterian pastor from Union Theo­ former members of Bethlehem occa­ 1982. Already by 1957 membership logical Seminary to serve in the state of

163 Nebraska History· FaIlIWinter 1993

Nebraska (fig. 41). Born in the Czech of Czech-American families and com­ critical evaluation of the conference paper. munities has been accelerated by social For information, I am much obliged to Mrs. lands in 1880, he came to America in Eleanor Bucknam, Ms. Ann Carperiter, Dr. 1899, graduated from Union in 1902, mobility, widespread higher education, Lorraine Duggin, Mrs. Dee Fields, Ms. and served as pastor of the Bohemian and the movement of youth from ethnic Madelaine Hoover, Leonard Mrsny, Mrs. Brethren Presbyterian Church in enclaves to areas of greater economic Marty Petersen, and Revs. Russell Palmer Omaha from 1906 to 1913 before opportunity. Czech-American Protes­ and Harold Svoboda. ministering to New Zion for thirty-nine tant parents, who encouraged their 2 References abound to Czech Protestants as a "minority." One reported in the Omaha years. With an operating budget of World-Herald, Dec. 16, 1979, is by then $80,247 and 92 students in church University of Nebraska Regent Robert school in 1991 (as opposed to $59,775 Prokop: "(State Senator Ernest Chambers) and 130 in 1978), New Zion seems has the right to say what he wants to, and I do, too. I also come from a minority. I'm a better situated than most churches in Protestant Bohemian." small towns of less than a thousand 85 3 On Czech-Americans and freethought inhabitants. generally, see Bruce Garver, "Czech-Ameri­ Czech-American Protestant immi­ can Freethinkers on the Great Plains, 1871­ grants and their descendants achieved 1914," in Frederick Luebke, ed., Ethnicity on many of their objectives. In the short the Great Plains (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980), 147-69; Joseph run, through two to four generations, Svoboda, "Czechs: The Love of Liberty," in they accomplished evangelical and Paul Olson, ed., Broken Hoops and Plains charitable work and perpetuated the use People (Lincoln: Nebraska Curriculum of Czech in church and at home. In the Development Center, 1976), 153-91 ; Karel Bicha, "Settling Accounts with an Old long run, Czech-American Protestants Adversary: The Decatholicization of Czech maintained a Christian fellowship and Immigrants in America," Social History 4 some understanding of their ethnic as (Nov. 1972): 45-60. well as their Hussite and sixteenth 4 Esther Jerabek, Czechs and Slovaks in century Reformation traditions. In­ North America: A Bibliography (New York: creasingly, descendants of freethinking SVU & CSA, 1976); and Karen Johnson Freeze's essay on Czechs in Stephan Thern­ Czechs became Protestants but much strom, ed:, Harvard Encyclopedia of Ameri­ more often joined mainline as opposed Fig.41. Rev. Bohdan A. Filipi. (NSHS can Ethnic Groups (Cambridge, Mass.: to traditionally Czech-American C998-37) Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, congregations. 1980), 261-72. Recent scholarly studies reveal the offspring to seek better education and 5 The enormous scholarly literature on Hus, importance of religious faith and fel­ employment away from home, un­ the Hussites, Chelcicky, Comenius doubtedly facilitated this process. (Komensky), and the Unity of Brethren lowship in the lives of American immi­ includes works in English by Otakar grants.86 Most Czech immigrants and The inexorable advance of accultura­ Odlozilfk, Frederick Heymann, Howard their children strove to maintain an tion has taken its toll of Czech-American Kaminsky, Matthew Spinka, and S. Harrison ethnic and religious heritage from Protestant congregations and of all Thomson. which they derived a sense of self­ foreign-language immigrant churches 6 Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History confidence, self-worth, and continuity in the United States. Nevertheless, the of the American People (New Haven: Yale spiritual and charitable work of these University Press, 1972); Randall M. Miller with the past. Churches, like fraternal and Thomas D. Marzik, eds., Immigrants and benevolent organizations, also provided institutions and their successors has Religion in Urban America (Philadelphia: many opportunities to contribute to the greatly enriched the larger worlds of Temple University Press, 1977), especially welfare of family, community, and American religious and cultural life. Josef J. Barton, "Religion and Cultural Change in Czech Immigrant Communities, country. But, the sense of belonging to 1850-1920," 3-24, emphasizing Czech a distinct ethnic group declined with Notes Catholics in Chicago. Fine comparative studies are Frederick C. Luebke's "Ethnic each generation's diminishing use of I This article is dedicated to the memory of the Czech language. In these and other Metodej Cyril Metelka (1906-93) of Prague­ Group Settlement on the Great Plains," Vinohrady, and is a thorough revision of two Western Historical Quarterly, 8 (Oct. 1977): respects, the experience of Czech­ 405-30; and his "Tumerism, Social History, and American Protestants resembles that of papers, one of which I presented at the 1980 Missouri Valley History Conference. I thank the Historiography of European Ethnic Groups other continental European immigrants. Dr. Anne Diffendal, UNL Archivist Joseph in the United States" in Germans in the New The fragmentation and acculturation Svoboda, and Prof. David S. Trask for their World, ed. Frederick C. Luebke, (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 138-56:

164 Garver - Czech-American Protestants

7 From a freethinking perspective, see Mission to Family Economy (Philadelphia: Czech Protestant churches. These members Tomli~ Capek, The Cechs (Bohemians) in University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988); are extremely difficult to identify. America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1920), Allen Schattschneider, Through Five Hun­ 22 Before 1621 Protestantism had been the and its more comprehensive Czech version, dred Years (Bethlehem, Pa.: Comenius Press, faith of a majority of Czechs. See Ferdinand Nase Amerika (Our America) (Prague: Orbis, 1956). Hrejsa, Dejiny ceske evanjelicke cirkve v 1926). Catholic interpretations include 14 On the Unity's early development, see Praze a ve stfednich Cechtich v poslednich Francis Dvornik, Czech Contributions to the Siller & Prucha, Pamatnlk, 131-63. On its 250 Ie tech (A Hi story of Czech Protestantism Growth of the United States (Cleveland: later growth, see Richard Machalek, "The in Prague and Central Bohemia during the Benedictine Press, 1957), and Jan Habenicht, Ambivalence of Ethnoreligion," in Clinton past 250 Years) (Prague: Ceskobratrska Dejiny CecM americlejch (A History of Machann, ed., The Czechs in Texas: A Sym­ Evanjelicka Cfrkev, 1927); and Franti~ek American Czechs), (St. Louis, Hlas, 1910). posium (College Station: Texas A&M Uni­ Bednlir, Ztipas Moravslejch evangeliku 0 Vlasta Vraz, ed., Panorama: A Historical versity, 1979), 95-114; Clinton Machann and nabozenskou svobodu v letech 1777- 1781 Review of Czechs and Slovaks in the United James W. Mendl, Krasna Amerika: A Study (The Struggle of Moravian Protestants for States of America (Cicero, III.: CSA, 1970), of the Texas Czechs, 1851-1939 (Austin, Religious Freedom, 1771-1781) (Prague: does not explicitly discuss Czech Protestants. Tex. : Eakin Press, 1983), 116-26; and Robert Krlil. C. spole~nost nauk, 1931). 8 A revealing memoir by a pioneer Czech­ Skrbanek, We're Czechs (College Station: 23 Conversation with J. L. Hromlidka in American Protestant minister is Franti ~ek Texas A&M University Press, 1988), 192­ Prag ue, Aug. 1967. He studied at Edinburgh Pokorny, "Na~e Amerika," in Husuv lid 18 224. before 1914. (Feb. 1957): 24-28. The most penetrating 15 Capek, Nase Amerika, 441-42. memoir by a freethinker is Tomli~ Capek, 24 Fr. Bednlir, Zapas 0 svobodu, map, 224­ Moje Amerika: vzpomlnky a uvahy (1861­ 16 Data from Siller and Prucha, Pamatnlk, 25. This isolated and rugged country had 1934) (My America) (Prague : Fr. Borovy, passim. All are low estimates of adult mem­ facilitated the underground survival of a few 1935). bership. Protestant congregations from 1621 to 1781.

9 In the introduction to this issue of Ne­ 17 On the Czechoslovak church, see Milo­ 25 Margie Sobotka, Nebraska, Kansas braska History, I discuss sources on Czech­ slav Kanak, Karel Farsky (Prague: Blahoslav , Czech Settlers, 1891 -1895 (Evansv ille, Ind.: American Catholic hi story . 1951); Miloslav Kanlik, ed., CeskoslovenskO Unigraphic, 1980), translates Frank Mare ~'s cirkev a Jednota bratrskO (The Czechoslovak survey of settlement by Czech immigrants in 10 Jaroshiv Mrlizek was pastor emeritus Church and the Unity of Brethren) (Prague: rural and urban ethnic communities. An until his death in 1978. His eleven-page Husova ~s . fakulta bohosloveckli, 1967); and example is Saunders County, 133-35, and its pamphlet, Czech Protestants in Nebraska Frank M Hnfk et aI., The Czechoslovak three Czech Protestant congregations, 134. (n.p., n.d.) appears updated in Vladimir Church (Prague: Central Council, Czsl. Ku~era and Alfred Novli~ek, eds., Czechs and 26 The Lutheran minority of twenty percent Church, 1937). On that church's oldest Nebraska (Ord, Nebr. : Quiz Graphic Arts, of all Slovaks in Slovakia and in the U.S. American congregation, see Ludvfk Fu~ek et Inc., 1967), 174-84, and further revised in generalIy supported Czechoslovak govern­ aI., Program Book of the St. Cyril and Vladimir Ku~era , ed., Czech Churches in ments (1918-48) but established no institu­ Methodius Czechoslovak Church, Newark, Nebraska (Lincoln: n.p., 1974), 145-75. tional ties to CZech Prote s~a nt s anywhere. New Jersey for the 45th Anniversary of II Josef A. Dvorlik, ed., Dejiny CecMv ve Foundation (Newark, N.J.: St. C. & M. Czsl. 27 Siller and Prucha, Pamatnik, 112: "a~ tu statu South Dakota, (Tabor, S. Dak. : n.p. Church, 1969). nebyl zadnych mnohoslibych vyhlfdek pro 1920); Rudolf Bubenfcek, ed., Deji'ny CecM ~eskeho kazatele." 18 The total number of Czech-speaking v Chicago, (Chicago: R. Bubeni~ek , 1939); Protestant congregations in 1917 is from 28 The first opened in Wesley, Texas, in Karel Bicha, The Czechs in Oklahoma (Nor­ Sion: Narodnl Almanach za r. 1917, 115-25 ; 1864. The Ely church was dedicated in 1868 man: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980); and Capek, Cechs, 252-53: Tex., 43; Nebr., (Siller and Prucha, Pamatnik, 133-39), and is Ruzena Rosickli, Dejiny CecM v Nebrasce 14; Chicago, 12; Cleveland, 11 ; Iowa, 10; still active as First Presbyterian of Ely, with (Omaha: Czech Historical Club of Neb. , Minn., 10; Kans., 5; N.Y. , 5; Wis., 5; S.Dak., 230 members in 1991. Minutes, 203rd Gen­ 1928), and its English version, A History of 4; Okla., 3; Baltimore, 2; St. Louis, 2; Va., 2; eral Assembly, Presbyterian Church (USA) the Czechs (Bohemians) in Nebraska Del., 1; Mich., 1; N.J ., 1; Pa., I; Tenn., I. (Louisville, Ky .: Office of the General (Omaha: Czech Historical Society, 1929); Assembly, 1992), pt. 2, 14. and Robert I. Kutak, The Story ofa 19 For 1900 data on adult members of Bohemian-American Village (Louisville, Ky .: Czech-speaking Protestant congregations, see 29 Siller & Prucha, Pamatnik, 111-18 . The Standard Printing Co., 1933), on Siller and Prucha, Pamatnlk, passim, with Many of Kiin 's sermons were published as a Milligan, Nebr. estimates indicated by "about" and reliable memorial volume after his death: Franti ~ ek within ten percent: Tex ., 1,500; III. (Chi­ Kiin , Ohlas z pouste (Echoes From the 12 Vilem SilIer, Vliclav Prucha, and R. M. cago), about 600 to 700; Nebr., 581; Iowa, Wilderness) (Cedar Rapids, Iowa: Svit, DeCastello, Pamatnik ceslejch evanjeliclejch 376; N.Y., about 370; Minn., about 350; Ohio 1897). Cirkvl ve Spojenych statech (Chicago: (Cleveland), 252 or more; Wi s., 205 or more; Kfes(anslej posel, 1900) . 30 Ahlstrom, Religious History , 749-62. S.Dak., at least 100; Kans., about 100. As 13 The literature on the Moravian church is many more children attended Sunday school. 31 Paul F. Douglass, The Story ofGerman extensive. See Peter Brock, The Political and Methodism (New York and Cincinnati: Method­ 20 I have compared membership data to the Social Doctrines of the Unity of Czech ist Book Concern, 19-39), 221-24; the 63,439 total Czech-speaking population in each state Brethren in the Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth members include no Methodists in Germany. according to the 1910 U.S . Census. Centuries (The Hague: Mouton, 1957); George 1. Eisenach, A History ofthe German Beverly Smaby, The Transformation of 21 All above estimates do not include Congregational Churches in the United States Moravian Bethlehem: From Communal Czech Protestants who were members of non- (Yankton, S.Dak.: Pioneer Press, 1938),305.

165 Nebraska History - FailIWinter 1993

32 Bubenicek, Dejiny CecM, discusses 46 Siller and Prucha, Pamatnik, 70-86; 60 Scholars have thoroughly described that Methodist and Congregationalist missionary Mrazek. 1-11 ; Evelyn Krejci, et aI., Schuyler conflict elsewhere. Bruce Garver, "Czech­ work among Chicago Czechs. One surviving Nebraska Centennial, 1870-1970 (Schuyler: American Freethinkers," 147-69. predominately Slovak church is New Cov­ n.p., 1970),23. 61 Franti§ek B. Zdnibek, Kazani 0 svate enant Baptist. See its "Sixtieth Anniversary 47 Siller and Prucha, Pamatnik, 78-79. vife. Cili vyklady apostolskeho vyznani viry Service" (Oct. 19, 1975), 1-4. The only (Sermons on the Holy Faith. or Interpreta­ Baptist venture among Nebraska Czechs was 48 Habenicht, Dejiny CecM, 282. tions of the Apostolic Confession of Faith) a briefly successful Sunday school program 49 Short histories of eleven Nebraska (Chicago: Aug. Geringer. serially 1879-94), that begi\n in the late 1920s. Kucera, Czech congregations appear in Mrazek, Czech 391 pages. Churches, 174, prints without commentary a Protestants, I-II, or its revision in Kucera, 62 Kutak, Bohemian Village, 47-48. photo of its pupils. In Apr. 1978 Mrs. Grace Czech Churches, 145-69. Krajicek told me what she remembered about 63 My translation from Siller and Prucha. it. 50 Kucera, Czech Churches, 174-75. Pamatnik,19. 33 L. 51 Siller and Prucha, Pamatnik, 17-18, F. Mi§kovskY. "Slovansky seminar v 64 Kutak, Bohemian Vii/age. 42-45 . Oberlin~, Ohio," Siller and Prucha, Pamatnik, photo and discussion of this Congress. 190-95 . 65 Capek, Moje Amerika, 229-31 on Pisek. 52 Ibid., 19, on the Second Congress. Conversation with Leonard Mr~ny , Jan. 1980, 34 Siller and Prucha, Pamatnik, 195-99. 53 By 1910 Czech-Americans had founded on B. Filipi. 35 326 newspapers and periodicals, of which 99 Ibid., 176-79. 66 My translation from Siller and Prucha, or 30.9 percent were then in print. Circula­ 36 David S. Schaff, John Huss: His Life. Pamatnik, 85. also in Garver, "Czech­ tion peaked in 1924 at 589,178 for all issues American Freethinkers," 164. Teachings and Death after Five Hundred Years before entering an irreversible decline. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1915). TomM Capek, Padesat let ceskeho tisku v 67 This is a very difficult question to answer, 37 I have read the correspondence between Americe (Fifty Years of the Czech Press) in part because few people respond to question­ T. G. Masaryk and Will Monroe in the archiv (New York: Bank of Europe, 1911), 259-69; naires about their ancestors' religious beliefs. Stanislav Klfma, Cechove a Slovaci za TGM at the Invalidovna in Prague-Karlin. 68 In this issue of Nebraska History, see hranicemi (Czechs and Slovaks Abroad) 38 Siller and Prucha, Pamatnik, 19-24. Karel Pichlfk's article on "Relationships (Prague: J. Otto, 1925),226-27. On the between Czechs and Slovaks in the United 39 Capek, Moje Amerika, 230-31. Czech press in Bohemia and Moravia at that States during the First World War." The time, see Bruce Garver, The Young Czech 40 Siller and Prucha. Pamatnik, 26-27, on following are indispensable: Karel Pichlfk, Party, 1874-1901. and the Emergence ofa Kolfn, and passim, on Czech recruits for Zahranicni odboj, 1914-1918. bez legend Multi-Party System (New Haven: Yale divinity school. (The Resistance Movement Abroad, 1914­ University Press, 1978), 102-9. 1918, Without Any Legends) (Prague: Svo­ 41 On ladies in missionary work, see Siller 54 Capek. Padesat let, 152-54; and Fran­ boda, 1968); Victor S. Mamatey. The United and Prucha, Pamatnik, 188-90. tikk Stedronsky, Zahranicni krajanske States and"East Central Europe 1914-1918: A 42 Edward Puletz, ed., The Jan Hus Annual noviny casopisy a kalendai'e do roku 1938 Study in Wilsonian Diplomacy and Propa­ for 1930, 6 (June 1930): 1-4. (Newspapers and Almanacs Published by ganda (Princeton: Princeton University Press, Czechs Abroad to 1938) (Prague: Narodnf 1957); Vojta Bene§, Ceskoslovenskti Amerika 43 On Krenek, see Matthew Spinka, Church knihovna. 1958).64,83. Jednota should not v obdobi, vol. I : Od cervna 1914 do srpna in Communist Society: A Study in 1. L. be confused with the Catholic paper of the 1915 (Prague: "Pokrok," 1931) and Vojaci Hromtidka's Theological Politics (Hartford, same name. zapomenute fronty (Prague: Pamatnfk odboje, Conn.: Hartford Seminary Foundation Bulle­ 1923); and Franti§ek Sindelar, Z boje za tin, no. 17 (June 1954), 12, 34. On Pipal 's 55 Capek. Padesat let. 162. svobodu otciny (Chicago: Niir. Svaz C. return to Libenice near Kolfn, see Rosicka, 56 StedronskY. Zahranicni noviny, 66; Katoliku, 1924). Dejiny CecM, 338. He died in 1932. Capek. Padesat let, 166; V. N. Duben (V . 69 KUma, Cechove a Slovaci, 214-21 ; 44 Siller and Prucha, Pamatnik, 87-88; Nevlud), Czech and Slovak Periodical Press Capek, Moje Amerika, 246-53; Jack Rodgers, Rosicka, Dejiny, 333-35. Dates on the outside Czechoslovakia (Washington. D.C.: "The Foreign Language Issue in Nebraska, founding or building of Nebraska Czech SVU. 1962), 20. 1918-1923," Nebraska History 39 (March Protestant churches are from Siller and 57 Capek, Padesat let, 172, no. 432; 1958): 1-22. Prucha unless otherwise noted. Stedronsky, Zahranicni noviny, 13. 70 Clarkson Diamond Jubilee. 1886-1961: 45 Data on churches before 1900 are from 58 Capek, Padesat let, 180, 306, 257, 282; A History (Wahoo, Nebr.: Ludi Printing Co., Siller and Prucha, Pamatnik. Data to 1968 Stedronsky, Zahranicni noviny, 73,108,171. 1961). 61-63. Concurrently the ZCBJ autho­ are from Mrazek, Czech Protestants. Data rized the formation of English-speaking for 1971 and 1978 are from Minutes of the 59 For four years V. Kraifcek published in lodges, with "Cedar Rapids" of Iowa and General Assembly of the United Presbyterian Chicago Cesky bratr, a "Protestant quarterly "Pathfinders" of Omaha becoming the first Church in the United States ofAmerica. for the cultivation of Christian knowledge in 1923. Seventh Series, vol. 5 (1971). (Philadelphia: and life." Nas zivot (Our Life), "a Protestant Office of the General Assembly, 1972); and monthly for religious intelligentsia" appeared 71 I address these developments in a forth­ Minutes ....• Seventh Series. vol. 12. pt. 2: The in South Omaha from Nov . 1907 to May coming article: Bruce Garver, "Americans of Statistical Table and Presbytery Rolls. Jan. 1909, edited by Rev. Vaclav Miniberger. Czech and Slovak Ancestry in the History of 1- Dec. 31 . 1978 (New York: Office of the Capek, Padesat let, 176,282; Stedronsky, Czechoslovakia," Czechoslovak and Central General Assembly, 1979). Data for 1991 are Zahranicni noviny, 72. European Journal II (Winter 1993): 1-14, from Minutes, 203rd General Assembly, pt. 2. especially 5-7.

166 Garver - Czech-American Protestants

72 Collected articles from Husuv lid appear 84 Diamond Jubilee of Prague, 1887-1962 in J. L. Hromiidka and Otakar Odlozilfk. S (Prague: n.p .• 1962). 19-21 ; 203rd General druheho bfehu: Uvahy z americkeho exilu. Assembly. pt. 2 (1992). 153-54. 1940-1945 (From the Other Shore: Essays from American Exile) (Prague: Jan Laichter. 85 Minutes of the General Assembly ... 1946). United Presbyterian Church. 7th ser.• vol. 12 (1978/9). 58; 203rd General Assembly. pt. 2, 73 Milo ~ Repka. "Oznamenf a vyzva 152; Clarkson Diamond Jubilee, 1886-1901. cetnarum...... Kfes(anske Listy a Husuv lid. 62 (26) (August 1965): 113; Duben. Czech 86 Illuminating are John Bodnar. "Material­ and Slovak Periodical Press. 23-24. ism and Morality: Slavic Americans and Education." Journal of Ethnic Studies ( 1976); 74 The best informed account of this con­ and Timothy L. Smith. "Religion and Ethnic­ troversy is Spinka. Church in a Communist ity in America." The American Historical Society. especially 34-35. 43 -48 . See also L. Review. 83 (Dec. 1978): 1155-85. Borin. Communist Penetration 1nto Austral­ ian Churches! (Melbourne: Victorian League of Rights. 1954). 1-27; and Charles West. Communism and the Theologians (New York: Macmillan. 1958).

75 For example. Ludvfk Fucek from the Czechoslovak Church in Prague-Vinohrady served in 1968-69 as pastor at the St. Cyril and Methodius Czechoslovak Church in Newark. N.J. See hi s "Vzpomfname. deku­ jeme a doufame." Program Book, 1924-1969. two pages.

76 Rev . J.aroslav Mrazek of Bohemian Brethren Presbyterian in Omaha attributed the decline of bilingual congregations to the end of "widespread immigration" and the preference of new immigrants who knew English to live and work "in an English­ speaking environment." South Omaha Sun. May 1. 1967.46.

77 Sources on recent developments here and below are Mrazek. Czech Protestant Churches; Minutes of the General Assembly .. . United Presbyterian Church. 7th ser. , vol. 5 (1971 ) and vol. 12 (1978/9); and 203rd General Assembly. pt. 2.

78 Conversation with the supply pastor. Rev. Ru ssell Palmer. in Feb. 1980.

79 Conversation in June 1993 with Mrs. Dee Fields, Wheeler Memorial membership secretary.

80 Membership was seventy-one in 1900. sixty-five in 1958. sixty-eight in 1965. and sixty-nine in both 1971 and 1978.

8! "Financnf zprava Nar. Jednoty Ceskoslovenskych Protestantu do 31. decem­ bra 1956." Husuv lid, 18 (February 1957): 31-32.

82 History of the Bohemian Brethren Presbyterian Church, 1889-1982 (Omaha: n.p .• 1982). a pamphlet of eight pages. Also my conversations with Rev . Harold Svoboda in Sept. 1980 and with Ms. Ann Carpenter of Omaha's Presbyterian Center. June 1993.

83 Conversations with Mrs. Marty Petersen. Sept. 1980; 203rd General Assembly. pt. 2. 154.

167