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Female Circumcision in African and Muslim Societies in Africa

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Female Circumcision in African and Muslim Societies in Africa THE PRACTICE OF FEMALE CIRCUMCISION IN AFRICAN AND MUSLIM SOCIETIES IN AFRICA Fatema Hoosen Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Discipline of Religion in the School of Religion, Philosophy and Classics, College of Humanities University of KwaZulu-Natal Supervisor: Professor Abul Fadl Mohsin Ebrahim December 2015 i DECLARATION I, FATEMA HOOSEN, Registration No 200202062 declare that this thesis titled, THE PRACTICE OF FEMALE CIRCUMCISION IN AFRICAN AND MUSLIM SOCIETIES IN AFRICA is the result of my own investigation and research and that it has not been submitted in part or in full for any other degree or to any other university, and that all sources used have been acknowledged by means of complete references. _________________________ FATEMA HOOSEN _________________________ DATE ii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my late parents: Moulana Ahmed Adam Sabat and Khadija Sabat. May Allah bless them with Jannat al-Firdaws, āmīn. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank my Creator for enabling me to complete and present this work. I appreciate the assistance and support of all the members of my family, especially my husband, Goolam Mahomed Hoosen, and my children for their support and patience. Special thanks to my supervisor, Professor Abul Fadl Mohsin Ebrahim of the School of Religion and Theology, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa, for his guidance, direction and patience. I acknowledge the assistance of Dr. Tumi Mekoa, formerly of the School of Religion and Theology, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa, as well as the assistance of Rehana Laher, Khadija Magardie and Sadiyya Haffejee. They provided me with invaluable information and crucial leads during the writing of this thesis. iv ABBREVIATIONS DHS Demographic and Health Survey FGM Female Genital Mutilation IPC International Planning Committee PTE Programme for Theological Education UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientifc and Cultural Organisation UNICEF United Nations Children‟s Fund WCC World Counsel of Churches WHO World Health Organisation v ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to ascertain the reason for the continuation of the practice of female circumcision in certain African and Muslim societies in Africa, despite attempts at abandonment by many international aid agencies, researchers, governments and individuals. The girls and women belonging to the respective communities who have been subjected to the practice of female circumcision are experiencing detrimental effects to their health and well-being. A multidisciplinary, critical and analytical approach has been utilized throughout the study. This study traces the practice from earlier times to the present era. The respective areas where this phenomenon exists have been illustrated. The physiology of the practice of female circumcision provides details on the procedure, the complications that result from the practice are highlighted, and the practice of female circumcision within the South African milieu is also indicated. Religion and culture as well as ethics and morals in the context of African Traditional Religion (ATR) are discussed, thus facilitating a critique of the religion. Various key beliefs and concepts that give rise to the practice and its continued persistence have been elucidated. Likewise, female initiation rite, with and without the practice of female circumcision, has been mentioned. Moreover, the reason why diviners have been singled out as the most suitable persons to campaign against female circumcision have been addressed. The retaining of the practice by societies that converted from African Traditional Religion to Islam in earlier centuries is clarified with focus on the manner by the clergy accommodated the practice into Islam. This thesis focuses on the need for clergy and diviners to be included in campaigns to discontinue the practice. The erroneous focus on the sexual aspects is ascertained. The perpetuation of the practice due to the emphasis on fertility and ancestor veneration is also highlighted. This study has indicated why the practice persists in vi African and Muslim societies and offers effective solutions towards abandonment of the practice. The concept of cultural hermeneutics has been applied to the practice and to ancestor veneration. This theory indicates that the beneficial aspects, that is, the ethics and morals in African Traditional Religion and in ancestor veneration should continue to remain intact and only such teachings that actually condone the practice should be expunged. Anti-campaigners should consider the application of the aforementioned theory as outlined in this thesis at their gatherings. A plea is made that female initiation rite should be retained because it provides education to initiates, but the cutting involved in female circumcision should be abolished. This thesis affirms that all the Aḥādīth (Traditions of Prophet Muhammad that some Muslim Jurists had cited to justify the practice in Islam are unauthentic. Therefore, it is pertinent for Muslim jurists to effectively condemn this practice. By abandoning the practice, the health and welfare of the girls and women from the practicing communities would substantially improve. Undoubtedly, the implementation of this change will encourage social transformation. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION..............................................................................................................................iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................ iv ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................................................... v ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................ 1 CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 8 GENERAL INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 8 1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 8 1.2 The Stark Reality .................................................................................................. 8 1.3 Towards Unfolding the Problem ........................................................................... 9 1.4 Key Questions ..................................................................................................... 11 1.5 Aims and Objectives ........................................................................................... 12 1.6 Relevance of the Study ....................................................................................... 12 1.7 Theoretical Framework ....................................................................................... 15 1.8 The Design of the Study ...................................................................................... 16 1.9 Literature Review ................................................................................................ 17 1.10 Definition of Key Terms ..................................................................................... 21 1.10.1 Definition of African Traditional Religion ......................................................... 21 1.10.2 Female Circumcision .......................................................................................... 23 1.10.3 Cultural/Religious Practice ................................................................................. 25 1.10.4 Abandonment/Eradication .................................................................................. 29 1.11 Structure of the Study ......................................................................................... 29 1 CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................ 33 A HISTORY OF FEMALE CIRCUMCISION .............................................................. 33 2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 33 2.2 Female Circumcision and Safeguarding of Chastity ........................................... 33 2.3 Female Circumcision as a Form of “Treatment” ................................................ 34 2.4 Present-Day Practice of Female Circumcision - Demographic Distribution ...... 35 2.5 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 38 CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 39 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF FEMALE CIRCUMCISION ............................................... 39 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 39 3.2 Male and Female Circumcision .......................................................................... 39 3.3 Types of Female Circumcison ...........................................................................
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