DIV. 10 AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION VOL. 2 (2)

Psychotherapy and the Arts Paul M. Camic & Lawrence E. Wilson, Co-3

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Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2)

Contents Psychotherapy and the Arts - Paul M. Camic & Lawrence E. Wilson, Co-Editors 50 Building and Blending: Creating Places for the Arts in 78 i The moment of possibility: Current Trends in Drama Therapy Psychotherapy Ted Rubenstein Paul M Camic & Lawrence E. Wilson 82 Music as a Therapeutic Medium: An Introduction to Music 51 Philosophical Foundations of Expressive Arts Therapy: Towards Therapy a Therapeutic Aesthetic George L. Duerksen Stephen K. Levine 85 Van Gogh's Ear Talks!!: Creativity, Suffering and Aesthetic 56 Creating Outside the Lines: Enlarging Psychological Research Language through the Arts Kimberly McCarthy Shaun McNiff 89 After the Fact:Psychotherapy Is a Performing Art 59 C.I.S.M.E.W.: The Arts in Clinical Training Sarah Benolken Paul M. Camic 90 Authentic Movement and Witnessing in Psychotherapy 65 Erasing the Gridlines: An Interdisciplinary Studio Course for Wendy Wyman-McGinty Therapists Who Use Art Lawrence E. Wilson 67 What will we do today? A clinical psychology graduate student's 93 Division 10 News experience of the creative arts in therapy. 93 Message from the President-Elect Laura M. Gaugh Jerome Singer 69 Art Therapy and the Elephant Message from the Past President Harriet Wadeson Sandra Russ 14 Perspectives on the Profession of Dance/Movement Therapy: Past, Message from Bob Sternberg Present, and Future Robert J. Sternberg Robyn Flaum Cruz Announcements

Join Division 10 Membership Application Division 10: Psychology and the Arts Name: Mailing Address: Email: Phone: (Work) (Home) Applying to Division 10 as (circle one): Fellow Member Associate Affiliate Student Affiliate APA Membership Number (if already a member) Annual Dues: $25.00 for Members, Associates, and non-APA-Affiliates; $20.00 for dues-exempt members who wish to receive the Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts; $15.00 for Student Affiliates fill out and mail to: American Psychological Association, Division 10: Psychology and the Arts, 750 First Street, NE, Washington DC 20002-4242 ¥ V Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts learning, discovering and healing, in psychotherapy. Western cultural traditions have generally placed greater value on verbal communication to the near exclusion of other modes of expression and Building and Blending: communication. Our cultural valuing of verbal interaction has significantly Creating Places for the Arts in Psychotherapy influenced our decisions about what constitutes therapeutic interventions. Paul M. Camic The "talking cure" was placed by Freud at the pinnacle of the communica­ Columbia College Chicago & University of Chicago tion pile perhaps because he was more comfortable with talking as a road Lawrence E. Wilson to the unconscious. Certainly the talking cure would appear to fit into a McDougal Littell Publishers & Chicago School of scientific paradigm much more readily that any arts-oriented therapy would. Freud, as well as the early behaviorists, all sought approval from their physi­ Professional Psychology cal and biological science colleagues and desperately wanted to be thought There's an old Chinese curse: of as scientists, not philosophers, and certainly not as artists. Although "May you live in interesting there are exceptions, most mental health and behavioral problems do not times," the implication being, of respond consistently to verbal-based therapies, regardless of the theoreti­ course, that uninteresting times cal orientation which influences the therapy. We are not presenting the arts are preferable to those filled with in therapy as superior to verbal-based therapies—or as equal alternatives— action, with argument, with ad­ but as interventions that can be incorporated into current clinical practice vances in community and cultural to expand the clinical repertoire of psychologists and other mental health achievements, with change. We'd practitioners . like to suggest that we are living The scientific method of discovery of the laboratory is quite often not Lawrence E. Wilson in an interesting time right now, Paul M. Camic applicable to clinical work. This does not diminish the scientific method, aesthetically, when scientific discussions about the motives and objectives but it does call for a re-examination of what is considered "scientific" (Eisner, of artistic activity have the potential to remake the way we think about art 1981). Through the expansion of the research methods used in psychology and the way we use it in our personal and professional lives. (Camic, Rhodes, & Yardley, 2002), and through what Eisner has discussed This special issue of the Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts presents as connoisseurship in education (1991) and in psychology (2002), we be­ what we believe is an interesting and enthusiastic exploration of psycho­ lieve an opening for the arts-in-psychotherapy and an artistic examination therapy and the arts. Print media being limited in what it can record, our of psychotherapy (Lawrence-Lightfoot & Davis, 1997; McNiff, 1998) is front and back covers only contain only visual documentation. This does both possible and desirable. not reflect a limitation in the content of this issue or in the views of the We also believe in the importance of inquiring into the differences and editors. In introducing this special issue, we would also like to offer deep similarities in the experience of an artist making art versus someone in an appreciation to Cheryl Johnson-Odim, Dean of the School of Liberal Arts arts therapy situation making art. If we consider the art-maker's "gratifica­ and Sciences, and Steven Kapelke, Provost, Columbia College Chicago tion" factor as an important part of the overall picture, there seems to be a for their generous offer to underwrite the costs of color printing for our continuum of four significant pleasurable moments in the process of creat­ inside and outside covers. ing: the pleasure of the moment of inspiration, the enjoyment of the pro­ Up to the present time, psychotherapy, as a domain within doctoral train­ cess, the satisfaction of completion, and the exhilaration of display. Are ing in psychology, has been entirely oriented towards a verbal, mostly lin­ these moments the same for a Georgia O'Keeffe or a T.S. Eliot as for a ear and narrative mode of practice. Focusing on verbal discourse to the novice sculptor or a client presented with the chance to express an emotion exclusion of other modes of communication and expression has limited the in paint or clay or movement? If so, are we justified in continually differen­ development of psychotherapy unnecessarily. Human beings communicate tiating between "high" and "low" art, between professional and amateur, through movement, sound, visual images, and written language as well as between artist and artisan? If not, then why does expressive arts therapy through linear and verbal processes. To suggest that "healing" or "cures" work, and what is actually happening when we use art in therapeutic prac­ can occur only through a verbal-based therapy is to disavow or discount tice? the importance of the arts ethologically in Hominid_development. Art is We would like to suggest a different way of looking at the'cluster of amenable to promoting progressive adaptation and differentiation through phenomena we have traditionally called "art," one which is inclusive, in­ developing aesthetic form as well as content (Rose, 1996). terdisciplinary, and multimodal. The first section of this issue examines the The practice of psychotherapy in psychology is a recent one, arguably foundations of creative and expressive arts therapy and introduces discus­ beginning seventy or so years ago. With the exception of Carl Jung, few sion about the arts in clinical practice within professional psychology. For major theorists in psychology or psychiatry have incorporated movement/ the purposes of beginning our discussion we look at a multimodal philo­ dance, sound/music, words/writing, enactment/drama, and images/visual sophical foundation provided by Levine_who furnishes an anchor for ex­ art in their therapeutic work. It is as if verbal-based therapies have always pressive arts therapies within the Western philosophical and aesthetic tra­ been thought to be more scientifically advanced or theoretically superior dition. He also introduces expressive arts therapy as a domain distinct from than those that utilize the arts. Empirically this has not been shown to be the arts therapies of art, dance, drama and music and addresses the impor­ the case, yet psychology has developed what appears to be a deepening tance of considering aesthetic theories when using the arts clinically. McNiff bias in favor of verbal, linear, and more recently, prescription-like inter­ further discusses the philosophical and aesthetic foundations of the cre­ ventions. This bias reminds us of the license plates for the State of Mis­ ative arts therapies while calling for an arts-based research paradigm to souri which proclaim they are "The Show Me State"; clinical research in answer some of the questions current quantitative and qualitative social psychology has often rejected what cannot be seen and counted, thus lim­ science methods cannot. Both Levine and McNiff approach the discussion iting what therapies and interventions are deemed acceptable. of psychotherapy and the arts from the perspective of creative and expres­ We are certainly not suggesting a return to the times when treatments sive arts therapy researchers and clinicians. Camic proposes that the arts went unchallenged and therapists were not held accountable for their work. can be integrated into the doctoral curriculum of clinical and counseling The quality of clinical work and the rigor in evaluating outcomes of the psychology programs and supports this proposal by documenting the evo­ work remain essential. In this special issue we seek to explore opportuni­ lutionary importance of the arts in human development and in identifying ties and to expand possibilities for incorporating the arts into the practice some of the psychological mechanisms relevant to the arts in psychotherapy. of psychotherapy by psychologists and other mental health practitioners. If He concludes his piece with a demonstration curriculum integrating the psychotherapy can be thought of as a method of learning—and we are all arts into doctoral clinical training. In answering the question "How can aware of the discussion surrounding diverse learning styles and different psychologists, who are not artists, use the arts in therapy?", Wilson, an intelligences (Gardner, 1983; Sternberg, 1988; Olson, 2000)—then differ­ artist and arts educator, describes his interdisciplinary arts studio class for ent modalities (eg., visual, kinesthetic, auditory, verbal) and different me­ clinicians and illustrates the benefits of acquiring and expanding artistic dia, such as those now integrated in the primary and secondary educational knowledge, as well as speculating about the new insights possible when curriculum (Goldberg, 1997; Burnaford, Aprill, & Weiss, 2001), in the arts such knowledge is fused, not merely layered, in clinical practice. The con­ and arts education (Berger, 1972; see Smith, R. A., 1990) and in the arts cluding article in our first section is by Gaugh, a clinical psychology doc­ therapies (Lusebrink, V. B., 1990; Landgarten, 1993; Jennings, Cattanach, * toral student, who enrolled in Wilson's class and went on to complete a ' Mitchell, Chesner, & Meldrum, 1994; Newham, 1994; Gilroy & Lee, C5^ concentration in expressive therapies and creativity. She discusses her 1995; Levy, 1995), can also be adopted and applied to the process of -fsjl V clinical experiences as a graduate student incorporating the arts in a Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2) therapy practicum. sign. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. The second section of this special issue involves articles by senior aca­ Gilroy, A. & Lee, C. (Eds.) (1995). Art and music therapy and research. demic and clinical researchers in the arts therapies of art, dance, drama and London: Routledge. music. While not an exhaustive list of the currently available arts therapies, Goldberg, M. (1997). Arts and learning. White Plains, N. Y.: Longman. wc chose to include those arts therapies with established graduate educa­ Jennings, S., Cattanach, A., Mitchell, S., Chesner, A. & Meldrum, B. (1994). tion curricula, a history of documented clinical work spanning at least 30 Handbook of drama therapy. New York & London: Routledge. years and a body of published research. The first article in this section is by Levy, F. J. (Ed.) (1995). Dance and other expressive therapies. New York & London: Routledge. , Wadeson, a well-recognized art therapy researcher, theorist, clinician, and Lusebrink, V. B. (1990). Imagery and visual expression in therapy. New director of one of the nation's leading programs in art therapy. She pro­ York & London: Plenum. vides a discussion about current practices in art therapy as well as a brief McNiff, S. (1998). Art-based research. Jessica Kingsley: London & Phila­ history of the field. Cruz, a leading national figure in dance/movement delphia. therapy research, discusses the history of dance/movement therapy, current Newham, P. (1994). The singing cure: An introduction to voice movement • practices in DM/T and the populations this therapy serves and concludes therapy. Boston: Shambhala. by proposing new avenues for collaboration between psychology and DM/ Olson, I. (2000). The arts and critical thinking in American education. T. Rubenstein, a psychologist and drama therapist who is clinical director Westport, CT & London: Bergin & Garvey. Smith, R. A. (Ed.) (1990). Cultural literacy and arts education. Urbana & at an agency specializing in the therapeutic use of the arts, introduces drama Chicago- University of Illinois Press. therapy and provides a clear discussion of its joint philosophical roots in theater and psychology. He illustrates the range of the field through clini­ Lawrence E. Wilson Paul M. Camic cal examples and offers a candid discussion about the need for more rigor­ 2310 Thayer Street Department of Liberal Education ous research. Duerksen, director at a preeminent school of music education Evanston, Illinois 60201.1412 Columbia College Chicago and music therapy, introduces the therapeutic benefits of sound and music 600 South Michigan Avenue and furnishes an extensive overview to the field of music therapy. Chicago, Illinois 60605.1996 The third section provides three examples of how we might come to consider the arts, psychotherapy, creativity and healing from very different perspectives. McCarthy, creativity researcher, educational and community psychologist, provides a candid examination of suffering, the creative pro­ Philosophical Foundations of Expressive Arts Therapy: Towards a cess and the arts within the context of a terminally ill artist and her work Therapeutic Aesthetics prior to dying (front cover, this issue), the author's own chronic illness and Stephen K. Levine the use of painting as a response to that illness (back cover, this issue), and York University, Toronto her research which looks at the suffering of extreme poverty, racism, and Introduction classism with the theater group, Los Angles Poverty Department. In an Expressive Arts Therapy (EXA) is an intermodal approach to the arts examination of both the science and the art of psychotherapy, Benolken therapies. A sensory "modality" should be distinguished from an artistic likens the work of the psychotherapist to that of the actor where both must "discipline." In a way, all the arts therapies have an intermodal aspect; each attend to their performance and to the client/audience. Using her back­ draws upon diverse sensory and communication modalities; and often prac­ ground in theater and psychology she draws upon both the process of sci­ titioners employ a variety of artistic disciplines as well. What is distinctive entific discovery and the methods of artistic inquiry to shape a psycho­ about EXA is that it makes intermodality into both its method and its phi­ therapy informed by both. Perhaps more shared by humans than any other losophy. Expressive Arts Therapists are trained as specialists in the building block of the arts is authentic movement. Psychologist, Jungian intermodal use of the arts in therapy. They learn how to help clients move analyst, and dance/movement therapist, Wyman-McGinty provides an in­ from one mode of expression to another ("intermodal transfer")* when ap­ troduction to authentic movement and a detailed case study of its use in propriate, and they use different forms of expression in responding to cli­ psychotherapy. ents' work ("aesthetic response"). The practice of EXA has been studied These three sections provide an introduction to the philosophical, theo­ and its history and methodology discussed (Knill et al, 1995; S. Levine and retical, aesthetic, clinical and scientific foundations for using the arts in E. Levine, 1999; McNiff, 1981). psychotherapy. Although this may be considered controversial, as editors What distinguishes expressive arts therapy from the other arts therapies we believe that all mental health practitioners and researchers, regardless is not only its method but also its philosophical framework . EXA is based of discipline, can make use of the arts in their work. How a music therapist upon an aesthetic approach to therapy. It places the arts at the center of its uses sound and music in therapy may be different from that of a clinical theory and practice. This distinguishes it from more psychologically-ori­ psychologist or drama therapist. The use of visual art and movement in a ented approaches. Inasmuch as the arts therapies have entered the field of counseling psychologist's practice is likely to have a different focus than therapeutic practice subsequent to the emergence of psychology as a disci­ that of an art therapist using these same modalities. To echo what Dr. Pat pline, it is only natural that they have tried to fit themselves into psycho­ Allen (1995), faculty member of School of the Art Institute of Chicago and logical frameworks. Thus, for example, we have Freudian, Jungian, and developer of the Open Studio Project has stated, the arts are available to Humanistic approaches to the arts therapies; these approaches are thereby everyone; no one profession or group has sole control over the arts; they validated within existing psychological theories. This has undeniable ben­ are there for all to use. As you read this issue we invite reflection, discus­ efits, since the psychologies in question tend to be well-developed in both sion and critique. We think it is possible for psychology and the art thera­ theory and practice. Moreover there are many areas of convergence be­ pies of drama, dance, music and art to forge new relationships with each tween the arts therapies and psychology which make it only natural for other and with professional artists. The use of the listserv of Division 10 is connections to be noticed. Such convergence has been commented upon one forum for this. We also invite your comments at an e-mail address we by expressive arts therapists as well (S. Levine, 1997; E. Levine, 1995). have set up for this special issue at [email protected]. Basing the practice of the creative and expressive arts therapies upon References psychological theory, however, runs the risk of neglecting or diminishing Allen, P. (1995). Coyote comes in from the cold: The evolution of the open the specific aspect that distinguishes these therapies: their essential involve­ studio concept. Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 12, 161- 166. ment with the arts. To begin with psychology means that aesthetics will Berger, J. (1972). Ways of seeing. London: Penguin Books. always need to be placed in an existing perspective; it will always be sub­ Burnaford, G., Aprill, A. & Weiss, C. (Eds.) (2001). Renaissance in the class­ sidiary to that perspective rather than serve as the basis of the work. This room: Arts integration and meaningful learning. Mahwah, NJ.: Lawrence secondary theoretical status of the aesthetic dimension is reflected in thera­ Erlbaum Associates. peutic practice, in which the arts therapies are seen as helpful but adjunc­ Camic, P.M., Rhodes, J. E. & Yardley, L. (2002) (Eds.). Qualitative methods tive methods. Consequently, there is often a tension between arts thera­ in psychology: Expanding perspectives in methodology and design Washing­ pists' view of their own work and the roles which they are given within ton, D. C: American Psychological Association, institutional settings. Eisner, E. W. (1981). On the differences between scientific and artistic ap­ proaches to qualitative research. Educational Researcher, 10, 5-9. Moreover, the adjunctive role of the arts therapies in relation to psychol­ Eisner, E. W. (1991). The enlightened eye. New York: Macmillan. ogy has important theoretical and practical implications. If one begins Eisner, E. W. (2002). On the art and science of qualitative research in psy with a psychological approach, the arts wilt be seen as reflections of chology. In P. M. Camic. J. E. Rhodes & L. Yardley (Eds.), Qualitative • psychological processes. A painting, for example, will be understood methods in psychology- Expanding perspectives in methodology and de- 'lJ ^ as an outer expression of an inner feeling. Therefore it should be pos- Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts sible for the art therapist to interpret the meaning of the painting in terms ern philosophical thinking and to establish a new basis for knowledge in of the client's inner psychological state. This approach, which seems rea­ artistic practice. He does this by counterposing the philosophical tradition sonable enough at first glance, nevertheless runs the risk of reductionism rooted in Plato with a new understanding of the origins of tragic art by looking for the meaning of the art-work in something outside of itself. (Nietzsche, 1967). We can see the danger of this in psycho-biographical approaches to the In terms of the scholarship of Nietzsche's time, tragedy was understood arts, which tend to sec the artist's work as "nothing but" a reflection of his as a literary art, one in which the poetic language of the drama gave form to or her life. the chaotic events which overturned the protagonists' lives. For Nietzsche, In order not to fall prey to reductionism, we must try to understand the however, this emphasis on the formal perfection of tragic discourse over­ essential nature of the aesthetic dimension without basing it upon another looks what was most striking in the actual performance of tragic drama: the realm of existence. Expressive arts therapy rejects a reductionist approach song and dance of the chorus. The language of the protagonists was founded to the arts and places aesthetics at the center of its theory and practice. To upon the music of the chorus; and this reflects the origins of tragedy in the understand the centrality of aesthetics for expressive arts therapy, we need dithyramb, the communal song and dance in praise of the god Dionysus. to revision certain key steps in the history of Western philosophical think­ Tragedy for Nietzsche was first and foremost a Dionysian art, as the ing about art. In doing so, we will see that it is primarily in contemporary performance of the plays at festivals dedicated to that god would indicate. thought that the therapeutic aesthetics of expressive arts therapy finds its Nietzsche contrasted the individual protagonists, speaking in measured place. verse, with the collective singing and dancing of the choral throng. He As long as we take for granted the traditional framework of philosophi­ described the former as following Apollo, the Greek god of light, logic, cal understanding, the aesthetic dimension of existence will be relegated to law and individuality. The chorus, on the other hand, could be seen as a secondary role, if it is recognized at all. This is because traditional theory devotees of Dionysus, the god of the vine, of communal intoxication and is founded upon a devaluing of the senses, the basis of aesthetic experi­ orgiastic celebration. ence. The use of different arts disciplines in expressive arts therapy, on the Nietzsche's theory of the origin of tragedy has been subjected to a great other hand, is based upon an understanding of their rootedness in the sen­ deal of debate and criticism. What is most important, however, is not the sory modalities of the body. validity of the historical account he gives but the new mode of thinking The body is the medium of human expression; all of the arts disciplines that he employs and the way in which it changes the role which the tradi­ owe their power to their ability to draw upon particular sensory modalities, tion of philosophy assigns to the arts. Philosophy, for Nietzsche, is essen­ either singly or in combination. Each art discipline achieves its goals by tially Apollonian. It is based on the primacy of the individual, of reason, transforming sensory experience into imagination. On the basis of this imagi- form and order. In its thinking of what is as eternal, unchanging form, it nal transformation of the senses, meaning emerges in a sensuous, embod­ neglects the chaotic world of the body, of sensible experience, time, and ied form. The origin of the work is in the body's capacity for expression death. It tries to escape from this world of change into an eternal realm of and in the power of the imagination to transform sensory experience into the unchanging; but in so doing it reveals a powerful will that is ignorant of artistic form. its own action.' Several questions emerge from this perspective. What is sensory experi­ Tragedy, on the other hand, is able to show the inherence of the ence? How are the different senses brought together in the expressive body? Apollonian, the logical world of the individual, in the Dionysian, the cha­ What is the imagination, and what is the relationship of imagination to otic striving of the collective. In fact, the Apollonian world of art, for sensing and to memory? What is artistic form, and what kind of meaning Nietzsche, is itself an effect of the Dionysian will, an attempt to look exist­ emerges from it? Finally, and most importantly, what is the relationship of ence in the face and accept it for what it is: a chaos in which all things come the arts to human suffering? How can the arts have a therapeutic effect? into being and pass away, in which there is no permanent foundation for Aesthetics in the Philosophical Tradition thinking or being, only change. Temporal existence causes suffering; art If we look at traditional philosophical approaches to the arts, we will see gives us a way to affirm our suffering and to find joy even in destruction. that the arts have primarily been understood as modes of representation. In Given Nietzsche's perspective on existence, his understanding of think­ the philosophy of Plato, which has served as the foundation of Western ing must also change. If Being is chaos not cosmos, if its essence is time thought, art-making, poiesis, is understood as a form of imitation, mimesis. rather than eternity, how can we think it? Concepts and definitions seem to The basis of aesthetic understanding, for Plato, is that art is an imitation of fix Being and thereby lose its temporal quality. Therefore, for Nietzsche, it sensible reality, the spatio-temporal world of change. This changeable world, is not to concepts that we must look for truth but to images. Only the im­ in which things come into being and pass away, is itself only an imitation age, with its basis in the concrete and sensible, can claim to grasp the es­ of an unchanging world of form. Thus the arts, for Plato, are imitations of sence of truth. It is for this reason that Nietzsche uses the figures of Apollo an imitation and therefore can have no relationship to truth. They belong to and Dionysus, not as illustrations of his thoughts, but as modes of thinking the realm of seeming rather than being; they lead to illusions and false themselves. Thinking becomes imaginal for Nietzsche; the thinker must opinions rather than stable, unchanging knowledge. Moreover, the arts stir become an artist if he is to come close to truth. up the passions and appetites. As directed to the emotional aspects of the The Valuation of the Arts in Post-Modern Thought psyche, they lead people away from reason, the part of the soul that knows The themes of Nietzsche's thinking recur again in the work of Martin what is best for the person and therefore should be in control. Therefore, Heidegger, whose writings have become a source for contemporary post­ Plato bans the arts from the just city described in The Republic. modern thought. In Being and Time, Heidegger's most systematic work, he Plato's criticism of the arts is not based on a denial of their power. Rather, attempts to think through the consequences of conceiving Being not as it is precisely because the arts have such a powerful effect that they can eternal form but as temporal change. Human being must be thought as lead the citizen away from his proper role in an ordered polity. The image finite and therefore temporal in order to be understood. This means that for of chaos and collective disorder haunts Plato's Republic. These dangerous Heidegger there is no other world in terms of which the thinker can find the conditions can only be kept at bay by an ordering of the whole based upon principles of existence. Rather the human being is to be thought of as a knowledge of what is. "being-in-the world." He or she is the being who is there (Da-sein, being- In the Platonic dialogues, we can see the beginning of the split between there), one who is situated at this time, in this place. What is characteristic art and science which has come to characterize the Western tradition of of Dasein, unlike other beings, however, is that it knows that it is there; it aesthetics. The arts are seen as antagonistic to knowledge; they have noth­ has an understanding of Being and, ultimately, of its own being as finite ing to do with truth but are rather relegated to the realm of the emotions and temporal. Dasein knows it will die; it is a being-towards-death. This and the imagination. Philosophy wants reality not illusion, being not seem­ knowledge produces dread (Angst), the fear of nothingness which is al­ ing. From the traditional philosophical perspective, the arts work through most too terrible to be borne. Dasein must decide whether it will accept its images which appeal to the emotions and therefore lead away from rational own finitude or flee from it into the anonymous realm of the impersonal knowledge. Most importantly, the arts are enemies of order; their reliance "one" (Das Man, the "they"-self which pertains to everyone and is not my on the senses and the material world means that they can never attain to the own, in the way that my death can only be my own). If Dasein can accept formal perfection which belongs to true being. There is, as Plato says, an its own Finitude, its existence will become authentic (eigentlich, one's own ancient quarrel between philosophy and poetry, which can only be resolved or proper way to be). Otherwise it will suffer from an inability to be itself, by the dominance of rational thought (Plato, 1961). from what we might call an ontological pathology (Heidegger, 1962). It is not until Nietzsche that we find a philosopher willing to give the „ Both in the form and content of Being and Time, there is little that arts a fundamental place in the search for truth. Nietzsche's The Birth % ^ explicitly pertains to the arts. It is not until Heidegger's essays in the of Tragedy is an attempt to challenge the premises of traditional West- -f\3 !jv 1930's that he begins to view art as directly bearing upon human exist- Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2) ence. In the essay, "On the Origin of the Work of Art," Heidegger sees the forms are broken. Fragmentary and seemingly chaotic works are presented authentic art-work as setting up a world in which humans can dwell (in the in which a more appropriate kind of truth for our time becomes apparent. If way, for example, that the Greek temple was able to accomplish, by becom­ art is to be healing in a post-modern age, it can only be an art which gives ing a center of meaning and activity for the community). This setting-up of up its claim to be a representation of what is, a claim which led to the a world, for Heidegger, is possible only insofar as the work also sets itself conclusion that the only legitimate goal of the arts was the restoration of back into the earth, the "material" out of which it is made. The work re­ order. In a disordered world, art-making must find forms in which the chaos veals the earth as the bearing ground which itself can never be mastered or of contemporary experience is given a place. The traditional understanding revealed. Thus the work is a conflict or "rift" (Riss) between world and of poiesis has to be re-thought in order to be able to account for the healing earth; it is both revealing and concealing. In the enactment of this conflict, capacity of the arts today. the truth of an historical people comes to take a stand. Art, for Heidegger, Embodiment and the Work of Art is the "setting-itself-into-work" of truth. In the truth which the work re­ One place to begin such a re-thinking is with an understanding of sen­ veals, a people can find a home, a dwelling-place upon the earth (Heidegger, sory experience. Within the traditional philosophical perspective based on 1971). the primacy of unchanging form, it is understandable why bodily experi­ Heidegger's conception of truth as unconcealment, formulated in Being ence, which seems to deal only with the chaos of sensory impressions, and Time, rather than as correspondence to reality, gives the possibility of should be given an inferior place in the hierarchy of Being. However, once re-thinking the relation of art to truth. Art for him is a mode of revelation; we accept that we are beings-in-the-world, we come to realize that it is its proper work is to show what is, to bring it into appearance. Thus art through our bodies that we have our primary access to the world in which cannot be understood as mimesis in the sense of an imitation of existing we live. Maurice Merleau-Ponty, in The Phenomenology of Perception, reality. Rather, art brings that reality into manifestation and, in so doing, follows Heidegger's understanding of Dasein as being-in-the-world by enables it to show itself for what it is in a way that had previously been showing how our existence is grounded in our bodily being. concealed. Merleau-Ponty speaks of "the lived body" ('7e corps vecu") to describe If Heidegger, following the phenomenological method, thinks of truth this bodily being-in-the-world. He thereby distinguishes this lived body as a phenomenon, something that appears, it makes sense for him to turn to from the body as an object of scientific knowledge. It is valid and neces­ the arts as primary modes of manifestation. When Being is conceived of sary to objectify the body and to acquire an analytic understanding of its within the horizon of time, truth cannot be thought as corresponding to a functioning; but we must remember that this scientific understanding is timeless state of affairs. Rather, truth is always becoming; it is a continual founded upon the more primary awareness that we have of our bodies in process of unconcealing, a showing in which what is comes to manifest sensory experience. If embodied existence is primary, then the scientific itself. This manifestation in the work is itself not something eternal (as if conception of the body cannot be used as a foundation for the understand­ art could escape time and mortality) but rather an event which happens ing of the proper meaning of our experience. Rather, the objectifying analysis only insofar as there are those who care for what has come to be revealed. of the body should be seen as the result of a particular operation of under­ The work requires preservers as well as creators if it is to take its place in standing undertaken for the specific purposes of explanation and control the world. Once the historical actuality of the work is gone, it becomes a (Merleau-Ponty, 1962). museum piece, of interest only for its trace of an earlier life. One consequence of Merleau-Ponty's perspective on the lived body is In his later essays, Heidegger returns again and again to the works of the that, through phenomenological reflection on bodily experience, we come poets, particularly Holderlin, for traces of this world-revealing power of to realize that this experience is not the chaotic welter of impressions which the work of art. For Heidegger, the contemporary world has lost its capac­ it has traditionally been understood to be, on the basis of the assumption of ity to "hold" the work; rather the world has become a technological world a pre-given objective reality. If we begin with an objectified concept of of "enframing" (Gestell) in which all things have value only insofar as they nature and view the body within that perspective, we will tend to see the can be "placed" within the project of technical domination. Heidegger body as the passive recipient of sensory impressions which have no mean­ wonders, as Hegel did, whether art can today have the world-historical ing of their own and which therefore require an act of judgment in which power of revealing truth that it once had. they are brought together according to a principle or law. But if we attend This nostalgic quality of Heidegger's thought is largely absent from the to our own bodily experience, we immediately realize that it is always al­ post-modern philosophy which otherwise follows him. Post-modern thought ready intentional; bodily experience reveals a meaningful world. Sensing (for example, the work of Derrida and Lyotard) can be understood as an takes place within an understanding of the world in which I exist. What I attempt to think in a non-foundational way, to take seriously (and play­ sense always makes sense; there is a pattern or structure to sensory experi­ fully) the absence of a stable, unchanging realm of truth upon which one ence. I do not experience the world as a meaningless chaos of sense data; can ground one's thinking. From a post-modem perspective, there is no rather the world is given to me through the senses as charged with signifi­ eternal unchanging world of form to which thinking can aspire. Therefore cance. The world has sense; perception is the revelation of this sense. there are no principles which can serve as legitimating grounds for dis­ However this sense is always local. It is the particular sensible reality course. Post-modernity, as Lyotard says, is suspicious of meta-narratives. that manifests itself to me, not an unchanging form which can be detached It rejects the assumption that there is a single framework of understanding without any loss of meaning. In aesthetic experience as well, the qualities which can be taken for granted as providing a basis for thought (Lyotard, of the work always have a local and specific meaning. There is never, for 1984). example, color in general; there is the local color in a painting which has This absence of a ground gives an abyssal quality to post-modern think­ an effect only in relation to the other colors and shapes in the work. More­ ing. On the one hand, it is drawn to the images of disaster, destruction and over the work of the artist as a whole is itself embodied in a sensory man­ horror contained in recent history. The Holocaust becomes the emblem of ner. It expresses a style, not a formula. We recognize it immediately, but we post-modernity's rejection of reason as ground. If for Hegel it was still cannot reduce it to a set of principles. possible to believe in the working of the "cunning of reason" in history, The traditional philosophical understanding of artistic experience as despite the historical tragedies of which he was well aware, post-modernity's imposing abstract form upon senseless matter, therefore, has to be rethought. consciousness of the "totalizing" quality of the Holocaust makes it impos­ The artist was seen as forming matter by reference to an idea which he or sible (or obscene) to imagine any purpose or meaning to it at all. Thus the she held beforehand in an intellectual understanding. But if matter as sen­ nothingness which for Heidegger is part of human existence as finite being sible already "makes sense," then the role of the artist is not to act as a becomes an historical actuality, as the taken-for-granted authority of tradi­ creative deity making order out of chaos. Rather it is to allow the "sense" tion disappears. of the work to emerge from its "materials." In art-making, we often have On the other hand, the absence of ground gives an unprecedented free­ the experience of forms arising from the brush-stroke, the movement, the dom and lightness to thought. Nietzsche advised his successors to laugh at words. The intention with which we begin is always transformed by our the terrors of existence; post-modern philosophers have embodied a ludic encounter with the materials of our artistic discipline. Often there is the spirit in their work, a playful quality in which wit, joke and word-play are experience of "receiving" the work rather than of "making" it. The work is seen as more valid than theoretical proposition or moral judgment. given to us; it is a gift which comes only when we can be open and recep­ The arts are valued in post-modernity, therefore, either for their ability tive to it. We cannot know in advance nor control what will emerge, though to find new forms for the encounter with the abyss or for their capacity to of course afterwards we can use our understanding in a critical, reflective dance and laugh on its edge. The post-Holocaust poetry of Paul Celan i. way to edit and revise. and the "tragic-comedies" of Samuel Beckett are two exemplary modes %£~ The work always exceeds our prior intention. It arrives as a surprise of post-modern art. What is interesting is that in both cases traditional ^J «jA which brings new insight and awareness. It is never a "representation," Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts in the sense of a mere reproduction of a pre-existing reality. Nor does it What is it about the work that gives it the power to move or touch us? represent a prior mental state. The genuine work brings a "surplus of mean­ Perhaps it is the very sensory character of the work that renders it so pow­ ing" which results in new understanding. For this reason, the work cannot erful. The work "re-presents" the world only in the sense that it makes it be inteipreted backwards to reveal the psychology of its maker. There is present again; i.e., the work makes the world manifest in a fully concrete, always a gap or space between the psyche and the work; this gap makes it sensible way. Even a literary work has this effect; we hear the sounds of the possible that the work can give us something new, that it can transform our poem; we imagine concretely the characters in the novel. No abstract state­ experience rather than merely reproduce it. Certainly interpretation is still ment can have this immediate impact. The work gives us the world again as possible; but it can only be a "hermeneutic" interpretation which aims to a living reality. If I can fully enter into the world of the work, I experience show the emerging meaning, not a psychologically reductive one which myself as living in it with a heightened sense of actuality. I am compelled tries to tie it to something already known. or fascinated by the work; it has a hypnotic quality that draws me into it The phenomenological perspective on sensory experience also reveals and produces a fascination that I am reluctant to give up. In fact, we could the shaping activity of the lived body at the primary level of existence. go so far as to say the work affects us so deeply that we experience our­ There is a proto-artistic component to bodily experience. The pre-reflec- selves as changed by it. The world of everyday life looks different when we tive bodily experience of actively encountering a world filled with sensible return to it from the world of the work; and we are not the same as when we meaning makes it comprehensible how art can emerge within human expe­ entered into it. rience. It is not necessary to postulate a special category of "genius" to Art and Suffering account for the work of the artist; rather, one could say that there is an The power of the work is particularly evident when we look at the rela­ element of genius in all of us at the most basic level of our bodily being-in- tionship of art-making to human suffering. In every culture we see the arts the-world, as we actively reveal the shape of our experience rather than being employed as vehicles for both celebration and mourning. Blake's passively endure it. Songs of Innocence and Experience can be seen as emblematic for the ar­ Moreover sensory shaping is thoroughly intermodal. I do not experience tistic encounter with the world. We begin in innocence but inevitably ar­ myself as receiving discrete data through the different senses and then by rive at experience, which means loss, suffering and death. In the case of means of a synthetic judgment combining them into a coherent whole. Rather innocence or experience alike, moreover, we are motivated to "sing," to the world is given to me within a sensible horizon that is open to every celebrate and mourn through the arts. This is one of the paradoxes of artis­ modality of the senses. What I see is also given as what 1 can potentially tic expression: the representation of suffering brings a kind of joy. Through touch, what I can taste or smell as well. There is a unity of perception in tragic art, for example, we are able to "hold" the experience of the suffer­ bodily experience that gives the groundwork for its development into di­ ing of the hero in a way that would perhaps not be bearable were we to verse artistic media which refer back to a common core of experience. undergo it in our own lives. Again, this does not mean that we experience At the same time, this unity is not an identity. Each of the senses, as this suffering less fully; rather it is only through the imaginative form that Jean-Luc Nancy has reminded us, "touches" on the others but is not the we can encounter it for what it is without turning away. same as the others (Nancy, 1996). The senses provide a network of signifi­ It is important to emphasize that artistic representation is not literal re­ cance with multiple cross-references rather than a blending into one iden­ production. Mimesis in the arts is not an attempt to produce an identical tical meaning. This makes possible the specialization of art disciplines, as copy of that which is to be shown. Rather artistic mimesis is always a trans­ the possibilities of each mode of sensory experience can be explored in formation of experience, a metamorphosis which imaginatively recasts ex­ relative isolation from the others. It is only necessary to remember that the perience in radically different forms precisely so that its utmost signifi­ specialized development of the arts is no more "natural" than their combi­ cance can be felt. This understanding of artistic transformation has impor­ nation. We cannot even say that there is a one-to-one correspondence be­ tant implications for the use of the arts in therapy. There is a tendency in tween a sensory modality and a specific art-form. The arts as we know contemporary trauma theory, for example, for suffering to be conceived of them have developed in concrete historical and cultural settings which have as something which needs to be remembered in its literal actuality. The motivated the specific forms with which we are familiar. work of therapy is designed either to re-enact the traumatic experience or The arts shape sensory experience through imaginative modalities. Imagi­ to remember it by representing it in narrative terms. nation finds the form for sensory expression that organizes it in an active, Expressive arts therapy, understood within a phenomenological frame­ meaning-giving way. The imagination can thus give a higher level of sig­ work, conceives experience itself as containing an active shaping-reveal­ nificance to sensory experience. A level of meaning emerges which tran­ ing component. Even trauma is experienced differently by different people, scends the sensory; the work conveys a message which can be taken away depending upon their characteristic shaping of the world. This can be seen and reflected upon. At the same time, this message is embodied through in what is sometimes referred to as the resiliency or resources of the trau­ sensory expression. It too is a local meaning and can never be totally de­ matized person. The same traumatic event will lead to enormously differ­ tached from its embodiment. For this reason, there will never be any final ent outcomes, depending upon the experience of the victim. This does not interpretation of a work of art; there is always more to it than reflective minimize the horror of the trauma; it only reminds us that even under the analysis can understand. worst circumstances, there is an experience which is being undergone, not This relative detachment of embodied meaning is based on the distinc­ just an effect which can be understood objectively. tive relation of works of art to the sensory world. The work takes sensory Moreover the memory of the traumatic event is not a literal representa­ experience out of its immediacy and presents it to us in a wider horizon. In tion. Memory is always an interpretive process, in which an experience the dance, my movement is shaped so that it makes sense in its own right. already shaped by the perceiver is re-shaped through recollection. This It stands out from the flux of movement in the world as something to be does not mean that memory is "false;" rather that "true" memories are those viewed from a distance, distinct from the movement that goes on around it which allow us to have a deeper relationship to the remembered event, in and from my own movement experience. The concept of aesthetic distance order to discern its significance for us at this time. The most effective form is intrinsic to imaginative shaping. Even if, for example, the style of move­ of memory is not the recitation of the "facts" but the imaginative reshaping ment is familiar and resembles everyday movement rather than a highly of experience in such a way as to allow its full power to affect the self and stylized form (e.g., ballet), it nevertheless differentiates itself from my body's others. This is, as Aristotle recognized, the function of artistic mimesis and ordinary movement habits and capacities by being marked off and "framed." the basis of its capacity to heal. Healing in this case does not mean the It no longer goes beyond itself towards a network of purposes but demands elimination of suffering but the ability to find a form for it with which we that we regard it for its own sake. can live (Levine, 2001). At the same time, distance is not indifference. The work has no aesthetic Of course the greater the trauma the more the challenge to the arts to value unless it "touches" us, affects us on a sensory, emotional, and intel­ present it properly. The massive scale of human suffering in our epoch has lectual level. It is precisely because aesthetic distance is achieved that the challenged the capacity of artistic representation. The philosopher Theodore imagination can create works that come closest to our sense of self, that Adomo once said that, "After Auschwitz, there can be no poetry." By that "move" us in the core of our being. The mediated character of the work he presumably meant that not only can there be no poetry about Auschwitz permits it to achieve a level of immediacy that transcends normal sensory but that the very enterprise of art-making implies a hope for the overcom­ experience (except for those moments in which, for example, nature ing of suffering which is a betrayal of the depth of the pain experienced by "touches" us in the perception of beauty). "Experience," in the emphatic the victims of the Holocaust. Compared with the gas chambers, of what sense, is often the result of an encounter with a work. These are moments value is a poem? we remember as among the most powerful in our lives, to be rivaled 54 f And yet the ensuing years have brought a proliferation of art-works only by such primary existential events as birth, love and death. ij^. specifically designed to represent the Holocaust, both by those who Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2) have undergone the experiences themselves and by others who only wit­ ing. This poetic capacity is based upon our primary bodily inherence in the nessed from afar. Is there an experience of suffering so total that any attempt world. As beings-in-the-world, we can never get outside of this world in at representation is doomed to failure? Or is it rather that in the face of new order to master or comprehend it. Rather we have only the limited capacity forms of suffering, new modes of representation must be developed as well? to understand things from our point of view and to shape them within the It seems that we have no choice, if we are to go on being human. What is limits of our powers and their malleability. This means that our work will characteristic of human being is poiesis, the act of knowing by making, never be finished. shaping our reality through sensible and imaginative transformation. Within a therapeutic framework, we can never say that we have been Indeed we could say that one of the greatest sources of human suffering is healed or cured, only that we are on the way to healing. The therapist is a the inability to give shape to our experience. The client or patient in therapy guide on a journey in which he or she is also a participant. We are therefore often has a feeling of helplessness; their sense-making capacity is blocked, responsible for our work, both the art-work and the "work" of therapy it­ and they feel that they merely passively undergo their experience. The use self. The therapeutic experience does not only use art; it is itself an aes­ of the arts in therapy can then restore a sense of capacity, an "I am able" that thetic experience that calls upon the full range of our human capacity for is usually lacking in their experience. Moreover artistic mimesis can enable sensing and sense-making. Only such an experience can do justice to the clients to form a different relationship to their experience. Imaginative re­ suffering that leads our clients to ask for our help. shaping may not only provide a feeling of empowerment but may also help Expressive arts therapy is not so much a particular technique of thera­ to achieve new significance on an embodied level. peutic action as it is a general approach to the practice of therapy. Whether There is a tendency in this direction in the narrative turn in post-modern it employs more than one artistic modality in a session or not, it always psychology; but often narration is understood therein as primarily cognitive carries with it a sense of the human being as engaged in the world through and linguistic, the telling of one's story in a new way. Expressive arts therapy the senses, as capable of imaginatively transforming that world and as sen­ allows for the story to be told in a fully embodied manner, thus recalling the sitive and responsive to the effects of their own and others' work. Therapy earliest roots of story-telling in the oral tradition. For the narrative act to be takes place within the great collective enterprise of being human in which healing, it must be experienced fully, on the sensory, emotional, and cogni­ we affect each other through our very existence. Our professional identifi­ tive levels. In this sense, therapeutic understanding can be said to be cations are less important than the recognition that no one is exempt from performative. There is a performance of healing which takes place through that claim of mutual responsibility. We must celebrate and mourn together. (he use of the arts in therapy. Performance requires bodily presence on the In our songs of innocence and experience, we will find our way. part of the performer; the detachment of a purely intellectual understanding References must be overcome. Heidegger, M. (1962). Being and lime. New York: Harper and Row Similarly performance requires an engaged and responsive audience to Heidegger, M. (1971). The origin of the work of art, in M. Heidegger, Poetry, be complete. The therapist must be a "witness" to the performance, not in language, thought, pp. 15-87. New York: Harper and Row. the sense of a disinterested observer but as someone who lets themselves be Knill, P. (1999). Soul nourishment, or the intermodal language of imagina­ tion, in S. Levine and E. Levine {Eds.) Foundations of expressive arts therapy: fully affected on all levels by what is presented. The effectiveness of the Theoretical and clinical perspectives. London: Jessica Kingsley. presentation often requires aesthetic intervention on the part of the thera­ Knill, P. (1995). Minstrels of soul: Intermodal expressive therapy. Toronto: pist; he or she must help the client find the appropriate form for their expe­ Palmerston Press. rience. This often means not being content with the initial expression of Levine, E. (\995).Tendtng the fire: Studies in art, therapy and creativity. feelings but re-shaping that expression until it touches the "effective real­ Toronto: Palmerston Press. ity" of the client (Knill, 1995), i.e., until it has an impact that "affects" them. Levine, S. and Levine, E., (Eds.), (1999). Foundations of expressive arts This approach has sometimes been called a "work-oriented" or "oeuvre- therapy: Theoretical and clinical perspectives. London: Jessica Kingsley. Levine, S. (2001). Mimetic wounds: Trauma and drama in psychotherapy oriented" approach to expressive arts therapy. (Knill, 1999) and the arts, Poiesis- A Journal of the Arts and Communication, 3. The usual distinction between process and product does not help to grasp Levine, S. (1997). Poiesis: The language of psychology and the speech of this method. Psychologically-based approaches to the arts therapies tend to the arts. London: Jessica Kingsley. emphasize the self-experience of the client in the process of creating. There McNiff, S. (1981). The arts m psychotherapy. Springfield, IL: Charles C. is often a neglect of the work that emerges from thjs process. The work itself Thomas. is valued primarily for its ability to reflect the client's inner state. In a more Merleau-Ponty, M. (1962). The phenomenology of perception. London:Routledge. artistically-oriented approach, on the other hand, the work is seen as tran­ Nancy, J.-L. (1996). Why are there several arts and not just one?, in J.-L. scending the initial motivation that brings it into being. Certainly the client Nancy, The muses. Stanford: Stanford University Press. may have something in mind; but as the work develops it tends to take on a Nietzsche, F. (1967). The birth of tragedy. New York: Vintage Books. life of its own. Its value, in fact, consists in what it brings that was not Plato, (1961). The republic, in E. Hamilton and H. Cairns (Eds.), The col­ previously present, that arrives as a surprise that takes the breath away. Art- lected dialogues of Plato. New York: Bollingen Foundation. making is not self-expression; but neither is it divorced from the experience Resources of the maker. In fact, the value of the work depends on the extent to which it Expressive Arts Therapy has its roots in the formation of the Expressive Therapy program at Lesley University (then Lesley College) in Cambridge, speaks to that experience. In this sense only, the product can be said to be MA, in the early 1970's by Shaun McNiff, Paolo Knill, Norma Canner and judged by the process, i.e., by the impact it has on the client's experience. others. Lesley has trained hundreds of expressive arts therapists at the MA Therapists, if they can achieve a state of openness to what is emerging, level since that time and has recently developed a doctoral program in the ex­ will themselves be lead to an aesthetic response; they will be moved to re­ pressive therapies. In the last decade, the California Institute of Integral Stud­ spond to the client's work through an artistic expression of their own. Again, ies in San Francisco has begun an MA program in EXA; and the European this differs from the ordinary conception of "witness," where the witness is Graduate School (EGS) in Saas Fee, Switzerland, has started both MA and PhD programs in EXA in cooperation with the International Network of Ex­ understood as confirming the validity of the experience of the client by "re­ pressive Arts Therapy Training Centers. EGS Press publishes the journal, flecting" or "mirroring" it. Just as the work does not "mirror" the inner Poiesis: A Journal of the Arts and Communication, which often contains work psychological state of the client (it does not reproduce it but transcends it in by or relevant to expressive arts therapists, as well as the books by Knill and E. the direction of a new emergent meaning), so the response of the therapist is Levine mentioned in the bibliography. There is also a professional organiza­ not a reproductive witnessing. In a work-oriented approach to expressive tion, the International Expressive Arts Therapy Association (1EATA), that reg­ arts therapy, witnessing means responding, shaping a response through an isters practitioners, holds conferences and provides a focus for professional aesthetic form. This giving and taking between client and therapist is in fact work in the field. The following is a list of Internet contacts for those who wish further information: a specific version of normal human interaction; we never passively mirror or reflect each other but are always modified by the acts of the other. Human California Institute of Integral Studies: www.ciis.edu interaction always requires response. Aesthetic responsibility demands that European Graduate School: www.rhone.ch/egs EGS Press: [email protected] we respond to an art-work in the language of the arts, rather than through an IEATA: www.ieata.org interpretation which stems from another region of being. Lesley University: www.lesley.edu Conclusion Expressive arts therapy is based upon an aesthetics of human existence. Stephen Levine The human being is conceived as an active shaper of their world, one who 18 Wells Street takes the materials of the world that have been given to them and re- j Toronto, Ontario M5R 1P3 shapes these materials into meaningful form. Human existence is po­ Canada etic; i.e., poiesis is the basis of our acts of meaning-giving and receiv- Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts view our ways of knowing as having the ability to generate new knowl­ edge. We paradoxically describe how the use of art in therapy enables a person to heal with the help of creative energies and imaginative insights, Creating Outside the Lines: but we do not apply this belief to the creation of knowledge. Art therapy is Enlarging Psychological Research through the Arts by definition an integration of artistic and psychological processes, yet the artistic aspect stays off to the side when it comes to the discourse as to the Shaun McNiff nature of research. Endicott College There is something to be said for staying focused on accepted methods A New Frontier for Research of inquiry in order to "cross-over" and attract attention from the larger As an artist with a long history of studying the creative process I ask why psychological community. Systematic studies according to established rules is it that we do not use the methods of artistic inquiry to learn more about also require focus and discipline. Don't mix frameworks, Rudolf Camap artistic phenomena? Why have we attempted to explain the dynamics of advised (1950), unless you want confusion. Knowledge tends to grow creativity with psychological systems that do not speak the language of art, through a process of accumulation within the boundaries of different frame­ that do not resonate with the object of inquiry? In philosophy the situation works, all operating according to their respective conventions. New disci­ can be likened to an attempt to restrict the examination of aesthetic experi­ plines and perspectives on experience have generally adapted themselves ence to the rules of logic. Reasoned analysis is a wonderful tool, my Jesuit to established traditions as a way of entering the academic discourse. Yet, mentor used to say, but it can only go so far. We need other ways of reflec­ the creative arts therapies need to be in the world of psychology but not tion to engage the total spectrum of experience. completely of it. Total merger dilutes the unique qualities of the minority Analytic examinations tend to progress along linear and singular tracks, partner. exclude everything outside the pre-detennined boundaries of inquiry, and It is time to consider a post-assimilation era in the creative arts thera­ operate according to established rules. The creative imagination is in many pies. While accommodating to the mainstream, we can also strive to ad­ ways antithetical to logical analysis, although it makes good use of reason vance artistic ways of knowing. A discipline created through an integration as a reflective guide and critic of its musings. of parts can continue to be more than one thing. If art can help a person Imagination is an integrating intelligence that encourages us to operate transform the most vexing personal problems, conflicts, and doubts into outside the lines of the more conventional discourse, to consider illogical affirmations of life, then why can't it do the same for our understanding of relations, to follow visions and intuitions, and incorporate all of our expe­ the human condition? If the arts in therapy enable us to gain access to rience, including reason, into a mix of ingredients that find their way to insights and ways of relating to situations that emerge from outside the synthesis. Where many problems are best examined according to the strict lines of analytic inquiry, why do we keep this intelligence in a secondary rules of logical analysis, others invite a less circumscribed and more pro­ role providing data for the more primary process of psychological analy­ cess-oriented inquiry. sis? Art therapists and supporters from mainstream health professions af­ As contrasted to the step-by-step sequence of analysis, the imagination firm the unique therapeutic processes of the creative experience, yet these leaps, seizes, and transforms. Where linear modes of problem solving cal­ intelligences are not appreciated as ways of contributing to our more for­ culate exact progressions, imagination entertains unlikely possibilities, cooks mal understanding of human experience. with a broad spectrum of ingredients, and creates ideas through new com­ Like psychology, art therapy research has adhered to the principles of binations and relationships. scientism that have dominated the pursuit of knowledge for the past cen­ Beginning with Thomas Hobbes in the mid 1600's imagination was tury. Scientism is the belief that true knowledge about life can only be viewed as a connecting and integrating power which functions organically gained through linear, cause and effect science. The new physics of the as contrasted to mechanistic chains of thought. Creating through new com­ twentieth century has been dissolving scientism by revealing a radically binations of phenomena, imagination embraces contributions from the arts, different basis of reality. But psychology has been slow to align itself with science, reason, perception, memory, and emotion. For 150 years after this more dynamic and imaginative perspective on reality as a field of con­ Hobbes, imagination was viewed as a mediating intelligence, a "middle stant interaction and creative transformation. The quantum view of the world place" between perception and reason (Akenside, 1744), and as an "inter­ is actually very close to the way in which we perceive the dynamics of mediate faculty" (Coleridge, 1817). However, the past century's one-sided creativity. orientation to linear scientific specialization has reversed these earlier gains. In 1979 I participated in the invitational Conference on Creative Art Through the "practice" of creative art therapies, disciplines that are them­ Therapies sponsored by the American Psychiatric Association. The APA selves combinations of arts and sciences, the integrating intelligence of the was extending support to the creative arts therapies that were described in creative imagination has resurfaced. However the creative arts therapies the conference report as "struggling for recognition." In his address to the eager to gain recognition according to the prevailing psychological culture conference Israel Zwerling, a psychiatrist, shared his observations of the have yet to seize the opportunities suggested by practice. The genius of arts in therapy. He described how it might be the use of the right hemi­ imagination does its work every day in the creative arts therapy studio, but sphere of the brain that enables the creative arts to "more directly tap" most practitioners continue to think about what they do and describe out­ emotional realms rather the cognitive dimensions in which traditional thera­ comes through linear psychological systems. pies tend to operate. He said, "the creative arts therapies evoke responses, Accommodation to the established psychological culture cannot be dis­ precisely at the level at which psychotherapists seek to engage their pa­ missed as irrelevant for disciplines hoping to establish a foothold in the tients more directly and more immediately than do any of the more tradi­ mainstream. My discipline of art therapy and the other creative arts thera­ tional verbal therapies" (Zwerling, 1979, p. 843). pies have relied exclusively on behavioral science research methods be­ Beginning with the early discoveries of Sigmund Freud and C. G. Jung, cause we hope to justify ourselves according to the values of the dominant the arts have been viewed as opening realms inaccessible to language. Yet culture (McNiff, 1998). We want to integrate with the mainstream health we continue to overlook how the creative process might "more directly systems and so we have naturally chosen to translate what we do into com­ tap" areas of experience that we seek to understand through psychological munications that others will understand. inquiry. Can we apply what we know from therapeutic experiences with However, if we examine the contemporary spectrum of research meth­ the arts to the larger context of human understanding? Artistic processes ods, we are likely to find new partners who more closely resonate with the do tap areas of experience forever isolated from linear conceptual analysis. dynamics of the creative process. The innovations of classroom teachers in The arts not only gain access to these realms but they express them and practitioner research are especially supportive of art-based inquiry. Karen bring them to new levels of synthesis. Gallas, critical of education's reliance on professional researchers who are In his address Zwerling said, "The question: 'To which category of therapy distant from the classroom milieu, envisions the classroom as a place where do the creative arts therapies belong?' plainly can be answered only by the a teacher can establish a "research community" gathering and interpreting context in which they are used" (Zwerling, p. 844). The same applies to the data to improve teaching and learning. Since the arts convey the thinking application of the creative process to psychological inquiry and the ques­ of young children, Gallas recommends that teacher-researchers look at these tion as to what category of research they belong. The relevance and effi­ expressions without preconceptions and with the goal of "perceiving new cacy of the arts depends completely upon the nature of the problem being patterns" that will inform human understanding (1994). examined, the particular context, and the goals of the researchers. In keep­ Many of us in the arts have never considered that research can be con- or c& ing with Carnap, and perhaps quantum physics, an experience can only ducted according to the principles of artistic inquiry and we do not be understood in terms of the specific situation or relationship and L*V according to the perspective of the viewer. Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2) Although my bias against dualistic systems and a preference for the inte­ out for reflection and interpretation. gration of disciplines have prevented use of the bicameral theories of the From the start, phenomenology has been a radical school of thought. As brain in my studies of creativity, we might follow the logic of Zwerling's with all progressive movements there is no single approach that character­ analysis and ask, are we ready to consider psychological inquiries that uti­ izes the history of the whole. However, within all of phenomenology, from lize both hemispheres of the brain? Can we open to a new context of dis­ Husserl to Derrida, there is a consistent insistence on re-framing the basic covery that makes use of creative expression as a way of learning more ways we view the world with the goal of getting beyond conceptual veils about itself? Can we more directly research these phenomena through their that obscure how things really are. Letting go of familiar perspectives on own languages of expression? Are the creative arts therapies willing to life can be unsettling. As T. S. Eliot observed, "Humankind cannot bear step outside the box of traditional psychological thinking, the very box that very much reality." we have wanted to enter as valued partners? And most importantly, might Creative discovery requires a willingness to embrace experiences that this expanded inquiry into the nature and effects of creative experience do not fit neatly into what we already know. In the most adventurous forms expand our understanding of other realms of experience? of art-based research, we may not have a sense of the ultimate outcome at "The Thing Things": the beginning of the study. As an artist friend said to me, the problem with Connections to Phenomenology It's Radical Re-visioning some painters is that they want to be at the end when they are at the begin­ At the beginning of the twentieth century when the quantum view of a ning. When painting is practiced as a process of inquiry, the composition deeper world of relationships began to take shape, Edmund Husserl cri­ will emerge. tiqued the reigning scientism of philosophy. Like the quantum physicists, The most open-ended forms of artistic inquiry always start with the blank Husser! was deeply committed to science. He addressed the dogmatism of canvas. For some, the open space is perceived as an intimidating emptiness theories and tired perspectives on experience that blocked access to a deeper while others see it as an inviting spaciousness, ready to receive whatever way of looking at the world. appears through the process of painting. A gesture is made on the canvas Phenomenology's call for a return to the things themselves suggested and others build upon it. If the painter is able to let go of preconceptions, paying closer attention to experience and implementing less biased ways something completely new will emerge. The emanation of unexpected im­ of observation, what might be viewed as a purer science. In keeping with ages reinforces Husserl's sense of a "life-world" that exists outside the ancient Buddhist teachings, our attitudes about life block perception of boundaries of thought. what is happening in the present moment. Phenomenology attempted to The new arrivals invite us to look at them without explanatory concepts "bracket" our theories and explanations with the goal of paying closer at­ or labels that block perception of their physical qualities. Expression, Rudolf tention to the object of inquiry. Arnheim emphasizes, is a characteristic of the physical structure of the Husserl suggested a "life world" (Lebens^velt) that existed outside the image (1954, 1972). Similarly, Heidegger in describing how phenomena scope of language and explanation. Martin Heidegger, building upon express themselves according to their particular qualities, declared that "the HusserPs description of an "originary presentive intuition" as the basis of thing things." He lays down the challenge to art-based research to allow knowing, called this realm the "givenness" (Gegebenheit) of experience "the thing.. .a free field to display its thingly nature character directly"( 1971, (Moran, 2000, pp. 10-12.). These primary states might be equated to the p. 25). particles and waves of energy investigated by quantum physics, phenom­ Objects and images express themselves independent of the theories and ena that were at the turn of the century outside the existing bounds of knowl­ thoughts that we have about them. We have been so focused on trying to edge. At the present time the experiences of the arts similarly lie outside determine what a painting "means" according to our conceptual views of the domain of traditional psychological descriptions and measurements. the world that we fail to open to its purely visual and kinetic qualities and Artistic methods of inquiry are aligned with the basic tenets of phenom- energies. Our mediating concepts block more direct relationships with phe­ enological thought. What matters in both areas is paying close attention to nomena. phenomena. Everything depends, as Jung suggested, on how we look. In Images will always bear the signature of an artist's style and personal encouraging ways of "looking psychologically," Jung said, "Give it your history with the medium just like children carry traces of parents. The pro­ special attention, concentrate on it, and observe its alterations objectively" cess of creation is always connected to a context of some kind and these (Chodorow, 1997, p. 170). factors are among the many topics that invite further understanding through Art does not have to be disconnected from science. Both modes of in­ art-based research. quiry closely observe phenomena in ways that lead to transformations of Although training in the creative process requires the ability to embrace matter and consciousness. An obstacle to new knowledge in both art and openness and undefined situations, students in both art and psychology science is scientism that requires us to operate exclusively within the lines also need to learn how to operate within the lines of methods that enable of a governing paradigm. them to systematically investigate an issue according to universal rules and 1 must acknowledge that in my experience the great majority of people consistent procedures. The tenets of behavioral science are unarguably valu­ are eager and willing to stay within the lines of the prevailing psychologi­ able contributors to the advancement of knowledge. The problem lies in cal theories and methods of inquiry. The average person is not typically the one-sided insistence that these methods are to be applied to every prob­ eager to embrace the unknown and to perfect the practice of disciplines lem and life situation and the willingness to overlook what emerges from that are not sanctioned by mainstream institutions. John Keats described outside the parameters of the method. this ability as Negative Capability, the willingness to be immersed in un­ The following examples will hopefully demonstrate how the enhance­ certainty, as we say today, the willingness to think outside the box. ment of the practice of creative expression may require modes of inquiry The process of creative inquiry can be arduous and full of conflict. Open­ that operate outside the lines of procedures currently sanctioned by behav­ ing to new areas of creation inevitably leads to a temporary loss of control, ioral science. confusion, and maybe a certain destruction of habitual patterns. Samples of Practitioner Research In keeping with Nietzsche's assertion to "break, break, break" in order My experimentation with art-based inquiry has been focused on practi­ to create anew, Steve Levine describes how creation requires that we "go tioner research. I am primarily concerned with the process of researching through the experience of disintegration" in order to refashion ourselves what we do with the arts and my goal is the improvement and expansion of (1992, p. 22). The average person has little desire to take on this type of practice. Art-based inquiries take us closer to experience, closer to pure dissolution. I do not always enjoy it myself, but the nature of my work scientific observation, and they tend to involve a truly empirical process of requires a sustained openness to the forces of creative transformation. Ex­ experimentation. This orientation assures that outcomes can ultimately be perience has taught me that the deeper movements of creation require a measured by standards of practicality and usefulness. certain degree of destruction. 1 have also discovered, as reported in Trust The strongest rationale for adventurous art-based research may be its the process (1998), that if we stay with the necessary conflicts of creation ability to further the training and ongoing education of those who use the within a safe and supportive community, the process will always deliver us arts in work with others in therapy, health, education, and other settings. intact and transformed to "the other side" of experience. Before one undertakes the responsibility of guiding others through the depths 1 repeatedly releam how losing my way in the creative process is neces­ of the creative process, it is wise to personally experience and contemplate sary to new discovery. 1 need to go outside the lines of the familiar to find the terrain, to undertake studies that augment our practice and understand­ the new. As with the classic Dionysian cycle of being torn apart and put ing of the creative process. back together again, we are transformed and re-energized when we "re­ Tremendous opportunities are lost in educational programs when stu­ turn" from creative activities where the experience prevails over the dents do not immerse themselves in the phenomena being studied. plan. It is the troubling and difficult experiences that continuously call ••; Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Frankly, most of our art therapy training programs spend considerably more ing them to others, but it generally keeps us located in more distant per­ time operating within behavioral science paradigms than exploring the dy­ spective of description. We discovered through our experimentation with namics of artistic processes. imaginal dialogue that significant shifts in perception, in our feelings to­ It has been my students who consistently teach me the most convincing ward images, and in the energetic effects of the images of us, occurred lessons about the importance of art-based research. I just observed the work when we engaged them through the more intimate and poetic speech of of an undergraduate student who completed a research project focused on dialogue. the movement basis of painting. The outcomes of the study not only in­ In the tradition of Jung's practice of active imagination, we used cre­ clude an understanding of the kinetic foundations of painting but the stu­ ative expression to enlarge our experience of the image. When paintings dent and her supervisors observed how the expressive vitality and original­ and sculptures were poetically personified as living things, we learned much ity of her paintings improved over the course of the study. The student more about their expressive qualities. researched a movement-based approach to painting that will help her and People who questioned the sanity of this way of talking "to" and "with" others express themselves more freely. In the project entitled "Painting images were reminded that we were practicing "poetic" rather than "lit­ with My Shoulder, " the researcher explores how body awareness enables eral" speech. We noticed how the more poetic dialogue went further and the artist to paint from every aspect of her "physical self (Eschauzier, deeper and seemed to engage the heart in a more complete way when we 2001). Although every phase of the student's study emanated from the blank stopped talking "about" images and began interacting "with" them. Over­ canvas, the consistent focus on the movement theme anchored the explora­ all the process of imaginal dialogue sustained the artistic process from the tion into the unknown. making of the images through the reflection upon them. Where art therapy has historically focused on the mental aspects of ex­ The dialogue process aroused a different kind of feeling state and cre­ pression and painting from the unconscious "mind," this student's focus ative energy and it had a distinct effect on the participants. Rather than on painting from the "shoulder" offers a refreshing new perspective that making art and shifting into the more removed and conceptual reflection re-frames the conceptual and operational basis of art therapy. We tend to upon the work, poetic dialogue kept us in the creative zone or condition. look at paintings in terms of messages and meanings couched unconsciously As Jung said, we imagined the images further through our responses. in verbal communications and concepts. Within the art therapy field very A distinctly vital and palliative energy became a primary feature of the little has been done to understand the way in which kinesis, the circulation process. 1 believe the therapeutic outcomes of the work had more to do of energy, and mind/ body integration generated by the painting process, with changes in emotions and group atmosphere than it did with the in­ affect healing. triguing insights offered the process of dialogue. The atmosphere of imagi­ This straightforward study initiated by an undergraduate student can be nation dissolved the usual conceptual and problem solving goals of therapy. widely expanded in future inquires by other researchers. Different kinds of In To the lighthouse, Virginia Woolf describes the animating effects of movements with varying materials might be examined. Sustained and rep­ "a rain of energy" that permeates the air "like a fountain and spray of life" etitious movements can be compared to dissimilar gestures. The effects of (1927, p. 58). I have only begun to realize after three decades of practice long vs. short durations of movement can be compared. Subjects may de­ that art's primary medicine is the energy of the experience that animates scribe their responses to different kinds of movement, the way in which groups and individuals. their sensibilities changed or did not change during the process, the effects As 1 continued to experiment with imaginal dialogue, I discovered how that particular exercises might have on their expressive spontaneity, and so it has certain limitations in groups where my goal is to engage everyone in forth. Similar comparisons may be made with the way in which we per­ the expressive energy of art. Most people have to make a considerable ceive different movement qualities within paintings. Methods of inquiry effort to shift from literal to imaginal speech. Although the results are al­ might combine artistic experimentation with behavioral science techniques ways surprising and useful when access to the imaginal realm is reached, it of data gathering and analysis. The range of possibilities growing from the is also a highly focused and individual activity. elemental focus on movement and painting is endless. When working with groups of people I can only demonstrate the dia­ In another art-based study a doctoral student surprised me with the rich­ loguing process with one person while others observe. The process of pen­ ness of possibilities involved with the process of painting mandalas and etration also takes time and highly focused attention. In my group work I responding to them with the goal of understanding the "experience of draw­ have begun to give more attention to improvisational responses to artworks ing mandalas" (Laplante, 2000). The quality of the work was significantly with movement, sound, performance, and ritual. This way of responding influenced by the researcher's personal artistic skills that enabled her to through the body brings a "lightness" and fluidity to the work that differs offer a completely fresh and insightful treatment of the ubiquitous mandala from dialogue. motif. The study also involved co-researchers who like the primary re­ Experimentation with dialogue helped me to understand where it can be searcher painted a series of mandalas and reflected upon them within inter­ used most effectively and where other methods are preferable. 1 also began views. I had dismissed mandala drawing as a stock and over-used art therapy to realize that while imaginal dialogue significantly expands the scope of exercise and I was taken aback by the intelligence and artistic sophistica­ descriptive speech, we are still limited by the linear frame of narrative and tion of the study that helped me see this very familiar activity in new and words. expansive ways. I discovered how the interpretation of images through bodily gestures I learned that my perception of the mandala as an artistic cliche resulted and sounds actually enables us to more completely perceive, express, and from the way it was being treated by other people. The study taught me amplify the energetic qualities of the artworks. The bodily expressions of how the way in which the researcher organizes and conducts the inquiry people in my groups help me establish a deeper connection and under­ has a significant impact on its ultimate value. The artfulness of the research standing of the expressive features of their pictures and sculptures. The and its presentation will affect the quality of the outcome. artworks also inspire and motivate fascinating bodily expressions that The study revealed that the process of making mandalas and the reflec­ emerge in relation to the images. One artwork generates another in an on­ tions upon them generated personally meaningful reactions in the partici­ going sequence of expression. People report a distinctly different kind of pants. The researcher described how the "mandalas became the sanctuaries energy generated by the ritual expressions and the attention given to them in which the soul life of each of us was nurtured" (Ibid., p 152). The depth by group members acting as witnesses. They consistently describe how the and variety of responses also reinforced the evocative powers of the mandala group environment becomes "sacred" and "filled with creative energy." motif when approached with artistic freedom. These discoveries could not Over the years participants in my groups have felt that the full engage­ have been made or documented without a serious and sustained commit­ ment of the body, performance, sound, and ritual generates a stronger cre­ ment by the participants to artistic expression as a way of inquiry. ative energy in the studio space that in due course acts upon them. They My own recent interests in art-based research have been focused on un­ describe how the environment stimulates personal changes and a sense of derstanding the effects of responding to paintings and three-dimensional healing. Healing is defined as the transformation of troubling feelings and artworks with movement, sound, performance, and ritual. My 1992 book conflicts into affirmations of life as well as an acceptance of the present Art as medicine documents methods of responding to artworks through conditions of life. imaginal dialogue. After many years of using descriptive narratives to com­ I am realizing now that these more recent experimentations with the ar­ municate what happened during the process of making a painting as well as tistic process sustain and intensify the phenomenological process of giving using this type of language to convey what we see in paintings and how attention to an image or experience. As we respond to artworks with the they affect us, I discovered that narrative has great limitations. I- fi total range of our senses and our expressive faculties, the experiences Of course the narrative mode will always convey volumes of infor- ^ affect us in more complete ways. The outcomes of the process are thus rnation and it is a vital way of understanding perceptions and convey- -f\S "V,- proportionate to and multiplied by what we give to it. The work is Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2) enhanced by the most complete circulation of creative energy that moves Heidegger, M. (1971). Poetry, language, thought. Trans, by A. Hofstadter. in unexpected and highly individual ways within the members of the group. New York, Harper and Row. The distinctly personal relationships that individuals have with the cre­ Laplante, M. A. (2000). Drawing the mandala: A spiritual path to whole­ ative process accounts for much of its positive effect upon them. This mode ness. Doctor of Ministry Dissertation, St. Stephen's College, Edmonton, Alberta. of practice fits within the quantum vision of the world as an ongoing inter­ Levine, S. (1992). Poiesis: The language of psychology and the speech of play of energies and entities whose natures constantly change as a result of the soul. Palmerston Press, Toronto. Moran, D. (2000,) Introduction to phenomenology. London and New York, the interactions. Routledge. In my studios 1 welcome troubling and negative experiences. I do not McNiff, S. (1992). Art as medicine: Creating a therapy of imagination. Bos­ want to give the impression that this work is always pleasant and sancti­ ton, Shambhala Publications. fied. People are often afraid of expression, intimidated by bad experiences McNiff, S. (1998). Trust the process: An artistic guide to letting go. Boston, in the past, and sensitive to the necessary perils of creation. Yet this very Shambhala Publications. engagement of tension and fear within the creative process is what often McNiff, S. (1998). Art-based research. London, Jessica Kingsley. accounts for the deepest movements within the studio environment. If I Woolf, V. (] 927). To the lighthouse. New York, Harcourt, Brace and World. can create a safe environment for people, we consistently find that conflict Zwerling, 1. (1979). The creative arts therapies as 'real therapies,' Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 30, 841-844. becomes an agent of creative transformation. This discovery is consistent with the insistence of Carl Rogers that when given support and freedom Shaun McNiff healthy groups will find their way to equilibrium. Provost and Dean, In a recent group a woman made an artistic object with materials from Endicott College nature and later took the risk of doing a completely spontaneous and un­ Beverly, Massachusetts 01915 planned enactment with it before the group of thirty-five people. She per­ formed ritual movements and sounds while holding the object in an inti­ mate position. After the work was completed, she described how she entered a state of being like nothing previously experienced. "I don't have words for it," she C.I.S.M.E.W.: The Arts in Clinical Training said. "It was totally new and energizing and deeply moving." She tapped Paul M. Camic into the realm that Zwerling described as outside our descriptive concepts Columbia College Chicago and language, a state of experience that may be likened to HusserPs "life- and world" and Heidegger's "givenness". The creative process moved outside University of Chicago Medical School the lines of our regular experience with the world. Introduction Art-based research offers opportunities to explore these frontiers of ex­ Discussion over what constitutes appropriate clinical training curricula perience, to expand inquiry in a way envisioned by the early phe- in doctoral level psychology programs sometimes reminds me of the re­ nomenologists. The need to go beyond our habitual perceptions of the world, ported disputation between Galileo and the Roman Catholic Church hier­ as expressed one hundred years ago by Husserl, is still present today. archy of the early 17lh century: both involve the introduction of new ideas Experimentations with artistic inquiry have revealed that there are deeper into belief systems that are highly resistant to discovery, innovation and and more comprehensive ways of perceiving life experiences and express­ creativity. The 17,h century debate, which concerned deeply held Aristote­ ing our reactions to them. These ways may not be for the majority of people, lian beliefs of an earth centered universe versus Galileo's empirical obser­ but they can find a place in the world of research, especially within com­ vations that supported a sun centered solar system, are like late 20lh century munities where artists are engaged with deepening our understanding of polemics in clinical psychology surrounding the difficulty in accepting that the human condition. As artists involve themselves in art-based research our original conception of clinical training is not fixed and permanent. they will not only contribute to the making of new knowledge but they will Professional psychology's row over what model of clinical training best perfect and expand their own creative capacities and skills. suits doctoral level education has not adequately addressed however, what Growth of art-based research will contribute yet another way of viewing should truly constitute the "clinical" part of clinical and counseling psy­ and understanding human experience. The implementation of this type of chology training. Perhaps because of our innate conservatism, desire to be inquiry will be obstructed if arguments as to the truth or falsity of the out­ scientific and fear of muddying the field, this debate has gone underground. comes are conducted only within the realm of prevailing psychological In this article I present a rationale for the use of the arts as one option to standards and measurements. Of course art-based research must submit expand graduate training opportunities in clinical and counseling psychol­ itself to scrutiny, careful assessment, and the evaluation of outcomes, but ogy. As the current curricula in most graduate programs leaves little room this realm needs to be judged according to its own criteria of usefulness, for new programming, I will first briefly identify some of the specific prob­ aesthetic quality, and effects upon people. lems inherent in the training philosophies of North American doctoral pro­ The ultimate value of art-based research may simply be the presence and grams, as well as major components of the curriculum which, like Aristote­ refinement of another way of paying attention to experience, a way that lian physics and Ptolemaic astronomy, need to be relegated to history texts will collaborate with psychological research methods to initiate a more and not contemporary clinical instruction. This will be followed by a ratio­ complete understanding of the creative process and our relations with the nale for incorporating the arts in professional psychology and conclude world. Experimentation outside the lines of established inquiry will always with suggestions for a demonstration curriculum that incorporates the arts enrich what happens within them and generate a more complete view of in doctoral level training. Seen in another way, incorporating the arts in our human potential. clinical/counseling programs can be viewed as one means to further clini­ References cians' and clinical researchers' interdisciplinary clinical training, as we Akenside, M. (1744). The pleasures of imaginations. London: R, Dodsley. have seen over the last decade with the expanding influence of neuroscience, Arnheim, R. (1954). Art andvisual perception: A psychology ofthe creative anthropology, sociology, and cultural studies in graduate psychology edu­ eye cation. Before proceeding, two caveats; by clinical training I refer to doc­ Berkeley and Los Angeles. University of California Press. Arnheim, R. (1972). Toward a psychology of art. Berkeley and Los Angeles. toral level Ph.D. and Psy.D. programs in clinical and counseling psychol­ University of California Press. ogy, including community clinical, clinical developmental, and clinical- Carnap, R. (1950). Empiricism, semantics, and ontology. Revue Internationale counseling programs. As Moses and Aron debated the best word for god, de Philosophie 4. in Schoenberg's opera Moses undAron set in 13,h century B.C.E., the term Chodorow, J. (1997). Jung on active imagination. Princeton, New Jersey: "the arts" often causes much confusion if not resistance when considered Princeton University Press. in connection with psychotherapy and counseling. Unfortunately the En­ Coleridge, S. (1907). Biographia literana, 1817. J. Shawcross, (Ed.), Lon­ glish language contains no term to adequately describe art as a process and don, Oxford University Press. not a product. It is the process of the arts that is the focus of therapeutic arts Eschauzier, 1. (2001). Painting with my shoulder. BFA Capstone Project, Endicott College, Beverly, MA. modalities. In the Netherlands for example, training programs in the arts Gadamer, H. (1994). Truth and method. Second, revised edition; Translation and psychology are titled "creative therapies" thus avoiding the confusion revised by J. Weinsheinier and D. G. Marshall. New York, Continuum. with professional fine and performing arts. For the purposes of this be­ Gallas, K. (1994). The Languages of learning: How children talk, write, J^. ginning discussion about the arts and clinical training within psychol­ dance, draw, and sing their understanding of the world. New York, Teach­ ogy, an acronym, CISMEW, will be employed-somewhat seriously, ers College Press. ^j £/V somewhat tongue-in-cheek- to separate the professional fine and per- Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts formance arts with those used in clinical practice. The term refers to the gists, physicists, and others from the physical and biological sciences. The work's heart, the process of the arts, and not the final product, as we are so model has also allowed clinical psychology research to gain significantly accustomed to spotlight in our culture today when speaking of the arts. in stature and prestige in the eyes of federal and private funding sources, CISMEW, creating images, sound, movement, enactment and words, while medical schools, and policy makers, and probably most important, the sci­ somewhat of a tongue twister, takes us away from discussions of formal entist-practitioner model has produced work that has contributed to the artistic training, styles of expression and congressional funding priorities betterment of humankind. However, there are two significant problems with and places our sights on the creative process involved within sound mak­ this model of research training in a clinical training program. The first, and ing, image producing, movement, ritual, and much later in expressive writ­ one that is more extensively addressed elsewhere, is the exclusive exami­ ing, all of which were the forerunners to the arts as we know them today nation of knowledge through verifiable or non-falsifiable hypotheses es­ (Dissanayake, 1988). tablished as fact or probable laws (Gage, 1989; McGrath and Johnson, The Beginnings of Clinical Work in Psychology 2002). The philosophical foundation of this model is one of human beings Space permits but a brief history of clinical and counseling psychology's having a universal nature that is quantifiable, controllable and predictable, role in psychotherapy over the past several decades. Most of us are prob­ in or out of a laboratory environment. Yet in the one hundred or so years of ably aware that clinical psychology emanated from German and American clinical psychology research few universals have been found. This model laboratories and was not at the outset seen as an applied psychology. Early of research significantly shapes a model of clinical training, the second behavioral research in university laboratories and later in child guidance problem that will now be addressed. clinics, provided initial evidence of how psychological theories can be ap­ Clinical training occurring in doctoral programs that rigorously adhere plied to human problems in the form of an intervention. It was at this point to the scientist-practitioner model of training tend to put practica and sup­ that the divergence from psychology's philosophical roots and the quest porting clinical instruction courses in a dusty corner of the overarching toward making psychology a science began in earnest. For much of its curriculum. The emphasis of these programs is to teach students to do re­ early history clinical psychology was seen as a research field. During the search, publish their findings, and secure an academic appointment. Yet, Second World War psychometric testing became more widely valued and graduates of these programs are eligible to sit for state and provincial li­ clinical psychologists begin to enter mental health facilities. In the last half cense examinations as professional psychologists with all the rights and of the 20,h century, clinical psychologists expanded beyond the roles of responsibilities of becoming a licensed psychologist who can have a clini­ researcher and psychometrician in universities and government agencies, cal practice. A graduate of a leading west coast clinical psychology pro­ to those of diagnostician and psychotherapist in hospitals and community gram recently told me how little he learned about doing clinical work when clinics. In these new roles behavioral and psychoanalytic theories of treat­ in graduate school (Larson, D. G., 1995, personal communication) and ment held sway initially, followed by existential, humanistic, and cognitive how psychotherapy experience was left to his internship and postdoctoral approaches. years. I have heard the same complaint from many clinical interns during Counseling psychology is a more recent addition to clinical work having supervisory sessions over the past fifteen years as well as from colleagues its roots in the guidance and counseling domains of university counseling working in these programs. Aside from the ethical concerns involved in centers and schools of education. Its psychotherapeutic theories histori­ these situations, when clinical training actually occurs, the positivism model cally have been influenced by humanistic and existential philosophy but of research overly determines the clinical perspective of faculty and stu­ currently reflect psychodynamic, cognitive, and behavioral perspectives as dents. In a carryover from the researcher's search for truth or probable well. Counseling psychology's approach to intervention has been far less truth, the clinician's worldview can become skewed (Prilleltensky & Fox, based on reductionism as seen in the "medical model" so prevalent in clini­ 1997). Psychological problems become quantifiable and we lose useful cal psychology and has sought to look at the strengths of a person, group, rich description (Kvale, 1996); treatment becomes based on diagnostic cri­ or system and expand upon them. Persons holding clinical and counseling teria which lacks any consideration for a Likert type scale range of symp­ doctorates from APA accredited programs, with requisite clinical training toms; tolerance for ambiguity and uncertainty is diminished, and diagnos­ experience, can be licensed in all American states and Canadian provinces, tic training results in learning specific treatment formulas as opposed to thus providing a vast array of accepted clinical services throughout North how to be with a client (Giorgi, 1970). In an environment such as this, it is America. Along with the enormous increase of doctoral trained psycholo­ not surprising the arts or CISMEW have not yet found a meaningful place gists over the past 30 years there has been a marked decrease in psychiatry in clinical work or research. residency programs that offer training in psychotherapy. Current managed After much spirited debate in professional psychology circles and for­ care and insurance reimbursement schemes have also contributed to a de­ mal APA committees, the inflexibility of this training philosophy was aug­ cline in psychiatry as a provider of psychotherapy services. Clearly clinical mented by additional models that questioned the notion of "scientist" as a and counseling psychology hold a leadership position in training psycho­ goal of clinical training. While not disparaging of the critical importance therapy clinicians and clinical researchers on this continent. Precisely be­ of scientific training it is arguable whether training in scientific psychol­ cause of this leadership position, I believe that psychologists can be the ogy best prepares students to work with the problems of human beings. ones to further utilize the arts in the process of healing and personal growth, This is also not to say that art, the artistic process, or the therapeutic ben­ two important goals of psychotherapy. efits of the arts in therapy (Long, 1998) cannot be studied scientifically Philosophies of clinical training using quantitative and/or qualitative methodologies (Ansdell & Pavlicevic, Depending on whether clinical psychology is seen—as a science, or as 2001; Kaplan, 2000) but it does raise the question of what is more impor­ an art and science, or as an art—will influence the major philosophical tant in psychological research, the questions we raise or the "sacredness" approaches to clinical training. Likewise, incorporating the arts in clinical of our methodologies (see McNiff, this issue). training will be influenced significantly by the program's training model. The xscholar-practitionre model was one result of those debates. Popu­ There arc presently four main training models employed by North Ameri­ lar in many Ph.D. programs in counseling psychology as well as some in can clinical and counseling psychology programs. The first and most promi­ clinical psychology, the scholar-practitioner model de-emphasizes the role nent model, especially among Ph.D. programs in clinical psychology, is of the active scientist. Instead, it presents a philosophy of training that that of the scientist-practitioner. The tenets of this model include the pri­ seeks to balance clinical work and research training in graduate school, macy of research training within graduate education as a foundation from which will supposedly result in clinical-academic careers and full time cli­ which to build other skills and abilities. Training in research methods is nicians who are more fully cognizant of how to access research findings as almost exclusively that of theoretical positivism or postpositivism which a result of their training. It is under such a model that a concentration in holds an ontological search for truth (or at least what is probably true) as expressive arts and creativity was developed in an APA accredited clinical its objective. The epistemology of these two paradigms is both dualistic psychology program in 1996. An offshoot of this model is the practitioner- and objectivistic with postpositivism gently modifying dualism into "pos­ scholar, a model popular with some Psy.D. programs. Here the emphasis is sibilities and probabilities" and labeling this critical realism (Cook & on training clinicians who can apply research findings to their clinical work. Campbell, 1979). The values of the researcher-scientist are excluded from This brings me to the last model to be addressed in this article, that of the discussion and their influence denied. The voice of the investigator is that practitioner. The doctoral trained psychologist version of the medical doc­ of a disinterested scientist and the aim of the inquiry is explanation through tor, the practitioner model of training is unabashedly found at most Psy.D. prediction and control. programs. Going back to my metaphor of 17lh century Rome, one is re­ The scientist-practitioner model and its attendant research paradigms „ n minded of the seriousness and ferocity by the believers in an earth cen­ have served clinical psychology well. It has allowed clinical psychol- % tered universe. Some reading this article may also vividly recall the ogy to sit at the same academic table with biologists, chemists, geolo- -f%^ %j\ hubris of some of our scientist-practitioner colleagues when they spoke Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2) of the sacredness of their philosophy of training during the debates of the and questionable clinical utility, the Rorschach remains the most time con­ 1970 and 80s. The stubbornness of Pope Urban VIII not to grant clemency suming instrument for a graduate student to master and one of the most to Galileo was reflected almost 400 years later in Ph.D. clinical psychol­ cumbersome to score and interpret, not withstanding the advances devel­ ogy program directors' responses to the idea that there may be another way oped by Exner (1993). In examining the many training and scoring manu­ to carry out clinical training. During these debates the lack of empirical als for the Rorschach (e.g. Beck, Exner, Rappaport, Kloppfer) not one al­ evidence in support of a research laden clinical training curriculum-as a ludes to what Arnheim (1969, pp. 80-96) calls "the past in the present". superior model of training-from the advocates of empiricism was chilling Arnheim discusses the importance of not seeing a perceptual act as an iso­ indeed. The very idea that a doctoral training program in clinical psychol­ lated, stored experience of the past as many psychologists do (p. 80). He ogy need not place as much focus (or even very much focus) on research contends while the influence of memory on perception is powerful, it is training was as blasphemous it seemed as the Dutch and French scientists also limited, and we cannot put perceptions in the present (a response to a who vocalized their support of Galileo. The philosophical debates con­ Rorschach or TAT card) into "cubbyholes" constructed in the past (the in­ tinue but eventually David emerged along side Goliath and the APA de­ terpretation of a response to the Rorschach and TAT material as uncon­ cided that both sides won and the practitioner model of training became an scious projection). Rorschach interpretive systems do not consider how altemative-a sort of separate but equal-partner in training North America's the visual percept came into being in the first place. Percepts have to origi­ future clinical psychologists. nate somewhere and if we agree with the current interpretive systems of The differences of opinion about the place of clinical training within these instruments, we are also accepting that all perception of visual stimuli doctoral education in clinical/counseling psychology have not been resolved. have their origin in the past. This becomes reductionistic and does not A Likert scale of clinical psychology doctoral training programs is upon answer the first question of how percepts come to be, nor does it answer us: the scientist-practitioners (1), scholar-practitioners (2), practitioner- how present environmental stimuli shape percepts. scholars (3), and practitioners (4). Just as only four items are not ideal for The Rorschach assumes the "healthier" respondent will not consider the instruments utilizing Likert style measurement, so neither is it ideal that primary organization of the stimulus (the inkblot) to be too elementary or clinical and counseling psychology hold philosophies of clinical training too complex to warrant attention, thus perhaps missing some important that arc obsolete. It is in expanding the notions of what is clinical that point of the card's organization, and be on the slippery slope to a psycho­ clinical and counseling psychology training can incorporate the arts as part analytic interpretation. The assumption made by this test is everyone should of clinical practice and research investigation. have something to say about the stimuli and healthier clients will give more Curricula Concerns usual, common and perhaps what some would consider, boring responses. Although present-day graduate curricula contains many required and More creative or unusual responses are coded negatively, implying that elective courses, not all of these courses or practica are necessarily useful deviation from the Rorschach's visual norm is pathological. in training the clinician in the second century of modern American psy­ In addition to not taking creativity into consideration, the Rorschach, chology. It is through a reexamination of the curriculum that a place for the TAT, and HTP have no mechanism by which to examine the process of how arts in clinical training can be forged. One such area that requires profes­ a client develops a response. Does the child drawing a picture of a house sion-wide self examination and critical reflection is the teaching of projec­ (HTP) see the house in her mind's eye first? Is she guided by instruction tive testing. A colleague who directs a clinical psychology program on the from school art classes? Do her cognitive abilities influence her drawing east coast came up to me after a paper presentation (Camic, 1999a) and style or drawing abilities? Or perhaps is it her favorite picture book that passionately suggested that it was time to rethink clinical assessment and she is remembering as she draws? In working with an older adult, what specifically diagnostic psychometric assessment. This individual's concern does he aesthetically perceive upon viewing Card V on the Rorschach? lay in the continuing lack of empirical support and clinical utility for pro­ How does he reconcile the visual image on this card with his past experi­ jective instruments coming at a time when professional psychology is be­ ence of images? What factors lead him to see it that way? Does the image ing questioned by insurance and managed care providers. Other psycholo­ remind him of something from his past or does it seem more like a novel gists and health care professionals also share this concern (Lillienfeld, Wood abstraction in the present? In addition to the concerns about validity and & Garb, 2000) yet all practitioner model clinical training programs and the reliability and the lack of attention to an artistic understanding of the visual majority of those programs following other models of training require ex­ images in these tests, the various interpretive schools of the Rorschach , tensive coursework and practicum in projective testing and assessment. TAT, and HTP have also not examined the aesthetic encounter The resistance to letting these instruments become part of our past history (Csikszentmihalyi & Robinson, 1990) as a factor in determining scoring underscores a lack of innovation in clinical training. One widely used test and interpretation schemes. that needs to be reconsidered as a clinical tool is the House-Tree-Person One way to better understand how clients may come to regard visual Drawing Test, an instrument engaged in assessing unconscious issues and images in projective testing might be to examine what is known about how psychopathology in children and adults. One of the major problems of the artists approach a visual problem or challenge (Brown and Korzenik, 1993; HTP is its failure to take into consideration normal developmental drawing Jones, Runco, Dorman, & Freeland, 1997). If the process of making visual abilities (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1970). Many North American adults have art is considered a serious and valuable endeavor by psychology then per­ drawing abilities that—without formal artistic instruction—remain similar haps clinicians, who use projective techniques involving drawing and vi­ to the drawing ability of an average ten year old (Edwards, 1989). The sual images, can look to artists and art educators as interdisciplinary col­ scoring criteria of the HTP views drawing as a representation of uncon­ laborators (Sarason, 1990). In a system focused on uncovering pathology, scious processes and does not consider aesthetic understanding (Gardner, deviancy and negativity the strengths of a client can be easily overlooked. 1994), creativity (Neuman, 1959; Goswami, 1999), visual perception (Bruce, Clinical programs that highlight uncovering illness as a primary function Green & Georgeson, 1996), or cognition (Solso, 1994) as factors that in­ of training need not ignore creativity, visual and poetic thinking, imagery fluence drawing. Simply seen, the HTP drawings become an artifact of and visualization as well as art making, as areas for both research and clini­ psychopathology or at best, personality. cal work. Two other projective instruments also bear questioning. The Thematic Why bring CISMEW into Clinical Training Programs? Apperception Test, with foreboding black, white and gray images of 1950s With the many advances in neuroscience, neuropsychological assess­ middle class Caucasian Americans, is supposed to assess unconscious re­ ment, and psychopharmacology of the last two decades, as well as the myriad sistances, ego strength, and repressed emotions, most notably related to psychotherapies currently being practiced, why bother including the arts in anger and sex. Scoring this test, which is highly dependent on how a client clinical training? Certainly a legitimate question and one that 1 have been visually interprets the drawing on each card, does not take into consider­ asked many times over the past several years. For the purposes of this spe­ ation the quality of the client's aesthetic response (Aiken, 2001), aesthetic cial issue my discussion about clinical work is limited to the practice of attitude (Gardner, 1973), process of visual thinking (Arnheim, 1969), or psychotherapy. Other clinical endeavors such as assessment, consultation, formal artistic training and experience. Aside from the TAT's history of testing, and psychoeducation, may also benefit from integrating the arts poor reliability and validity as well as questionable clinical utility (Gieser into their practices but that discussion will be left for another time (Camic & Morris, 1999), when using visual images as stimuli in psychometric test­ & Wilson, in preparation). 1 suggest that there is significant theoretical, ing, without considering the factors cited above, the TAT delivers an in­ historical and empirical support to include the arts in psychotherapy train­ complete, if not worthless appraisal. ing in psychology. This support is seen in the evolutionary utility of the A third psychometric instrument that employs visual stimuli is no doubt £p arts, in identifiable psychological mechanisms which occur in arts expe­ the world's best known, the Rorschach Inkblot Test. Although also \ riences and in the role aesthetics play in emotion and cognition. having little empirical support (Wood, Nezworski, & Stejskal, 1996)-i\f Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Evolutionary Utility healing, community building, and cognitive development. This also sug­ Although not agreed upon by all ethologists or evolutionary psycholo­ gests that the aesthetic, psychological, and biological mechanisms related gists (Bradshaw, 2001) there is significant evidence that the arts have etio­ to creating and making arts in contemporary professional arts may have logical utility (Aiken, 2001, 1998; Dissanayake, 1988, 1992, 2000). They both similarities and differences from that of the arts in psychotherapy. The have existed in various forms using different materials for perhaps 800,000 focus of the work by psychotherapists using CISMEW with clients is dif­ years (Bahn, 1998, p. 87) but certainly for the last 200,000 years during the ferent than the work done by artists in their studios; it is only through time of Homo Erectus (Bahn, 1998, p. xv. ), well before modern Homo researching the psychological and aesthetic processes involved in both en­ Sapiens appeared. In every prehistoric, ancient, and contemporary culture deavors that we can come to better understand how the process of art mak­ there is evidence of what we have come to call "the arts" (Marshack, 1991; ing contributes to the well being of clients. Dissanayake, 1992; Bahn, 1998). Well before shamans, scientists, or psy­ The feelings and emotional responses that are experienced when creat­ chologists created their professional roles, the arts existed (Dissanayake, ing (using any of the arts) are different from the external reactions from 1988; Pinker, 1997). The evolutionary utility of the arts has, however, dif­ others to one's creative endeavors (Gedo, 1996). I may feel deep satisfac­ fered throughout history. Using Dissanayake's hypothesis and her exten­ tion at completing a poem which expresses my visit to an island off the sive research suggesting the arts came about to make the ordinary special Maine coast. Working on the poem may allow me to see a new geological (Dissanayake, 1988, 1992), it is possible to trace the development of the formation or observe waves in a neoteric way. Writing the poem may leave arts as an important component of human evolution. Making the ordinary me feeling more connected to the island, my sense of self and my purpose special can be seen across time and culture through synchronizing move­ in the world. These are all significant internal (cognitive and affective) ments into dance, combining sounds in such a way as to create emotional responses that make it likely I will write more poetry. After completing a remembrance, putting words together to create poetic meaning, making dozen or so poems I may decide to attend the open mike night at the local marks on trees, cave walls and tools to record tales of the day, and integrat­ library and the kindly audience listens to one or two of them. There is some ing sound, movement, words, and visual images into rituals and ceremo­ warm laughter, nodding of heads, and a few smiles. While these responses nies. Humans have evolved to create culture, perhaps as part of the need to may provoke a positive impact on me—and encourage me to come again or socialize and belong together with others. The arts, seen ethologically as perhaps submit to the local literary magazine—it is my earlier, internal behaviors which involve participating, creating, observing, and respond­ responses that will bring me back to writing. Intermittent reinforcement ing, are one aspect of culture that allows humans to recreate initial feelings from others (an external response) may or may not increase the volume of of mutuality between mother and infant, and facilitate the need for belong­ my work. This type of reinforcement is likely however, to influence where ing, Finding and making meaning, and gaining physical competence, all of and how 1 publicly recite or publish my poems; it is not likely to affect my which are evolutionarily important (Dissanayake, 2000). These components, emotional responses which come from writing about an early morning sun which are proposed by Dissanayake as a biobehavioral foundation for the intermingling with the night's leftover fog, to create a kind of floating arts are also seen as a way to expand the theoretical and research base for netherworld pierced by the shrill screams of gull-demons. art therapy (Kaplan, 2000) and as a conceptual link for incorporating the Evolutionary theory is limited when psychological needs and emotional arts in psychotherapy (Camic, 1999a). responses are considered only as mechanisms or cues that have prompted When considering evolutionary utility of a behavior such as the arts, H. sapiens on what to do about food, shelter or sex (Dissanayake, 2000). most of the attention of evolutionary psychologists and ethnologists is di­ While an understanding of mechanisms is critical developing a broader rected either toward the art product or what art making activities may gain understanding of changing evolutionary needs would also unify the bio­ externally for the artist (e.g. higher status in a social group, better options logical and the cultural as E. O. Wilson has done with the concept of for mate selection, etc.) (Dissanayake, 2000). What needs to be considered consilience (Wilson, 1998). Consilience takes into consideration ethology, more fully is the emotional affect the art making process-which includes biology, economics, sociology, psychology, religion, and the arts in the visual, kinesthetic and auditory triggers or cues-has on the artist context of examining a changing environment throughout the evolution of (Allen, 1995). A better understanding of what occurs psychologically H. sapiens. The theory of consilience provides a foundation which allows (cognitively, emotionally, perceptually, etc.) for the artist when making art, us to abandon the necessity of reducing ancient or current art making prac­ may help provide needed information of how incorporating the arts into tices from a separate stimulus-response set and to see it as behavior within psychotherapy training can benefit clients. Although it is impossible to a broad cultural context. In connecting making special or what later she establish exactly what emotional responses humans, living thousands of comes to call elaborating, Dissanayake (2000) proposes a bioevolutionary years ago encountered as they created art work, it is likely art making served theory supporting the interrelatedness of art (elaborating) and love (inti­ at least two purposes: the need to understand the unknown and elaboration macy) that considers psychological needs and emotional responses as evo­ of the ordinary and usual. Emotions are involved in both of these purposes. lutionary evidence for understanding why the arts exist. Her theory lends The tension and anxiety associated with the unknown may have been re­ strong support for the importance of art in human evolution, but more closely duced through movement and sound making, which in time became ritual­ related to this special issue, supplies valuable insights into psychological ized by virtue of the strong emotional (internal) response that these activi­ functions and emotional responses that are seen in all the arts, providing a ties triggered for each participant. Likewise, the ordinary things of day to theoretical and practical basis in which to make use of the arts in psycho­ day life such as tools and living spaces invited visual elaboration, perhaps therapy. with markings, design and color, which enhanced their emotional-aesthetic Psychological Mechanisms appeal through evoking ethological releasers (Coss,1968). The artist's For the arts to be a part of psychotherapy practice in professional psy­ emotional responses when making art, including the moments when inspi­ chology, in addition to seeing the arts as evolutionarily important, psycho­ ration coalesces into aesthetic solutions (Aiken, 1998; Browne, 1980; logical mechanisms need to be identified as a part of the art making or Csikszentmihalyi, 1988; Piirto, 1992; Rank, 1989/1932; Wilson, 2001, CISMEW process. Present space limitations do not allow a thorough enough personal communication) are the beginnings of a continuum which also examination of this issue yet there are three concepts which lend additional includes the audience's art viewing experience. (Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972) theoretical and empirical support for incorporating the arts in clinical training This is an important consideration when using CISMEW as part of psycho­ which are briefly introduced below. These are not by any means exhaustive therapy. but hopefully will serve as introductory comments encouraging further The client-creator is simultaneously making, experiencing, viewing and exploration and discussion. evaluating their work in the presence of a therapist. Emotional, cognitive, The Model of Homeostatic Motivation (Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972) pro­ behavioral and aesthetic responses occur concurrently in this therapeutic poses that observing and making art first creates both tension then relief environment. Unlike in professional arts, most of the focus of CISMEW's within an individual, before bringing about a restoration of emotional bal­ work is attending to the process of creating, with an explicit goal to assist ance. For the purposes of psychotherapy I would add it is not always a the client in resolving a conflict and gaining greater understanding of a "restoration" of emotional balance that is possible or desirable, but occa­ problem, these being the "products" or end result of the work. The end sionally the creation or establishment ©/"emotional balance, perhaps for the result of present day arts-oriented psychotherapy may be similar to the first time. In describing this as a motivational model the authors contend, benefits early Hominids experienced in elaborating and making special "The art experience is motivated by tensions which exist prior to its onset, thousands of years ago: gaining control over fear, reducing uncertainty; but (is further) triggered through the productions of new tensions by the increasing emotional competence and establishing social relations. Com- work of art" (p. 16). The initial tensions are "a major motivation for paring early Hominidelaborating with contemporary clients' CISMEW, %P^ art...which exist in the spectator of art prior to his exposure to the helps to possibly clarify the important evolutionary role of the arts in -f>J\, r^V work of art. The work of art mediates the relief of these preexisting Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2) (diffuse) tensions by generating new tensions which are specific (to the art work psychoanalytically or aesthetically, and by not reducing visual or tem­ work)" (p.19). (For further discussion of this rather complex hypothesis poral arts, created in therapy, to totems or symbols of an external reality. see Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972, pp. 20-22). This model proposes that moder­ The art making becomes a part of the therapy and is not a symbol for some ate rises in tension, which occur in art observing behaviors, are regarded as objective "truth" external to the art. This latter concept is open to much pleasant and that very high or very low levels of stimulation are unpleas­ debate among expressive arts therapists as well as psychologists using the ant. Thus depending on an individual's prior experience, cultural back­ arts in therapy. ground, knowledge of art, etc., certain art experiences will be under or It is the various sensory qualities of the object (or experience for the overstimulating and not likely to be found pleasant or desirable. It be­ temporal arts), if optimally stimulating, which activate percepts. Continu­ comes the role of the stimulus within the ing to create art is inclined to lead to more complex art making behaviors I suggest that this same mechanism is intensified when making art (as which trigger further emotional and cognitive responses. These responses opposed to observing) and can be employed therapeutically (Camic, 1999a). require the integration of several meanings, related to both the beliefs of As a client creates a visual piece (see Wadeson, this issue), participates in the client and the stimuli of the situation. For example, the client asks, authentic movement (see Cruz as well as McGinty, this issue), develops an What is this that 1 have painted (or sounds I have formed or spontaneous enactment of an emotional problem (see Rubenstein, this issue) or makes movements I have made)? In answering this question the client must con­ sounds (see Duerksen, this issue), specific tensions are increased within sider a complex set of meanings drawn from their immediate experience the C1SMEW (art making) experience and together with the therapist's and from their history. The answer to this question further directs the ac­ interventions, help to diminish the initial tension (i.e., the initiative reason tion of the client. This process is explained within the theory of cognitive for entering therapy). In a psychotherapy which utilizes any of the arts, orientation which emphasizes behavior as being guided by what a person attending to the optimal level of activation (Fiske & Maddi, 1961) for the believes about him/herself, others, and the world around them. Cognitive client is a key role of the therapist. Without going into too much detail orientation for H. Sapiens continues to evolve and change over the course about the nuances of the therapeutic work, the therapist according to this of thousands of years for the species, and over the course of many weeks of model, acts to both restrict sensory stimulation and induce sensory stimu­ psychotherapy for an individual client. lation, as necessitated by the client and his/her problems, hoping to bring Thus far 1 have discussed psychophysiological, motivational, and cogni­ about an optimal level of stimulation (Schultz, 1965). It is within this opti­ tive mechanisms that may be involved in art making that occurs in the mal level of stimulation, also seen in many other forms of psychotherapy, context of psychotherapy. I will conclude this brief discussion of psycho­ where the most productive work is likely to occur. The mechanism of ten­ logical mechanisms by returning to the work of Ellen Dissanayake (2000). sion reduction through tension induction is not a new concept, first being Dr. Dissanayake is not a psychologist nor an expressive arts therapist but described by Tinbergen (1951). her work has significant implications for both disciplines. Extending the The initial motivating tensions which bring a client to therapy can be work of Bowlby (1969), Ainsworth (1989), and Stern (1985) she provides relieved in part by an optimal increase in tension through CISMEW, thereby some of the missing conceptual links as to why the arts were developmen- diminishing or relieving these initial tension(s). These new tensions brought tally important to early Hominids and how they remain so today. Particu­ about by CI SMEW are specific tensions, as described by Kreitler and larly relevant to our discussion is her contention that the arts are evolution- Kreitler (1972), which can be addressed within the context of therapeutic arily rooted in the spontaneous ability of mothers to produce rhythmically art making in psychotherapy. As early H. Sapiens experienced the tensions coordinated patterns and signals, and for infants to recognize and recipro­ of seasonal changes, births and deaths, illness, encounters with wild ani­ cate them (Dissanayake, 2000, p. 42). These patterns and signals, referred mals, threats from enemies, the rising sun and the onset of darkness, full to as "mutuality" by both Rose (1996) and Dissanayake (2000), and their moons, and other interactions with their environment, they responded corresponding affective resonances between mother and infant (Rose, 1996), through elaboration by creating ritual and ceremony which involved orga­ set the foundation for physical and emotional health throughout life. Ac­ nized movement, rhythmic sound, dramatic performance, and visual dis­ cording to Dissanayake, and I concur, humans evolved to require the signs play (Dissanayake, 1988; 2000). These emotional and aesthetic responses of mutuality—respect, affection, comfort, recognition, praise, emotional and are also encountered by contemporary psychotherapy clients as they support and attention—just as they require water and food. Mutuality is deal with their own burdens, problems and worries through creating im­ the essential building block of our humanity, she believes, and the essence ages, sounds, movements, enactment and writing, likewise engaging in of culture, also something humans have evolved to need. elaboration (art making) to reduce tension from internal and external stresses. Dissanayake provides significant cross-cultural evidence which supports In addition to the homeostatic model which addresses basic motivational the existence of four essential human capacities and psychological needs: principles, the theory of cognitive orientation brings an additional dimen­ belonging, finding and making meaning, 'hands-on' physical competence, sion to our understanding of art making within psychotherapy. This theory and elaborating, all of which stem from mother-infant mutuality and can be attempts to explain found in all cultural groups. She differs from most evolutionary psycholo­ "...that a stimulus turns into a cue only after it is subjected to a series of gists in considering psychological needs and emotional responses not only processes designed to determine its meaning and the relations of this mean­ as mechanisms that prompt us in what to do, but also as "felt indicators of ing to the relations of other concomitant stimuli, external and internal" value that suggest how and why our lives can and should be more humanly (Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972, p. 23). The theory of cognitive orientation, as fulfilling" (p. xv). The arts hold a developmental ly important place for applied to therapeutic art making, involves the following three components: Dissanayake and her work provides additional theoretical support for mak­ it is a process interwoven with the relief and tension sequence evoked by ing use of the arts in psychotherapy. making art; meaning elaboration occurs when experiencing the content of Her concept of mutuality is made up of two characteristics, rhythms and the art, which includes empathic identification with the art, along with the modes, which are patterns that evolved to help sustain the relationship be­ integration of various aspects and levels of making, observing and reflect­ tween mother and infant through years of dependency. The features of ing; the freedom experienced by the client from others not judging her/his rhythms and modes include sounds, facial expressions, and movements. work by professional standards (Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972). These are vocal, visual, and kinetic signals respectively, that are tempo­ In applying the theory of cognitive orientation to CISMEW it is the en­ rally and spatially patterned, dynamically varied and multimodally presented counter with the art medium (clay, paint, movement, development of a char­ and received (Dissanayake, 2000, pp. 129-166). These properties also char­ acter, etc.) which is initially experienced as a stimulus by the client. This acterize ritual ceremonies, the precursors to the arts as we know them to­ stimulus disrupts homeostasis and evokes an orientating response (Lynn, day. The rhythmic-modal behavior which she identifies in rituals and in art 1966). The orientating response includes a number of psychophysiological is also a component of most psychotherapies, manifesting in empathy, changes (heart rate, galvanic skin response, pupil dilation, breathing, brain reflection, support, mirroring, reinforcement, understanding, and deep car­ wave activity, etc.) which facilitate the obtaining of information about the ing on the part of the therapist. Incorporating the arts in psychotherapy art medium, emerging art piece and oneself. The percepts originating at the allows clients to engage in elaboration (Dissanayake, 2000, pp. 129-145), beginning of the client's work are not likely to be conscious (Bucci, 1995). a behavior identified as having evolutionary significance, within the con­ Through continued exploration of the art experience (perhaps verbally but text of client-therapist mutuality. As clients engage in CISMEW, a thera­ not necessarily so) changes in homeostasis occur activating additional per­ peutic form of elaboration, they find and make meaning through both physi­ cepts. Activation of additional percepts by continuing to work with visual cal, hands-on behavior and cognitive operations. objects and/or temporal arts experiences is part of the process of mean­ Other areas beckoning exploration will need to be left to another time. ing elaboration. The therapist facilitates this process by not placing One of these involve the relationship between art experience (in the demands on the client through for example, interpreting the client's &ft arousal, curiosity, and exploration in making and observing one's own Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts work), to the art work's collative stimulus variables such as novelty com­ a historical and anthropological examination of the arts, emerging brain- plexity, heterogeneity of elements, surprisingness, etc. (Berlyne, 1965,1967). behavior research, and clinical research within psychology and the arts The second involves a more in-depth discussion of emotion and aesthetic therapies. In addition to these areas of study, I have found it essential, response (Aiken, 1998). The importance of emotion in psychotherapy is of based on my nearly two decades of experience in graduate education and course obvious and equally, the aesthetic response has a clear connection clinical practice, to include an art-based experiential component in the cur­ to the study of art and nature. The biophysiological and psychological riculum. This is probably the most difficult concept for most psychologists mechanisms of aesthetic response, seen by Aiken (1998, 2001) as an emo­ to accept, yet I believe it to be crucial if we are to train clinicians and tional response, are specifically valuable to CISMEW for both gaining a researchers who will make interdisciplinary contributions to the field. richer understanding of art making within psychotherapy and for appreci­ Special thanks to Linda Edelstein, Ph.D. and Lawrence Wilson^ M.F.A. ating the significance of arts therapies for other populations that are cared for their helpful comments regarding an earlier draft of this article. for by psychologists (eg. medical patients (Long, 1998; Camic, 1999b). References A Demonstration Curriculum Aiken, N. (1998). The biological origins of art. Westport, CT. & London: Psychotherapy broadly defined seeks to heal emotional injuries, increase Praeger. understanding of self and others, develop a capacity for self-reflection, Aiken, N. (2001). An evolutionary perspective on the nature of art Bulletin ofPsycholog y and the Arts, 2, 3-7. reduce symptoms, change behavior, alter thinking patterns, inhibit mal­ Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1989). Attachment beyond infancy. American Psycholo­ adaptive emotional responses, and encourage adaptive emotional responses. gist, 44, 709-716. More recent evolutionary theories (Dissanayake, 1988,1992, 2000; Aiken, Allen, P. (1995). Coyote comes in from the cold: The evolution of the open 1998) lend support for the utility of art making as a series of behaviors with studio concept. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Associa­ emotional and cognitive benefits for the maker of the art as well as audi­ tion, 12, 161-166. ence. Although the function of art making may have changed from ceremo­ Ansdell, G. & Pavficevic, M. (2001). Beginning research in the arts thera­ nial rituals to present day professional art production, arts therapies and pies. Jessica Kingsley: Philadelphia & London. nonprofessional artists making art for themselves, art making remains both Arnheim, R. (1966). Toward a psychology of art. Berkeley- University of California Press. a response and a cue, coming from and creating emotional responses in the Arnheim, R. (1969). Visual thinking. Berkeley: University of California. maker. Bahn, P. G. (1998). Cambridge illustrated history of pre-historic art. Cam­ The goals of psychotherapy can be enhanced through the arts, that which bridge: Cambridge University Press ] call CISMEW, and clinical and counseling psychology can work together Berlyne, D. E. (1965). Measures of aesthetic preference. Sciences de I'Art, with the arts therapies to develop clinical and research protocols to better 3,9-23. understand the psychological, physiological, neurological, biological and Berlyne, D. E. (1967). Arousal and information. In D. Levine (Ed ), Nebraska aesthetic components of this incredible process. In order for psychology to symposium on motivation, (pp. 1-110) Lincoln: University of Nebraska. sit at the same table as the arts therapies however, a curriculum that ad­ Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment. New York: Basic Books. Bradshaw, J.L. (2001). Art brevis, vita longa: The possible evolutionary an­ equately prepares doctoral students for using the arts clinically is essential. tecedents of art and aesthetics. Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts, 2, 7-11 With utmost respect for drama, dance, music and art therapies—and all Brown, M., & Korzenik, D (1993). Art making and education. Urbana & psychology can learn from them—professional psychology must develop a Chicago: University of Illinois Press. curriculum specific to psychological practice. Browne, D. F. (1980). Mirroring in the analysis of an artist. International At the time of writing only one APA approved clinical program has such Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 61, 493-502. a curriculum; the Expressive Therapies and Creativity Concentration at the Bruce, V., Green, P.R., & Georgeson, M.A. (1996). Visual perception: Physi­ ology, psychology and ecology, third edition. East Sussex, U.K.: Psychology Chicago School of Professional Psychology (see their web site for addi­ Press. tional information: www.csopp.edu ). This program offers clinical courses Bucci, W. (1995). The power of narrative: A multiple code account. In J. W. utilizing music, drama, visual art and dance which are specifically designed Pennebaker, (Ed.), Emotion, disclosure and health. Washington, D. C: APA for clinical psychology students. There is also an introductory interdisci­ Books. plinary arts studio class taught by an artist (see Wilson this issue) which Camic, P. M (August, 1998). The biological basis of the arts. Invited paper introduces the plastic arts, performance, music, movement, creative and presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, poetic writing. Additional courses include the psychology of creativity and San Francisco. a capstone course in expressive therapies. This six course sequence, open Camic, P. M. (August, 1999a). Arts-based academic and clinical training in the curriculum of professional psychology. Paper presented at the annual meet­ to advanced students, can be completed over a one-year period and assists ing of the American Psychological Association, Boston. in integrating the arts and CISMEW into clinical work (see Gaugh this Camic, P. M. (1999b). Expanding treatment possibilities for chronic pain issue). The faculty are a team of psychologists, arts therapists, and artists through expressive arts therapies. In C. Malchioti (Ed.), Medical art therapy with extensive graduate school instruction within their own disciplines. As for adults. London & Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley. a demonstration project this program has produced high levels of student Camic, P. M., Rhodes, J. E. and Yardley, L. (2002). (Eds.) Qualitative re­ satisfaction, doctoral dissertation research, and expansion of the clinical search methods in psychology : Expanding perspectives in methodology and "tools" available to psychologists. design. Washington, D. C: American Psychological Association. Camic, P. M. & Wilson, L. E. (in preparation). Playing in the mud: Psychol­ In order to expand clinical training which includes the arts as a minor ogyand the arts in therapy. area of study /concentration in doctoral education, I would suggest consid­ Cook, T. & Campbell, D. T. (1979). Quasi-experimentation: Design and ering the following areas as important components of any such education: analysis Jssues for field settings. Chicago: Rand McNally, Washington. Hands-on experience within an interdisciplinary art studio course which Coss, R.G. (1998). The ethological command in art. Leonardo, I, 273-287. exposes students to movement, writing, performance, visual art, and mu­ Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1988). The dangers of originality: Creativity and the sic. Without the experience of 'playing in the mud' a student will not un­ artistic process. In M. M. Gedo (Ed.), Psychoanalytic explorations in art derstand the power and potential of the arts (Wilson, 1998; Camic & Wil­ Hillsdale, NJ.: Analytic Press. Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Robinson, R. E. (1990). The art of seeing. An inter­ son, in preparation); an ethological-historical overview of the arts through­ pretation of the aesthetic encounter. Mahbu, CA.: Getty Center for Education out Hominid history utilizing the work of Aiken (1998) and Dissanayake in the Arts. (1992; 2000) among others; an introduction to the biophysiology and psy­ Edwards, B. (1989). Drawing on the right side of the brain, (pp 62-76) New chology of clinical aesthetics, which examines how the arts can be utilized York: Tarcher/Pumam. in psychotherapy practice drawing from work in dance/movement, music, Exner, J. (1993). The Rorschach: A comprehensive system, vol I: Basic drama, and art therapies (McNiff, 1981; Levine and Levine, 1999, among foundations, third edition. New York: Wiley & Sons. others); research methods that investigate a variety of approaches to study­ Fiske, D. W., & Maddi, S. R. (1961). A conceptual framework. In D.W. Fiske & S. R. Maddi, (Eds.), Functions of varied experience. Homewood, 1L.: Dorsey. ing the arts in psychotherapy (McNiff, 1998; Camic, Rhodes, & Yardley, Gage, N. (1989). The paradigm wars and their aftermath- A"historical" sketch 2002); supervised clinical practicum work utilizing theories and approaches of research and teaching since 1989. Educational Researcher, 18, 4-10. from the arts therapies and psychology (Warren, 1993; Wiener, 1999). These Gardner, H. (1973). The arts and human development. New York: Basic courses might be titled, Interdisciplinary Art Studio in Psychology, Etho- Books. logical and Anthropologic Perspectives of the Arts, Clinical Aesthetics and Gedo, J. E. (1996). The artist and the emotional world. New York: Columbia Art Making in Psychotherapy, Alternative Methods of Research, and University Press. Practicum in Expressive Arts Therapy, respectively. $ Gieser, L., & Stein, M. I. (Eds.) (1999). Evocative images- The Thematic Apperception Test and the art of projection. Washington, D.C.: American In developing a rigorous doctoral curriculum in psychology and the %£ Psychological Association. arts, one needs to consider evolutionary factors inherent in making art, -f\$% Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2) Giorgi, A. (1970). Psychology as a human science. New York: Harper & interdisciplinary arts course to graduate psychology students. My back­ Row. ground is in theatre and the visual arts; I graduated from a classical theatre Goswami, A. (1999). Quantum creativity. Cresskill, NJ.: Hampton Press. training program, and, after a decade of performing, returned to graduate Jones, K.., Runco, M. A., Dorman, C, & Freeland, D. C. (1997). Influential school for an MA, and later an MFA, from Columbia College Chicago's factors in artist's lives and themes in their artwork. Creativity Research Jour­ program in Interdisciplinary Arts, the oldest in the country. At the time I nal, 70,221-228. Kaplan, F. F. (2000). Art, science and art therapy. London & Philadelphia: was hired by the Chicago School of Professional Psychology (CSPP), to Jessica Kingsley. teach in the Expressive Arts Therapy and Creativity Concentration devel­ Kreitler, H., & Kreitler, S. (1972). Psychology of the arts. Durham: Duke oped by Dr. Paul M. Camic, I was the only professional artist on the faculty University Press. of a psychology graduate school in the United States. CSPP was the only Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews: An introduction to qualitative research in in­ school in the country to offer an experiential studio course designed to terviewing Sage: Thousand Oaks, Ca. & London. introduce graduate students and mental health practitioners to the artistic Levme, S K., & Levine, H. G. (1999). Foundations of expressive arts therapy. modalities. This studio is the first of a six-course sequence within the Con­ London & Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley. Litlienfeld, S. O., Wood, J. M., & Garb, H. N. (2000). The scientific status of centration in Expressive Arts. projective techniques. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, I, 27-66. Before coming to my class, the participants receive the following course Lowcnfeld, V., & Brittain, W. L. (1970). Creative and mental growth, fifth description and rationale: edition. New York: Macmillan. Interdisciplinary Arts Studio Long, J. (1998). Medical art therapy: Using imagery and visual expression in Course Description: healing. In P. M. Camic & S. J. Knight (Eds.), Clinical handbook of health Participants will develop expertise in the five modalities of psychology. Seattle & Toronto: Hogrefe & Huber. Lynn, R. (1996). Attention, arousal and orientating reaction. Oxford- artistic expression (movement, sound, word, performance, and Pergamon. visual arts) through experiential exercises, discussion and class Marshack, A. (1991). The roots of civilization: The cognitive beginnings of projects. The traditional boundaries between artistic disciplines man's Jirst art, symbol and notation, second edition. New York: Moyer Bell: will be discussed, as well as the differences between "multi- McGrath, J. E., & Johnson. B. A. (2002). Methodology makes meaning: How disciplinary" and "inter-disciplinary" approaches. We will qualitative and quantitative paradigms shape evidence and its interpretation. In examine the use of these modalities in community development, P. M. Camic, J. E. Rhodes, & L. Yardley (Eds.), Qualitative research methods therapeutic settings, and for personal enrichment. No formal in psychology: Expanding perspectives in methodology and design. Washing- Ion, D.C.: American Psychological Association. artistic training is required for this class. McNiff, S. (1981). The arts and psychotherapy. Springfield, 1L.: Charles C. Course Rationale: Thomas McNiff, S. (1995). Art-based research. London & Philadelphia: Jessica Becoming proficient in as many of the artistic modalities as Kingsley. possible is vital for health practitioners working with the ex­ Nemiro, J. (1997). Interpretive artists; A qualitative exploration of the cre­ pressive therapies. For the practitionerfocusin g within a single ative process of actors. Creativity Research Journal, 10,229-239. modality, therapeutic opportunities may be lost, as not every Ncuman, E. (1959). Art and the creative unconscious. Princeton: Princeton client may respond well to therapy based solely on visual art, University Press. Pinker, S. (1997). How'ihe mind works. New York: Norton. or movement, or music. In addition, the process of combining Piirto, J. (1992). Understanding those who create. Dayton: Ohio Psychol­ two or more modalities in a single piece of artistic expression ogy Press. embodies incredible therapeutic possibilities. In transcending Prilleltensky, 1. & Fox, D. (1997). Introductory critical psychology. In D. the boundaries between traditional artistic disciplines, one tran­ Fox & I. Prilleltensky (Eds.), Critical psychology: An introduction. London & scends previously-distinct patterns of thought and behavior, Thousand Oaks, CA.: Sage. resulting in an examination of the barriers to expression. Rank, O. (1989/1932/ Art and artist: Creativity, urge and personality de­ "No formal artistic training is required for this class..." It is very impor­ velopment. New York: Norton. Rose, G. J. (1996), Necessary illusion: Art as witness. Madison, CT.: Inter­ tant that I include this statement, as many participants enter with the inhib­ national Universities Press. iting notion that only those with degrees from an established training pro­ Sarason, S. B. (1990). The challenge of art to psychology. New Haven: Yale gram or those who have served an arduous apprenticeship under a master University Press. are entitled to create artifacts or events which might be included in the Sol so, R. L. (1994). Cognition and the visual arts. Cambridge, MA. & Lon­ category referred to as "art." Yet they all come willing and eager to ex­ don: MIT Press. plore, to discover, to encounter...and I have never yet had a student who Stem, D. (1985). The interpersonal world of the infan. New York: Basic not claim, however shyly, some degree of expertise in at least one of the Books. Warren, B. (1993) (Ed.). Using the creative arts in therapy: A practical ^in­ modalities of art-making. "Oh, yes, I love to dance," (or sing, or write, or troduction-second edition. London & New York: Routledge. paint, or perform) "but 1 could never show it to anybody. I'm just an ama­ Wiener, D. J. (1999) (Ed.). Beyond talk therapy: Using movement and ex­ teur." But the root of the word "amateur" is "love," and what better reason pressive techniques in clinical practice. Washington, DC: American Psycho­ can a person have for creating? And in gently introducing the five major logical Association. modalities, in the particular order used in this course, my students might Wilson, E, O. (1998). Consilience: The unity of knowledge.. NewY'ork: Knopf. suddenly find themselves participating in, and enjoying, aspects of art- Wilson. L. E. (August, 1998). Interdisciplinary arts and the vocabulary of expression. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psycho­ making which some had always considered closed to them. This process of logical Association. San Francisco. opening, wonderful in itself, can lead to something even more special, as Wood, J. M., Nczworski, M, T. & Stejskal, W. J (1996). The comprehensive we shall see. system for the Rorschach: A critical examination. Psychological Science, 7,3- 10. The Seven Sessions Upon entering the classroom (in addition to discovering a large circle of Paul M. Camic fabric-draped chairs instead of the traditional rows of desks, as well as a Department of Liberal Education huge table stacked with an enticing variety of art-making materials), par­ Columbia College Chicago ticipants find the word "INTERDISCIPLINARY" upon the chalkboard, 600 South Michigan Avenue and are asked, before introductions or even the most preliminary of class­ room exercises, to write down their reaction to that word: what they think it means, why they think so. The notebooks are then put away, and the fun Erasing the Gridlines: begins. An Interdisciplinary Studio Course for Therapists Who Use Art Because it is fun. It is play. It is my way of introducing people to the five Lawrence E. Wilson traditional modalities of artistic expression, in non-threatening, accessible, McDougal Littell Publishers, Evanston, Illinois & participatory, and inspirational style. 1 identify these modalities as move­ Chicago School of Professional Psychology ment {not dance), sound {not music), word {not writing, not fiction, not poetry), visual {not "art"-^one of the things 1 try to do in this class is to I am not a psychotherapist. 1 have never been a psychotherapist and subvert the usual categorization of this word, that of "pigment on a flat have no plans of becoming one, but in the last five years it has been my surface"), and performance {not theatre). The distinctions are impor­ privilege and my pleasure to have developed and taught an intensive ts- tant. It's the difference between exclusive and inclusive—how many of Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts us identify ourselves as dancers? But we all move... Very few of us identify create an event, an object, or an installation which combines at least three ourselves as painters, but most of us participate in the world visually. It's of the five modalities, and which should engage as many of the five senses the opposite of the art-belongs-on-a-pedestal syndrome, and it works. I as possible. I also tell them my personal artistic mantra: "Whispering is don't have the theoretical background to explain why it works, but I have better than shouting"—that, paradoxically, the more specific and private long observed that it does. the focus, the more universal and accessible will be the result (the converse The first session's focus is on movement, and, using techniques and ex­ is rarely true. Students who strain to produce something big and important ercises from my training in theatre, dance, and yoga, the students drape and meaningful usually end up with something trite and boring). themselves with fabric, move to music, close their eyes and explore their The sixth session is a work period, with classroom materials and advice ordinary classroom by fingertip, mime emotions or hobbies or secrets, play available for all. Participants are encouraged to collaborate as well as to children's games—and then it's a rush back to the big art-table to get their cooperate in the planning and execution of their final pieces. The thinking reactions down in chalk, crayon, and paint on paper, because part of the and rethinking which occurs during this period lead to another realization effectiveness of the process, I believe, is the proceeding from the familiar for the students: that art-making does not and cannot exist in a vacuum. to the unfamiliar. And, yes, because it's nice to have an artifact or two by Not only are we almost always dependent on other people to help create or the end of class, something visual to base a discussion on, something to present the art (technicians, exhibitors, supernumeraries, co-stars), we are hang on the refrigerator when we get home. Later on, the reactions will not also vitally dependent on having an audience, however tiny it might be. In involve traditional art-materials, or will involve them in previously-unsus­ this sixth session we discuss the ways and means of "taking care" of an pected ways. Students are also given the assignment of attending a "move­ audience—will they sit or stand? Can everyone see? Is the sound-level ment" event (formal or informal, deliberate or accidental, professional or appropriate? Is it your intent to create a welcoming space or an immediate amateur) in the coming week and to write a two-page reaction paper on the feeling of discomfort and alienation? Are you endangering your audience experience. physically or emotionally? If so, have you given them the option of not The second session's main concentration is on sound: stretching and participating? We also discuss the various forms of documentation avail­ exploration exercises done to unfamiliar folk music, improvising a Javanese able—obvious ones like photography and video, and less obvious choices gamelan with everyday materials, improvising ballets to favorite songs, like memoir, memory, and reaction drawings or writings. crayon-drawings done with eyes closed and atonal symphonies playing. The seventh session is almost totally committed to the viewing of/par­ This week's reaction paper is to seek out and respond to a sound-based ticipating in/discussion of the final projects. Everyone is given their fifteen event—concerts large or small, a memorable moment on the radio, the ca­ minutes of "fame" and each person uses it in a unique manner. The pieces cophony of early morning traffic. might be static installations combining visual imagery, scents, and music, The third class-meeting works with word, with improvised and "found" or perhaps someone might elect to include a favorite poem or some origi­ poems, with visual collages torn from magazines and newspapers, with nal writing. Students have developed participatory exercises of their own altered rules for charades and investigations of simple formal forms of po­ to share, or variations on children's games, or set up a nostalgic storytelling etry. In assigning students a paper on their reaction to a word-based event, moment, or gone all-out and created a multi-media extravaganza of bright there are always some puzzled faces. What constitutes a word event? A lights, pulsing sound, and leaping dancers. poetry reading? Yes, and also a billboard, a newspaper, a piece of graffiti. An important part of every one of the seven session are the discussions They're beginning to realize that the traditional gridlines between the artis­ amongst the participants about how they might actually use these ideas, tic modalities are sometimes arbitrary. exercises, and techniques in their work. When I included "personal enrich­ The fourth class is committed to visual art—not that they haven't been ment" in the course description, I was thinking about ways in which art- creating visual and tactile reactions to their movements, sounds, and words making might help mental health practitioners in their personal and profes­ every day before this, and being exposed to new techniques and new varia­ sional development, and it is always interesting to hear vignettes from train­ tions of familiar practices, but this is the session in which students are ing, internships, or professional practice in which interdisciplinary art- required to begin to incorporate multiple modalities in their work: words making techniques might be successfully employed (for a view from a past embedded in their paintings and collages, 3-D sculptures which move and participant in this course, please see Laura Gough's article in this issue). make sounds, poems written in reaction to a painting rather than the other The Quantum Leap way around. It is usually this session in which something clicks, in which During the last half hour of the final class, I ask the participants to open the "eureka!" moment happens, when students realize that all art-making their notebooks to a clean sheet of paper and to write down their definition is inherently interdisciplinary and can never really exist in a "pure" form— of the word "INTERDISCIPLINARY," and then to read both this day's poetry can be visual or auditory; dance is theatrical in nature; sound and definition and the one from the first day of class. No one has ever come up movement are natural partners. Their reaction papers to a "visual" event with the same definition of the word on the last day as they wrote down on might range from looking at a stained-glass window to/witnessing a bi­ the first. There has been a change—before this course, there's a tendency cycle accident. Sometimes slowly, sometimes all at once', the most inhib­ to think more in terms of "multi-disciplinary" rather than "inter-disciplin­ ited neuropsychology student or the behaviorally-oriented student with a ary." People tend to have less of a problem with artists being good at sev­ biology background is creating puppets, donning swaths of fabric to dance eral different sorts of art—someone might be good at music, and also a around the classroom, discovering strengths and depths through the em­ decent dancer, and secretly writing poetry on the side—but too often the powering "breakthrough" moments experienced in class, and this is great, creative work is pigeonholed, each type filed into its own category and because— rarely cross-pollinating. As I said in my course rationale, I do feel that it's Because the fifth session is performance, and this is the word and the very important for therapist who use art to achieve a satisfying-to-them modality which has terrified ninety percent of my students over the years. level of proficiency in as many of the modalities as possible, in order to "I can't—I'm not an actor—I could never do this in public!" But they can, expand their vocabularies of expressive possibilities—a client who might and they are, and they do. We discuss the religious beginnings of the West­ not be able to speak aloud of their pain might be able to mime it, or draw it. ern tradition of theatre, and compare it to those from Japan, China, and But I have seen, over and over, the wonderful works which happen when Indonesia. We talk about the use of masks in many cultures, about Carnival students are encouraged, cajoled^ and ultimately required to combine mul­ as well as comedy and tragedy. WE discuss the opening chapters of tiple modalities in a single piece of art, how "I can't" turns into "maybe 1 Stanislavsky's Building a Character, and how a performer (and, by exten­ could" and then into "I can" and "I will." It's also exciting to see students sion, an art-maker working with any of the modalities) might start with a overturn the chauvinism of a lifetime's schooling which declares that art concrete artifact to develop a character or persona. Fresh from weeks of belongs on that pedestal, in that frame on a gallery wall, in that darkened personal successes in combining multiple modalities into single objects or theatre after purchasing expensive tickets. If these "quantum leaps," these events, the traditional ending to the fifth session is to put on our new home­ changes of state, are beneficial for student and professional therapists, then made masks and parade around the neighborhood, stopping traffic, terror­ I must also honestly believe that the interdisciplinary techniques which izing dogs, and making little kids laugh. Very few decline to participate. they have learned from me will be of benefit to the clients which they will Those who do are given documentation duty, which is always a vital part of have in the future. Thus far, reports from our graduates have only con­ any artistic event. Their reaction papers to seeking a "performance" event firmed these benefits. reveal a new appreciation for the interdependent web of movement, sound, Resources words, and visuals. & Programs It is also during this fifth session that the students are given the f "" Chicago School of Professional Psychology, Expressive Therapy and Cre- parameters for creating their final project for the course. I tell them to -fiJ IjV attvity Concentration: www.csopp.edu Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2) Columbia College Chicago, Department of Interdisciplinary Arts: dance/movement therapy, drama therapy, music therapy, and creative writ­ www.colum.edu ing in therapy. Like most beginning students, I quickly learned that "life Suggested Reading outside of school" was a humorous concept created in the confused and Bumaford, G., Aprill, A., & Weiss, C. (Eds.) (2001). Renaissance in the optimistic mind of someone also struggling with the notion of "24 hours in classroom- Arts integration and meaningful learning. Mahwah, NJ.: Lawrence a day". The concept was not impossible, but certainly requiring a reframe Erlbaum Associates. of the separation of school and life. Collom, J.. & Noethe, S. (1994). Poetry everywhere. New York: Teachers and Writers Collaborative. At about the same time when the realization struck full force, 1 was given Cleveland, W. (1992/2000). Art in other places: Artists at work in America's the opportunity to begin a series of courses on the integration of the arts community and social institutions. Amherst, MA.: University of Massachu­ and psychotherapy. These courses were designed as both a certificate pro­ setts, Artists Extension Service Press. gram and a concentration as a portion of the doctoral program. Approached Koch, K. (1970). Wishes, lies, and dreams: Teaching children to write po­ as an opportunity to expand therapeutic tools and explore the integration etry. New York: Harper. of the arts and psychotherapy, these classes offered an introduction to the Morice, D. (1995). The adventures of Dr. Alphabet: 104 unusual ways to complexities of dance/movement therapy, drama therapy, music therapy, write poetry mjhe classroom and the community. New York: Teachers and and using art media in therapy. An overview of the use of writing and film Writers Collaborative. and was also briefly examined. The main premise was to allow for an Smith, R. (1996). The artist s handbook. New York: Knopf. introduction to the use of the arts as different therapeutic modalities, to be Stanislavsky, C. (1949/1989). Building a character. New York & London: Routledge. incorporated into a clinical psychologist's practice. It was not an attempt to create clinicians who, armed with a few techniques, felt they could take Lawrence E. Wilson over the realm already occupied by expressive arts therapists. Through 2310 Thayer Street these classes, I began to look at the balance of therapeutic need, develop­ Evanston, Illinois 60201 mental level and ability to communicate through the use of symbol, meta­ phor and experience. The creative arts courses called for development of perspective about modalities of music, art, drama, dance and, movement in an initial and exploratory manner. Participation formed a key component, allowing the What Will We Do Today? students to observe and experience the elements of each modality at work, A Clinical Psychology Graduate Student's Experience of the Creative helping to concretize and catalyze learning. The experiential component Arts in Therapy seemed to be key in building of this understanding. Laura M. Gaugh Rubin (1982) comments that in the creative arts therapies, components Chicago School of Professional Psychology of process and content become the focus of sessions. Attention is drawn "What wilt we do today?" This question is posed frequently in various away from the notion of finished product and into the experience of creat­ forms and voices to me by the children with whom I have begun my train­ ing and then studying responses evoked by that experience. Rubin further ing in clinical psychology. It is at the core of my exploration of the each notes that although participants may find an art therapy session entertain­ group or individual session. It also tends to be a beginning and ending ing and educative, therapists should be primarily concerned with using this question I ask of myself in an effort to discern the elements of process and symbolic and behavioral context to better understand the client's therapeu­ content throughout. And what will we do today? tic goals. She explains that art therapy may be used in a diagnostic or Today we may be animals, exploring sensations of growling, pouncing, therapeutic context, but that it can only be seen as art therapy when the flapping wings or sinking mysteriously into impermeable shells. Today we therapist is well versed in both therapeutic notions of inter- and intrapersonal may be performers, directors, puppet-masters; watching stories unfold be­ dynamics and the media, uses, symbolism and creative processes of art. fore and around us. Today we may be sculptors and explorers of the tactile McNiff (1999) comments that art therapy students engaged in personal world, making marvelous, grotesque, unusual, and familiar forms from clay expressions of creative inquiry over purely technical observation and out­ and found objects. Today we may be movers and dancers, testing the bounds come-based research seemed more in touch with the creative process un­ of Rudolf Laban's notions of body, space, force, and time (Joyce, 1994). derlying the notion of therapy. In other therapy technique courses role- Today, we may be musicians, manipulators of sound as we take our quest playing can appear to be a contrived and artificial means of practicing tech­ through melody, harmony, pitch, timbre, texture, rhythm, and tempo. To­ nique. In the creative arts program, the symbolic nature of the work pro­ day they are children, exploring their ability to create, and through cre­ vided a richer exploration of the process of using these techniques in therapy, ation, expressing and beginning to work with the issues that brought them without significantly compromising verbal boundaries. The student was to participate in psychotherapy. Today I am opening windows and provid­ protected by the confines of space and time and the nature of the work ing frameworks, tools, and media for experience, as I am beginning an­ being a class, but able to take on the experience of both observer and par­ other day into my own journey in the process of becoming a psychothera­ ticipant. The design of the courses allowed students to be able to become pist, aware of the power of the images, movements and sounds of text and case Expressive therapies allow for the creative experience and communica­ examples, but also of their own creation. This in turn allowed for a more tion of emotions through visual arts (painting, drawing, sculpting, and use personal experience of how the arts can be utilized to suit a client's indi­ of other media), movement, written word, music and sound, and improvi­ vidual needs for expression, particularly when that expression seems be­ sation, in a supportive environment (Rogers, 1999). The experience can yond words. then be further realized during the analysis of the meaning in that which The introduction to several different modalities of expressive arts therapy has been produced and experienced. As expressive arts therapy is applied also allowed students of clinical psychology to expand the repertoire of to work with children, it also allows the therapist to work within a realm of theory and technique in terms of work with clients. Although the brief the child's own imagination and play, which are fundamental vehicles for nature of exposure to each modality could not allow for the creation of communication of feeling and experience in childhood (Levine, 1999.) experts in any particular mode or combination, it provided the opportunity Applying these approaches to expression to work with inpatient groups to find out which aspects of each division were most comfortable for the and outpatient individual clients over the course of the past year has proved student. In so doing, participating in the program as a whole gave a glimpse to be an incredibly rewarding and challenging experience. Not only was I into several directions in which treatment might channeled, providing an given an opportunity to learn more about the incorporation of the arts in expanded repertoire in terms of knowledge about each subspecialty. The therapy with children, I felt I was able to approach each child with specific clinical psychologist might then use aspects of one or another modality in tools more directly suited to their preferred mode of expression. This pa­ session, able to blend techniques and concepts as seemed to best suit the per is a brief presentation of my own experiences as a clinical psychology needs of the client and the ability of the therapist. As work progressed, or student studying and working with the theories and techniques underlying clients entered the process who seemed particularly suited to one form of the incorporation of creative arts in therapy with children. expression over another, the student would be able to work in consultation The Applied Creative Arts in Psychology Program with a specialist trained in that particular modality, or to make more appro­ 1 entered a doctoral program in clinical psychology with the pre-suppo- priate referrals given their observation of the client in treatment. sition that I would leave my interest in expression and communication Taking courses that specifically focused on art, dance/movement, through the arts to my life outside of school. I had little exposure to drama, and music in therapy also provided students with the ability to expressive therapy as a concept, let alone as distinct fields of art therapy, -AJtKfbv blend work in different media and mode. Rogers (1999) suggests that Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts the overlap of several forms of artistic expression can allow for further tion provided, I was able to at least incorporate individual exploration on enhancement of an experience over that which is often understood with paper of reactions to the vocalizations, the movement, the role-play, and one modality alone. Thus, she suggests that utilizing one modality such as story making. movement or role-playing and following with another such as painting, Working in different elements of the creative arts with these children in drawing, or creating music can increase the intensity of insight and growth inpatient groups helped me to develop a sense of their needs, their chal­ throughout the creative process. She describes the enhancement and flow lenges, and their progress and capacity for healing that I felt I would other­ of creativity in one form of artistic expression to that of another as a "cre­ wise not have been able to see through the traditionally cognitive-behav­ ative connection". Her explorations of the creative connection were with ioral focus of much of the rest of their treatment. It was amazing to see people interested in personal growth, rather than the healing of specific how creative, imaginative and curious these children were, as well as how psychotherapeutic issues. However, it seems plausible that movement from much insight they had into their needs and concerns through differing forms one modality of expression to another might be useful in work with many of self- expression. Although they exhibited different levels of ability to different types of clients who are struggling to find ways to communicate manage the sessions, and not every child responded in favorable ways to psychological wants and needs. They would be able to test out different the course of intervention, there were always others who seemed to flour­ modes, discovering with which forms they felt the best fit. This could then ish. In many ways, I felt the groups incorporating elements of expressive be translated to therapy sessions, by focusing on different elements of each therapy allowed a safe, structured, supportive environment in which they modality as they seemed best suited to each client's particular wants and could finally act like children. needs. My individual outpatient work provided further opportunity to encour­ Working with professionals trained specifically in dance/movement age different means of creative expression with children who exhibited therapy, drama therapy, and music therapy provided an introduction to dif­ less severe symptoms and were therefore more able to work at different fering expressive therapies. It allowed students to begin to explore ele­ levels. My individual clients ranged in age from 6 to 11, and were referred ments of utilizing the creative arts as part of treatment. It also helped build primarily for symptoms of anxiety and depression complicated by concur­ familiarity with the work that therapists in each division of the creative arts rent non-verbal learning disabilities or other learning and processing is­ might use with clients. As students of the program developed a sense of sues. This work included building of parenting skills and understanding of their own levels of comfort and experience with each modality, they also management of difficult behaviors, given the child's struggles with memory developed a better informed sense of when and to whom to make referrals and learning. It also focused on building self-esteem and management of as clients expressed interest and need for further and more advanced work frustration and challenges specific to their learning and processing issues. specific to a modality. These were children who struggled constantly with verbal expression of Applications in Training their emotions and reactions to frustration, sadness, fear and anger. Their Drawing from these experiences as a student in the program, 1 entered challenges in learning and building social relationships created a myriad of clinical training this year with a sense of curiosity in regard to the direc­ difficulties in their interactions with peers and caregivers as well as in their tions I might be able to move in therapeutic work. I worked this year in ability to build a sense of accomplishment and mastery at school. One goal both an inpatient and outpatient setting, with groups and individuals. My of treatment was often to help the child learn to express their feelings in cases consisted of children, ranging in age from 4 to 12, and encompassing appropriate ways. They seemed ideally suited to incorporation of elements a relatively diverse spectrum of diagnoses. In inpatient groups, I found of creative arts in therapy as a means of allowing them the freedom to children struggling with violent and aggressive behavior and complica­ explore and communicate their feelings in non-verbal ways. tions of multiple diagnosis including Attention Deficit- Hyperactivity Dis­ The individual sessions were a forum in which 1 was able to introduce order, Bipolar Disorder, Major Depressive Disorder, Autistic Spectrum and refine techniques to meet the child's interests and needs, to a much disorders, Anxiety Disorders, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, fetal expo­ greater extent than in the inpatient groups. Both the nature of individual sure to alcohol and other substances, abuse, neglect, and trauma. The group work and the child's level of self-control over behaviors help us to work on the unit at any given day might range in size from 2-12, incorporating more intensely through different modalities. As an example, a few of my clients of significantly varied developmental and cognitive levels, and any individual clients reacted strongly to creating puppet-shows, beginning with combination of behaviors, processing, and creative potential. Needless to designing and decorating the theatres and working into creating and iden­ say, this constantly changing and differing group of children was at times tifying each puppet before they spent future sessions creating both sponta­ overwhelming, and often daunting in terms of decision about what they neous and intricately planned stories. More characters and details appeared could handle as a group given their individual differences. as each story unfolded, and we took on the details as the elements of their From the beginning, I found myself drawing heavily on my experiences own lives change and require different means of approaching their con­ from the creative arts program in an effort to keep the children engaged and cerns and needs. help them to work toward their individual goals. The question of "what We took on the interactions in their own lives as they suggest familiar will we do today" came up often and in many different ways. I worried fairy-tales and rhymes with twists and turns unfamiliar to the brothers Grimm each week that a specific direction in art or movement might be too com­ and mother Goose. For one child, our cow occasionally jumped over plicated for the children at earlier levels of overall (and specifically cogni­ Chicago's famed Sears Tower and not the moon, meeting a variety of friend tive) development, or too simplistic for the children who were edging to­ and foe in adventures along the way back to earth. For another shy and wards the capacity for more abstract thought. Overtime, 1 learned to gauge self-conscious young client, little red riding hood met not a wolf, but a each child throughout the group, simplifying technique and direction for pack of age-mates who required decisions about how to interact with or the children in earlier phases of development, and increasing the roles for avoid them. the children with a more advanced capacity for self-control and cognitive While spontaneous comments on process and comment on the part of processing. the child occurred along the way, windows for further interpretation of The children frequently responded well to the incorporation of move­ symbolism and metaphor were opened in my own observation. As 1 was ment techniques throughout session. The groups almost always included continually enrolled in the expressive arts courses in addition to case su­ children with difficulty managing physical reactivity to increases in emo­ pervision throughout the year, I was able to formulate these interpretations tional intensity, not to mention hyperactive and impulsive activity. Given based on information gathered from the program, from other elements of that these children were otherwise expected to remain seated in groups my training in psychology, and from consultation with the expressive thera­ throughout the day, it is not surprising that they reacted favorably to the pists teaching the courses themselves. ability to get up and express bodily and vocally in ways that they were not And so we explore as many ways of expressing as they and I combined typically allowed to do. When the group members had difficulty maintain­ can determine. Today we may be balls of anger, rolling around a gymna­ ing the boundaries of personal space, we could create boundaries for them sium floor. Some of us are concrete, armored or clawed creatures, some to practice moving safely out of hula-hoops, tape circles, and carpet pat­ thunder clouds, some more abstract manifestations described in their move­ terns. ment, activity, and color. Today we may show what it means to relax, from Following movement and more physical activity such as role-play and a page full of blue and green images to a descriptive pantomime of a warm vocal and bodily improvisation, I incorporated elements of self-expression summer day. Today we are inventors of tools to help them overcome their through drawing and sketching. I quickly realized that the realm of man­ fears, concerns, and problems. As a student continuing her journey through aging artistic expression with severely disturbed children was above and #7o psychology and creative arts, I leave you with an extension of the same beyond my capacity and training. However, using judgment gleaned T question with which we began: What are you going to do today, and from the coursework about choice of artistic media and level of direc- -fi$ \f\- what does it mean for you? •1

Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2) References "art as therapy." In viewing the development of art therapy, Junge and Joyce, M. (1994). First steps m teaching creative dance to children (3rd ed.). Asawa in A History of Art Therapy in the United States (1994) state: Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company. Kramer, E. (1998). Childhood and art therapy (2"d ed.). Chicago: Magnolia Problems of defining art therapy have intrigued and plagued the field Street Publishers. since its inception and have continued to be a major concern of the Levine, E. G. (1999). On the playground: Child psychotherapy and expres­ American Art Therapy Association. With Naumburg and Kramer, the sive arts therapy. In S. K. Levine, & E. G. Levine (Eds.), Foundations of two major theorists, focusing on different definitions of the process, expressive arts therapy: Theoretical and clinical perspectives (pp. 257-273/ art therapists have often argued vehemently for one position or the London, England: Jessica Kingsley. other and have differed over whether to have a narrow or inclusive Rogers, N. (1999). The Creative connection: A Holistic expressive arts pro­ definition. While this division has been perceived by many as a po­ cess. In S. K. Levine, & E. G. Levine (Eds.), Foundations of expressive arts litical one, initially, at least, it was an argument over where the cure therapy: Theoretical and clinical perspectives (pp.] 13-131). London, England: Jessica Kingsley. was in art therapy treatment, (p. 129) Rubin, J. (1982). Art therapy: What it is and what it is not. American Jour­ In a sense these seemingly opposing views are a false dichotomy. nal ofAr t Therapy 21, 57-58. Naumburg wrote about her long-term work with adults in which she en­ couraged her clients to free-associate to their art to gain insight. This ap­ Laura Gaugh proach has come to be labeled "art psychotherapy." Kramer worked exclu­ Chicago School of Professional Psychology sively, as far as 1 know, with children. Striving for insight was hardly what 47 West Polk Street these troubled children needed. She saw artwork as providing sublimation Chicago, 1L. 60605 and integration for them, which has come to be termed "art as therapy." In more recent times, the "art psychotherapy" vs. "art as therapy" dichotomy jT\. TStS&s&sxtirtxwr^iraa has changed somewhat, at least in its exterior trappings. As art therapists are seeking licensure, many states are including art therapy in their coun­ Art Therapy and the Elephant seling licenses. To qualify, however, certain clinical courses in addition to those usually included in art therapy training are required, and art therapy Harriet Wadeson Master's Degree programs are complying by adding them. Against this University of Illinois at Chicago movement, a very vocal minority within the field is advocating a greater An old Indian fable tells of the six learned blind men who argued over emphasis on art and a studio approach. the nature of the elephant. One felt its side and said the elephant is like a The power of art therapy, however, is that both directions are vital and wall. Another, feeling its tusk said the elephant is like a spear. The third valuable. As a safe vehicle for catharsis, creative art expression enhances felt its trunk and said it's like a snake. The fourth found the leg to be like connection with feelings. Their expression may be a relief whether under­ a tree, the fifth touching an ear said the elephant is like a fan, and the sixth standing is advanced or not. Forming images taps unconscious reservoirs, seized the tail and described the elephant as a rope. Each blind man was and communicating in a spatial matrix can provide a picture of a more total partly right, though all were wrong. experience than the linear nature of language permits. The permanence of Six human service providers who work with art therapists attempt to the created object, as well as the possibility of distancing oneself from it, explain what art therapy is. The first, who is a teacher at an elementary allows art therapy clients to approach difficult material gradually and to school, says art therapy helps her attention-deficit disordered children to view their expressions over time. The physical and especially the creative settle down and concentrate. The second, who works with abused and activation of art-making engages clients often more deeply and pervasively neglected children, says that art therapy gives them a means to express the than talking alone. traumas that they cannot put into words. The third, who works on a hospi­ Because art therapy has become such a multi-faceted profession in work tal psychiatric unit, says that her patients overcome their isolation by paint­ with such diverse populations as are seen today, there is enormous variety ing their hallucinations and delusions so that the art therapist can share in the work, some of which emphasizes certain aspects of its healing poten­ their private worlds. The fifth, who works with families at an outpatient tial, while work with different populations might embody other aspects of clinic, says her families have gained insight through their drawings of their its effectiveness. In order to present a picture of some of the profession's relationships and have made changes in their family dynamics. The sixth, possibilities, a variety of applications of art therapy follows. who works at a nursing home, speaks of drawings for life review and so­ Art Therapy Applications cialization with the other residents. All are correct about what art therapy I believe these examples speak for themselves in several ways. By vari­ is. But each has a different picture. None has the big picture. ous means, they show how the art making facilitates insight, catharsis, in­ This paper is an attempt to illustrate art therapy's great diversity, to show creased expression of feeling, a sense of mastery, connection with others, the elephant's massive bulk, tough skin, squirming trunk, sharp tusks, skinny and enhanced self-esteem. They also illustrate a spectrum of the popula­ tail, flapping ears. tions and settings receiving art therapy services. In addition to traditional Changes in the Art Therapy Picture drawing, painting, and sculpting with clay, art therapists have been devel­ The picture art therapy presents today is far different from its early de­ oping innovative art projects and combining visual art with other expres­ velopment just a few decades ago. Then, art therapy was centered prima­ sive modalities. The first examples are some of the newer cohorts seen in rily in psychiatric hospitals, hospital psychiatric units, psychiatric clinics, art therapy. and special schools for children with emotional disorders. In more recent Immigrants years, the profession has expanded to address many other societal prob­ Ethnic diversity is a major characteristic and a growing consideration in lems. AIDS became the plague of the twentieth century at a time when we our urban centers. Immigrants to this country face problems of disloca­ believed medical science had advanced beyond such catastrophes. Baby tion, culture shock, language barriers, and sometimes poverty. Sue Lee, a boomers reached middle age and began worrying about Alzheimer's dis­ Korean-American herself, worked with Korean adolescents who had im­ ease for the increasing numbers of elderly living to advanced ages. Women's migrated to the United States with their parents. She was able to speak issues of family violence, victimization, childhood sexual abuse, and rape with them in their native tongue (Wadeson, 2000). The transition to Ameri­ have continued to resist prevention. Crime, violence, and substance abuse can life is especially difficult for adolescents who are undergoing signifi­ are the everyday milieu for inner-city youth. Coupled with these problems cant developmental transitions as well. Most of them struggle alone and is the changing face of health care delivery services and, to some extent, have little guidance since they have been raised to be humble and to avoid social services as well. In the light of these societal changes, art therapy expression of emotions. continues to evolve and grow, often to accommodate the changes, some­ Sue thought an art group would be especially helpful for these adoles­ times to separate itself from them. cents because they were not verbally expressive. The group was composed Historically, art therapy has been a hybrid profession, uniting as it does of 4 adolescents who were from middle-class backgrounds and had been the worlds of art and human services. This union has produced practitio­ brought to the United States by their parents in early adolescence. Sue ners whose work spans the spectrum between the two, and at times the shared some of her own difficulties in being a Korean-American with the fabric of the field appears to come apart at the seams in a schism between group. the two. These historical antecedents are embodied in the work of art Sue structured the group to include the following art projects in order: therapy's two "founding mothers," Margaret Naumburg and Edith Kramer. Family of origin; The former developed an insight-oriented approach, which has since Feelings about retaining Korean culture in America; been labeled "art psychotherapy;" the latter a studio approach, termed A3 UtXifc- Most stressful issue as a Korean-American immigrant; Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Identity issues through self-portrait masks; tinue. But once again, no one came. Recognizing that initiation into adult­ Feeling of belonging by creating a safe space; hood at an early age and a painful lost childhood were common themes, A group ending project. Beth worked on creating a piece from her own childhood, a stuffed cat The group members participated cooperatively in the projects, but Sue made from an old sock. She left it in the studio. At the next open studio found them to be much less talkative than other groups she had led. They session, Gwen, a resident, asked Beth to show her how to make a doll too. responded to questions and spoke only when they thought it was necessary. In only a few minutes, all five women present were busy making dolls. Kyung, an 18 They were stuffed with batting from old pillows and decorated with but­ year-old young; tons and yarn. Clothes were made from patterns drawn by hand and cut woman who came from fabric. The dolls' significance to childhood, mothering, nurturing, to the United and femininity broke down barriers of distrust and competition. The women States at age ten, shared supplies, patterns, ideas, and help. All the dolls turned out to be was discouraged female. These soft fabric objects allowed the women the opportunity to by her parents show their tender, caring sides without feeling ashamed or intimidated. from making Ko­ They spoke of and to their dolls tenderly, carried them on their shoulders or rean friends be­ placed them in their laps, never left them behind, and made certain they cause they wanted were safe. Clearly these women identified with their dolls and gave them her to adapt to the care they had not received themselves. The dolls also led the women to American culture telling stories of their childhood and expressing feelings about body im­ quickly. For a age. Making the clothing promoted discussions of fashion and what they long time she wore on the streets. Fig. I- Conflict over her Korean heritage by an 18-year-old young woman. thought she had Gwen, 46, had attended only one art therapy session, always having an actually become excuse to miss her individual sessions. She began prostitution when she "white." In drawing her stress in being Korean-American, she depicted was 16 and had a history of alcohol and cocaine abuse and arrests for shop­ herself screaming with her hair half black and half curly- blonde; see Fig. lifting. She spent 4 hours making her doll, talking to it as herself as she 1. In the middle of her body is her real self, scared and trapped inside. She worked on it: "Now Gwen, your legs are too thin...you're acting like a had tried to transform herself according to her parents' wish for her by whore...you need to put some clothes on" (p.299). When asked about her coloring and perming her hair and wearing lots of makeup. Ail the other experience, Gwen said, "The only thing I've ever completed in my life was art group members related to her experience. They all felt torn by their a good high. Now I've completed this doll and I am proud of it...It's the parents' expectations. Many of these parents were under stress from work­ first time in my life I've ever done anything artistic. I never thought I ing hard to support their families, often holding several jobs. They did not could" (p. 299-300). Nor had she ever sewn before. Later she called her want their children to undergo similar hardships, so they tried to force them doll "the whore and drug addict." Gwen's doll gave her confidence to to become successful in the dominant society. Some of the young people make some more. Her second doll portrayed her ethnic side. It was more felt guilty because their parents had told them that they had immigrated to complicated, with African clothes. Her third doll was even more complex. give their children greater opportunities, and they reminded them of how This doll is a male with removable clothes fastened with snaps and buttons. hard they were working for them. Group members related their own pain As Gwen worked on her successive dolls, she examined aspects of her own and confusion. They discussed their lost identities as expressed in their identity, speaking of herself as a mother in relation to the first one, as an self-portraits and talked about supporting one another to fill in the blanks African American in the second, and about her relationships with men in they all had in their lives. the third. Prostitutes It was through her own art that Beth connected initially with the women. Many of the populations with whom art therapists work are those that Fabric is a traditional medium for women. The slow and repetitive process are marginalized in our society, often as a result of poverty and limited of sewing can be very soothing. Working together gave the group the feel­ opportunities. One such group is composed of prostitutes who are seeking ing of a traditional quilting bee, hardly the usual activity for women who to change their lives. These women come from backgrounds of sexual have engaged in prostitution. abuse, substance abuse, and violence. Chicago alone is estimated to have Battered Women 35,000-40,000 women engaged in prostitution, not including those under According to Stephanie Haddon, conservative estimates put the number eighteen who are also out on the streets soliciting (Wadeson, 2000). Beth of women beaten by husbands or boyfriends in the United States during a Black worked at a shelter for women who wished to give up prostitution. single year at 12 million {Wadeson, 2000). In developing an art therapy The home operated for both crisis intervention and long-term care, having program for a battered women's shelter, she used the art to help the women drop-in as well as residential services. to: When Beth began art therapy there, the women informed her that they reorganize their lives during a time of crisis; did not speak about themselves to one another. This example demonstrates overcome the effects of victimization; the creative efforts of an art therapist to engage resistant clients. Beth dis­ learn about domestic violence; covered that of the 27 women with whom she eventually worked, all had a tap into personal resources for support and healing. history of sexual abuse beginning as they entered puberty. All had been The shelter provided emergency housing for battered women and their homeless and all had poly-substance addictions. All claimed to leave their children seeking refuge from an abuser. It was a "safe place" for women bodies when they "turned a trick." Beth observed various symptoms asso­ who lacked financial, family, or community resources necessary to leave ciated with post-traumatic stress disorder—low self-esteem, depression, an abusive situation on their own. Many of the women were depressed and dissociation, and suicidal ideation. Recovery for them was one of the great­ lacking in motivation when introduced to art therapy. They entered the est challenges of their lives, including as it did battling substance addic­ shelter at a time of crisis, and their immediate priorities were concrete and tion, reconstructing lost memories of childhood, and finding a new career. external, e.g., legal advocacy, employment, and childcare. Most were not The latter often meant accepting work at wages far below what they were ready for art therapy until they had made some attempt at restructuring earning as prostitutes. For many there were complications of arrest records, their lives. Stephanie incorporated art therapy into a weekly support the stigma of prostitution, and enormous shame and pain. group for residents and walk-in clients who had left or were considering On the first day of group art therapy, no one came. Beth took some art leaving an abuser. The group focused on concepts of the cycle of violence material out to the backyard and made a mask. One by one, the women and the abuser's power and control. Through the articulation of these con­ became intrigued by what she was doing, and soon 4 were making masks cepts, the women were educated toward the goal of empowerment. The of their own. Beth found it necessary to learn about the individual masks artwork allowed them to express painful material that might not have been before she could come to know the women further. These women had verbalized otherwise. The power of the image could make concrete the spent many years hiding their true selves. Most had kept their prostitution reality of their experience and lessen the likelihood of their minimizing the secret from their families. The subculture of prostitution does not allow intensity of their abuse in the future. Art making served a cathartic pur­ for trust, as competition for territory and dates erodes the likelihood of pose as well, giving the women a safe way to release their anger. trust among peers. One woman said, "We are hookers, liars, and thieves" |^ Il was clear to Stephanie that the women were seeking an opportunity (Wadeson, 2000, p. 298). to ventilate their rage. This became evident in their wish to invite a Beth had thought that after the mask-making her group would con- -f*JPU HLjv man to the group, presumably to find out what made him abuse a woman. Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2) Since men were not allowed in the shelter, Stephanie supplied a life-size posed, to which the others and the crowd responded. Afterwards, she said, paper-mach6 man. First, the group was asked to list the characteristics of "The reason I led it so good was because it was from my heart.. .The expe­ their abusers. They named the following: liar, jealous, possessive, inse­ rience gave me more confidence to do things" (Wadeson, 2000,p. 312). cure, unfaithful, and violent. They were then asked to express these char­ Art such as this banner is both therapeutic and political. It is a signifi­ acteristics with paper-mache or paint. The figure was then introduced for cant expression for the artists, comparable to the individual expressions of them to work on. They created facial features, including "a big red mouth grief in the AIDS Names Quilt, and it is a political statement made to the for all the lies he tells" (p. 306), and a question mark at the top asking if he society at large in an empowering effort to bring about social change. has a brain. Marie, a woman who had contemplated homicide before her Women, even the most disadvantaged, can find a voice and rally for their escape from her abuser, made a paper-mache dagger that she stuck in the rights. Art made in the service of social protest is a piece of the whole in ribs. She added a black heart for his evil and a chain in his hand for his helping women to change their lives and change their world. need to control her, muscles for physical strength and boxing gloves repre­ AIDS Patients senting his propensity to fight. "I love you" and "mine" are written in In 1990 Russell Leander set up the "art room" on a hospital AIDS unit at balloons to indicate hispossessiveness and jealousy. Jan, who seldom spoke a time when most AIDS patients died of the disease. The unit's population in groups, carefully constructed a wire and paper-mache penis she painted was composed largely of Caucasian mid-socioeconomic level homosexual red for her blood. She attached it and said, "that's what he did to me" and bisexual men who had contracted HIV through high-risk sexual activ­ (Wadeson, 2000, p. 306). Afterwards, she told the group several times ity. There was also a growing percentage of heterosexual male and female how great she felt. When they had finished with "the man," the group intravenous drug users who contracted the illness from contaminated wanted to move on to their needs and leave the abuser behind. Sharing this needles. Russ recognized that "combating anxiety and the loss of'self in very intense experience with one another made the catharsis even more an institutionalized setting called for a space that provided an escape from beneficial. sterile lighting, cold linoleum, paging systems, and the smell of disinfec­ Like the women giving up prostitution, battered women leaving an abuser tants" (Wadeson, 2000, p.347). The space Russ was given for art therapy are taking an enormous step in reordering their lives. Many have young was an empty hospital room with florescent lighting and a window that children dependent upon them and few resources for support. Art therapy faced a brick wall. He set about "de-institutionalizing" the room by gelling can help them to confront their painful realities and set about restructuring the lights with deep pink cellophane, covering the bare walls with panels their lives. Particularly significant for them is the anger they have and the of warm colored burlap, and hanging silk plants from the curtain tracks on opportunity to ventilate it that art can provide in a safe way. the ceiling. Russ furnished the room with comfortable chairs, a supply Social Protest cabinet, and a long worktable. Because many of the patients spent sleep­ Jean Durkin sees her own mission as an art therapist at several shelters less nights, the art room was left open twenty-four hours a day, and there for homeless women as extending beyond the individuals and groups with were no locks on the supply cabinet. whom she works to the neighborhood, the city, and hopefully to the world Art Therapy and Video at large. One example of public art is a mural the women painted on the During the first year of his work on the AIDS unit, Russell Leander outside of the agency's building. Jean describes it as their "making a mark made a video that showed the art room he set up and the art of some of the on an outside wall, making a public, self-determining, willful, self-identi­ patients with their voice-over discussing their work and the importance of fiable image that will last a very long time" (Wadeson, 2000, p. 276). art therapy in their lives. Many of these people are now dead. The video, The benefits of joining others in making and exhibiting art for social which is professionally made with musical accompaniment, is an impres­ awareness and protest have been substantial for the women with whom sive testimony to what art therapy can bring to this suffering population. Jean works, the student interns she supervises, and for herself. Jean recog­ Perhaps influenced by Russ's use of video, William Kasser also used nizes that "having hundreds of supportive onlookers applaud and praise video, but in a different way and for a different purpose (Wadeson, 2000). the art you have created is a rare experience for anyone" (p. 310), but she In 1997, William began his internship on the AIDS unit under Russ's su­ and her clients have had that experience at rallies and marches. Although pervision. By this time there were important changes in AIDS treatment. she is aware of the dangers in the unpredictability of crowd reactions at The virus could now be made undetectable in the infected person's blood such events, she has seen significant therapeutic benefits in the planning, with few or no opportunistic HIV-related infections. William points out preparing, and participation in these social action demonstrations. that this shift in disease prognosis causes a major shift in the expectations Each year her agency supports an annual march and rally sponsored by a of those living with HIV or AIDS. What was once a death sentence may peace and justice organization and supported by approximately 50 other now be replaced by daily struggles with disease management. Whereas such organizations. Jean and her group created a banner to highlight earlier art therapy goals were to help people with AIDS to have a more women's rights. More than 20 of the women worked on the preparations. peaceful and less frightening transition from life to death, William's work They wanted to focus on several issues: the right to appreciate all women has been directed toward living with HIV. as beautiful, the right to walk safely in the streets at night, the right to Even with the success of the new protease inhibitors, some patients fail equitable pay, the right to live without verbal abuse, the right to have better to comply with their medication procedures because of costs and the strict communication between genders. Seven panels representing these issues demands of these regimens. In addition to taking an abundance of medica­ were created with acrylic paints, felt, and found objects applied to 3' X 4' tions daily, most people living with HIV must have monthly blood tests pieces of muslin. They were edged in green and sewn together to form a 3' and make frequent trips to the doctor. William undertook to assist people X 30' banner that could be folded together like a map and then unfurled living with HIV to reflect upon the nature of their lives under these condi­ dramatically. tions. The banner was begun with the central panel depicting the beauty of As a now familiar lens to record life events, video also helped William's women. Jean drew seven ovals on the unprimed muslin surface after se­ clients to distance themselves from their daily lives to offer a more reflec­ curing it to the table with masking tape. She started to paint a face in one tive perspective. He invited each participant to record a day in his life. of the ovals. She was soon joined by 3 of the women and one of her in­ They were given the option of doing their own filming or in directing Wil­ terns. They painted together and discussed what makes women beautiful. liam in the filming. They began by listing the circumstances of their lives Jean often engages the women in this non-verbal way by simply beginning and the activities of a typical day. These were then visualized on a storyboard a project that others then join. They painted faces of women of various to serve as the plan for the shoot. They selected music and/or voice-over ages, ethnic backgrounds, and showing different emotions. Another woman for an accompanying soundtrack. Each reviewed the rough-cut and the had her own ideas about the verbal abuse panel, so Jean followed her lead. soundtrack and selected changes for the final video footage, which was Because of its success, this woman then felt confident to work on the equi­ then given to them. Obviously, a major benefit of the video-making pro­ table pay panel with minimal help on the rough draft design. Another cess was the relationship each participant developed with William as he woman needed only a little help in making the image of a woman walking entered their lives, followed their directions, and heard and saw their reac­ alone at night without fear. This image had special significance to the tions to the conditions of their lives. participants, as several women had recently been murdered in the neigh­ Jim is a thirty-two-year-old Caucasian homosexual diagnosed with HIV borhood. They began accompanying each other when walking from the two and a half years previously. He and his partner of several years had shelter at night. recently moved into a new apartment. At the same time he began a new At the rally, it was a big moment when a dozen of the women unrolled <, medicine combination as a participant in a new protease inhibitor study. the banner before hundreds of supportive onlookers. One of the shel- The drugs had reduced the amount of HIV in his system, giving Jim a ter women spoke into a microphone calling out a reading she had'com--j\,f^Oi|./v more positive attitude toward life, along with a very stringent daily Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts regimen of oral medications that required a strict adherence to prevent vi­ a relief from their trying days at the clinic. In addition to loss, grief, and ral resistance. Jim was feeling stressed by his job, living with his partner, worry about particular patients, members shared with one another through housework, and nausea from the new drug program. He found himself their art each one's unique view of death and mortality. For example, a becoming obsessive about household cleaning. These concerns were the portrait of death showing a central skeleton, Fig. 2, is more severe than focus of his video. His storyboard was specific in its images of his broom, idealized images of heaven others drew. Around the central bust of the pills, etc. He enjoyed directing William in shooting himself sweeping, the skeleton are three mourning figures. Black paint is dripped around them. TV, his partner. Jim was an enthusiastic participant and did some of the At this hospital, art therapy served not only the patients, but also their shooting himself. Upon viewing the rough-cut later, he commented that stressed and often grieving caregivers. "It probably helped me address some issues I was getting hung up on" Elderly (Wadeson, 2000, p. 358). At a time when he was feeling overwhelmed by Art therapists work with the elderly in both nursing homes and in daycare the new conditions of his life, the video process helped him to put his facilities. Clients range from those who function well to people in ad­ reactions in a more balanced perspective. Since making the video, Jim vanced stages of Alzheimer's disease. For older adults interested in and reported that his compulsive behaviors of sweeping and cleaning mirrors capable of personal reflection, art can add a useful component to a life have abated. review. Even clients with Alzheimer's disease may benefit from art therapy, William's project was very interesting in a number of ways. There is a helping them to experience some sense of self-esteem, in spite of their paradox of immediacy and distance. Shot mostly in the men's own homes, extensive losses. Nevertheless, as their condition deteriorates, they need the video brings the viewer (including the protagonist) into intimate con­ more and more help, so the art therapist may cut out pieces for a collage, tact with the subject. Yet the process of viewing allows one distance. Mostly, help with the gluing, etc. Obviously, older adults do not come to nursing William took direction from the men in recording a segment of their lives. homes or day centers for therapy. As a result, some may be quite resistant There was much discussion as these men brought William into the inti­ in art therapy groups. An example is David, who at 52 had suffered a macy of the world they inhabited. For them, the connection and catharsis cerebral contusion from an accident that resulted in compromised cogni­ were significant. The fact of the video project itself was very significant to tive abilities, aphasia, and weakness in his left extremities. He had been a them as well, giving importance to their daily lives. And finally, the rela­ teacher until the accident had cut short his career. He lived with his wife tive permanence of their creations, that would likely outlive them, particu­ and attended a day center where MaLinda Johnson conducted group art larly for people facing imminent death, gave them an opportunity to "make therapy (Wadeson, 2000). David seldom attempted any of the art projects, a mark" by leaving a record of themselves behind. but remained on the sidelines observing. Prior to Halloween MaLinda Care for Care-Givers introduced a cheesecloth ghost project. David put the cheesecloth on his As is evident from the connections between art therapists and clients head playfully and said "boo" several times. The group members were to implicit in the work described above, treatment of HIV/AIDS patients is paint the cheesecloth with fabric stiffener, but David continued his interac­ extremely demanding emotionally. To provide support for workers who tive playfulness and dipped his cheesecloth into the bowl of stiffener. He treated AIDS-infected children in a hospital Child Life Program, Stephanie massaged it in the bowl before draping it over a plastic form to create the Zentz created an AIDS Caregivers' Art Therapy Group. She states that ghost shape. He molded the saturated cloth further, exerting control over stress results from adjusting to multiple losses, recognizing one's own the materials. The tactile nature of this three-dimensional project engaged mortality, fear of contagion, helplessness, anger, irrational unfulfilled res­ David so that he became invested in his creation and dropped his typical cue fantasies, decreased job satisfaction, and possible stigma associated passive response to the group. After the cloth had dried, he removed it with the AIDS population, which may result in professional stress. Early from the form and added eyes and a mouth; see Fig. 3, He was pleased on in her work with HIV-positive children, Stephanie recognized the stress with his whimsical ghost and was eager to show it to his wife. Following she was bringing home after a day of work, often feeling she was riding an this project, he began work­ "emotional roller coaster" (Wadeson, 2000, p. 361). She began utilizing ing in clay. her own art and journaling to process her reactions. Out of this experience MaLinda has found that al­ grew the idea of forming an art therapy group for interested staff. though adult daycare clientele The group was composed of various health-care professionals and vol­ may suffer physical and men­ unteers. Stephanie's art therapy supervisor created a 3-D piece in relation tal disability, sensory func­ to 8-year-old Amy, who, unlike some of the children, knew of her AIDS tions are still intact. Those diagnosis and had planned her own memorial service. She had worked with cognitive impairment with Amy for three years and had witnessed her suffering from her illness may have difficulty interpret­ as well as many losses of family members and friends to AIDS. After one ing all they see, hear, touch, of her sessions with Amy, the art therapist needed to express her feelings and smell, but they can still about her struggles in working with Amy at a time when her condition had derive pleasure from their worsened to the extent that imminent death was possible. She selected a senses and use them to com­ small box, covering it over with black tissue paper and placed pieces of municate. David's striking colored tissue paper and feathers inside it. As she closed the sides, giving projects brought him feelings it a house-like appearance, the colored paper and feathers squeezed out of of pride, accomplishment, and the box. Finally, she wrapped string around the box in all directions. She heightened self-esteem. The active participation encour­ described the piece as Fig. S-Ghost made with fabric stiffener on guaze by a 52-year- representing her reac­ old man after a cerebral contusion aged by the sensory stimulat­ tion to Amy's resistance ing media brought him closer in their previous ses­ to the functional level of the other members of his group, despite his lim­ sion. The colored tis­ ited use of one arm, and his active participation brought increased social­ sue and feathers are the ization. strong emotions held in­ Psychiatric Aftercare Services side Amy. Because so Debra Paskind, who worked for many years at a public psychiatric hos­ much was held in, Amy pital, reports that the average length of stay there has decreased from 90 was difficult to reach. days to 14 days (Wadeson, 2000). Compensation for this curtailment has The string represents been developed by extended art therapy services at aftercare facilities. Both the defenses wound the quantity and the innovative quality of art therapy for aftercare make tight around the feelings work with the chronic population one of the most interesting growth areas h'lg 2-Portran of death bvan art therapist worbng with to hold them in as Amy in the profession. In the past, art therapists had the luxury of working with HIY-pouiive children. continued to survive the hospitalized psychiatric patients for several months, and in some cases even multiple losses in her young life. The art therapist wanted to cut the string years, and were, therefore, able to see the impact of their work in the change and picked up scissors, pretending to do so, but she recognized Amy's and growth in their patients. Now hospitalizations are crisis oriented, and need for her defenses. This art piece helped both its creator and the rest those who cannot function adequately are no longer cared for in hospital of the group to vent their frustrations and sadness. until they can. People who in former years may have been hospitalized The caregivers' group became very supportive for its members and j\|X ?y now may spend a number of full days each week, sometimes for years, Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2) at aftercare facilities. Art groups provide the major programming for some faces to protect confidentiality). Through this multi-media creation, Nancy such facilities. The opportunity to work with participants over a long pe­ was able to reenact her trauma giving herself an heroic outcome with op­ riod of time has enabled art therapists to try creative new approaches. Some portunity to of these have been within the realm of traditional art therapy, whereas oth­ ventilate her ers have reached beyond traditional borders into art history, photography, anger and to poetry, and other writing. feel supported Bettina Thorn combined photography, writing, and art in a therapy group (Wadeson, at a psychosocial rehabilitation facility. Each member was given a dispos­ 2000). able camera with 27 exposures and shown how to use it. They assisted one M a r j o r i e another and together chose locations throughout the city for photo shoots. Hamilton also Socialization was encouraged further as they selected the best bus routes to worked with travel. In many instances, the sites were personally meaningful, and mem­ sexually bers discussed the memories they stimulated. After the film was processed, !xmMWM^ilLM$ a bused they received 2 copies of each print, one to work on and one to keep un­ Fig 5-Polaroid paper doll dramatization by an 11-year-old sexually abused girl vounssters touched. Bettina directed the group in working with their pictures as fol­ In a group of 3 boys, 8, 9, and 11, with goals of aggression management, lows: frustration tolerance, development of problem-solving skills, and building 1. The first directive was to alter the photo through artwork in any way. of social skills, she devised a project of creating a board game together to 2. Next they were asked to create a story from a photo. facilitate and improve peer interaction. Because sexual abuse victims are 3. The third activity was to select a photo to copy and enlarge by Xerox often defensive about being told what to do and fear being controlled, it and to give it to another group member to embellish. was important to give the boys the bulk of control in developing the game. 4. Members were asked to select a photo that expressed a feeling and to They were told that the goal of the game should have something to do with add to it with artwork to enhance the feeling. understanding sexual abuse and how to feel strong, powerful, and good Members of the photo group learned new skills that fostered a sense of about yourself. The development of the game involved much negotiation mastery and confidence. They increased their socialization, took risks in and some compromise as the group dynamics shifted and developed. In traveling to unfamiliar places, developed their creativity, and dealt with the end the boys were very proud of their creation, a pirate board game difficult emotions. All these accomplishments enhanced their self-esteem with clay pieces and gold coin rewards made from clay. Some of the cards (Wadeson, 2000). For example, one isolated member became much more that were to be drawn when landing on particular spaces were related to interactive with the others after giving the group travel information. In abuse and peer relations, such as, "Give an example of a bad secret"; "When collaging her photo taken at a cemetery, instead of becoming overwhelmed might it be alright for a child to say 'no' to an adult?"; "Tell a bully to by her feelings, as was usually the case, she was able to express her sadness STOP" (Wadeson, 2000, p. 96). Making the game taught the boys to nego­ over her mother's death, a very difficult issue for her. tiate, work as a team, solve problems together, and to accept the ideas of Children others. They played their game together, with other children, and with Ruth Evermann, who worked on a psychiatric pediatric ward where pa­ their therapists. Other groups at the agency played it as well. Both Marjorie tients stayed only one or 2 weeks, devised meaningful and often ingenious Hamilton and Alexandria Elliot-Prisco devised unique ways to work with tasks for them to meet their particular needs. Rosa, an Hispanic 11-year very vulnerable young people who have been sexually abused. old whose parents were substance abusers and whose mother had made a A final area I will present in work with children and adolescents is art suicide attempt, had also tried to kill herself and threatened to murder a therapy used to deal with medical problems. Anastasia Limperis worked classmate. She insisted that someone inside her was telling her how peace­ in a hospital Child Life Program. She found that life-size Styrofoam heads ful death would be. When angry or frustrated, she banged her head. As used for holding wigs provided the children an object to decorate that could Rosa was pacing and keeping her eyes on the floor in their First session, be completed in one session, even by a physically compromised child, and Ruth opened a cabinet and let some foam rubber padding roll out onto the that would produce an impressive result. The Styrofoam surface allowed floor. Rosa stopped pacing and watched it unfold. Ruth gave her some and both painting and easy attachment of objects. Nancy, 7, admitted for con­ asked her to trace her hands and feet on it and cut them out. At the next genital scoliosis, whose spine was in danger of becoming more crooked as session she explained how she could make them into a life-size puppet she grew, had a metal halo drilled into her head to lift its weight and hold it using plastic bottles and decorative material. Ruth suggested that she could stationary while the vertebrae in her spine were realigned. The mechanism make something like herself. Rosa said that was impossible, but as Ruth extended laterally past her shoulders to her waist, keeping her torso in demonstrated, she began to assemble the parts herself. When she had fin­ place. When she saw a Styrofoam head with a crown that Stacey had made, ished it, she measured it to her own size, danced with it, and finally posed she said she wanted to make one like it. Despite her limited mobility, she it in a chair; see Fig. 4. She made clothes and jew­ said she was having fun making it, though she wanted the face to look sad. elry for it and fixed its hair just like her own. She She asked Stacey to "sink" the wire into the head, and yelled "Ouch!" described her puppet as beautiful just like herself when she had done so (Wadeson, 2000, p.l 32). She spoke of how she had and said she wanted to show the puppet to her mother cried when the halo was placed in her head.how much she hated the hospi­ and to the other kids on the unit. She was discharged tal, and how frightening it was at night. Both of them held the hot glue gun the next day, and left with her puppet in hand. Rosa to affix feathers and yarn to the crown. Nancy then said that the hospital related to the puppet as a perception of herself in was not such a bad place after all and that it could even be fun. By working whom she felt pride instead of self-destruction on the Styrofoam head, she controlled the re-creation of a painful and fright­ (Wadeson, 2000). In this example, directed art ac­ ening experience. Her final product transformed an imprisoning, painful tivity enabled self-expression and enhanced self-es­ experience into something poignant and beautiful. teem. Susan Gasman provided art therapy for patients on a child oncology Alexandria Elliot-Prisco utilized photography in unit. Thomas, 16, had been living with acute lymphocytic leukemia since working with sexually abused children and adoles­ age 10. She saw him in the outpatient clinic. It was difficult for him to cents at an outpatient clinic. Eleven-year-old Nancy draw because of IV lines in both hands. He had come for a spinal tap, a had been molested numerous times by a family mem­ painful procedure in which cerebrospinal fluid is withdrawn from the spi­ ber baby sitter. Nancy told Alex of her imaginary nal canal by a needle inserted between the vertebrae. He was nervous companions, Dog, Seal, Dolphin, and Kitty, who about the procedure and began talking about inventing a machine that could came to her when she was being abused and made scan spinal fluid with laser technology, which he then proceeded to draw her feel better. Alex entered Nancy's imaginary from four different angles. Thomas used the art experience to relieve some world through a multimedia project in order to fa­ of the tension he felt in anticipation of a painful procedure. When his cilitate communication that would feel comfortable doctor saw the picture, he was surprised that Thomas had so much anxiety Fig. -1-1 jfe-size puppet by an to Nancy. She made paper dolls from Polaroid shots from past spinal taps, yet had never told him so directly (Wadeson, 2000). 11-year-old \uiadal girl. she had Alex take of her in poses she selected. She Art Therapy Collaboration then made her imaginary friends from self-hardening clay. After creating In treatment with many of the populations discussed above, art thera­ a painted background, Nancy enacted an elaborate story of peril and pists work closely with other members of interdisciplinary teams. On rescue with her figures; see Fig. 5 (faces have been covered with drawn -nj 'trv hospital psychiatric units, for example, psychologists, psychiatrists, and Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts other primary care personnel refer patients to art therapists. In other set­ References tings, art therapists collaborate with administrators to establish art therapy Junge, M., and Asawa, P. (1994J. A history of art therapy in the United as a regular part of the treatment program. For example, several psychiat­ Slates Mundelein, 1L: The American Art Therapy Assn. ric aftercare facilities in Chicago make art therapy a central activity in their Rubin, J.A. (1978). Child art therapy. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. programming (Wadeson, 2000, chapter 8). Rubin, J.A. (1999). Art therapy: an introduction. Philadelphia: Brunner/ Mazel In addition to treatment, another productive area of collaboration is re­ Wadeson, H. (1980). Art psychotherapy. New York: John Wiley & Sons. search, particularly on the part of psychologists who have joined forces Wadeson, H. (1987). The dynamics of art psychotherapy. New York: John with art therapists in designing research to study art expression and out­ Wiley & Sons. comes influenced by art therapy. There are three journals pertaining to the Wadeson, H., et al., Ed.s (1990). Advances in art therapy. New York: John profession that have published such research: Wiley & Sons Art Therapy, Journal of the American Art Therapy Association Wadeson, H. (ed.), (1992). A guide to conducting art therapy research. The American Journal of Art Therapy Mundelein, IL: American Art Therapy Association. The Arts in Psychotherapy Wadeson, H. (2000). Art therapy practice: innovative approaches with di­ verse populations. New York: John Wiley & Sons. The American Art Therapy Association has published A Guide to Con­ ducting Art Therapy Research,(Wadeson, Ed., 1992), which is currently Harriet Wadeson being updated. Director, Art Therapy Graduate Program (MC 036) For psychologists and other human service personnel who work with art School of Art and Design therapists or who use art with their clients or would like to do so, there are University Of Illinois many sources of information about the field, such as: 110 Henry Hall, 935 West Harrison Street The American Art Therapy Association, www.arttherapv.orp Chicago, Illinois 60607.7038 Junge, M., and Asawa, P. (1995): A History of Art Therapy in the United States \|/ \|/ \|/ \|/ \|/ \|/ \|/ \[f \|/ \\f \|/ \J/ \|/ Rubin, J.A. (1978): Child Art Therapy Rubin, J.A. (1999): Art Therapy: An Introduction Perspectives on the Profession of Dance/Movement Therapy: Wadeson, H. (1980): Art Psychotherapy (art therapy with psychiatric Past, Present, and Future patients) Robyn Flaum Cruz Wadeson, H. (1987): The Dynamics of Art Psychotherapy (underlying COPE Behavioral Services principles) Wadeson, H. et al., Eds. (1990): Advances in Art Therapy Tucson, Arizona Wadeson, H. (2000): Art Therapy Practice: Innovative Approaches with Introduction Diverse Populations Dance/movement therapy (DMT) developed as a formal psychotherapy There are also annual conferences held by the national and local art practice in the 1940s (Bartenieff, 1972), and although European and other therapy associations and abundant specialized workshops offered by art international influences contributed to its development, the professional therapy training programs, local art therapy associations, and individual practice of DMT began in the United States. By 1966 a professional orga­ art therapists. nization, the American Dance Therapy Association (ADTA), was started Although there is no prohibition against non-art therapist practitioners with 73 charter members. The membership of the ADTA included 955 using art making in treating clients, for in-depth art therapy, usually the professional and 255 nonprofessional members in 2000, with international services of an art therapist are required. For example, when children at a members in Argentina, Australia, Canada, England, France, Germany, Hong sexual abuse treatment center were observed to express themselves more Kong, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Norway, Puerto Rico, readily in art than in other ways, I was called in as a consultant to work Scotland, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and The Netherlands. In addition, with the staff in helping them to use the artwork most effectively. Never­ there are currently national dance/movement therapy organizations in many theless, what I was able to teach them in weekly consultations for a year international locals including Italy, Japan, Germany, and France. was limited compared to the two years of intensive training art therapy Regardless of location, dance/movement therapists integrate the dancer's graduate students receive. I believe that human service personnel can add special knowledge of the body, movement, and expression with the skills much to many treatment venues by introducing art therapy, and it is defi­ of psychotherapy, counseling, and rehabilitation to help individuals with a nitely to their advantage to understand the many facets of this creative wide array of treatment needs. Social, emotional, cognitive, and/or physi­ profession. Nevertheless, the complexities of art therapy challenges re­ cal problems can be addressed through DMT via group and individual ses­ quire a practitioner thoroughly trained in the profession. Therefore, col­ sions in many different types of settings from hospitals and clinics to schools. laboration with an art therapist team member is the most effective treat­ The fact that dance/movement therapists are immersed in the language of ment approach. the body, rather than focusing solely on the verbal, lends characteristics to Conclusion their work that set it apart from other types of therapy. The bias of Western This paper has presented but a few examples of what art therapists are culture for cognitive, verbal processing and the proliferation of body-ori­ doing today. Other populations and facilities utilizing art therapy include ented therapies of recent years might cause some to think of DMT as an jails, services for the developmentally delayed, substance abuse programs, "alternative" therapy. But the origins and practice of DMT have more in special schools, inpatient medical and psychiatric units, and family mental common with psychodynamic psychotherapies than with alternative thera­ health centers (Wadeson, 2000). Hopefully these vignettes give an idea of pies, and although frequently classified as adjunct therapy, DMT was ar­ the challenges art therapists face and some of the innovative solutions they gued to be appropriate primary therapy some years ago (Zwerling, 1979). have created. Historical Development of DMT What is art therapy? Separately, the blind men reply: It is the lonely Interestingly, the origin of DMT was directly related to changes in the child locked in a wordless prison creating sunshine with crayons. It is the dance art form that began at the end of the nineteenth century. The most pieces of a woman shattered by rape, slowly melding together in a clay notable characteristic of these changes was the introduction of the notion form of her intact body. It is the spiraling visions clashing and parting on that dance, could be an expressive and communicative art form capable of paper painted by a man in a hospital who sees what others do not. It is the moving people deeply and seriously, rather than a mere entertainment feeble scratchings of an ancient woman whose words have failed, making (McDonagh, 1976). The modern dance movement of the early twentieth her mark. century extended this idea and focused attention on the symbolic potential What is art therapy? Together the blind men grasp the whole: It is the of the human body in motion free of the stylization that characterized clas­ legacy of the dying, the plottings of the living, the pain made visible by sical ballet, the only serious theatrical dance recognized at the time. Ac­ those in between. cording to Bartenieff (1972), early modern dancers sought to reestablish What is art therapy? It is the rivers of separate circumstances, private the human communicative element in dance that existed when dance ritual privations, and lonely hauntings flowing together in tides of shifting re­ was an integral spiritual and social element of societies. In Europe and the flections streaming toward a deep sea of intermingled humanity. United States, dancers such as Isadora Duncan, Ruth St. Dennis, Ted What is art therapy? It is the fixity of stars in which the evanescent £ Shawn, and Mary Wigman paved the way for a generation of modern dust of living is coalesced in images. dancers including Martha Graham and Hanya Holm (McDonagh, 1976). ^Xf> The first modern dancers produced three students, Marian Chace, Mary Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2) Whitehouse, and Trudi Schoop, who would independently take key ele- health' strive to keeP abreast of the mf1ux of new information in the field ments of modern dance and pioneer the use of dance and movement with EarJy onto the fact that movement distur- DMT (Chodorow 1991) bances and abnormal movement patterns had long been recognized as symp- It is important to note that modern dance could not simply be applied tomatic of mental illnesses (Davis, 1972). With particular regard to schizo- directly to clinical populations, Chace, Whitehouse, and Schoop each spent phrenia, movement abnormalities had been regarded as an integral aspect many years of contemplative teaching and performing to develop the skills and "mportant symptom of illness since the early part of the century, and by necessary for DMT to coalesce. Familiarity with elements of modern dance the *940s movement patterns in schizophrenics had begun to be studied forms such as the importance of expression, communication, and the dancer empirically (Silberstein, 1987). Although today we have a more complete as part of a community, allowed Chace, Whitehouse, and Schoop to de- understanding of movement abnormalities in severe mental illnesses that vclop skills such as observation, interpretation, and the manipulation of SIve ful1 recognition to the role of neurology (see Cruz, 1995/1996 for a dance elements such as rhythm and space to serve patients' needs. In June m°re complete description), when DMT was m its inception, psychoana- of 1942. Chacc was invited to work with patients at St. Elizabeth's Hospi- !ysts considered movement symptomatology to be communicative of psy- tal in Washington, DC, and she described her process of arriving at that chodynamic concerns (Deutsch, 1947). Psychoanalytic influences on the p0jnt ' field continue to be visible in the psychodynamic orientation of many dance Dance therapy, as a discipline, did not move into the mental hospital therapists and particularly in the work of Chodorow (1986). full blown and as a bright idea to be sold. Its roots were in work that ln the 19"' century, Darwin's work established facial and body move- had been going on for many years prior to this in the community. ..At ment patterns as a subject worthy of scientific investigation and had a sig- the moment that 1 became interested in the reasons for seeking dance nificant impact on psychology (Dixon & Lerner, 1988). In the 1940s as an outlet by the non-dancers coming to the school, 1 added another anthropologists and ethnologists began describing movement as a tradi- dimension to my interest and teaching. 1 began to use my training as tional code regulating and maintaining human relationships, and this line a means of communication and body awareness rather than as a teacher of research became a body of nonverbal communication information ex- of art forms. As pupils m this group made application and then par- tensive enough for an annotated bibliography that was relevant for DMT ticipated in the first class, I observed and empathized with the needs (Davis, 1972). Birdwhistell (1970) developed a method of analyzing body being expressed (Chace, 1975, p. 9, 10). movement that accompanied speech, while other researchers investigated Due to the symptoms of the patients, the "dance for communication" postural movements, facial expression and eye contact as part of the inter- (Chace, 1975, p. 12) sessions Chace began at St. Elizabeth's were not classes action process. Posture and movement as communicative elements in the with prescribed movement, but rather groups that used the spontaneous therapeutic interaction were studied (Scheflen, 1964), and while using evalu- movement expressions of the patients and group rhythms to meet indi- ation of nonverbal communication, as part of the clinical assessment of vidual and group goals. She observed her patients closely and extracted psychological states was not new, a new emphasis on using this informa- dance elements that could be used to make contact with and communicate tion to serve therapeutic goals did emerge (Davis & Hadicks, 1990). The with them. The practice of DMT remains rather similar today. Movement nonverbal communication research literature both supported and expanded is regarded as complex, individual, and expressive communication; pre- the understanding and interpretation of movement expression and obser- scribing particular movements would disrupt the process of assessing indi- vation with regard to interaction, and was central to the development and vidual expression similarly to telling clients in verbal therapy what to say. acceptance of the DMT profession. The body and movement become the language of therapy though which Today, dance/movement therapists use various theories of psychodynamic assessment and intervention take place in DMT. , and growth-oriented psychotherapy as frames of reference for their work, By the mid 1960s, a second generation of dance therapists had begun and integrate these with an informed and specifically trained understand- working. In addition to establishing the ADTA as a regulating body for the ing of nonverbal communication. However, there is not a centrally estab- new profession, they began to formalize DMT training standards and de- lished and accepted theory or rationale regarding the efficacy of movement velop graduate degree training programs at several universities. A master's in psychotherapy that serves the profession; the diversity of populations degree is required of all dance/movement therapists and educational pro- and applications of dance therapy beyond traditional psychotherapy may grams approved by the ADTA include studies in psychopathology, human have contributed to this fact. Bartenieff and Lewis (1980) proposed a gen- development, movement observation, research methods, and DMT foun- eral theory about the function of movement, theorizing that the body and dations and practice. A supervised internship in a clinical setting is also its movement mediate between internal processes and the external envi- required, and students must have had extensive experience with multiple ronment, serving a coping function for satisfying and coordinating demands dance forms prior to their graduate work. Currently, there are ADTA ap- in either sphere. Most dance/movement therapists use this theory as a proved DMT graduate programs in the United States at MCP Hahnemann working model and add to it the idea that all movement, including posture University (Philadelphia, PA), Antioch/New England Graduate School and body structure (as the body develops according to its use), reflects (Keene, NH), Columbia College (Chicago, 1L), and the Naropa Institute states of psychological health and illness. Chace (1975) described a ratio- (Boulder, CO), and the program at Pratt Institute (Brooklyn, NY) has can- nale for DMT, "since muscular activity expressing emotion is the substra- didacy status. Eight other universities offer graduate work in DMT, five turn of dance, and since dance is a means of structuring and organizing institutions offer post graduate courses, and eleven colleges and universi- such activity, it might be supposed that dance could be a potent means of ties offer undergraduate coursework in dance/movement therapy. Interna- communication and reintegration of the seriously ill mental patient" (p. tionally, there are 13 programs: two each in Australia, Israel, Austria, and 71). DMT provides a therapy environment in which various aspects of Germany, and single graduate programs in Sweden, The Netherlands, En- relationship to self and others can be explored and experienced. But what gland, Argentina, and Italy. In the US, a credentialing process with two is more, there is no requirement to verbalize the material of the therapy, so levels distinguishes between dance/movement therapists who are prepared material can be discovered and addressed even if it is not verbally acces- to work in professional settings within a team or under supervision (DTR) sible to the individual. Similarly to other arts therapies, it is this symbolic, and those who are qualified to teach, provide supervision, and work in nonverbal access to therapeutic material that distinguishes DMT from ver- private practice (ADTR), Continuing education units are necessary to keep bal therapies. a credential active. In recent years, dance/movement therapists have been engaged by the During its early development, the practice of DMT was influenced by wealth of new neuropsychological research that has theoretical implica- the prevailing theories of psychodynamic psychotherapy of the 1940s, tionsforDMT. Interdisciplinary approaches such as that of Schore (1994) 1950s, and 1960s (Chodorow, 1991). In addition, the resurgence of re- integrating research from the areas of child development, neurobiology, search on nonverbal communication of the early 1960s and 1970s (Schmais, and psychoanalysis on affect regulation support the efficacy of nonverbal 1980) and the growing awareness of the importance of the body in mental interventions. Such work is gaining notice by dance/movement therapists disorders in the 1960s (Silberstein, 1987) offered other influences on DMT and will hopefully be explored further for its potential to help establish a practice. Developments in the knowledge base concerning disturbed men- scientific foundation for DMT. tal states and behavior were not lost on first- and second-generation dance/ Assessment in DMT movement therapists. They strove to understand and integrate the avail- A great contribution to DMT was the introduction of a system of ob- able information on conceptualization and treatment of mental disabili-^^% serving, analyzing, and describing movement behavior devised by Rudolf ties with their nonverbal approach. Indeed this tradition continues as %Z£# Laban. Laban was both a dancer and architect and his elaborate theory dance/movement therapists, like other professionals in behavioral -i\,fUOl/v of movement, techniques of movement observation, and system of Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts movement notation spread through Europe after World War II. His system DMT literature, but with all of the attendant problems of design and execu­ of movement notation to preserve choreography is known as Labanotation, tion that one might imagine when research is not a focus of training. Dance/ and he had many students who carried his work to England and America movement therapists who desire doctoral degrees must take these degrees where his theories had a profound effect on dance and dance education in other specialty areas and while some who do so remain in and contribute (Thornton, 1971). His system of observation and notation describes the to the profession, others do not. For the maturity of the profession, it is spatial and dynamic aspects of movement rather than only the actions per­ vital that more dance/movement therapists obtain doctoral degrees with formed, seeking to convey the qualities of the movements. The distinction the attendant exposure to and experience with the spectrum of research between the action of movement and the qualities with which movement is methods that this implies. It is also hoped that the option of taking a doc­ performed is a key concept. This distinction allows analysis of movement torate in DMT will be available in the near future. behavior apart from action that can be used to describe functional and ex­ DMT Research pressive movement as well as posture and the body at rest. Bartenieff, While the following discussion on DMT research is brief and far from Lamb, and others adapted Laban's concepts into a system of movement comprehensive, it is hoped that a flavor for the range and potential of re­ assessment known as Effort/Shape (Dell, 1977). search from dance/movement therapists is conveyed. Although a greater The basic concepts of the Effort/Shape system including effort, shape, proportion of the extant research is practice oriented, examining the effec­ space, and body context proved to be essential to DMT. They served as a tiveness of DMT and describing interventions with particular cases, some basis for the development of diverse movement observation scales, and of the research has focused on investigating the potential of the movement- essentially provided a movement language that is shared by dance/move­ based assessment tools unique to DMT for diagnostic and other purposes. ment therapists. The Movement Psychodiagnostic Inventory (MPI, Davis, Aggregated evidence for the effectiveness of DMT, although based on a 1970; Davis, 1991) is a Laban-based scale originally designed for observ­ relatively small number of studies, has demonstrated treatment effects of ing and noting the movement patterns of hospitalized psychiatric patients DMT that are comparable to other psychotherapies (Cruz & Sabers, 1998). and used today to investigate involuntary movement disorder associated In fact, when effect sizes were examined among meta-analyses for DMT, with severe psychopathology (Cruz, 1995/1996; Berger, 2000). Kalish verbal psychotherapies, cognitive behavioral therapies, meditation tech­ (1975) developed and normed a body movement scale for autistic and atypi­ niques, and exercise for psychological problems DMT fared rather favor­ cal children that was influenced in part by the Laban descriptive language. ably. Effects of DMT on anxiety, self-concept, body awareness, were in­ North (1972) also used the Laban system to develop an assessment of per­ cluded in the studies. Based on this evidence, which included studies from sonality for children, and the Kestenberg Movement Profile (K.MP, as early as 1974, DMT can be argued to be an effective treatment for indi­ Kestenberg, 1979) noting developmental movement patterns and using a viduals with a wide array of symptoms. Cruz and Sabers recommended Laban base, has been applied to a variety of assessment populations with a that this information be used to lobby for the introduction and continuation focus on clarifying treatment issues (Kestenberg-Amighi, Loman, Lewis, of DMT positions in different clinical settings. & Sossin, 1999). The variability of these applications demonstrates the A study of DMT with older adults diagnosed with neurological trauma usefulness of Laban's system. helps to demonstrate some of the flexibility in application of DMT, par­ Because DMT developed as an applied practice based on the assump­ ticularly, as neurological rehabilitation and interventions that are appropri­ tion that movement reflects aspects of inter- and intra-personal functioning ate with older adults are increasingly important topics. In a study of older that include pathological conditions, Laban's work provided a key compo­ adults with neurological injury (non-progressive neurotrauma), Berrol, Ooi, nent of DMT by offering a systematic method of observing and describing and Katz (1997) used experimental and wait-listed control groups in five the visible dynamic of movement devoid of particular movement tasks. centers across the country. Participants received DMT two times per week This has proved useful in training, clinical practice, and research. DMT and the researchers documented gains in measures related to quality of life training programs teach movement observation using Effort/Shape and many for the experimental group in excess of those measured for the control dance/movement therapists obtain further training and certification in Ef­ group. Individuals who received DMT made significant gains in physi­ fort/Shape at the Laban Institute in London and the Laban/Bartenieff Insti­ ological measures such as walking, and had significantly improved cogni­ tute in the US. tive performance over the control participants. In addition there were Practice and Professional Issues changes in the frequency of social interaction with peers and involvement The populations with which dance therapists work have become wide- in social activities for the experimental group in spite of the fact that all ranging and include such groups as medically ill children (Goodill & participants had severe limitations due to the nature of their neuropathol­ Morningstar, 1993; Mendelsohn, 1999) women with breast cancer (Dibbell- ogy. Hope, 2000; Serlin, Classen, Frances, & Angell, 2000), individuals with Several studies have been conducted examining the potential of DMT eating disorders (Krantz, 1999), and individuals with Parkinson's disease based movement indicators for diagnostic purposes. Lausberg (1998) stud­ (Westbrook & McKibben, 1989). While dance/movement therapists re­ ied the movement behavior of individuals with bulimia nervosa and anor­ port working in the areas of wellness and personal growth, palliative care, exia nervosa using inflammatory bowel disease patients and healthy indi­ medical illness, developmental disabilities, and addictions, 60% of dance/ viduals as controls. Participants completed a movement assessment and movement therapists recently surveyed still classified their work as psychi­ although no significant differences were found among the patient groups, atric (Cruz & Hervey, in review). Work with other populations such in­ the healthy control participants were distinguished from the patient groups fants and parents, children with autism and developmental disabilities, and on several movement indicators including motor tasks and use of weight, the elderly has been ongoing since the 1970s. space, and body involvement. Lausberg concluded that severity rather than While dance/movement therapists have expanded the populations with type of psychopathology might have been a factor. However she also pro­ which they work, there has not been a corresponding increase in the amount posed that univariate analyses were not effective in uncovering differences of research on DMT. The early DMT literature was largely composed of among patient groups and that multivariate analyses might be more effec­ theoretical formulations and practice descriptions (see for example, Chase, tive. Indeed, due to the complex character of movement Cruz (1995/1996) 1953) and as the profession evolved, research oriented publications were proposed that expecting a single movement indicator to differentiate pa­ added to the literature. Although results of studies on the effectiveness of thology was unrealistic. DMT using a variety of methods can be found, the case study has been Using the MPI (Davis, 1991) with raters blind to diagnosis, Cruz (1995/ noted to be the most popular DMT research method (Ritter & Low, 1996). 1996) found that patterns of involuntary movement indicators, distinguished And while no efficacy studies have been published, effectiveness studies using multivariate techniques, discriminated between patients with schizo­ with multiple populations have been published. While research reflecting phrenia and those with personality disorders. While it may seem that dis­ development and expansion of knowledge related to practice is available tinguishing between these groups based on motor behavior might not be and some of this will be reviewed a little later in this article, the troubling that difficult for untrained raters, interestingly, it was not degree or severity fact remains that this is not a large body of literature.. An issue of some of motor disorder but pattern across indicators that proved to be important. concern to dance/movement therapists is that DMT research may not be Evidence for the validity of the MPI as a measure of motor disorder was keeping up with the demands of practice and healthcare policy, (Cruz & found in the patterning of MPI items along the hyperkinesia - hypokinesia Hervey, in review). Some of the explanation for this state of affairs is that continuum traditionally used to classify motor disorder. However, a group DMT training programs focus on preparation for clinical practice rather of MPI items could not be ordered along this continuum and the MPI may than on research or the combination of the two, and remain limited to represent a finer level of distinction of motor disorder than has been master's degree training programs. Master's theses abstracted in two traditionally defined. In a related study based on movement character­ volumes (Fisher & Stark, 1992;Chaiklin, 1998) create a large group of -f\ istics in individuals with borderline and narcissistic personality disor- Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2) ders, Berger (2000) found that these two groups could be distinguished Books with 86% correct classification using the MPI and again using a multivari­ Levy, F. J., Fried, J. P., & Leventhal, F. (Eds.) (1995). Dance and other ex­ pressive artsjherapies. London: Routledge. ate statistical technique. It is fairly easy to argue that untrained observers Naess Lewin, J. L. (1998). Dance therapy notebook. Washington, DC: Ameri­ would not distinguish between these diagnostic groups based only on mo­ can Dance Therapy Association. tor behavior. The surprising finding across these two studies is that a level Sandel, S. L., Chaiklin, S., & Lohn, A. (Eds.) (1993). Foundations of dance/ of diagnostic specificity was obtained based purely on motor behavior in­ movement therapy: The life and work of Marian Chace. Washington, DC: dicators for diagnoses that are typically made based on extensive interview American Dance Therapy Association. and history taking. References A final study for discussion offers another interesting application of the Bartenieff, 1. (1972). Dance therapy: A new profession or a rediscovery of an observational and assessment tools that have emerged from Laban's work. ancient role of the dance? Dance Scope, Fall/Winter, 6-18. Lotan and Yirmiya (in press) used elements of the KMP (Kestenberg, 1979) Bartenieff, L, and Lewis, D. (1980). Body movement: Coping with the envi­ to investigate the role of body movements during the process of falling ronment. New York: Gordon and Breach. Berger, M.R. (2000). Movement patterns in borderline and narcissistic per­ asleep. In order to help explicate sleep problems in toddlers, their move­ sonality disorders. (Doctoral dissertation, New York University, 1999). Dis­ ments were analyzed as they were falling asleep. The movement variables sertation Abstracts International, 60, (9-B) 4875. predicted the length of the falling asleep phase significantly better than Berrol, C. Ooi, W. L., & Katz, S. (1997). Dance/movement therapy with other variables associated with the falling asleep phase including duration older adults who have sustained neurological insult: A demonstration project. of pacifier or thumb sucking and presence of objects in the bed. In addi­ American Journal of Dance Therapy, 19, 135-154. tion, there was a relationship between the presence of parents in the room Birdwhistell, R L. (1970). Kmesics and context: Essays on body motion com­ and the type of movement exhibited by the children. Parents who spent munication. Philadelphia, PA: University of Philadelphia Press. more time in the room had toddlers who exhibited fewer soothing move­ Chace, M. (1975). Marian Chace: Her papers. H. Chaiklin (Ed.). Washing­ ton, DC: American Dance Therapy Association. ments than those whose parents were not in the room. What is most out­ Chace, M. (1953). Dance as an adjunctive therapy with hospitalized mental standing about this study is that advanced technology was used in the film­ patients. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 17, 219-225. ing and computer analysis of the toddlers' movements. The KMP, which Chaiklin, S. (Ed.) (1998). Dance/movement therapy abstracts: Doctoral dis­ was developed for and is still largely used by highly skilled observers (Koch, sertations, master's theses, and special projects. (Vol. 2). Washington, DC: Cruz, & Goodill, in press), was combined with technology capable of ex­ American Dance Therapy Association. actly measuring amplitudes of qualitative changes. The use of technology Chodorow, J. (1991). Dance therapy and depth psychology: The moving to improve on observer ratings represents a true advance that will eventu­ imagination. London: Routledge. ally have an impact on DMT research. While the movement language used Chodorow, J. (1986). The body as symbol: Dance/movement in analysis. In N. Schwartz-Salant and M. Stein (Eds.) The body in analysis, pp.87-108. in DMT assessments and instruments is unique and can make a real contri­ Wilmette, Illinois: Chiron. bution to research of many types, the fact that these instruments must still Cruz, R.F. (1996). An empirical investigation of the Movement Psychodiag- be coded by trained raters cause their use to be costly and time consuming. nostic Inventory. (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Arizona, 1995). Introducing technology that mimics and even improves upon human raters Dissertation AbstractsJnternational, 57 (2-B), 1495. would certainly push research in DMT forward. Further, the application of Cruz, R.F., & Hervey, L.W, (in review). The American Dance Therapy Asso­ DMT instruments to research in areas such as developmental psychology ciation research survey. and psycholinguistics could make real contributions in these areas. Cruz, R.F, & Sabers, D.L. (1998). Dance/movement therapy is more effec­ tive than previously reported. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 25, 101-104. The possibilities for research collaboration between dance/movement Davis, M. (1972). Understanding movement behavior: An annotated bibli­ therapists and psychologists in various specialty areas are particularly ex­ ography. New York: Arno Press. citing. Productive collaborations have already proven useful in develop­ Davis, M. (1970). Movement characteristics of hospitalized psychiatric pa­ mental psychology, especially in the areas of motor development and par­ tients. Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Conference of the American Dance ent-child interaction (see Kestenberg-Amighi, Loman, Lewis, & Sossin, Therapy Association, 25-45. 1999), and neuropsychology (see Lausberg, Davis, & Rothenhaeusler, Davis, M. (1991). Guide to movement analysis methods parti': Movement 2000). However, the true potential of such research partnerships has yet to psychodiagnostic inventory, (available from [Martha Davis, 1 West 85lh Street, be tapped. A simple review of the specialty areas in psychology reveals a New York, NY 10024]). broad range from forensic and engineering psychology to rehabilitation Davis, M., & Hadicks, D. (1990). Nonverbal behavior and client state changes during psychotherapy. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 46, 3, 340-351. and school psychology. The language of the body and movement provide Dell, C. (1977). A primer for movement description (2nd ed.). New York: a rich source of data that is seldom used in to inform research outside Dance Notation Bureau. DMT. Introducing the DMT vantage point to research in other areas would Dibbell-Hope, S. (2000). The use of dance/movement therapy in psychologi­ allow cross-fertilization of ideas and information. Indeed, exploiting move­ cal adaptation to breast cancer. Arts in Psychotherapy, 27, 51-68. ment data in collaborative research can enhance our understanding of ques­ Dixon, R.A., & Lerner, R.M. (1988). A history of systems in developmental tions related to many interactive, expressive, and intrapersonal elements of psychology. In M.H. Bornstein & M.E. Lamb (Eds.), Developmental psychol­ •human experience. ogy: An advanced textbook (2nd ed.) (pp. 3-50). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Summary Associations. Deutsch, F. (1947). Analysis of postural behavior. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, The growing international presence of DMT is heartening to those of us 16, 195-213. with a passion for the profession. But the fact remains that DMT is a small Fisher, A. C, & Stark, A. (Eds.) (1992) Dance/movement therapy abstracts: and specialized area of clinical practice and the intimacy with the dance Doctoral .dissertations, master's theses, and special projects through 1990. form that is required for entry into the profession, although necessary, may (Vol. 1). Washington, DC: American Dance Therapy Association. contribute to slow growth of the profession. While the field of psychology Goodill, S., & Morningstar, D. (1993). The role of dance/movement therapy can accept students from all walks of life, traditionally, dance/movement with medically ill children. International Journal of Medicine, 2, 24-27. therapists must first be dancers. DMT offers a rewarding professional op­ Kalish, B.I. (1975). Developmental studies using the Behavior Rating In­ tion to dancers who are attracted by psychology and human service, and in strument for Autistic and Atypical Children (BRIAAC) [Summary]. Proceed­ ings of the Ninth Annual Conference of the American Dance Therapy Associa­ addition there is still much work to be done to extend the profession. Re­ tion^. 131-136). search and scholarship are needed to improve clinical practice, to explore Kestenberg, J.S. (1979). The role of movement patterns in development (Vol. theoretical underpinnings, and to extend DMT observational tools into 2). New York: Dance Notation Bureau Press. mainstream science. Since the 1940s, the profession has flexibly accom­ Kestenberg Amighi, J., Loman, S., Lewis, P., & Sossin, K. M. (1999). The modated trends in healthcare and changes in the understanding and treat­ meaning of movement. Developmental and clinical perspectives of the ment of different disabling conditions. The richness of DMT with its unique Kestenberg Movement Profile. Amsterdam: Gordon Breach. focus on the language of movement and the body has much to offer main­ Koch, S. C, Cruz, R. F, & Goodill, S. W. (in press). The Kestenberg Move­ stream research and healthcare, and I hope that in the future, DMT makes ment Profile: Performance of novice raters. American Journal ofDance Therapy. Krantz, A. M. (1999). Growing into her body: Dance/movement therapy for its own impact through contributions to research and clinical practice. women with eating disorders. American Journal of Dance Therapy, 21, 81- Resources 103. Web Sites Lausberg, H. (1998). Does movement behavior have diagnostic potential? http://www.adta.org American Dance Therapy Association Discussion of a controlled study on patients with anorexia nervosa and bu­ http://www.ncata.com National Coalition of Arts Therapies Associa­ limia. American Journal of Dance Therapy, 20, 85-99. tions -;\fUU tsfY Lausberg, H., Davis, M., & Rothenhaeusler, A. (2000). Hemispheric spe- Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts cialization in spontaneous gesticulation in a patient with callosal disconnec­ helped patients create parodies of hospital life. By 1956 she was helping tion. Neuropsychologic!, 38, 1654-1663. patients perform stories about their lives. She called these shows, "self- Lotan, N., & Yirmiya, N. (in press). Body movement, presence of parents revelatory" performances. Then in 1958 she began doing what she called and the process of falling asleep in toddlers. International Journal of Behav­ "spontaneous drama" sessions. She believed that in the self-revelatory ioral Development. McDonagh, D. (1976). The complete guide to modern dance. New York: performances and spontaneous dramas the patients were able to "gain dis­ Doubleday. tance from their plight." (Chace, 1954; Chace, 1955, Johnson, 1993). Mendelsohn, J. (1999). Dance/movement therapy with hospitalized children. • Twenty years later, in 1979 the National Association for Drama Therapy American Journal of Dance Therapy, 21, 65-80. was formally organized. It was at about this same time that formal training North, M. (1972). Personality assessment through movement. London: programs for drama therapy began to emerge at New York University and Macdonald & Evans. at the California Institute of Integral Studies. Today there are nearly 500 Ritter, M., & Low, K. G. (1996). Effects of dance/movement therapy: A meta­ individuals who are members of the National Association of Drama Therapy, analysis. Arts in Psychotherapy, 23, 249-260. and 120 who carry the title of Registered Drama Therapist, RDT (Angela Scheflen, A. E. (1964). The significance of posture in communication sys­ tems. Psychiatry, 27, 316-331. Comfort, personal communication, May 30, 2001). Schmais, C. (1980). Dance therapy in perspective. In K.C. Mason (Ed.), Dance According to NADT, drama therapy is the systematic and intentional use therapy: Focus on dance vii (5lh ed.), (pp. 7-12). Washington, DC: American of drama/theatre processes and products to achieve the therapeutic goals of Alliance for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation. symptom relief, emotional and physical integration, and personal growth. Schore, A. N. (i 994). Affect regulation and the origin of the self: The neuro­ Drama therapy is an active, experiential approach that facilitates the client's biology of emotional development. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum. ability to tell his/her story, solve problems, set goals, express feelings ap­ Serlin, 1., Classen, C, Frances, B., & Angell, K. (2000). Symposium: Sup­ propriately, achieve catharsis, extend the depth and breadth of inner expe­ port groups for women with breast cancer: Traditional and alternative expres­ rience, improve interpersonal skills and relationships, and strengthen the sive approaches. Arts infsychoiherapy, 27, 123-138. Silberstein, S. (1987). Dance therapy and schizophrenia: A vision of the fu­ ability to perform personal life roles while increasing flexibility between ture. The Arts jn Psychotherapy 14, 143-152. roles. Drama therapy is in fact a wide spectrum of approaches and activi­ Thornton, S. (1971) A movement perspective of Rudolf Laban. London: ties. Drama therapy is a set of action-oriented techniques that incorporates Macdonald & Evans. one or multiple elements of the theatrical art form. Westbrook, B. K., & McKibben, H. (1989). Dance/movement therapy with Drama therapy is not therapy for dramatists. It is not a specialty of groups of outpatients with Parkinson's disease. American Journal of Dance psychotherapy that caters to and addresses the problems of actors and the­ Therapy, 11, 27-38. atre artists. Drama therapy is not the use of "drama" to facilitate change for Zwerling, I. (1979). The creative arts therapies as "real therapies." Hospital the body politic, although theatre and some forms of drama therapy do andjCommunity Psychiatry, 30, 841 -844. espouse societal change (Gracia & Sternberg, 1989; Boal, 1992). Drama Robyn Flaum Cruz therapy is not recreational drama or community theatre. Director of Research Drama therapy can best be thought of as a continuum. Each point on COPE Behavioral Services, Inc. that continuum is defined by understanding the relationships between an 7101 Camino De Fosforo actor and audience, a performer and spectator. On one end of the con­ Tucson, AZ 85718 tinuum is a point defined by a trained performer and a paying audience, the performer playing for the audience. The audience is relatively passive, •J* •*• •*• •*• «£• •*• •*• •*• •*• •*• •*• •*• •*• watching the performer present the internal strivings and needs of a fic­ tional character. The performer may have little in common with the char­ The Moment of Possibility: Current Trends in Drama Therapy acter he portrays and less in common with the audience who watches. The Ted Rubenstein audience is shrouded in darkness, the performer bathed in light. The per­ Institute for Therapy through the Arts a program of former and audience may never meet again and the audience may only The Music Institute of Chicago know the fictional character presented and the persona of the performer as he/she takes an exhausted, grateful and relieved bow. A client and a thera­ Introduction pist, collaboratively exploring the internal process of the client, define the All of us pretend and most of us like it, but only a few of us admit that we point at the other end of this continuum. At this end of the continuum, like it. Even fewer of us get to do it for a living. As grown adults our client is performer and therapist is the witness. They share an ongoing cynical selves find pretend and play acting to be for "actors" (who are relationship that transforms over time. The client shares their authentic really those "odd, weird theatre-people") or for children. As we socialize strivings perhaps directly or within a metaphor. Both therapist and client into adulthood, wc hear messages that say pretend and play is not "appro­ are active participants in the creation. priate" for big kids or even worse, signs of some kind of problem. And so, Consider John, a professional actor who begins rehearsing the part of we neatly fold and pack away our superman cape, our musketeer sword, Hamlet. As he does so he begins to get in touch with his own personal our princess dress, and seek out a more grown-up garb. Gone from our 'strivings that are similar to Hamlet's struggle. As John rehearses he real­ vocabulary are the phrases, "Let's say you are - and 1 am" or "Pretend izes that Hamlet's ambivalence, even anger toward his stepfather is not too that..." For some though, those days of epic-journeys told with garbage distant from John, the actor's, ambivalence and anger towards his father. pail armor and kitchen utensil weaponry are sorely missed. The field of As John the actor begins to explore these feelings he uses his training to drama therapy attempts to reawaken that spirit in all of us. In so doing harness these feelings so that he is able to craft his playing of Hamlet into drama therapists aim to harness the creativity of pretend to help individu­ a believable, interesting performance. During the rehearsal process how­ als understand themselves and their world. ever John's valence toward the father-son struggle diminishes. The feel­ The field of drama therapy is relatively new, but drama itself is not. The ings that John first identified in his real relationship were enough for him systematic use of role-play as a psychological treatment is an emerging to establish what in the theatre is called, "sense memory and "emotional concept; the mastery of roles is not. The analysis of relationships through memory." During the rehearsal process suppose that John discovers that enactment is new but playing together is not. A formal system for playing the character's ambivalence is intensifying but his own is decreasing. John, back significant life events for the purpose of validation and healing is the professional actor, cannot say to his director, "all right, I understand relatively new, telling stories and listening to them is not. my relationship with my father now and therefore I can no longer play The first time a village or tribe gathered together to hear about the hunt, Hamlet." learn the ways of the tribe, drama therapy was born. The first time select If John wants to continue his career as an actor, he will have to use his members of the tribe enacted confusing or frightening events in the tribe's training in the acting method to continue playing Hamlet for as long as life or simply tell the story of the village drama therapy was born. In the audiences are willing to pay to see him. John's experience is not drama early part of the 20lh century Jacob Levy Moreno was using drama and therapy although it might be considered theatre that was, by serendipity, spontaneous play in group settings for the purpose of health and healing. therapeutic. If John is professionally trained then he can sustain the be- His work later emerged into the field of Psychodrama. The first drama lievability of the part not through reliving his relationship with his father therapist, as that occupation is understood today was probably Marian night after night but rather by using all that his craft has to offer. John's Chace, a professionally trained dancer who worked with patients at St 70 jB personal history with his father may and can be essential to helping John Elizabeth's hospital in the I950's. She used dance and storytelling create a masterful Hamlet. At some point however, John must use his first to help patients with Christmas theatrical productions, later she .f>J craft, not his past, to play Hamlet. Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2) Consider Jack, a non-actor client of drama therapy, who also has feel­ Playback Theatre, first developed by Johnathon Fox, an individual in a ings of anger towards his father. The drama therapist uses a variety of group is asked to tell a real story about their life (Fox, 1986). The other techniques to help John enact and understand the depth of his ambiva­ group members listen to the story and then re-enact it or play it back for the lence. The therapist helps Jack find the roles and stories that help Jack storyteller. This work is done throughout the country both in therapeutic reach an awareness or insight into his relationship. When one story no group settings and in schools (Fox, 1986). longer serves it is discarded. If using the metaphor of Hamlet is helpful At the another point on the theatre to drama therapy continuum are mod­ then so be it but if it fails to help Jack then it would be quickly abandoned els and techniques that may or may not take place in group but are the for something else. enactments of one person's concerns. Depending on the theory and ap­ In theatre, the direction of meaning flows from the actor to the audience. proach these enactments are created with fictional roles or with allegorical The actor conveys meaning and expends energy to convey that meaning for figures representing internal or external processes. For example, an indi­ the sole purpose of providing the audience an experience. The direction of vidual may play a fictional role with a metaphorical relationship to their energy and meaning is unidirectional. In drama therapy, meaning and en­ issues. In another model group members play "anger" and "disappoint­ ergy flows in a circular fashion from the therapist to the performer and ment" while the individual of focus for that day (usually called a "protago­ back again. When drama therapy is done in a group, as it often is, the nist") may debate with and confront these allegorical characters and feel­ energy and meaning may flow toward the group and back toward the per­ ings. former. The group may be an audience and may identify with the performer's In summary, the differences between theatre and drama therapy are found experience but the performer's experience is foremost. in the relationship between the performer and the audience and in the di­ This is not to say that an artist seeks to please an audience. The theatre rectionality of energy and meaning. Professional actors and directors serve artist seeks to influence, impress, embolden, repulse, educate, infuriate, the text, the role and the audience. Clients in drama therapy serve their challenge, entertain, delight, awe or in some way communicate an idea to own processes and insights. an audience. Theatre's overriding purpose is to move an audience. In drama But understanding who is served does not define the field, only who therapy the therapist helps the client explore, understand, validate and benefits. What is drama therapy? Is drama therapy merely a cache of change their internal experiences and processes. For centuries plays, play­ techniques or is it a set of theory-based approaches? Is drama therapy a set wrights, actors and directors have striven to communicate a truth about the of principles that rivals or challenges traditional verbal techniques or is it human condition. The drama therapist works in collaboration with the an alternative, an adjunct? Is drama therapy only a "catch all" term that client to find and express a client's experience. In live, mainstream, con­ basically describes the noble attempt to provide artistic experiences to those sumable theater, the experience of the audience is everything and the expe­ individuals who do not have such experiences or is it a new way of looking rience of the performer is only relevant as it moves the audience. In drama at change that enriches the enterprise of therapy? Is drama therapy some­ therapy, the experience of the performer is everything and the experience thing to do when nothing else will work or does drama therapy engage the of the group that watches, if a group watches, is only relevant as it may spirit and body at a deeper level? offer insight and validation to the performer. These are the questions that practitioners in the field of drama therapy Looking again at a continuum from theatre to drama therapy we find a actively debate. These are the questions that, for now, can only be an­ point next to live commercial theatre that is defined as therapeutic theatre. swered anecdotally and subjectively. For now, drama therapists can, with Therapeutic theatre, loosely defined, is a play that is performed by profes­ intensity and devotion say that drama therapy is not an alternative but an sional or semi-professional actors for a targeted audience with a specific adjunct, it is not a catch all but rather a set of theories that are continuing to message. Perhaps the most famous therapeutic theatre is found in Hamlet. develop. Drama therapy is neither a challenge to nor a poor substitute for In the middle of the play, Hamlet charges a group of players to play the verbal therapy. Rather, drama therapy is a way of approaching a client that Murder o/Gonzago, a thinly veiled recreation of Hamlet's father's un­ can only enrich the experience and enterprise of therapy. timely murder. The play is to be performed in front of the suspected perpe­ Models of Drama Therapy trator, Claudius. Hamlet's intention is to see if Claudius will react to the At a recent national conference for NADT a panel of the leading theo­ play and therein "to catch the conscience of the king." rists, writers and practitioners in drama therapy gathered to discuss spe­ Theatre companies such as Stop-Gap Theatre in Los Angeles, Interven­ cific cases. Not one of them eschewed the use of more traditional methods, tion Theatre in Chicago, and Imagination Theatre also in Chicago, to name nor did they suggest that bringing issues to a verbal, cognitive level is only a few, are designed to create important messages about psychological antithetical to drama therapy. Rather, they seemed to agree that enacting, and/or sociological problems for audiences that might share or struggle pretending or creating roles helps the healing process. (Johnson, Dintino with these same problems. These plays are meant to be reflective of the & McCommons, 2000). audience's concerns but the performers do not know whether or not any­ All of the models that are discussed in drama therapy share one theoreti­ one in the audience actually has these problems. Typically these groups cal concept called "distancing." Distancing is a multi-dimensional term suspect that there will be someone on the audience who can relate to the that has literal and metaphorical meanings. Distance is that space formed story. These plays intend to metaphorically, "catch the conscience" of us between the performer and the audience. It is also a space that is formed all. By and large these theatre companies perform to school groups and between the performer and the material. Literally, drama therapy takes will tell stories about issues facing adolescents such as alcohol abuse, sui­ place on a stage or in some space that is outlined, established, consistent cide, or violence. The groups mentioned above may or may not use inter­ and is separate from any area where verbal processing or informal chatting active tools such as stopping the action at critical moments or even having takes place. Metaphorically, distancing is used to help the performer, thera­ the audience identify the "best course of action" for the characters. Most pist and audience gain emotional and intellectual space from the material of the groups then offer some kind of "curtain talk" or discussion with the so that it can be analyzed from different perspectives. When somebody audience after the show. It is at this point that people in the audience may enacts a role from a fictional story that is similar to real life issues then the identify themselves as having similar problems. role creates distance from those same real life issues. Moving along the continuum are companies that employ individuals with Distancing can be achieved in a variety of ways. During an enactment psychological, sociological or physical problems as the actors and writers the therapist or the client may say something or do something that is a non- to create and portray a fictional story. This play is then performed for an sequitur that for a moment causes a disruption in attention. The therapist assembled group of people with similar psychological, sociological or physi­ might ask the client to use props or costumes, which can create distance. cal problems. Groups like the Free Street Theatre and The Happiness Club This distancing allows the client to say, "even though that character sounded perform plays about overcoming violence, gang activity, and substance a lot like me it was not me." The client can feel more safe, more contained abuse. The performers are "at risk" kids and they typically perform for when creating distance between themselves and the material presented. groups of "at risk" kids. In this particular model of drama therapy the Distancing can also mean playing out a scene, perhaps even a scene from audience is able to identify with not only the story being told but at another the client's real life, stopping the action at moments that might have a high level with the performers because they know that the performers are actu­ affective charge. The therapist may or may not encourage the client to talk ally struggling with the same or similar issues. about the "next move" or alternative approaches for handling the situation. Moving along the continuum away from performance focused theatre is By stopping the action just at the moment when the enactment might be the drama therapy model that is done in groups with people with similar getting "real" the client is basically reminded of the pretend nature of the issues however there is no performance element. The enactments are m 79 enterprise. This stopping or interruption has the added effect of prevent­ largely about issues of central concern to the assembled group and the j^ ing clients from re-living traumatic experiences. Putting the scene, group functions as the performer and audience. In a technique called '7^ ^' ifr-that moment in life, on stage allows the individual to distance them- Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts selves from that moment and examine it with fresh, less emotionally charged Using the relationship, contained within the "playspace", the therapist eyes. The use of distancing in its literal sense and its metaphorical sense is invites the client to amplify or heighten affective experiences through the an underpinning to all of the theoretical foundations of drama therapy. dramatic enactment. Feelings and thoughts come to the surface and are All theories of drama therapy are informed by and subsumed under the given a voice and character. Once these feelings are in some ways concret­ prevailing psychological theories. One of the major theories of drama ized the therapist and the client are able to study these experiences as well therapy is referred to as role theory and is based on the work of Robert as generate alternative ways of coping (Johnson, 1991; Johnson, 1982). Landy. According to Landy, "the self is not visible. It only takes on a Renee Emunah, the director of California Institute of Integral Studies in visible form through a role" (Landy, 1986, p.91). In Landy's approach the Los Angeles, California, offers an eclectic approach that borrows from both construction of self is in fact an amalgam of the multiplicity or confedera­ Landy and Johnson. Emunah's approach is divided into five phases or tion of roles that one encounters, gravitates toward and internalizes (Landy, stages. The first phase is reminiscent of developmental transformation but 1986; Blatner, 1995). Developmentally, the child begins to take on roles emphasizes a move from simplicity to complexity (Emunah, 1994). In as he or she begins to separate self from other. According to role theory in phase two the client is encouraged to identify roles and begin to engage in drama therapy, the role is the container for self, others, systems and the fictional scenes with the various metaphorical characters interacting. In perceptions of all three (Landy, 1990). Treatment therefore is the system­ phase three the client and the therapist move, collaboratively towards mak­ atic exploration of the role. A story is told. The heroes and villains of the ing connections between the fictional roles and more real-life relationships story become those roles, whether those roles are King Lear or and circumstances. In phase four and five the relationship between client Rumpelstiltskin. The focus is not an archetypal role per se but rather draw­ and drama therapist continues to deepen. It is in these phases that the work ing from the wealth of roles already created by literature, folklore, and begins to resemble psychodrama in which not only are real-life circum­ myth. Once the story is told and the roles identified, the client chooses or stances played out but also transference, counter-transference, and various is encouraged to take on one of the roles that may have metaphorical mean­ parts of the self or internal process are addressed. As Emunah states, "the ing for that individual. The therapist helps the client find that role in the drama becomes a catalyst for real life change and the real life change be­ story that resonates with the client. Using the veil of role, the client begins comes the material for drama" (Emunah, 1999 p. 117). to talk about the feelings, strivings, and social networks of the character. Applications of Drama Therapy The therapist encourages the client to embody the role as defined by the The possibilities for the application of drama therapy are seemingly end­ client. The session concludes with the client "De-roleing" and then ver­ less. The increasing and changing role of managed care in the delivery of bally reflecting on the experience. During this verbal processing the client health care, the expansion of psychological services and the proliferation and therapist identify ways in which the "pretend" roles and observed ways of new technology positions drama therapy to explode with possibility. of being through role might be integrated into the client's life. At this Many drama therapists throughout the country are reaching out to meet point what had occurred on the stage is brought to consciousness. By this potential "big bang". One drama therapist is even contemplating an integrating various roles the self or the "me" emerges intact (Landy, 1996). offer from a major league baseball team (Personal communication with A contemporary of Robert Landy is David Read Johnson who devel­ Alice Forrester, May 30, 2001). Others are looking for ways to integrate oped the Developmental Transformation theory of drama therapy. The empirical research and ideas from other disciplines and fields in order to developmental approach rests on the belief that drama and development prepare the field for a new role on the center stage of mental Jiealth. Three share a common link, transformation. Characters begin a journey through examples of current work being done in drama therapy with implications a series of plot twists and turns. Characters ascend through the dramatic toward further research are described below. structure by shifting their goals, adjusting their aspirations and perhaps Alice Forester (current NADT President) and Jane Smith, CSW, are at­ becoming enlightened along the way. In some ways this is similar to the tempting to integrate chaos theory, drama therapy and group theory for the therapeutic enterprise. The unfolding of action and character is strung treatment of children with attention deficit disorder/hyperactivity disorder together by a series of transformations. These transformations then be­ (ADHD). Smith and Forrester are working with a group of five boys all come the "development" of plot, action and character. diagnosed with ADHD at a clinic in an urban children's hospital. The Dramatic action always takes place in a specific time and place that is focus of this group is to use the Developmental Transformation method, created by the theatrical elements of set, lighting, costume and music. These described above, to facilitate socio-dramatic play with the intent of helping are the "given circumstances" or world of the play. This is a shared reality the group members develop internal loci of control (Forrester & Smith, between the performers and the audience. Without these transformations 2000; Smith, 2000). Forrester and Smith integrate Johnson's developmen­ the play would wither and die. Human development is also dependent on a tal transformation theory with chaos theory as it applies to group processes. series of transformations, of shifting needs all of which take place in a set Based on Bud McClure's book, Putting a New_Spin on Groups; the Sci­ system or holding environment. In order to survive, living organisms must ence of Chaos, Forrester and Smith are attempting to use the dramatic play transform and adapt to specific environments. to magnify the group process, only in this case the enactments focus on the In forming the developmental drama therapy theory, Johnson outlines group's move from order to chaos and back to order. five factors that animate the developmental process; 1) the degree of struc­ McClure's work, focusing on verbal, task oriented groups, suggests that ture or organization, 2) the medium of expression, 3) the degree of com­ groups change through a conflict to resolution matrix. According to plexity, 4) the intensity of affect which one can tolerate in any given situa­ McClure, group life is textured with a repeatable pattern of transformation tion without overwhelming anxiety, 5) the degree to which one perceives shifts from unity to disunity and finally into a new unity. Therefore, growth others as active, whole and autonomous (Johnson, 1982). in a group is non-linear and unstable. A small change in the group occurs. According to the theory, individuals, groups, discrete units of a thera­ This change may have nothing to do with the primary focus of the group at peutic treatment or a series of therapy sessions, follow a progressive course that time. This change or disruption in pattern is magnified which then that begins in a state of rudimentary internal organization. At this level the creates disorder and disorganization, which in turn leads to second order individual's organization is structured exclusively from the environment. change which results in a new organization. The new organization cannot As development progresses an internal organization begins to emerge and be predicted from the previous levels of organization nor can it be pre­ the individual is no longer as reliant on the environment or external sources dicted from the initial disruption to the pattern. Only after chaos ensues to provide structure. The therapeutic method that emanates from the theory and is given sufficient space and time, not contained, can the new pattern is an improvisational theatre approach that involves a series of client and begin to organize. therapist interactions. Derived in part from a basic improvisational tech­ Smith and Forrester see remarkable similarities between these theories niques developed by the theatrical artist Viola Spolin, roles and settings and the group process they observed with boys with ADHD. The groups is vary at a pace that is set by the client and the therapist. These interactions always in flow and therefore group cohesion does not come from the force become, in a sense, enacted free associations, all contained in time and of intervention but from the accurate timing of encouraging a group's natu­ space by the "here and now" but exclusive to the therapist and the client. ral unfolding (Smith, 2000). Smith and Forrester have applied the core of This time and space container is referred to as the "playspace". "Playspace" the developmental transformation theory, which suggests that each and every is both a physical entity as well as a construct, a shared reality between disturbance in the group is magnified or enacted. For example, two boys in therapist and client. The playspace is an enhanced physical and imagina­ the group began playing a game of hockey to the exclusion of the other tive space that can be the theatrical equivalent of a therapeutic holding group members. Another boy, feeling left out, started to try to "mess up" environment. The agent of change in this approach is the relationship the game. Smith describes joining in with the feelings of "messing-up" that exists between client and therapist as well as their relationship to the game, which to a certain extent magnified the feelings of other the playspace (Johnson, 1991). "^ r\- members of the group. The therapists then expanded and heightened Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2) the activity of "messing up" until the entire group was engaged in some size puppets that represent their OCD process. The children are then asked physical or vocal representation of "messing-up". In so doing, Smith con­ to give a name to their "beast" that is in the OCD process. Once the beast tends that she was able to move the group from being stuck into chaos and has been named the client and therapist play out a series of enactments in then to unstructured play. From this unstructured play a new group pattern which the child attempts to tame and/or exert control over the beast. Each emerged (Smith and Forrester, 2000; Smith, 2000). Smith and Forrester time the child is victorious the process and tools that were used are identi­ arc continuing their research and are currently working on expanding their fied for the child and become part of a list of "strategies" or "tools" that research to include other drama therapists throughout the country (per­ the child can conjure when it is apparent that the OCD process has begun. sonal communication Alice Forrester, November 2000, May, 2001). This list may be written down or has been drawn symbolically, depending The use of film has always been a powerful tool in drama therapy but on the preference and functioning of the child. more as a static, instant feedback loop. Brandy Brawner in San Francisco After the children have gathered enough tools or strategies they are shifted incorporates the use of film making in his work with violent offenders at into a drama therapy group where they can put their tools into practice. the San Francisco county jail. Using clients as his actors, directors, and Each group is comprised of other children with OCD. Together the group film crew, Brawner has made an independent feature film entitled, "Chi­ tells stories and then re-enacts these stories. All of the stories told are mera House." This films looks at a "family" of delinquent teens forced to metaphors of overcoming and/or gaining control over these disruptive pro­ live together by the court system. The piece was a semi-biographical cesses. The enactments must be collaborative and the group must reach docudrama that captured not only the struggles and aspirations of these compromise on everything from sets to specific scenes. Each dramatic individuals but is a metaphor for the issues faced by the thousands of chil­ problem must be solved by group and with group consensus. The group, dren moving through the American legal system each year (Brawner, 2000). more often than not, creates moments of anxiety for each child. It is at the What is unique about Brawner's approach is not that clients film their moment of anxiety that the child is reminded of their tools or strategies. stories but that they function as the editors and cinematographers. Using While the drama group is in session a parent led support group is also in digital editing software the clients are able to control and craft the entire session. Subjective measures of internal anxiety states show initial im­ process. The work is about the whole process of filmmaking and not just provements in at more than half the cases (Rubenstein & Lantry, 2000). taking pictures. Clients' can "edit", "re-shoot" and create new dialogues. The approach and protocol continues to be refined with more comprehen­ They are even able to create montages of personal experience and superim­ sive results to be presented in late fall or the early part of 2002. pose images from other media to tell their story. By using the cinema Professional Identity graphic images and techniques the clients are able to explore alternative From a developmental point of view one might see the field of drama perspectives and even practice, using on-location footage, various situa­ therapy as well out of its childhood certainly and perhaps coming into its tions that they may find themselves in upon release from the program. adolescence. One need only look at the themes of the past few conferences Similar work such as this is being done with the Chicago Institute for the to see the yearnings, strivings, even rebellions that are churning within the Moving Image (CIMI). Led by David Bychkov and Joshua Flanders the profession. Less than 10 years ago the conference theme was "Winds of C1MI aims to research what they call, "Kinotherapy", which they define as Change," in 2000 the conference was entitled, "Ordering the Chaos" and the use of cinema to resolve psychological disorders. They contend that if the conference for 2001 is entitled "Measuring the Metaphor." Over the cinema reveals the language of the brain, it also offers filmmakers the chance past ten years, drama therapy has come from a storm brewing to seeking to change the language of the spectator's brain. CIMI focuses on integrat­ out disciplined ways of measuring and documenting outcomes. The two ing a visual vocabulary with the process of editing. Similar to Brawner's issues that seem to occupy the field at this time are professional identity work, clients take an active part in creating the films about their story. and research. This is reflected in the topics discussed at the national con­ Current research projects currently underway by CIMI include a film festi­ ference as well as the spate of new literature on the topic of research and val of films made by deaf film makers, slated for March 2002, and a project identity. using silent film with individuals with schizophrenia. The issue of professional identity is perhaps the topic that sparks the A third example of current, research-based work is being done at the liveliest debate among drama therapists. It is not accidental that in a field Institute for Therapy through the Arts (ITA), also in Chicago. The ITA is that helps others define their roles the practitioners themselves are some­ using an integrated expressive arts therapy approach for the treatment of times suffering from role confusion. Indeed, the drama therapist functions childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) that is based on a cogni­ in something of a paradox at all times. Drama therapists work in and em­ tive-behavioral therapy (CBT) model described by John March and Karen brace a spontaneous, creative art form and yet they long to find systematic, Mulle. A treatment protocol has been designed and is currently being empirically proven techniques in order to provide the best possible ser­ used in a pilot study with 15 clients, ages 9 to 11 years old. The initial vices. sessions begin with music therapy, which provides the client a structured Drama therapy is meant to be playful and spontaneous but with a pur­ experience for identifying feelings of anxiety. During this phase the clients pose. Some drama therapists see themselves as artists who are therapists learn to identify their internal experience through both words and sounds with an ambivalent relationship toward science. Others see themselves as while at the same time enjoying a safe, predictable environment. The chil­ therapists who are trained in the sciences but think artistically. dren are asked to write and identify music and musical phrases that express Some of this confusion is bred in the training of drama therapists. In their experience. Music is also used to soothe anxiety once it is manifest. order to legitimately practice drama therapy, to practice to the level that is The client learns both how to use music to describe experience but also acceptable to the National Association of Drama Therapy, one must have a how to use music to relax. Once the client has established a sound vocabu­ masters degree in either drama therapy or have achieved an equivalent level lary they begin putting those sounds into words. To facilitate that process of training through an alternative training route. Regardless of the particu­ the children are asked to draw a thermometer, as suggested by March and lar alternative training method, all registered drama therapists have a Mulle, to identify their feeling states (March & Mulle, 1998). The children master's degree with some degree of training in counseling. All drama point to or draw on a sketched thermometer their feeling states. March and therapists also have some training in theatre although many come to the Mulle argue that children are less able to identify internal feeling states field with an undergraduate background in theatre as well as some profes­ through traditional paper and pencil measures. The anxiety thermometer is sional credits. a visual, daily record of the client's anxiety level both during session and Leaders of groups that do therapeutic theatre call themselves drama thera­ throughout the week. Using drama the client is then invited to concretize pists. Therapists who use the developmental method or role theory also both their anxiety and the OCD. The child is encouraged to create body call themselves drama therapists. It might seem like a combination of gran­ sculptures, characters, masks, or life size puppets that represent their inter­ diosity, chicanery, or just plain hyperactivity if drama therapists try to wear nal feelings of anxiety. Through the use of enactment the child is then so many costumes all at once. Or perhaps in order to secure a niche drama encouraged to create body sculptures, characters, masks and/or puppets therapists are pulled in multiple directions. School systems ask that drama that embody their OCD. This approach, as indicated in March and Mulle, therapists direct plays, hospitals ask the drama therapist to function as a asks that the child separate himself/herself from the OCD process in at­ case manager/ recreational therapists and colleagues ask each other to func­ tempt to gain some internal loci of control. Externalizing and concretizing tion as artistic therapists who are therapeutic artists. the OCD process through play gives the children an experience of mastery The issue of professional identity reaches beyond finding something (March & Mulle, 1998). Children involved in these sessions have opted comfortable to call ourselves. The definition of the field and its best to use auxiliary actors to play "their OCD", others have made film ver standards and practices must be clearly defined and enforced for the ben­ sions of their OCD with auxiliary actors or even themselves playing efit of the client. Clients demand and are entitled to a clear and rigor- the part of the "OCD". Other children have made life size or half - -? vFLft- ous explanation of who a drama therapist is, how he or she is trained Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts and what he or she will do. For the benefit of the general public, this issue The Institute for Therapy through the Arts must be addressed by all drama therapists and once defined must be en­ 6160 N.Cicero #122 forced. The issues of professional identity are so germane to the practice Chicago, IL 60646 of drama therapy that a national committee has been formed to study the 773-685-3911 issue throughout the next twelve months. It was only fifteen years ago The Drama Institute of Los Angeles that Robert Landy wrote about "the moment of balance" in drama therapy. 1315 Westwood Blvd. L. A., CA 90024-4901 He identified it as a moment when the client reaches insight. A moment 310-478-7188 Fax:310-589-0209 charged with infinite possibility (Landy, 1996). In that moment the client is [email protected] able to see the world and their experience in a different way. It is a single The Drama Therapy Center on the Web moment that can lead to others. The enterprise of drama therapy seems to www.dramatherapycenter.com be poised at its own moment of balance. While the idea of drama therapy The New Haven Drama Therapy Institute is paradoxical and the research is at present slippery, the confluence of 19 Edwards St. story and enactment, pretend and healing, telling and listening, play and New Haven, CT 06511 work, practice and theory is charged with infinite possibility. Omega Theater P.O. Box 1227, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130 References www.omegatheatre.com Boal, A. (1992). Games for actors and non-actors. London: Routledge. Brawner, B. (2000) Digital video computers and drama therapy. Paper pre­ Roundabout Cornerstone House, 14 Willis Road, Croydon, CR0 2XX, U.K. sented at the meeting of the National Association of Drama Therapy, San Fran­ http://homepages.nildram.co.uk/~rndabout/ cisco. Stop Gap Theatre Chace, M. (1955). Hotel St. Elizabeth.: A unique experiment in therapy. 1570 Brookhollow Drive, #114 Americas, 7,_ 33-36. Santa Ana, California 92705 http://www.stopgap.org/ Chace, M. (1958). Stimulation of creative forms in patient productions. Bul­ letin of the National Association for Music Therapy, 7, 9 —10. Ted Rubenstein Diamond, S. (2001). The 21st Annual NADT Conference. Dramascope, The Institute for Therapy through the Arts ConferenceJssue. Washington, DC: National Association of Drama Therapy. 6160 N.Cicero #122 Emunah, R. (1994). Acting for real: Drama therapy: Process, technique and Chicago, IL 60646 performance. New York: Bruner/Mazel, 79-83. Emunah, R. (1999). Drama therapy in action, in D. J. Weiner, Beyond talk //?era/j>'._Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ++++••••••••• Ferguson, M. (1980). The work of llya Prigogine. Dromenon, Spring-Sum­ mer, 29-33. Music as a Therapeutic Medium: An Introduction to Music Therapy Forrester, A., & Smith, J. (2000). The chaoplexit of dis-equilibrium: Devel­ George L. Duerksen opmental transformations with traumatized children. Paper presented at the University of Kansas meeting of the National Association of Drama Therapy, San Francisco, CA. Music as a Therapeutic Medium Fox, J. (1986). Acts of Service: Spontaniety, Commitment, Tradition m the Music therapy uses musical stimuli, musical activity/participation, and non-sCipted theatre. New Paltz, NY: Tusitala Publishing. Gardner, H. (1973). The Arts and Human Development. New York: Harper client-therapist interaction in musical context to pursue therapeutic goals. Johnson, D. R., Dintino, C, & McCommons, W. (2000). Three perspectives Several characteristics of music underlie its usefulness in the therapeutic on drama therapy with clients in chaos. Paper presented at the meeting of the process. Bruscia (1998) differentiates between music as therapy and music National Association of Drama Therapy, San Francisco, CA. in therapy. In music as therapy, the music itself serves as the primary agent Johnson, D. R. (1982). Developmental approaches in drama therapy. The of therapeutic change. The therapist's expertise is used to prescribe and Arts infsychotherapy, 9, 183-189. facilitate the appropriate music and musical experience for the client. In Johnson, D. R. (1991). The theory and technique of transformations in drama music in therapy, the music is used to facilitate client-therapist relation­ therapy. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 18, 285-300. ships and other treatment modalities. The musical characteristics described Johnson, D. R. (1993). Marian Cbace's influence on drama therapy. In S.L. here support both music as therapy and music in therapy. Sandel, S. Chaiklin, & A.Lohn (Eds). Foundations of dance/movement therapy: The life and work of Marian Chace. Columbia, MD: Marian Chace Memorial There are few persons for whom music of some sort does not have a Fund of the American Dance Therapy Association. strong attraction. Preferred music provides a locus for therapeutic activity Landy, R. (1990). The concept of role in drama therapy. The Arts in Psycho­ and can motivate and structure extended participation in therapeutic rela­ therapy, 17, 223-230. tionships. It can also structure individual behavior, self-perception, per­ Landy, R. (1996). Essays in drama therapy: The double life. Bristol, PA: ception by others, and group behavior (Sears, 1968). Music helps fill basic Jessica Kingsley Publishers. needs for sensory stimulation and elaboration and for pattern and form. March, J., & Mulle, K. (1998). OCD in children and adolescents: A cogni­ Rhythm in music has unique potential to energize and bring order (Gaston, tive behavioral treatment manual. New York: Guilford Press. McCIure, B. A. (1998). Putting a new spin on groups. The science of chaos. 1968). It provides a way to control the auditory environment and the self, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. and it may be used to stimulate or sedate. Rubenstein, T. I., & Lantry, H. (2000). Naming the beast: An integrated ex­ The use of music for nonverbal and verbal communication is especially pressive arts therapy approach for the treatment of childhood OCD. Paper pre­ important. Within a culture, music by itself can convey mood and emotion. sented at the meeting of the National Association of Drama Therapy, San Fran­ The wordless meanings of musical stimuli allow closeness without words cisco, CA. or threat and provide communication and projection of feelings in a healthy Sternberg, P., & Garcia, A. (1989). Sociodrama: Who s in Your shoes?_Hew and socially acceptable form (Merriam, 1964; Gaston, 1968; Radocy & York: Praeger. Boyle 1996). Resources for more Information Verbal communication set to song, or in the presence of music, allows Journals individuals to express what they are hesitant to say, or cannot say, without International Journal of Action Methods: Psychodrama, Skill Training and Role Playing, www.http;//heldref.org/html/body/index.html music. Musical stimuli may elicit responses ranging between basic physi­ Arts in Psychotherapy, An InternationalJournal, .Elsevier Science Inc., 655 ological reactions to elements such as vibration or rhythm and the pro­ Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10010 found affective communication labeled as aesthetic (Gaston, 1964). Music Drama Scope, Lanell Finneran, RDT, MT, NADT Communication Chair 1743 provides a means of expressing feelings in a healthy and socially accept­ E. 400 Rd, Lawrence, KS 66049 able way, allowing individuals to vent emotions they might otherwise sup­ Other i, press. In some cases, it permits and encourages psychological and physical National Association for Drama Therapy, http://www.nadt.org/ contact. Music can be an effective reinforcer (Duerksen, 1986, Radocy & New York University, Master's Degree in Drama Therapy, http:// Boyle, 1996). www.nyu.edu/education/music/drama/dramther.html For some applications, music therapy is practiced on a one-to-one basis. California Institute of Integral Studies, Program in Drama Therapy, In this context music is used to stimulate and structure individual behavior, infofaiciis.edu Renee Emunah, Director Institutes and Agencies Providing Drama Therapy Sen ices integrating cognitive, affective, and psychomotor functioning. The com­ ActingOut plexity of the structure can be adjusted as therapeutically appropriate P.O.Box 196 R~ a (Gaston, 1968; Sears, 1968). Properly selected stimuli and activities can Keene,NH 03431 help reduce feelings of isolation, divert attention, and encourage imagi- Email: [email protected] -fO ^rl/> nation. Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2) Music can also serve the purposes of group therapy, and the music thera­ health. pist uses its adaptability to organize constructive interaction among group Initial entry into the profession currently is at the bachelor's degree level. participants. The sense of achievement in making music can lead to the There are currently 69 AMTA approved college and university undergradu­ development of self-esteem, and musical achievement can help win the ate music therapy curricula (AMTA Member Sourcebook 2001). Twenty- esteem of others. Participation in group music activity requires the indi­ five of these schools offer master's programs; nine also offer the doctorate. vidual to take part in a larger pattern of structured interaction. Thus music Undergraduate study integrates development of musical skills and knowl­ provides a favorable context in which both individually and socially inte­ edge, comprehensive understanding of music therapy foundations and prin­ grated behavior may be practiced and reinforced (Sears, 1968). ciples, social, behavioral, biological, and educational sciences, and didac­ A Brief History of Music Therapy tic training in clinical applications. Current curriculum standards focus on Professional practice of music therapy began in the United States prima­ a list of essential competencies, experiences, and opportunities needed for rily as an approach to treatment of psychological problems. Today's music initial entry into the profession (NASM Handbook, 2001). In addition to* therapists work in multiple settings to serve clients who face a wide variety the musical skills and knowledge specified for all music majors, functional of challenges. As an allied health profession music therapy focuses on the keyboard/improvisation, functional voice and percussion, conducting and assessment, development, remediation, and maintenance of mental and arranging, and ability to play fretted and informal instruments are empha­ physical health. sized. The behavioral/social science component emphasizes general psy­ Many pre-1 iterate and literate cultures have used music as an element in chology, abnormal psychology, child psychology, the psychology of ex­ treatment of mental and physical health (Waterman, 1955; Merriam, 1964; ceptional children, social conflict, group dynamics, culture and personal­ Lomax, 1968; McAllester, 1971). Professional music therapy practice in ity, and the family and other social groups. The music therapy foundations the U.S.A. developed in the 1940's (Davis and Gfeller, 1999). During World include history and philosophy, techniques for observation, assessment, War 11 music programs were organized for returned servicemen in hospi­ and measurement, treatment planning, methods and materials, professional tals (van de Wall, 1948). These programs were designed primarily for rec­ role and ethics, the psychology of music, and the influence of music on reational and educational purposes (Robb, 1999). Heuristic observation behavior. The AMTA Professional Competencies (AMTA Member revealed therapeutic outcomes resulting from program activities, and inter­ Sourcebook 2001) are used for curriculum planning. The undergraduate est grew in development of music therapy as a profession. program includes extensive pre-clinical experience and culminates with an In the late 1940's several U. S. universities established music therapy internship in an AMTA approved clinical setting. degree curricula. A professional organization, the National Association for Master's study typically has focused on research, administration, or ad­ Music Therapy (NAMT), held its first meeting in 1950. Subsequently the vanced clinical techniques. At its fall meeting in 2001 the NASM plans to NAMT established a relationship with the National Association of Schools adopt new standards that will describe the master's degree as imparting of Music (NASM), an accreditation agency. Together these groups began depth and breadth beyond entry-level competencies. The curriculum will setting standards for music therapy curricula in NASM member schools. be required to help qualified music therapists to develop advanced compe­ Individuals who successfully completed these approved curricula were eli­ tencies in one or more area such as music therapy theory development, gible to be listed on the NAMT register of qualified music therapists, and research techniques, supervision, college teaching, administration, and in 1985 there were over 2000 Registered Music Therapists (RMT). various advanced clinical specializations. The doctoral degree is designed In the 1960's a second professional music therapy organization was to develop even more advanced competence in research, theory develop­ founded. First called the Urban Federation of Music Therapists and later ment, clinical practice, supervision, college teaching, and/or clinical ad­ the American Association for Music Therapy (AAMT), this group approved ministration. Program emphases vary from institution to institution. curricula at other universities. Individuals who completed those programs Research in Music Therapy earned a professional qualification titled Certified Music Therapist (CMT). Music therapy straddles many disciplines, including anthropology, In 1998 the NAMT and AAMT united to form the American Music Therapy ethnomusicology, aesthetics, the psychology of music, teaching and learn­ Association (AMTA). ing, and many different schools of psychology and treatment ("Music In the early 1980's an independent Certification Board for Music Thera­ Therapy," 2001). Research in many of these disciplines provides knowl­ pists (CBMT) was formed to develop and administer a national Board Cer­ edge useful to the profession. Hodges (1996) reviews and summarizes re­ tification examination. The first Board Certification examination was ad­ search dealing with musical behavior, including physiological and affec­ ministered in 1985. Since that time the qualification Music Therapist-Board tive responses to music and the influence of music on behavior. Certified (MT-BC) has become the primary professional credential in the A growing body of clinical and laboratory research specific to music field. Individuals who successfully complete music therapy curricula in therapy expands and reinforces the profession's knowledge base (Wheeler, AMTA approved universities are eligible to sit for the Board Certification 1995). The Journal of Music Therapy, a quarterly refereed serial, pub­ examination. Renewal of Board Certification may be accomplished through lishes many research articles. Music Therapy Perspectives publishes origi­ continuing education or re-taking the examination every five years. nal research and other information relevant to clinical practice. The Ameri­ The AMTA has 3,286 members, including students and 175 international can Music Therapy Association publishes both of these journals. members (AMTA Member Sourcebook 2001). In July 2001 the CBMT An early literature review (Soibelman, 1948) pointed out the need for roster listed a total of 3465 Board Certified music therapists (J. Schneck, controlled research in the milieu where music therapy is employed and personal communication, July 13, 2001). with the subjects for whom it is intended. Much of the literature at that Growth of the field in Britain, other parts of Europe, Australasia, Canada, time was anecdotal and reported opinions and beliefs. The empirical stud­ and South America has paralleled the profession's development in the United ies that existed were primarily by music and industrial psychologists. States. Professional organizations and university degree programs have been While the research literature has grown since that time, much work re­ developed in many countries. mains to be done. Examination of the contents of the Journal of Music Music therapists serve clients who present a broad variety of treatment Therapy from 1981 through 1993 indicated that 94% of the articles re­ needs. The profession's early emphasis on mental health continues, but ported descriptive or experimental research, 2% reported case studies, and work has expanded into many other areas. Music therapists work in a vari­ 3% historical studies. Content dealing with mental retardation accounted ety of settings, including mental hospitals, community mental health cen­ for 15% of the articles, emotional disturbance 9%, medical 6%, elderly ters, general hospitals, forensic institutions, nursing homes, rehabilitation 7%, hearing impairment 5%, orthopedic handicaps 4%, communication centers, hospices, schools, special education, and private/group practice. disorders, chemical dependency, and learning disabilities 2% each. Six­ While many applications focus on remediation, an increasing number con­ teen percent of the articles focused on music therapists, and 24% concerned cern wellness, maintenance of good health, and quality of life. Music therapy individuals who were regarded as being normal (Gfeller, 1995). nttempts to help the recovery of those who have incurred mental or physi­ The bulk of the profession's research has been done in the universities cal ills and to help individuals with developmental/genetic disabilities cope that offer graduate study. Increasing research is being done in clinical set­ mul achieve. Applications for those with sensory and psychomotor dis­ tings. A few examples from recent literature provide n brief sample of some abilities are common. In gerontology treatment goals range from health current areas ofresearch interest. rwiintcnance for the well to helping persons with dementias and their Meta-analysis of 55 studies of music as a ihcrnpcitlic intervention in Oiircgivcrs. Interest in music therapy in medical procedures is evident. In medical and dental treatment identified mean music effect size for» vnri« Ihcir work music therapists combine musical skills and knowledge with ety of dependent variables. In 54 of the 55 vnrinhlcR ftruilyzed, music understanding of the influence of music on behavior, psychology, conn- conditions enhanced medical objectives whether mensured by physi- Wiling, education, habituation and rehabilitation mul mcnifll find physical Columbia University Press. following their bloody paths to the owners? Standley, J. M. (1986). Music research in medical/dental treatment: Meta­ analysis and clinical applications. Journal of Music Therapy, 23. pp. 56-122. The general definition of Outsider Art is the art of the untrained or self- Standley, J. M. (1995). Music as a therapeutic intervention in medical and taught, and is also sometimes referred to as Naive Art, Folk Art, Art Brut, dental treatment: Research and clinical applications. In T.Wigram, B. Saperston, among other labels (Atkins, 1990). It tends to be more decorative and non­ & R. West (Eds.). The art and science of music therapy: a handbook. Chur, functional than high art, with a tendency to reflect individual psyches rather Switzerland: Harwood Academic Publishers. than communal history. In the strictest sense, Outsider Art refers to self- Standley J. M., & Prickett, C. A. (Eds.). (1994). Research in music therapy: taught artists on the outside of mainstream society, e.g., prisoners, A tradition of excellence. Silver Spring MD: National Association for Music psychotics, the diseased and the dying. In the case of Basquiat, some crit­ Therapy. Thaut, M. H. (1999). Music therapy in neurological rehabilitation. In W. B. ics and fans framed his suffering and self-abuse as a sacred vow indicative Davis, K. E. G feller, & M. H. Thaut, An introduction to music therapy. Theory of creative genius (Hoban, 1998). Herein lies the problem between creativ­ and practice (2nd ed.) (pp. 221-247). New York: McGraw-Hill. ity and suffering. Unkefer, R. F. (1990). Music therapy in the treatment of adults with mental I believe some suffering is inherent in creativity along the lines of Rollo disorders: Theoretical bases and clinical interventions. New York: Shirmer May's (1975) ideas regarding the encounter, fear, and courage in working Books. with the unknown. Escapist creativity is that which lacks the encounter; van de Wall, (1948). Music in hospitals. In D. M. Schullian & M. Schoen the creator has remained detached from the creative process. Glorifying (Eds.). Music and medicine (pp. 293-321). New York: Henry Schuman. suffering facilitates escapist creativity which in tum can result in confor­ Waterman, R. A. (1955) Music in Australian Aboriginal culture: Some so­ ciological and psychological implications." Journal of Music Therapy, 5, 40- mity. But as Ricard might point out, it's certainly one way to cut out the 49. competition (sic). It's also a way to limit one's perception, the very point of Wheeler, B. L. (1995). Introduction: Overview of music therapy research. In the opening quote, and certainly does nothing to combat suffering. B. L. Wheeler (ed.), Music therapy research: quantitative and qualitative per­ HoUis Sigler, (1948-2001): Photo-Realism to Naive Art (Outsider Art?) spectives (pp. 3-15). Phoenixville PA: Barcelona Press. Sigler's entire career has been a testament to the communicative graces George L. Duerksen of art, and in the Breast Cancer Journal she reminds us that art can accom­ Director, Division of Music Education and Music Therapy plish this in a way that nothing else can, and that sometimes, preciously University of Kansas and rarely, it will do very much more. Sometimes art can be a matter of life 1530 Naismith Road, 446 Murphy Hall and death. (Yood as quoted in Sigler, Love, & Yood, 1999, p.18) Lawrence, KS 66045-3102 The picture on the cover of this Bulletin is from the Breast Cancer Jour­ nal (Sigler, Love, & Yood, 1999). The painter is Hollis Sigler. She died of a£3£2£2£3£9£2£3£3£2£9£2£9 cro cro cro at) cro cro cr£o breast cancer. She was first diagnosed in 1985; it metastasized to her bones in 1991. She had once asked her assistant James Yood in reference to her Van Gogh's Ear Talks!! life: "Did I do a good job?" Creativity, Suffering. And Aesthetic Language Leaving Hollis' memorial service, ruminating over her amazing accom­ Kimberly McCarthy plishments in spite of the cancer (she taught up to the very end, weighing Columbia College Chicago perhaps seventy pounds), 1 wondered: how did she do it so well? We hnd Everybody wants to get on the Van Gogh boat. There's no trip so hor­ talked a number of times over the last six or seven years, I vvns n round to rible that someone won't take it. The idea of the unrecognized genius slav­ see the changes in her life and body. Thinking of other people I know in ing away in a garret is a deliciously foolish one. We must credit the life of similar conditions, I realized many of them used their suffering M motlvn* Vincent Van Gogh for really sending this myth into orbit. I mean, how, . tion for some type of pro-life action. They dealt with the here-nnil«nmv many pictures did he sell? One! He couldn't give them away! He has to of their life without shame and with dignity. Walking home nflcr )li6 be the most modern artist that everybody hated then. He was so ashamed i\F&3uv memorial I thought sarcastically, feeling sorry for myself, "Mnyhe Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts should write an article 'For Those of Us Who Don't Handle It So Well.'" "Nike," is so that the viewer might project themselves more easily into the In the fall semester 2000 my autoimmune disorder dipped and went public. basic model, and add or subtract icons relevant to his or her life (Sigler, et I have had to modify my work objectives and commitments to deal with my al., 1999). The specifics aren't essential. It's the relation to a life-changing fickle body. The upshot of this illness is that I've started a new research experience that is important. As James Yood (Sigler, et al., 1999) noted, project looking at creativity, suffering, and aesthetic language, of which the amazing thing about Hollis is that she looked mortality in the face and this short article is a start. saw it as an opening between promise and despair. Hollis knew I was a devout fan. I admit I was shameless. I wasn't aware The Everyday Joe, Outsider Art, and Skid Row, Los Angeles at first that she was a renowned artist. Hollis was unbelievably accepting The painting I created in Hollis' class is a reflection of my experience of and open. I think she understood the motivation behind my crazy passion having lived on Skid Row, Los Angeles for a month. What brought me for her work and my groupie-like affection. In truth, I didn't know her day- there was a research project with a theater company based in Skid Row, to-day life; some might say I didn't know her at all. But I do know that she and a 3-week Change/Exchange workshop held by LAPD learning about knew we shared a certain knowledge. We are both members of the same their program and work. While there I struggled with a razor's edge similar club: The Chronic Illness Club. to Hollis,' wondering: were the feelings I had in response to the scary en­ Before my health had taken its fourth dip, I excitedly ran up to Hollis, vironment, or was it because 1 was in a scary environment that I now felt it passionately proclaiming that I had decided to buy my first piece of real art was okay to experience said strong feelings? Was it really as bad there as I and that it had to be hers. 1 asked the price of her paintings. There was a thought, or was I condescendingly projecting the worse-case scenario on a long moment of silence, a distinct, intense pause, as we looked each other culture I didn't understand? It was a very powerful experience. in the eyes. Hollis modestly, and I do mean modestly, said: "$20,000." I Along the bottom of my painting, carved into gesso (a kind of molding choked laughing and blurted out: "Well, it looks like 1 won't be buying one glue/clay material), is the title: "The emoter: alone: 2:00 a.m.: Skid Row of your paintings!" And then Hollis said to me, "Copy one of mine." I Hotel Room." The stick figure, the Emoter, is sitting on the end of the bed, wonder if you, the reader, are as stunned as I was. , head in hands, emoting. There's a tall closet in the top left comer, and a In the brief moment before she told me the price, 1 believe Hollis, in her sink, a small refrigerator and a small dresser along the right side of the sensitivity, could see my sincerity and deep desire to have one of her paint­ room. In the middle is a tall, slide-up window with a strong set of old ings. It wasn't necessarily the canvas or even the images that I wanted, that burglar bars. I needed. It was the sentience, the secret code which they relayed, a code In reality, this was my room in the SRO (single room occupancy hotel). which is transmitted non-vocally, implanting in the soul of the viewer a About 50 yards away was the street. In-between was a locked, fenced-in nugget of hope, of courage, of mournful acceptance or determined resis­ basketball court. Between the fence and the SRO were electronic alarm tance—a code particularly powerful for Club Members and their families. sensors. My room was at the end of a hall of nine rooms reserved for women Just what the nugget might contain for each individual cannot be predicted, only. At night we'd look out our windows watching all the people—the but what is certain is that it will affect us. We will be changed. Rollo May streets were always full, crack-smoking lighters flickering like fireflies. In (1975) refers to this as "the encounter," the complete absorption of the self the painting, parts of the room are disconnected, floating in different planes with an idea or other. of space. Surrounding the room is the unknown. The orange reflects strong Hollis said "Take one of my painting classes and copy one of mine." 1 emoting, like radiation or an aura. Hollis actually painted a few strokes on did. Using her style, I created the painting on the back cover of this bulle­ that canvas, which makes it even more meaningful for me. tin. The only training I ever had in art was through a park district summer The scene, sitting on a bed in the middle of the night, was inspired by an program around the age of eight, so I certainly qualified as an Outsider actual event in the SRO which had strict rules and heavy security (metal Artist. It was Hollis and her work that said to me that it's okay to paint from detectors.at the door along with armed security at all times. I quickly real­ your heart. I admired her courage and felt I should walk my talk; after all, ized after a few days in Skid Row, the continual hyper-vigilance for danger on one level, we were both outsiders. If she could do it with cancer, I and the desire for trust. The air was always thick with this feeling). A fight certainly could. If nothing else 1 had to try. had broken out between two men in the main open room—while there Looking at Hollis' paintings, one might concur they were painted by a were nine women residents, including myself, there were almost eighty very young but talented art student. The recognizable images are simply men. Within seconds guys were yelling, moving towards the altercation. drawn and look like they were done with crayons. In fact, Hollis first turned The guards and staff rushed in, and I flew to my room. I could hear yelling to crayons when she shifted from Photo-Realism in 1976 (Sigler et al., and fighting, as well as the arrival of the police, who eventually resolved 1999). She wanted to explore untapped resources of feeling and emotion, things with some arrests. to return to a more natural and organic style. Sigler described her style to I sat on the end of my bed, American Express Gold Card in hand, terri­ me as Naive. ArtSpeak (Atkins, 1990) defines it as self-taught art, often bly torn with the awareness of how lucky I was to have one, painfully appearing childlike, innocent and spontaneous, tending toward bright col­ aware of what it would be like if I didn't have a dime. All the while I ors, abundant detail, and flat space. Aside from the self-taught part, the rest anxiously mapped out different ways I could make it out safely to the major seems fairly descriptive of Hollis' work to me. Hollis' work shouts the hotels in the jewelry district, about four blocks away—only one of which truth through a whisper. was safe. I wouldn't be able to take my suitcase, so I packed my pockets Looking at her painting on the cover, most of the images are easily rec­ with important essential items and sat there saying, "Okay, I'll stay for one ognized except perhaps for the ribbon over the door, with the phrase "The more minute," and "Okay, just one more minute," and gradually every­ Future Moves in Much Closer." The odd thing is the phrase is written back­ thing calmed down. wards, facing the mountains. The sky is blue and the carpet is green, like The theater company called the Los Angeles Poverty Department, or grass. But in-between is the desolate desert, not a cactus or tumbleweed in LAPD, founded and directed by John Malpede in the 80's, was the thing sight, and the sharply-pointed, very high mountains. The walls are bare. that was so interesting that 1 chose to live on Skid Row. It was LAPD's The only decor is the plant in the left comer and the TV/entertainment creative process of improvisation which hinted at the possibility of provid­ center, its doors open. Notice the direction of the chairs. There's a red and ing every member in a group a meaningful experience rather than just one black liner, a green spacer, and a green frame. Red and green are comple­ or two people having the experience with the others facilitating it (see mentary colors: they intensify each other. So the coloring of the frame, McCarthy & Steingraber, 1997). I have long been interested in the role of spacer and liner work to create a feeling of heightened awareness. Personal uncertainty in creativity: whether there is any, how might it function, how information is written on the liner and factual information about cancer on people who already live in a highly uncertain environment deal with or the frame. The title "The Future Moves In Much Closer" gives me the experience uncertainty in the creative process, and if and how that might feeling the mountains are moving in and will eventually bury the room. I'm parallel or heal their daily lives. reminded of the old adage "dust to dust." Or does the future lie further into With LAPD, given the transient nature of the population and language the house? Hollis once said (Sigler et al., 1999, p. 21): "It was a revelation differences, scripts were completely out. There was very little money, so to me, just as it had been to [Audre] Lorde, how 1 had treated everything in sets were also out. LAPD worked out of a very small reception area of a life as if it were permanent." The two empty chairs are there waiting for Legal Aid Office in Skid Row, and a larger, standard rehearsal space on the someone to use them—or has someone just left? A waiting-room, literally? margin of Skid Row. At the time, LAPD consisted of eight to ten commit­ Other viewers' interpretations might differ, as mine might on another day, ted members who had started a soap opera series. Of the committed mem- But this was exactly one of Hollis' intents. She wanted her work to touch bers, about four or five were previous Skid Row residents and had moved people in our shared emotional spaces. oo J out an(j onto better things because of their participation with LAPD. The absence of people in her paintings, except for "The Lady" and There were some non-Skid Row people who just liked the group, and Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2) there were also, at the most, two paid personnel. The rest of the cast were inclusive sense first requires the respect of African people as language residents of Skid Row, the precise numbers changing with every perfor- manipulators of the highest order. Understanding the complexity of lan- mance. guage in African cultures, the overlapping texts, tongues, and dialects, can The series was entitled "The Buffalo Bob Show," modeled after the das- deepen the appreciation of Basquiat's sophisticated use of language. From sic children's television program featuring Buffalo Bob and his wooden understanding the in-joke to the alienated, from the colloquial to the schizo- puppet Howdy-Doody. The content for the series was improvised during phrenic, Basquiat's use of words function like any conversation one might rehearsal, where a general storyline for that week would be set. Of course overhear in any urban American neighborhood. The same canvas can have this storyline often changed, depending on who showed up to perform and some profound sentence juxtaposed with profanity and gutter talk, chants who showed up in the audience—observers sometimes got up and started and spells, incantations and curses, cheers, and raps. Tate feels that acting in the series. Whether they were aware it was a play or not was not Basquiat's art is very much like the music of Theolonius Monk, in that always clear, primarily because of histories of alcohol or substance abuse. both used childlike gestures but layered them in highly sophisticated, corn- While I was there I saw, over the course of four weeks; how Buffalo Bob plex, intellectual, aesthetic statements. When asked why he frequently was challenged by his boss for problems on the job due to his drinking and crossed out words (note the title of this essay), he answered that the viewer foul language. Buffalo Bob always blamed it on Howdy, saying he was the would be more likely to read the words and take them in (Basquiat video; one with the problem. Eventually Bob lost his job and went to the Betty **Hoban, 1998). Like a skilled musician, Basquiat knew where to effec- Ford Clinic. There he/Howdy tried to arrange for liquor to be brought to tively place silences. him/Howdy and tried to break into the medication room. When confronted Bell Hooks (1995) writes that Basquiat's paintings challenge those who by the Clinic personnel, Bob threw a TV through a window and ran away equate "seeing" with "looking." Viewing his work through a Eurocentric where he and Howdy lived on the streets. Bob was clearly in denial. gaze one can see familiar aspects of Western artistic traditions. The more LAPD would travel around and perform at different SRO's and rehab inclusive view of Basquiat's work (and life) demands that the viewer be clinics in Skid Row, as well as occasional performances outside of Skid willing to see and accept the tragic dimensions of black life. The privacy of Row. While the story was unfolding, one of the LAPD regulars returned black experiences needs to be recognized in language, but for the horrors after missing several weeks. This regular had signed up for one of the paid of black life, language has been terribly limited (Baldwin as cited inHooks, experiments offered by nearby medical research hospitals. Unfortunately, 1995). "Basquiat's work gives that private anguish artistic expression. ...he this experiment resulted in a reaction severe enough to mandate a stay in had to assume the blackness defined by the white imagination and the black- } (]^7) {mKmgfor ade?ade: JeanMichdB L Japan: tainly prepped him for suffering as an adult. They all faced some type of fCorinsha Press & Co Ltd discrimination. For Sigler it was the taboo of cancer. For Basquiat and Marshall, R. (1992)' (Ed.) Basquiat. New York: Whitney Museum of Ameri- some of the Skid Row individuals it was racism and classism. Sigler was can Art. struggling to live. Some of the Skid Row people were yearning to die. May, R. (1975). The courage to create. New York: W W. Norton & Co. Basquiat and Sigler's aesthetic trajectories seem to meet: Basquiat went McCarthy, K., & Steingraber, S. (1997). Self-connection shared. Integrating from Outsider to Superstar; Sigler went professional artist to Naive/Trained- collaborative and autonomous impulses within feminist projects. In E. Peck & Outsider artist. Some Skid Row individuals struggled in the Outsider Art- ^^^^^v!^" gr0und'JemimSt col!abora"on '" the academy. ist arena, but most fell into the Everyday Joe category: attempting to achieve ^^ R (]992) (Ed.) World Crowne.: Bodhisattva with clenched mudra. or achieving an ability to maintain some stability in life but not enough to ,n R Marshall, (Ed.) Basquiat (p. 44-4$). New York. Whitney Museum of consistently act or finish their creative activities (e.g., illness, parole), yet American Art. continually seeking out creative activities. £Harry Stack Sullivan in his work with young men suffering from acute scientists use great and mysterious powers of imagination to invent and schizophreniform psychoses (see Kvames, 1976 for a description). test problems and concepts never before conceived. I submit that there is The more intuitive and less rational manifestations of empathy lie well even more art to the practice of psychotherapy, informed by scientific psy­ beyond the present reach of scientific psychology. Here we are in territory chology though it may be. Since my background is in theater, I can best that is certainly not science. To some extent empathy can be taught, mainly understand the art of psychotherapy as a performing art. by mimesis and observation, but some psychotherapists are better Like the actor, the psychotherapist's whole mind and body, in relation to empathizers than others, and some are extraordinarily and mysteriously another person, in actual time, within the context of a specific environ­ gifted. It should be noted that actors create dramatic characters through a ment, is the instrument of the psychotherapeutic process. Psychotherapy variety of empathic processes. Some are better at creating character than requires constant attention to and simultaneous interpretation of the Jame- others, and we call some actors geniuses because of their mysterious cre­ sian fringes of one's own consciousness - fleeting and irrelevant thoughts, ative powers in this regard. The creation of dramatic character can be sudden flashes of episodic memory, physical sensations, and feelings. Si­ taught, at least to some extent (Stanislavski, 1950), and if clinical psychol- . multaneously, one must attend with equal commitment to the client's ogy ever frees itself from shamed denial of its artistic dimensions, psycho* thoughts, memories, and emotions expressed through gestures, posture, therapists would probably benefit from studying actors' methods of build­ and tone of voice - the entire armamentarium of human communication, ing and expressing empathic knowledge. both verbal and nonverbal. The therapist also needs to remain aware of the An equally important way in which psychotherapists use imagination is context in which the therapeutic dialogue occurs. There is a room, more imagining the client's future potential. This kind of imagining is expressed often than not decorated and arranged by the therapist, which reveals or in the suggestion of a variety of new and untried options in regard to think­ dissembles the therapist's character, aspirations, and expectations. Both ing, feeling and acting for the client to consider. PsyehothGffipy enn cronte participants are communicatively costumed. Both are situated in a particu­ creativity within the client by repeated modeling of ercntive thinking, lar geographic location at a particular moment in history. Each carries a Is the "something new" that can be created in psycholhernpy a novel* particular socioeconomic, cultural, occupational, gender, and generational original, and appropriate product of some sort, ns in the convenHonfll wofil* identity. Context influences and defines the human interaction in psycho­ ern view of art, or is it more akin to the CftRlern vision of «rt m 0 fltflig of therapy. personal fulfillment in connection with cssentinl find primary reality (Uubntl, The practice of psychotherapy requires repetitive efforts by the therapist 1999)? Can creative imagination in psyclMthcr«py infiU'lWttlP Mb pm~* to contain awareness of all of this information, to share it with the client, spectives? I think it can, Although we don't Ilk*' to ^Ik flf>0»*Oii r clig'njji' and to use it in the service of mutually agreed-upon goals for the client. lives as products of psychothcrnpy, therapy ann Hdntihily lnftpir'0 f» fllJOM! H* While one can learn about the implications of various types of contextual make novel, originnl nncl appropriate life flhnlflfiN, If fOnifOW i* g^ig in realities, or about the implications of various types of human problems, engage in n satisfying love rclatiowihip ft»r (ho flffit itnm in ihfslr jjjfe, pinf.fi from studying social scientific literature, scientific knowledge alone docs a courageous occupmionril change, osonpo IVom IptSfpflrpnnfll (Pfiuf9t iir not enable the psychotherapist to integrate and express all that needs mtc realize some other kind of nii'Muml Achiflvomflfll i\H ft rcpjfl nf fiiypfiO' gration and expression within the psychotherapeutic interaction. thonipy, we feci great Niiijfil'riaiion wilt) whttl wn t>£$M Ibo prflfjlifil of mfp The mimetic nature of learning in psychotherapy practice links it ^ < work. However, absent tho modhiMivo raynrii fnrtbp nibpribui \i$u itf with the art of acting. Other than by direct practice, one learns most '7',;-' ^u />• the core of the psychothcrnpy procpun, oroViliv*? reioilifi ihr unllkpfy ((• Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts occur. Just as in the art of acting, the creative product is indivisible from movement as a means of giving expression to the unconscious. (Chodorow, the empathic creative process from which it is constructed. 1991). In another reference to the importance of movement as a means of References expressing unconscious material, Jung observed that he was able to com­ Bugental, J. (1987), The art of the psychotherapist. New York: W.W. municate with a regressed patient by reflecting and mirroring back her ges­ Norton & Company. tures (Jung 1961). It is interesting to note that this technique of mirroring Kvames, R.G. (1976). A Harry Stack Sullivan case seminar: Treatment of a gestural movement was later developed by dance/movement therapists young male schizophrenic. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. working with the chronically mentally ill in the late 1950's. Although this Lubart, T. (1999). Creativity across cultures. In Robert J. Sternberg (Ed.). pre-dates his work on active imagination, it suggests that Jung intuitively Handbook of creativity (pp.339-350). New York: Cambridge University Press. recognized that the importance of what patients were trying to communi­ Mish, F.C. (Ed.). (1988). Webster s ninth new collegiate dictionary. Spring­ field, MA: Merriam-Webster. cate on an unconscious level through the body. A Brief History of Active Imagination and Authentic Movement Sarah Bcnolken Authentic movement, as a form of active imagination, was pioneered by 24 East 12 Street, Suite 503 Mary Whitehouse, a dance therapist in Los Angeles committed to the Jun- New York NY 10003 gian approach to the unconscious. She studied at the Jung Institute in Zurich, and tried to integrate the concepts of active imagination with her develop­ ing work in dance/movement therapy. Whitehouse worked with analysts,' psychotherapists, dance/movement therapists and individuals interested in Authentic Movement and Witnessing in Psychotherapy exploring the unconscious through movement. She called her approach Wendy Wyman-McGinty movement-in-depth, and emphasized the importance of learning to wait for West Los Angeles, California an inner impulse to move rather than "making" movement. She used the term authentic movement to distinguish it from ego-directed or planned Authentic movement is a form of expressive psychotherapy in which an movement (Whitehouse, 1979 in Pallaro, 1999). individual uses spontaneous self-directed movement to give form to un­ conscious experience, allowing them an opportunity to relate to the uncon­ One of Whitehouse's students was Adler, a dance therapist who has clari­ scious more directly. The movement occurs in the presence of the analyst fied the role of the witness in authentic movement (Adler in Pallaro, 1999). who acts as a silent witness to the patient's explorations. The patient is Chodorow, a Jungian analyst and dance therapist who also studied with asked to wait for an inner impulse, to allow oneself to be moved from Whitehouse has been instrumental in developing authentic movement within within, rather than consciously directing or planning the movement. The the context of clinical practice, particularly as a form of active imagination movement itself, as well as any images, feelings and associations can then (Chodorow, 1991, 1999 a, b, c, d). Woodman (1980, 1982, 1983,1985) be explored as a communication from the patient's unconscious. another Jungian analyst, has focused on the ways in which authentic move­ For both witness and mover, there is an opportunity to observe the inter­ ment can be helpful for women with eating disorders and other addictions. action between somatic experience and the development of a symbolic pro­ Wyman-McGinty (1998), a Jungian analyst and dance/movement therapist cess. As a movement sequence develops, one can observe the somatic as­ has addressed the nature of symbolic experience and the witnessing rela­ pect of symbol formation as an individual begins to link up affective expe­ tionship in authentic movement. Dosamantes-Beaudry (1974,1980,1982- rience with a visual image. The role of the witness is to serve a holding 83, 1984) has written extensively on what she calls 'movement psycho­ function, a potential space in which to receive and reflect about the patient's therapy', an experientially based modality which utilizes the patient's bodily- experience. Overtime, as this function is internalized, the patient learns to felt experiences a means of working with unconscious experience. Lewis self-witness. Finally, as a form of training, the process of authentic move­ (1984), Chodorow (1982, 1986), Dosamantes-Beaudry (1987, 1992), and ment can help clinicians become more aware of the somatic unconscious in Pallaro (1996) have contributed to our understanding of the somatic aspect themselves as well as in one's patients. We will explore some of the ways of the countertransference in dance/movement therapy. in which authentic movement can be integrated into analytic practice, with Authentic Movement in Analytic Practice particular emphasis on the role of the witnessing relationship in psycho­ Within the context of analytic practice, authentic movement is used as a therapy. means to support patients in developing their relationship to the uncon­ The Roots of Active Imagination and Authentic Movement scious. The timing of the decision to introduce authentic movement is indi­ Authentic movement has its roots in the psychology of C. G. Jung and vidual, and it is important that it not be seen as the analyst taking over the his pioneering work in active imagination. Chodorow (1997) describes how patient's experience. I tend to suggest authentic movement as an experi­ Jung developed this unique way of relating to the unconscious through ence which can deepen a patient's awareness of what is going on in his imagination and symbolic play. Chodorow suggests that Jung intuitively body, particularly when someone is struggling to communicate something recognized the importance of symbolic play as a means of helping the indi­ for which there are not yet words, because it is not yet available as mentalized vidual find his way into the meaning of unconscious experience. As Jung experience (McDougall, 1989). Trauma and pre-verbal experience are two experimented with working with the unconscious in an imaginative way, such examples. Like other expressive art forms, authentic movement can he found that the images and fantasies which emerged represented his un­ also be used to give form to the creative imagination. conscious fears and emotions, what he later came to call the complexes For those new to this process, I typically begin by asking the person to (Chodorow, 1997). This personal knowledge of the importance of creative find a comfortable position sitting, standing or lying down. Through voice artistic expression as a means of working with the images of the uncon­ and physical presence, I create a sense of a quiet protected space in which scious confirmed for Jung the inherent healing power of symbolic play. the mover can begin to turn his attention inward. I might suggest some Jung saw active imagination as having two parts; allowing the unconscious introductory movements such as stretching, rolling the head from side to to come up and developing a conscious relationship towards what was side, raising and lowering the shoulders, and tightening and releasing dif­ revealEd. Later, after years of observation and study, Jung began to put ferent muscle groups in order to heighten an awareness of one's physical- some of these ideas into clinical practice, by encouraging his patients to ity. 1 then ask the mover to close his eyes, and to focus on his breathing in utilize some form of artistic expression to give form to their inner images order to begin to shift the focus inward. I ask that he gently allow himself and experiences. Jung called this approach active imagination, to signify to notice any images, feelings and bodily sensations, and I allow himself to the relationship of an observing ego capable of relating to unconscious wait until there is an inner impulse to move—this helps the individual be­ material through symbolic expression. Jung's fundamental belief in the come aware of a sense of being moved from within, rather than enacting or natural healing function of the imagination is an important precursor to producing movement in a more ego-directed way. Enacted movement tends understanding the role of the creative arts therapies within an analytic con­ to have very little affect, whereas inner-directed movement is character­ text—namely, the idea that unconscious conflicts could be expressed and ized by a sense of involvement and focused attention on the part of the worked through within the context of the creative process. Jung believed mover. For both observer and mover there is a qualitative difference. that symbolic material could be interpreted from a reductive point of view Although movement by nature is physical, the goal of authentic move­ (finding the relationship to its origins in childhood) as well as in a con­ ment is not catharsis, but rather being able to hold the tension of staying in structive way (understanding what the material might suggest in terms of relationship to the images and affects that are generated rather than being future development). * , taken over by them. The work is done with one's eyes closed, in order to Although Jung did not develop the idea of movement as a form of s qq help the individual heighten his awareness of internal experience. The active imagination (he tended to use drawing, painting and writing), he patient is asked to wait for an inner impulse, to allow oneself to be recognized that some of his female patients used spontaneous dance/ '^' lyv moved from within, rather than consciously directing or planning the Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2) movement. Focusing inward seems to support the development of reverie, the ego has had to split off what are felt to be unbearable affects in order to a place of relaxed but conscious attention, in which images and feelings insure psychic survival. Authentic movement can intensify this process, can emerge and begin to become linked within the context of a holding because the defensive affects are now being expressed in the presence of environment {Winnicott, 1951). The intention is to support the person in the analyst/witness. The patient's struggle to bear so much unmetabolized creating a potential space in which what is as yet unknown to the ego can affect in the body, and the splitting which occurs as a defense against this gradually come to consciousness via the body (Wyman-McGinty, 1998). tension,-is constantly re-enacted in the transference. Not only does the pa­ My work as a witness at this point is largely inner, as I try to create a tient have to bear painful feelings which have been devalued and repressed, container within myself in which to receive the mover's non-verbal com­ but he must also endure the shame of being seen by another. It is the patient's munication. I attend to my somatic countertransference, tracking my own growing ability to tolerate these painful states of mind which leads to a bodily feelings, images and associations that emerge in response to wit­ sense of ego consolidation and a more cohesive sense of self (Wyman- nessing my patient. In general I do not-want to be intrusive, or distract the McGinty, 1998). As these painful states of mind can be named and made patient from his own process, but rather wait to hear what my patient has to available for analysis, a relationship can begin to be made to these aban­ say. Rather than interpret someone's experience, I treat the movement as doned and neglected parts of the self. Rather than being deleted or rel­ any other expression of material from the unconscious, such as a dream. 1 egated to the body where they become mute, and their pain communicated try to stay with the patient's associations, images and affects before offer­ only symbolically, they can begin to be consciously lived and integratEd. ing any of my own observations. A Case Study Authentic movement in clinical practice A professional woman with rheumatoid arthritis who was able to work ] have found that when patients begin to focus attention on their internal symbolically, and to bear the tension of holding extremely difficult and bodily-felt experience, it seems to evoke material from the personal uncon­ painful feelings, used movement and the images of the unconscious to ex­ scious, including pre-verbal experiences in the form of affective or somatic plore her relationship to her illness. She often experienced me as being too memory. Bollas (1987) suggests that somatic memory may be recovered active, too quick with my interpretations, 'cutting her off at the pass'. I when the patient is able to link affective experience to a mental image. For wondered aloud if perhaps it felt as if I were taking over her experience so example, when the ego is unable to bear certain affects because they would that her experience couldn't get born and 1 tried to pay more attention to be experienced as too overwhelming, image and affect are split in order to why 1 felt compelled to be so responsive. Although she complained of her make the unbearable bearable (Wyman-McGinty, 1998). When this occurs, mother's emotional passivity, and part of her wanted a more active mother/ the affect goes into the body where it generates psychosomatic symptoms, analyst, my behavior reminded her of her father who would interpret her as well as anxiety states, depersonalization and dissociation. In these situ­ experience to her and left her very little room in which to express her spon- ations, the body holds what the mind cannot. For patients who have expe­ taneous self. rienced severe early trauma, the danger of returning to a state of "disinte­ In terms of my countertransference, I felt held in place, not allowed to gration anxiety" (Kohut in Kalshed, 1996, p.34) is so great that it creates a speak. She would get agitated and angry if I didn't get something just catastrophic archetypal split in the psyche. Kalshed (1996) notes in these right. She reported that we could have 50 minutes of a good session which situations that the disowned unbearable affects are banished to the body had a few moments of my misunderstanding her and this would make our because they are yet able to acquire symbolic representation. Authentic work feel ruinEd. She realized intellectually that this was not true, and was movement seems to help patients retrieve feelings which are not yet con­ able to articulate very early states of acute loneliness and of being left by a scious, although we might say that they are known to the somatic aspect of mother who was not able to respond her emotionally in the most basic the unconscious. When patients begin to focus inward, on their physical ways. Being bright and resourceful, she would figure out ways of coping body, unconscious materia! often emerges in the form of an image or bodily outwardly, but the more fragile, helpless or dependent parts were then split feeling which serves to conserve the original experience (Wyman-McGinty, off. It was the times when she felt me helping her (or wanting to help her) 1998). Chodorow (1991) notes that certain memories appear to be stored that seemed to trigger her anger. 1 wondered if it was humiliating to need kinesthetically and are able to be retrieved through body movement. Draw­ an other, particularly a woman. When we talked about her feelings of let­ ing on Stern's work in infant observation (Stern, 1985), Mitrani (1996) ting me in, she had the image of a condom. While I experienced that often proposes a model for the development of body memories. The infant's ear­ she did hold herself erect and stiff, the sense was that a condom could liest fantasies are thought to be initially recorded as body-memories be­ come on and off and was used for protection. As she worked in movement, cause they are pre-verbal, and therefore unrepresented mentally. The pro­ the image and body experience that developed was that of being inside a cess of moving from the somatic level of expression to the development of walnut shell. She felt that she could come out, but that she would be vul­ thought and language requires the presence of a containing object who is nerable. There was a recognition that with her own mother she wasn't able able to mirror and reflect back to the infant an understanding of his physi­ to "form in my own way". I felt that the walnut shell also represented her cal expression. This is very similar to the role of the analyst/witness who armored self, now carried by the arthritis. She made the connection be­ tries to contain and encode the patient's non-verbal experience. Mitrani tween her arthritis and the underlying psychological conflict. She experi­ notes that in analytic practice, these kinds of communications from a pa­ enced the arthritis as both a kind of freezing (her coldness towards others, tient may present as body memories trapped in the realm of the unthought, shutting down, not having needs) as well as a heating up (her explosive and therefore unmentalized experience (Mitrani, 1996). When the analyst rages). In this way she internalized the negative mother who kept her cap­ can help the patient find ways to work with this material more directly, the tive. Her body became the battlefield. patient is free to move towards the development of a mind-ego from the In this example, authentic movement offered a way to begin to explore original body-ego (Freud, 1923; Mitrani, 1996). I suggest that it is the the rage and vulnerability which underlay a frozen quality and served a containing and metabolizing presence of the analyst/witness which allows protective, defensive function. Using authentic movement to explore both the patient to relax defense mechanisms at such a primitive level. Through her sense of numbing and freezing as well as the explosive rages created a a physical and emotional presence, the analyst attempts to create a sense of larger internal space in which she could begin to make contact with a third trust and safety in which the unconscious material of the patient can begin element, the walnut shell which held her together, and protected a less to unfold in the context of a relationship between two people. The empha­ formed 'true self. This example illustrates Jung's concept of the transcen­ sis is on the patient's non-verbal experience. Language is momentarily dent function, the ego's capacity to hold the tension of the opposites until suspended as both analyst and mover allow the expression of the body to an image emerges which holds a third possibility. In this case, forming a become primary, evoking somatic memory, whether in the form of a visual relationship to the hidden and more protected part of herself created a larger image and/or a bodily sensation which can then be explored as a communi­ space in which the feelings of rage, vulnerability and numbness could be­ cation from the patient's unconscious. What was previously experienced gin to be explored and metabolized within the context of our relationship. on a somatic level is now available as something which can be taken into The role of the witness the mind, thought about and eventually integratEd. Witnessing is an inherent part of the analytic process. Whether we are Clinical experience suggests that the affects released in authentic move­ listening to a person's life story, attempting to unravel the meaning of a ment may be difficult for patients to integrate, particularly when there is an dream, or attending to the images, feelings and responses our patients evoke acute sense of shame and fragmentation. They may express a fear of "being in us, we are engaging in a process of witnessing. We seek to know and too much", of overwhelming or annihilating oneself or the analyst, of understand what is being communicated verbally as well as somatically. collapsing, dissolving or spilling out of one's body, suggesting tears in A To the best of our ability, we try to be fully present in the moment, in­ the psychic skin, a sense of not holding together as an intact self (Anzieu, %l: cluding being aware of any countertransference issues that are stimu­ 1985, 1990). This is particularly evident in cases of trauma in which -aJu^ li lated in us in response to what we see and hear. In our interpretations, Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts clarifications and reflections we are bearing witness to the importance of tient, to make room for more primitive parts of the psyche to emerge. When what is being experienced and conveyed by our patients. There is also a a patient has undergone trauma such as a rape, movement can become a reparative aspect to witnessing. By actively "bearing witness", we confirm safer way to begin to express the rage, fear, sense of fragmentation, disso­ the importance of the material presented by our patients. ciation, isolation and despair that initially there are no words for. Often the Working with the creative imagination, through movement, can serve an incident is gone over in movement numerous times before it can begin to* integrating and organizing function, particularly when patients may be strug­ be integratEd. gling to express feelings for which they may not as yet have words. Au­ It is important to reflect about what expectations this work fosters in thentic movement, like other forms of active imagination, can give form to terms of the transference. It takes a certain amount of courage to allow an inner experience, by providing a means of shaping and containing inner oneself permission to express oneself through movement. The deske to be experience in such a way that it can be communicated to another. Move­ seen and the relief at no longer feeling so alone, coupled with the shame at ment, uniquely, offers a means by which the images, bodily feelings and feeling so exposed, can be a difficult set of opposites to tolerate. Both sets accompanying associations can begin to be linked up in their original con­ of feelings need to be addressEd. tainer, the physical body. Why, when so much of analysis is about being In my own clinical practice, I have found it helpful to think of the wit­ able to put one's experience into words, to communicate about intrapsy­ ness as someone who is working to create a potential space available for chic activity, would we want to introduce a form in which words come mutual exploration. Within this space, the contents of the unconscious can second? A way of working in which at least temporarily, one is asked to begin to emerge in an atmosphere which is non-judgmental and contain­ focus all attention on the physical body? I suggest that at times we are ing. Over time the witnessing relationship can begin to be internalized, limited by our words. Patients may use language to distance themselves with the eventual goal of self-witnessing and self-reflection. Lucchi (1998) from an emotional experience. Movement can be of value by helping pa­ who has studied authentic movement and witnessing as a training modality tients focus more directly on the underlying feelings in the body. Talking for psychotherapists, suggests that learning to witness heightens therapists' about an experience without a connection to the underlying affect supports somatic attunement totheir clients internal bodily-felt experiences, helps a kind of dissociation. Often in cases of trauma, patients may find it diffi­ clinicians to differentiate self from others, and enhances one's capacity to cult to stay with the material without becoming fragmentEd. Authentic work symbolically. Witnessing, which focuses specifically on attending to movement can be one way of containing the trauma. I have found that the the somatic aspect of the countertransference, can be of value in helping movement in these situations tends to have a more literal and enacted qual­ therapists develop an understanding of and relationship to the unconscious ity. Later, over time as the individual is able to go more deeply into the at a pre-verbal, pre-symbolic level. By attending carefully to the images, underlying affects and their associations, the movement becomes less lit­ feelings and bodily experiences of our patients, we may leam to become eral and more expressive. Whether or not we elect to use authentic move­ more aware of the subtleties of the unconscious at a somatic level. Authen­ ment in clinical practice, we need to find ways of including the patient's tic movement can be one way in which to create a bridge by which the experience of the body, as well as our experience of our own body in the unconscious may be given voice within the context of a relationship be­ room, if each of us is to be more fully present. This is especially critical tween two people. with patients who have sustained trauma at a bodily level. References Issues of Transference and Countertransference Adler, J. (1999). Who is the witness? A description of authentic movement. in Authentic Movement In Pallaro, P. (Ed.), Authentic movement (pp 141-159). London: Jessica In authentic movement, one of the primary goals is to help the patient Kingsley Press. make contact with the pre-symbolic aspect of the psyche. Witnessing au­ Anzieu, D. (1985). The skinego. New Haven, CT.: Yale Universities Press. thentic movement, with the emphasis on seeing and feeling into the non­ Bernstein, P. L. (1984). The somatic countertransference: The inner pas de verbal experience of the mover, replicates aspects of the mirroring rela­ deux. In P. L. Bernstein, (Ed.), (Ed.) Theoretical approaches in dance-move­ ment therapy,.volume 2, (pp. 321-342). Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt. tionship inherent in the mother-infant dyad in which the mother is able to Bon, W. (1961). A theory of thinking. Internationa! Journal of Psycho­ communicate an understanding of his internal world at a bodily level analysis, 43, 306-310. (Wyman-McGinty, 1998). Initially the witness attempts to create a poten­ Bollas, C. (1987). The Shadow of the Object; The psychoanalysis of the tial space inside of her mind and body in which the experience of the mover unthought known^ New York: Columbia University Press. can gradually unfold and become known. It is the ability of the witness to Chodorow, J. (1982). Dance/Movement and body experience in analysis. In create a secure holding environment in which the inner world of the patient M. Stein (Ed.), Jungian analysis (pp. 192-203). La Salle, Illinois: Open can gradually unfold and become known, which is the fulcrum of the wit­ CourtJungian Analysis nessing relationship. Like Winnicott's 'good-enough' mother who is able Chodorow, J. (1986). The body as symbol: Dance/Movement in analysis. In to communicate to the infant an understanding of its inner world, the wit­ N. Schwartz-Sal ant & M. Stein (Eds.), The body in analysis (pp. 87-108). Wilmette, Illinois: Chiron. ness utilizes her somatic countertransference (Bernstein, 1984; Chodorow, Chodorow, J. (1991). Dance therapy and depth psychology\ London: 1982, 1986, 1991; Pallaro, 1996) as a means of forming a relationship to Routledge. what the mover is expressing. This includes becoming aware of her bodily Chodorow, J. (1997). Jung on active imagination. London: Routledge. sensations, as well as any images, feelings and associations that are evoked Chodorow, J. (1999a). Dance therapy and the transcendent function. In in response to the movement (Wyman-McGinty, 1998). The witness devel­ Pallaro, P. (Ed.) Authentic movement (pp. 236-252). London: Jessica Kingsley ops a kinesthetic attunement, a bodily way of sensing what the mover is Press. experiencing. In this process, the witness is actively trying to create a quiet Chodorow, J. (1999b). Dance/movement and body experience in analysis. In receptive state inside her own body and mind in which to receive the expe­ Pallaro, P. (Ed.), Authentic movement (pp 253-266). London: Jessica Kingsley Press. rience of the mover. Chodorow, J. (1999c). To move and be moved, in Pallaro, P. (Ed.), Authentic Dosamantes-Beaudry (Dosamantes, 1992; Dosamantes-Alperson, 1980, Movement (pp.267-278). London: Jessica Kingsley Press. 1987) describes "kinesthetic identification", a form of empathic understand­ Chodorow, J.(1999d). The body as symbol, in Pallaro, P. (Ed), Authentic ing in which the dance/movement therapist tracks the somatic experience Movement (pp. 279-300). London: Jessica Kingsley Press. of her clients. This is particularly important when the patient is beginning Dosamantes-Alperson, I. (1974), Carrying experiencing forward through to make contact with feelings which have been difficult to tolerate and authentic body movement. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice, have been actively kept out of the mind, what Tustin (1986) referred to as IK 211-214. Dosamantes-Alperson, 1.(1980). Contacting bodily-felt experiencing in psy­ autistic barriers. We use kinesthetic attunement whenever we are operating chotherapy. In J. E. Shorr, G. E. Sobel, P. Robin, & J. A. Connella (Eds.), at the level of the somatic counter transference. We seek to understand Imagery. Its many dimensions and applications (pp. 223-236). what is being stimulated in us at a body level when we are sitting with our Dosamantes-Alperson, 1. (1982-83). Working with internalized relation­ patients, whether or not they are moving. It is this kind of attunement ships through a kinesthetic and kinestic imagery process. Imagination, Cog­ which can lead to the development of kinesthetic empathy. nition, and Personality. 2., 333-343. Witnessing draws from Bion's (1961) notion of maternal reverie, as a Dosamantes-Alperson, I. (1984). Experiential movement psychotherapy. mental state in which conscious and unconscious communication is trans­ In. PL. Bernstein (Ed.), Theoretical approaches in dance/movement therapy. ferred between people. Harris notes that the body's potential for metabo­ Vol. 2, (pp. 257-291). Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt. Dosamantes-Alperson, 1 (1987). Transference and countertransference is­ lizing and registering emotional experience must also be included in our sues in movement psychotherapy. The Arts in Psychotherapy. 14, 209-214. understanding of unconscious communication (Harris, 1998). Witness­ Dosamantes-Alperson, I. (1992). The intersubjective relationship between ing encourages the analyst to focus both on her bodily responses to a therapist and patient: A key to understanding denied and denigrated as- patient, to become aware of non-verbal communications from the pa- ^\j '1/j- pects of the patient's self. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 79.359-365. Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2) Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id. New York: Random House. Stern, D. (1985). The interpersonal world of the infant: A view from psy­ Harris, A. (1998). Psychic envelopes and sonorous baths in Aron, L. & choanalysis and developmental psychology,. New York: Basic Books. Anderson, F. (Eds.), Relational perspectives on the body (pp 39-64). Hillsdale, Tustin, F. (1986). Autistic barriers in neurotic patients. New Haven: Yale New Jersey. Universities Press. Jung, C. G. (1961). Memories, dreams, reflections. New York: Vintage Whitehouse, M. (1999). C. G. Jung and dance therapy. In Pallaro, P. (Ed.), Books. Authentic movement (pp.73-101). London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Kalsched, D. (1996). The inner world of trauma: archetypal defenses of Winnicott. D. W. W. (1951). Transitional objects and transitional phenom­ the personal spirit. London & New York: Routledge. ena. Playing and reality. New York. Basic Books Lucchi, B. (1998). Authentic movement as a training modality for private Woodman, M. (1980/ The owl was a baker's daughter. Toronto: Inner practice clinicians. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, California Graduate City Books. Institute, Los Angeles. Woodman, M. (1982). Addiction to perfection: The still unravished bride. McDougall.J. (1989). Theaters of the body. New York: W.W.Norton. Toronto: Inner City Books. Mitrani, J. (1996). A framework for the imaginary Clinical explorations Woodman, M. (1983). Psyche/soma awareness. Quadrant, 17, 25-37. in primitive mental states of being. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson. Woodman, M. (1985). The pregnant virgin. Toronto: Inner City Books. Patlaro, P. (1996). Somatic countertransference: The therapist m relation­ Wyman-McGinty, W. (1998). The body in analysis: authentic movement ship". In Conference Proceedings, Third European arts therapies confer­ and witnessing in analytic practice. Journal of Analytical Psychology, 43, ence, vol }• The arts therapist., Hatfield, UK: School of Art and Design, 239-260. University of Hertfordshire. Schwartz-Salant, N. (1982). Narcissism and character transformation. Wendy Wyman-McGinty Toronto, Canada: Inner City Books C. G. Jung Institute of Los Angeles Schwartz-Salant, N. (1986). On the subtle-body concept in clinical prac­ tice. In N.Schwartz-Salant, & M. Stein (Eds.), The body in analysts. Wilmette, 10349 West Pico Blvd. Illinois: Chiron. Los Angeles, CA. 90064-2694

Message from the President-Elect Message from the Fast President Jerome Singer \ Sandra W. Russ Yale University Case Western Reserve University I want first of all to express my thanks to the Members of Division 10 for I want to review the activities of Division 10 over the past year, During honoring me by electing me . Even in a troubled time like this it is impor­ the time that I served as President. tant to sustain the great value for humankind of the arts and of culture and Colin Martindale was selected as Editor of the new Bulletin of Psychol­ creativity. My goal in my forthcoming years of service to the Society will ogy and the Arts. The two issues of the Bulletin have been of very high be to show how the best features of psychology,systematic research and quality. Our appreciation goes to Colin for his expertise and very hard work theory can help us to understand and to improve the various forms of artis­ as editor. tic achievement. I believe that the accomplishments in structure and con­ I had appointed a Task Force whose mission was to find a way to Bridge tent from the the arts can also guide us in formulating theory and method in the gap between between research and applied activities in the arts. Lauren psychology. Our first step will be to bring together research Seifert chaired the Task Force which is now the PAIR Task Force ("Pro­ psychologists,artists of various sorts and I hope psychologists who have moting Applications Integration with Research"). Lauren gave a report from also made contributions in literature ,the visual arts,music and performance the committee at the Executive Committee meeting at APA. One of their at our next APA Convention in Chicago. Your suggestions are most wel­ recommendations was to carry-out a survey of the members of Division 10 come. about their applied and research interests. The Executive Committee ap­ proved this recommendation and you should be receiving the survey in the mail soon. The committee also recommended a symposium on this issue at APA 2002. Our thanks to the committee whose members are, in addition to Lauren, Jan Airman, Brian Betz, and Will Wadlington. The Division is also establishing a student committee who will be Fo­ cusing on increasing student involvement in the Division. Frank Farley was Program Chair this year and put together an Excellent program at APA. The paper sessions and symposia were excellent and well attended. At the Executive Committee meeting and Business meeting, we made a number of decisions. The Newsletter will now be on the Website. Stephanie Dudek will be the editor of the newsletter. The Newsletter will include material that is not in the Bulletin. The Executive Committee felt that there was a need for a separate Newsletter that contained information about the Division and its members. The name change for the Division was discussed and the members at the Business Meeting voted for another revision to the Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

name . The proposed name of the division is "Society for the Psychology Message from Bob Sternberg of Aesthetics, Creativity and the Arts'*. The ballot for the vote by the entire Robert J. Sternberg membership will be arriving soon. There will be a mail ballot that will also Yale University include a vote on several other issues. We need a vote on changing the Hi. As Past-Past President, I have only a brief statement. 1 have sug­ Newsletter to a Bulletin and also on making permanent the ad hoc commit­ gested that Division 10 raise money by starting a book series, with the tees that have been in place the last few years and have been working well. royalties for the books going to Division 10. I am working with Elena The Executive Committee also voted for a dues increase. For members, Grigorenko and Jerry Singer on editing the first such book, which will be the annual dues will be $25 (increased from $ 17) and for students the dues on domain-specificity in creativity: Is creativity the same thing in the arts, will be $15 (increased from $10). We are also asking dues exempt mem­ sciences, business, and other fields? If so, why? If not, how is it different? bers to pay $20 for the Bulletin if they wish to receive it. The reason for We will be seeking authors to write for this book this coming fall. the dues increase is to provide funding for the new Bulletin and for activi­ I ran for the Presidency of APA and have just learned that I won the ties that the Division may undertake in the future. We also explored other election. I want to take this opportunity to thank all of those who supported ways to increase funds. We are beginning a book series. Bob Sternberg has my candidacy. As a Past-President and continuing member of the Execu­ graciously offered to edit the first book with the royalties going to the divi­ tive Committee of Division 10 (as Chair of the Awards Committee), 1 be­ sion. Also, we are xploring the possibility of sponsoring CE offerings at lieve I will represent the interests of Division 10 in a particularly compel­ APA. ling way. The Executive Committee also decided to initiate a student research award. This award will be a recognition for student research in the area of aesthetics, creativity, and the arts. As you can see from all the activity, we have a proactive Executive Com­ mittee and membership. It is important that this activity continue and that new initiatives develop. Our new President, Frank Farley, and President- Elect, Jerome Singer, have exciting ideas for the future and for the 2002 APA meeting. I greatly enjoyed being President of Division 10. I want to thank the Executive Committee for being such a good group to work with. And I want to thank the members for the honor of serving as President of this important division. As we enter a difficult time for our country and the world, aesthetics, creativity, and the arts will be especially important to nurture. I look forward to working with you in the future.

Announcements Executive Committee Meeting At its 2001 meeting in San Francisco, the Division 10 Executive Com­ mittee voted to increase dues in order to keep pace with inflation. Dues for members have been increased to $25, and dues-exempt members must now pay $20 if they wish to receive the Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts, which will no longer appear at the Division 10 web site. Unfortunately, this information was not communicated to APA in time. Members will soon be receiving mail ballots concerning changes to the Division 10 by­ laws. These will be accompanied by forms that can be sent to APA in order to pay any dues owed. Dues were also slightly increased for student and affiliate members, but the dues statements received by such members from APA indicated the correct amount. It is standard practice for divisions to charge dues-exempt members for bulletins and journals. The Executive Committee also voted to separate the Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts and the Division 10 Newsletter. Stephanie Z. Dudek has been named editor of the newsletter. At least for the moment, the newsletter will be at the Division 10 web site fwww.apa.org/ divisions/divlO) but will not appear in print form. The bulletin will carry only crucial items from the newsletter. The Executive Committee reiterated its support for the following ^ amendments to the bylaws. Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 2 (2)

Proposed Bylaws Changes The Division 10 Executive Committee has endorsed the following amend­ ments to the Bylaws. Members will receive mail ballots in due course. The Forthcoming Conferences listserv provides a nice forum for discussion of the proposed changes. The 10th Anniversary Conference of the European Society for the Cogni­ 1. The word 'bulletin' should replace 'newsletter' throughout the by tive Sciences of Music, Liege, Begiurn, 5-8 April, 2002. Information at laws. Rationale: This is merely a formality. The Newsletter still exists but musicweb.hmt-hannover.de/escom/english.htm. has been incorporated into the Bulletin. The 19'h International Conference on Literature and Psychology, Uni­ 2. The ad hoc committees established in 1999 (see p. 48) should be made versity of Siena in Arezzo, Italy, 4-9 July, 2002. Information at permanent and the current Committee on Nominations, Members, and Fel­ lows abolished. Rationale: The ad hoc committees have worked very well. www.clas.ufl.edu/ipsa/intro.htm. At present, the only official committee of the division is the Committee on The 17lh Congress of the International Association of Empirical Aesthet­ Nominations, Members, and Fellows. This gives far too much work to a ics, ' 4-8 August, 2002, Takarazuka, Japan. Information at single committee. Apparently, this committee has had neither a chair nor www.iaea2002.gr.jp or www.ume.maine.edu/~iaea. members for a number of years. The 8"1 conference of the International Association for the Empirical 3. The name of the division should be changed from 'Psychology and the Study of Literature, Pecs, Hungary, 21-25 August, 2002. Information at Arts' to 'Society for the Scientific Study of Aesthetics, Creativity, and Psy­ www.arts.ualberta.ca/igel. chology of the Arts'. Rationale: The current name does not accurately re­ flect the interests of members of the division, whereas the proposed new name does. It is also felt that the new name will help in getting new members.

Division 10 Newsletter Editor: Stephanie Z. Dudek Division 10 Internet Resources The goals of the Division 10 Newsletter differ from those of the Bulletin Members are encouraged to join the Division 10 Listserv. To join, in the following important ways. send email to Sarah Benolken ([email protected] V The listserv pro­ 1) The Newsletter is concerned with news about members, about your vides a valuable forum for ongoing discussions as well as announce­ own activities, your publications, your needs. ments of interest to members. 2) My goal is to publish news of interest to members about information The Division 10 web site, managed by Jonathan Plucker, is at that you consider important to share or about which you want to invite com­ www.apa.org/divisions/div 10 The site contains announcements of in­ mentary from your colleagues. terest to members, information about division awards, links to sites of 3) Information about your preoccupations, your concerns and your own interest, listings of recent dissertations, books, and articles relevant to publications is particularly welcome. the division, a version of the Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts, and 4) If you have books for review or books you want reviewed, please send information about the division including a downloadable and printable them to me at my office, S.Z. Dudek, Department of Psychology, University membership application form. If anyone has ideas about the site or of Montreal, cp 6128, Succurale A, Montreal, PQ, Canada. 5) Perhaps the most important goal of the Newsletter is to offer you a information to be added, contact Jonathan Plucker, Indiana University, venue for your own writing. I cannot accept short stories bu the Poetry 201 N. Rose Avenue, Bloomington IN 47405 (Email: Corner exists inviting you to send original poetry for consideration by your [email protected]). editor. But please do not send more than five poems at any one time. ! will also be glad to review your books of poetry if they are already published. In that case, send them to be at Department of Psychology, Uni­ versity of Montreal cp 6128, Succurale A, Montreal, PQ, Canada. Deadlines for submissions to the Newsletter are October 15 and Feb- ' ruary 15 of each year. ,, ?V The Newsletter may be found at www.apa.org/divisions/divl 0. Vol 2 (2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Officers of Division 10 Past presidents of Division 10 President Paul M. Farnsworth 1945-1949 Frank Farley (2001-2002) Norman C. Meier 1949-1950 President-Elect Paul M. Farnsworth 1950-1951 Jerome Singer (2002-2003) Kate Hevner Mueller 1951-1952 Herbert S. Langfeld 1952-1953 Past-President R. M. Ogden 1953-1954 Sandra W, Russ (2000-2001) Carroll C. Pratt 1954-1955 Melvin G. Rigg 1955-1956 Sec reta ry-Treasu rer J. P. Guilford 1956-1957 Constance Milbrath (1999-2002) Rudolf Arnheim 1957-1958 APA Council Representative James J. Gibson 1958-1959 Nathan Kogan (2001-2004) Leonard Carmichael 1959-1960 Abraham Maslow 1960-1961 Members-at-Large to the Executive Committee Joseph Shoben, Jr. 1961-1962 Stephanie Z. Dudek (1999-2002) Robert B. Macleod 1962-1963 Paul Locher (2000-2003) Carrol] C. Pratt 1963-1964 Ruth Richards (1999-2002) Harry H el son 1964-1965 Bulletin Editor Rudolf Arnheim 1965-1966 Colin Martindale (2001-2003) Irving L. Child 1966-1967 Robert L. Knapp 1967-1968 Newsletter Editor Sigmund Koch 1968-1969 Stephanie Z. Dudek Marianne L. Simmel 1969-1970 Rudolf Arnheim 1970-1971 Ad hoc Committee Chairs (2000-2001) Awards: Robert J. Sternburg Frank Barron 1971-1972 Fellows: Frank Farley Michael A. Wallach 1972-1973 Membership: Sarah Benolken Frederick Wyatt 1973-1974 Nominations: Colin Martindale Daniel E. Berlyne 1974-1975 Publications: Sandra W. Russ Julian Hochberg 1975-1976 Edward L. Walker 1976-1977 Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Joachim Wohlwill 1977-1978 Colin Martindale, Editor Pavel Machotka 1978-1979 Scarlett Davis, Associate Editor and Publisher Ravenna Helson 1979-1980 Nathan Kogan 1980-1981 Board of Editors Sarah Benolken, New York NY Salvatore R. Maddi 1981-1982 Paul Camic, Columbia College Stephanie Z. Dudek 1982-1983 Diana Deutsch, University of California, San Diego Brian Sutton-Smith 1983-1984 Leonid Dorfman, Perm State Institute of Arts and Henry Gleitman 1984-1985 Culture Dean Keith Simonton 1985-1986 Gregory J. Feist, College of William and Mary Colin Martindale 1986-1987 Norman Holland, University of Florida Kenneth J. Gergen 1987-1988 Paul Locher, Montclair State University Lawrence L. Marks 1988-1989 Pavel Machotka, University of California, Santa Cruz Nathan Kogan 1989-1990 Mark Runco, California State University, Fullerton Margery B. Franklin 1990-1991 Dean Keith Simonton, University of California, Davis Howard E. Gruber 1991-1992 Jerome Singer, Yale University Robert J. Sternberg, Yale University John M. Kennedy 1992-1993 Will Wadlington, Pennsylvania State University Robert S. Albert 1993-1994 Ellen Winner, Boston College Martin S. Lindauer 1994-1995 Ellen Winner 1995-1996 Gerald C. Cupchik 1996-1997 Mark Runco 1997-1998 Louis A. Sass 1998-1999 Robert J. Sternberg 1999-2000 \ Sandra W. Russ 2000-2001 as!

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