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Social Comparisons of Subjective Well-Being

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Social Comparisons of Subjective Well-Being Is the grass always greener on the other side? Social comparisons of subjective well-being THOMAS GOETZ1, CHRISTOPH EHRET2, SIMONEJULLIEN1, & NATHAN C. HALL3 I University 0/ Munich, Germany, 2University 0/ Regensburg, Germany, and 3University o/California, Irvine, USA Abstract This study investigates subjective well being (SWB) among residents of Munich (n 380) and Venice (n 545) with respect to their individual SWB and their judgments of SWB for residents of their own city and those living in the other city. Our results indicate that egocentrism rather than striving for self enhancement guided people's judgments of SWB. For people with low individual SWB, a below average effect was found, whereas for people with high individual SWB, a better than average effect emerged. Also in line with the egocentrism approach, judgments of individual SWB were positively related to the judgments of SWB for residents of their own city, but unrelated to SWB of those living in the other city. Implications for future research are discussed. Keywords: Subjective well being, satisfaction with life, social compan'sons Introduction abilities of other groups (outgroups; Abrams & Hogg, 1988). This phenomenon is called the ingroup Many studies have shown that most people believe bias (Mullen, Brown, & Smith, 1992) and is a central they are better than average (see Alicke & Govorun, component of Social Identity Theory developed 2005; Armor & Taylor, 1998; Krueger, 1998; Taylor by Tajfel and Turner (1979, 1986; see Rubin & Brown, 1988, 1994, for reviews). This effect has & Hewstone, 1998, for a review on research on the been found in various domains: with respect to ingroup bias). driving ability (Svenson, 1981), social competencies While there are numerous findings that have (Alicke, Klotz, Breitenbecher, Yurak, & Vredenburg, confirmed the BTAE, some recent studies reported 1995), attractiveness (Gabriel, Critelli, & Ee, 1994), a below-average effect. Kruger (1999), for example, and intelligence (Stankov & Crawford, 1997). The found below-average effects in participants' com­ tendency to overestimate one's own abilities has parative ability judgments for difficult tasks. These been investigated primarily in the domain of social and other empirical findings have led to a rethinking psychology and has often been referred to as the of the "classical" explanations for the BTAE, "better-than-average effect" (BTAE). Some studies which are motivational in nature, namely the striving have also called this relative overestimation of one's for self-enhancement (Alicke & Govorun, 2005). own attributes as the "above-average effect," "I am Recently, non-motivated accounts like egocentrism better than my group's average (IBTA) effect," have been discussed for explaining both the BTAE "illusory superiority," the "sense of relative superi­ and the below-average effect (Chambers & ority," the "leniency error," the "superior con­ Windschitl, 2004; Kruger, 1999). formity of the self," or the "primus inter pares" (first Although the BTAE has often been demonstrated among equals) effect (see Hoorens, 1993, for a with respect to numerous constructs, few studies review). have examined the potential influence of the BTAE The BTAE has also been found with respect to on affective variables (see Smith, 1993, 1999). individuals' assessments of group abilities. That is, Existing research has investigated the BTAE for people do not only overestimate their individual affective constructs on either an individual level abilities in relation to the abilities of others, they also (e.g., contentment; Klar & Giladi, 1999; Lykken & overestimate the overall abilities of the groups to Tellegen, 1996; Schkade & Kahneman, 1998) or on which they belong (ingroups) in relation to the a group level (e.g., higher-order emotions such as Correspondence: Thomas Goetz, Department of Psychology, University of Munich, Leopoldstrasse 13, D 80802 Munich, Germany. Tel: 49 89 2180 5086. Fax: 49 89 2180 5250. Email: [email protected] muenchen.de 174 affection, admiration, pride, conceit, nostalgia, bolster their self-worth by engaging in social com­ remorse, and rancor; Plutchik, 1994; see also parison processes that result in personal superiority. Leyens et aI., 2000). Results of these studies Because the result of the BTAE is to perceive Qneself suggest that most people rate their emotional as "better than the average," it seems obvious that a experiences more favorably than those of the plausible motive for explaining this effect both at the average individual. individual and group levels is self-enhancement The present study aims to contribute to these (Alicke & Govorun, 2005; Hoorens, 1993). studies in examining the BTAE for judgments of subjective well-being (SWB), a construct explored mainly within the context of "positive psychology" Nonmotivated factors leading to biases in (see Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). However, social judgments we aimed to contribute to this research by further Other research suggests that motivational concerns differentiating people's judgments of SWB concern­ are not the exclusive or even most dominant source ing "the average individuaL" Specifically, we asked of the BTAE (Alicke & Govorun, 2005; Chambers, them to distinguish in their judgments of SWB Windschitl, & Suls, 2003), with recent empirical between ingroup and outgroup members. Thus, the studies showing results that are incongruent with present study incorporates recent research on social motivational accounts (for a review, see Chambers & comparisons and subjective well-being in examining Windschitl, 2004). Kruger (1999), for example, the implications of the BTAE with respect to how found below-average effects in participants' com­ people evaluate their individual SWB, the SWB of parative ability judgments for difficult tasks, a finding other inhabitants of their city (ingroup), and the that is incongruent with the motive of self-enhance­ SWB of inhabitants of another city (outgroup). ment. Thus, recent research has focused increasingly A similar study conducted by Schkade and on nonmotivated accounts to explain biases that Kahneman (1998) asked US residents living in the cannot be adequately captured by motivated expla­ midwest and southern California to judge satisfaction nations. Nonmotivated accounts "locate the source with life for either themselves or someone similar to of the biases within aspects of the judgment process themselves in one of the two regions. Thus, each and information-processing limitations rather than in person's evaluation in Schkade and Kahneman's self-enhancement motives or other related motives study referred to only one target individual. In such as mood maintenance" (Chambers & contrast to the Schkade and Kahneman investiga­ Windschitl, 2004, p. 813). However, as Alicke tion, our study assessed peoples' judgments of SWB (1985) points out, biases due to nonmotivated with respect to three different target individuals: aspects could also have unintended self-enhancing themselves, ingroup members (inhabitants of their consequences. own city), and outgroup members (inhabitants of The most prominent nonmotivated explanation another city). for the BTAE is egocentrism (Ali eke & Govorun, 2005; Moore & Kim, 2003). Differing from other nonmotivated accounts, egocentrism is assumed to Motivated factors leading to biases in be involved when people's comparative evaluations social judgments are assessed using indirect methods, in which Traditionally, the BTAE has been assumed "to be absolute judgments concerning oneself and others mediated by a motivation for people to see them­ are made using separate scales. Other prominent selves or depict themselves in the best possible light" nonmotivated accounts (e.g., focalism) appear to be (Chambers & Windschitl, 2004, p. 813). Classic involved when using a direct method of assessment research by James (1890), Allport (1937), and (Chambers & Windschitl, 2004), that is, when Horney (1937) postulated that a central motive of people are asked to directly compare themselves human beings is self-enhancement. This motive to with others as part of a single scale (with "average" as enhance one's self-worth influences not only self­ the midpoint). Because we used the indirect method worth-enhancing behaviors (e.g., working hard in. for the comparative assessment of SWB, egocentrism order to achieve good results) but also how people was assumed to be the most relevant potential compare their own abilities with the abilities of nonmotivated explanation to be evaluated in this others. As such, self-enhancement theory represents study. a theoretical elaboration of Festinger's (1954) theory According to the egocentrism approach, judg­ of social comparison processes. It suggests that ments related to oneself and to others are inherently although people may seek to accurately evaluate egocentric, in that people focus primarily on their their own abilities by comparing themselves with own skills and behaviors and fail to adequately similar others, individuals are also motivated . to consider the skills and behaviors of others. 175 Several mechanisms are assumed to mediate the In sum, for high levels of individual SWB, both effects of egocentric judgments. For example, when the motivated account (self-enhancement) and the people have greater access to information concerning nonmotivated account (egocentrism) predict themselves rather than others, they often give the BTAE. However, for people with low individual more attention to themselves and use different SWB,
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