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Component-I (A) – Personal Details Component-I (A) – Personal details: Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati. Prof. K.P. Rao University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad. Prof.Ravi Korisettar Karnatak University, Dharwad. Prof. R. N. Singh Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi. Component-I (B) – Description of module: Subject Name Indian Culture Paper Name Principles and Methods of Archaeology Module Name/Title Archaeology and Sciences Part I Module Id IC / APM / 02 Pre requisites To know about the relevance of Archaeology Objectives to various branches of sciences Archaeology / Geoarchaeology / Keywords Archaeobotony / Archaeozoology E-Text (Quadrant-I) : 1. Introduction : Archaeology’s relation with sciences is as old as the birth of archaeology. It is common knowledge that archaeology, particularly pre and protohistoric archaeology cannot be practiced without help from a multitude of sciences. The book entitled Science in Archaeology (edited by Brothwell and Higgs) and Geoarchaeology by Davidson and Shackley and Archaeological Geology (edited by George Rapp. Jr. amd John Gifford) reveal the way a variety of sciences and scientific techniques have been helpful in archaeological investigations and also very aptly summarize archaeology’s dependence on various natural , biological, physical, chemical and social sciences and scientific techniques. In the context of Indian archaeological research two books entitled Quaternary Environments and Geoarcheology of India edited by S. Wadia, R. Korisettar and V.S. Kale and Indian Archaeology in Retrospect: archaeology and interactive disciplines edited by S. Settar and Ravi Korisettar provide you examples of application of scientific methods and techniques in Indian archaeological research. Application of remote sense techniques in Indian archaeology can be seen in Remote Sensing and Archaeology edited by Alok Tripathi is useful. It is also true that archaeology and other sciences are interdependent. Natural sciences, biological sciences, physical and chemical sciences as well as a host of new scientific disciplines have contributed to the development of archaeological theory, methods and interpretation of the human past. The archaeological literature of the 21st century presents a plethora of terms indicating the increasing dependence of archaeological investigations not only on sciences but also new techniques to facilitate reconstruction of the human past as completely as possible as well as preserve the vestiges of the past for posterity. Conceptual developments of archaeology have also gradually led to identifying a series of sub-disciplines with their own aim and methods that are mutually complimentary. A series of sub-disciplines either prefixing or suffixing the term archaeology have now becomes specialized areas of archaeological investigations. They are environmental archaeology, geoarchaeology or archaeological geology, bioarchaeology, ethno archaeology, molecular archaeology, anthropological archaeology, settlement archaeology, geospatial archaeology, cognitive archaeology, marine archaeology or nautical archaeology, archaeo-botany or archaeo-ethnobotany, archaeozoology, archaeochemistry, archaeo-genetics (molecular archaeology), archaeolinguistics, etc. Each of these specialized areas have made it possible to recover the past as completely as possible otherwise thought to be beyond the scope of contemporary archaeological methods. In addition several social sciences humanities and their methods have also been useful in developing archaeological theory and method. Specialist in these disciplines produce data which help reconstruct culture history, culture change and culture change. For examples geographical science has greatly contributed to improving field methods as well as new areas of investigation such as settlement archaeology. Cognitive archaeology deals with the mind of ancient men, for example as applied to the study of prehistoric rock art. Prehistoric archaeology, protohistoric archaeology and historical archaeology are three broad areas of inquiry into the human past. The application of scientific methods techniques is more common in pre and protohistoric investigations. The face of archaeology began to change rapidly with the emergence of the New Archaeology in the 1960s. The New Archaeology began to explore multiple ways of not only procuring archaeological data but also multiple ways of looking at the archaeological record and developed different approaches. It argued that mere accumulation of systematic data was inadequate and emphasized on the need to go beyond data collection and description. It argued for scientific and anthropological approach and in particular emphasized on ethnoarchaeology. One of the ways in which archaeology was certainly becoming more and more scientific was in its techniques. The post War period had witnessed refurbishment of field methods in archaeology and the benefits of using aerial photographs to identify sites on macro scale. This had also led to an explosion in the number of scientific techniques – the use of computers, dating methods, geomorphology, geophysical techniques, environmental analysis, etc. This development of growth in the use of scientific techniques was a core concern of the New Archaeology and these techniques have provided more and more data of potential use in the study of the past. During the course of these developments archaeology developed its own theory, methodology and aims. While dealing with the recovery of the material remains archaeology has developed a range of methods. It has borrowed and adapted techniques from other disciplines, has made them very much its own. Thus archaeology is different from history in that it requires material remains from archaeological sites and not just written descriptions of these remains. 2. Geology and Archaeology The role of geological/earth sciences is immense in the archaeological reconstruction of human past. The early discovery of human remains and artefacts associated with bones of extinct animals brought to the fore the importance interdisciplinary nature of the study of human past. It recognized the role of archaeology, geology, palaeontology, in the development of these sciences themselves. Geologists help is finding ways to resolve practical problems of archaeologists in the initial recovery of data and subsequent analysis as well as establishing the antiquity. Geology, stratigraphy, sedimentology, petrology, palaeogeochronology have greatly contributed to understanding man-land relationships, be it fluvial landforms, coastal landforms, caves and rock shelters. Geological mapping around archaeological sites helps in recognizing a variety of lithic sources as well as ranging habits of ancient men. Principles of geological stratigraphy have been of great help in reconstructing culture-history of archaeological settlements. Geoarchaeological investigations provide a means of for reconstructing prehistoric and ancient landscapes, depositional environments and palaeoclimatic regimes. Collection of information on regional geological environments, local sedimentation and stratigraphy are essential for interpreting ranging behaviours of the ancient settlers. If these features are correctly interpreted the nature of human activity whether ephemeral or long term can be determined. Documenting sedimentary fabrics, textures and compositions can be useful in activities surrounding the deposition of strata and to gaps in occupation. Simple field description of petrographic features of lithic raw materials either for making tools or building structures will allow location of quarry sites. 3. Geomorphology and Archaeology Geomorphologists and archaeologists work together in archaeological projects. While geology and archaeology together focus on stratigraphical context of archaeological materials, geomorphology and archaeology focus on relating the archaeological sites to local landform settings. This led to continued collaboration between them to be able to understand the physical setting which in turn help understand environmental change. Specific set of questions to be investigated by collaboration include (1) what is the immediate geologic- geographic setting of the site, (2) what are the relations of such settings to the surfacial deposits of the fluvial context sites, (3) what situations are likely to have been deliberately selected by the settlers or accidentally preserved from natural modification, (4) whether one can predict the occurrence of such sites, (5) what extent the site has suffered damage and (6) what were the contemporary physical conditions at the time occupation at the site. The application of geomorphological mapping at various scales helps in understanding the resource significance of various geomorphic units to ancient societies, it helps in seeking evidence for climate change, understanding the association of archaeological sites with fluvial, coastal and desert landforms and with caves and rockshelters as well as understand the effects of landform changes on archaeological sites – site formation processes. During the 1970s and 80 a series of investigations focusing on geomorphology were carried out at a number of Paleolithic and later prehistoric sites in India. 4. Environmental Archaeology This areas of investigation by archaeologists deals with interaction between people and environment in the past and it is here a variety of natural sciences contribute to a holistic reconstruction of man-land relationships. Palaeoenvironmental analysis is a difficult task and
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