Global Journal of Human Social Science

Global Journal of Human Social Science Volume 10 Issue 6 (Ver. 1.0)

Global Academy of Research and Development

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Editorial Board Members

John A. Hamilton,"Drew" Jr., Dr. WenyingFeng Ph.D., Professor, Management Professor, Department of Computing & Computer Science and Software Engineering Information Systems Director, Information Assurance Laboratory Department of Mathematics Auburn University Trent University, Peterborough, ON Canada K9J 7B8 Dr. Henry Hexmoor Dr. Thomas Wischgoll IEEE senior member since 2004 Computer Science and Engineering, Ph.D. Computer Science, University at Buffalo Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio Department of Computer Science B.S., M.S., Ph.D. Southern Illinois University at Carbondale (University of Kaiserslautern) Dr. Osman Balci, Professor Dr. Abdurrahman Arslanyilmaz Department of Computer Science Computer Science & Information Virginia Tech, Virginia University Systems Department Ph.D.andM.S.Syracuse University, Syracuse, Youngstown State University New York Ph.D., Texas A&M University M.S. and B.S. Bogazici University, Istanbul, University of Missouri, Columbia Turkey Gazi University, Turkey YogitaBajpai Dr. Xiaohong He M.Sc. (Computer Science), FICCT Professor of International Business U.S.A. University of Quinnipiac Email: [email protected] BS, Jilin Institute of Technology; MA, MS, PhD,.(University of Texas-Dallas) Dr. T. David A. Forbes BurcinBecerik-Gerber Associate Professor and Range Nutritionist University of Southern California Ph.D. Edinburgh University - Animal Nutrition Ph.D. in Civil Engineering M.S. Aberdeen University - Animal Nutrition DDes from Harvard University B.A. University of Dublin- Zoology. M.S. from University of California, Berkeley & Istanbul University Dr. Söhnke M. Bartram Dr. Bart Lambrecht Department of Accounting and Finance Director of Research in Accounting and Lancaster University Management Finance Professor of Finance School Lancaster University Management School Ph.D. (WHU Koblenz) BA (Antwerp); MPhil, MA, PhD (Cambridge) MBA/BBA (University of Saarbrücken)

Dr. Carlos García Pont Dr. Miguel Angel Ariño Associate Professor of Marketing Professor of Decision Sciences IESE Business School, University of Navarra IESE Business School Doctor of Philosophy (Management), Barcelona, Spain (Universidad de Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Navarra) Master in Business Administration, IESE, CEIBS (China Europe International University of Navarra Business School). Degree in Industrial Engineering, Beijing, Shanghai and Shenzhen UniversitatPolitècnica de Catalunya Ph.D. in Mathematics University of Barcelona BA in Mathematics (Licenciatura) University of Barcelona Dr. FotiniLabropulu Philip G. Moscoso Mathematics - Luther College Technology and Operations University of Regina Management Ph.D., M.Sc. in Mathematics IESE Business School, University of B.A. (Honors) in Mathematics Navarra University of Windsor Ph.D in Industrial Engineering and Management, ETH Zurich M.Sc. in Chemical Engineering, ETH Zurich Dr. Lynn Lim Dr. Sanjay Dixit, M.D. Reader in Business and Marketing Director, EP Laboratories, Philadelphia Roehampton University, London VA Medical Center BCom, PGDip, MBA (Distinction), PhD, FHEA Cardiovascular Medicine - Cardiac Arrhythmia Univ of Penn School of Medicine Dr. MihalyMezei Dr. Han-Xiang Deng ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR MD., Ph.D Department of Structural and Chemical Associate Professor and Research Biology Department Mount Sinai School of Medical Center Division of Neuromuscular Medicine Ph.D., EtvsLornd University Davee Department of Neurology and Postdoctoral Training, New York University Clinical Neurosciences Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine Dr. Pina C. Sanelli Associate Attending Radiologist Associate Professor of Public Health NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital Weill Cornell Medical College MRI, MRA, CT, and CTA

Neuroradiology and Diagnostic Hypertension Division (PMC) Radiology Penn Medicine, University of M.D., State University of New York at Pennsylvania Buffalo,School of Medicine and Presbyterian Medical Center, Biomedical Sciences Philadelphia Nephrology and Internal Medicine Dr. Roberto Sanchez Certified by the American Board of Associate Professor Internal Medicine Department of Structural and Chemical Dr. Bassey Benjamin Esu BiologyMount Sinai School of Medicine B.Sc. Marketing; MBA Marketing; Ph.D Ph.D., The Rockefeller University Marketing Dr. Wen-Yih Sun Lecturer, Department of Marketing, Professor of Earth and Atmospheric University of Calabar SciencesPurdue University Director Tourism Consultant, Cross River State National Center for Typhoon and Tourism Development Department Flooding Research, Taiwan Co-ordinator , Sustainable Tourism University Chair Professor Initiative, Calabar, Nigeria Department of Atmospheric Sciences, Dr. Aziz M. Barbar, Ph.D. National Central University, Chung-Li, IEEE Senior Member TaiwanUniversity Chair Professor Chairperson, Department of Computer Institute of Environmental Engineering, Science National Chiao Tung University, Hsin- AUST - American University of Science & chu, Taiwan.Ph.D., MS The University of Technology Chicago, Geophysical Sciences Alfred Naccash Avenue – Ashra BS National Taiwan University, Atmospheric Sciences Associate Professor of Radiology Dr. Michael R. Rudnick M.D., FACP Associate Professor of Medicine Chief, Renal Electrolyte and

Chief Author

Dr. R.K. Dixit (HON.) M.Sc., Ph.D., FICCT Chief Author, India Email: [email protected]

Dean & Editor-in-Chief (HON.)

VivekDubey(HON.) Er. Suyog Dixit MS (Industrial Engineering), BE (HONS. in Computer Science), FICCT MS (Mechanical Engineering) SAP Certified Consultant University of Wisconsin Technical Dean, India FICCT Website: www.suyogdixit.com Editor-in-Chief, USA Email:[email protected], [email protected] [email protected] Sangita Dixit M.Sc., FICCT Dean and Publisher, India [email protected]

Contents of the Volume

i. Copyright Notice ii. Editorial Board Members iii. Chief Author and Dean iv. Table of Contents v. From the Chief Editor’s Desk vi. Research and Review Papers

1. Gender Roles in Lithuanian Society 2-7 2. An Assessment of the Awareness of Local Populace on Ozone Depletion: An Example of Jimeta- Yola, Nigeria 8-11 3. Studies on Effects of Nutrient Supplements fortified with Phagostimulants Formulation H1 on growth and development of indoor reared Antheraea assamensis Helfer (Lepidoptera : Saturniidae) 12-17 4. Integracion Economica Colombo Venezolana: Dinamica En Medio De La Incertidumbre Politica Y El Regionalismo Abierto En El Hemisferio 18-31 5. Crecimiento Económico, Distribución Y Conflicto 32-43 6. Portable Water Availability and Consumption Pattern in Ilorin Metropolis, Nigeria 44-50 7. Analysis Of Sustainable Crop Production Practices Among Farmers In Shaki Agricultural Zone Of Oyo State, Nigeria. 51-61 8. Arts as Related To Other Forms of Life 62-66 9. A Study of Sanitation of Toilets in Anganwadi Centres Located In Rural Areas of Uttarakhand State in India 67-72 10. Perception of middle aged adults regarding emotional closeness with their siblings 73- 81

vii. Auxiliary Memberships viii. Process of Submission of Research Paper ix. Preferred Author Guidelines` x. Index

Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 1

From the Chief Author’s Desk

e see a drastic momentum everywhere in all fields now a day. Which W in turns, say a lot to everyone to excel with all possible way. The need of the hour is to pick the right key at the right time with all extras. Citing the computer versions, any automobile models, infrastructures, etc. It is not the result of any preplanning but the implementations of planning. With these, we are constantly seeking to establish more formal links with researchers, scientists, engineers, specialists, technical experts, etc., associations, or other entities, particularly those who are active in the field of research, articles, research paper, etc. by inviting them to become affiliated with the Global Journals. This Global Journal is like a banyan tree whose branches are many and each branch acts like a strong root itself. Intentions are very clear to do best in all possible way with all care.

Dr. R. K. Dixit Chief Author [email protected]

P a g e | 2 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science Gender Roles in Lithuanian Society GJHSS- AClassification FOR VirginijaJurėnienė 1 7 0 1 0 5 , 1 7 0113,220311,22031 9

Abstract-The 1990s in Lithuania can be regarded as a period of ideas and defend the models of a patriarchal society bloom of gender equal opportunities during which not only (Ţvinklienė 2000:7). The media also contribute to a negative researchers who studied issues of gender equal opportunities in understanding of feminism, portraying the relations between foreign theory and practice but also governmental structures of a man and a woman as primitive. A critical role in the highest level played a crucial role. The Government of strengthening feminist ideas in the society is played by Lithuania played an active role in creating the state conception of gender equal opportunities and its realization policy. curricula in Lithuanian universities which have added Creating conditions for realizing gender equal opportunities at women studies to different programmes. In 1992 Vilnius state level was a basis for a democratic society of the 21st University established the Centre of Women Studies that century in Lithuania. These processes can be regarded as was the first not only in Lithuania but also in Eastern Europe ground-breaking phenomena in post-soviet history. This break at that time. The Centre raised the aim to change the in gender ideology raises a task to analyse the processes from a society‟s stereotypical attitude to family, gender, relation practical perspective, to better understand its importance to and entrench the principle of equal opportunities in family socio-economic policy and social interrelations.Hence, the goal and society. At present the Centre is interdisciplinary and of this article is to analyse gender equal opportunity in post- carries out a number of research projects. Besides, soviet Lithuanian society from a practical perspective. Keywords- participation in political, gender equal, analogous centres were founded at Kaunas University of parlament, composition of women‟s family names. Technology and Šiauliai University. Despite this advancement, it is not fashionable to be a I. LITHUANIAN FEMINISM AS A NEW STAGE OF feminist in Lithuania. Even women researchers interested in LITHUANIAN WOMEN„S MOVEMENT gender issues and involved in related studies usually do not ne of the most obvious transformations in the identify themselves as feminists. A crucial characteritic of OLi thuanian society is its deepening understanding of a Lithuanian feminist actions is issues of political equality and woman as an equal partner. Yet, judging from public, criticism of composition of women„ s family names as well academic and legal discourse in Lithuania, interestin gender as attempts to change it. I will discuss these characteristics problems in the country is very new compared to the in the following sections. feminist studies in Western Europe or the US. So far, the 1) Changes In Women’s Participation In Political Life Of historical aspect of feminism has been most analysed in The State Lithuanian academic discourse. With the rise of a feminist approach in the science of history, the definition of woman At the end of the 1980s soviet regime became weaker. In embraced not only a social but also a historical category 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev, the secretary-general of the (Ţevţi kova 1999:42), which is important to woman‟s Central Committee of the Soviet Union Communist Party in perception of herself.The re-created Lithuanian women‟s order to save economy and soviet empire started political movement in 1990-1991 can be called a stage of feminism and economic reforms known as perestroika. This period development because Lithuanian women‟s awareness was gave rise to the development of national and democratic expressed by a structure that allowed to speak about the liberation in East and Central Europe. In summer 1988 freedom and self-realization. On the other hand, this stage is peaceful national revolution began in Lithuania, led by the closely intertwined with Lithuanian nationalism. In this organization Sąjūdis(Movement) that united people of all paper, Lithuanian nationalism is understood as an social classes, occupations, ethnic backgrounds, confessions, ideological background characterized by a value system that party members and nonpartisans. Sąjūdisraised the demands clearly distinguishes and rejects the gender topic. The of reestablishing the rights of Lithuanian nation. At first it development of feminist and nationalist trends was demanded democracy, economic independence and later – supported by the Lithuanian diaspora who financially full Lithuanian independence. Since Sąjūdisunited all contributed to translation of feminist works from foreign democratic powers and promoted ideas of national revival, it languages (Pociute 1999:37). The feminism of the 20th became very popular and gained the greatest political power century was based on the principles of gender equality and in Lithuania. From the end of 1989 to the beginning of 1990 individual liberty.However, feminism in Lithuanian society the Supreme Council of Lithuanian Soviet Socialist has a negative connotation. Thus, attempts to realize Republic, as a result of the pressure from Sąjūdis, made feminist ideas are resisted. Feminists are criticized both by constitutional amendments and established priority of men who defend the interests of a patriarchal society and Lithuanian laws over USSR ones. Lithuania was the first women who do not acknowledge the importance of feminist state in the Soviet Union to abolish Constitution article on ______the leading role of the Communist party and legitimize About-Dr.Assoc. Prof.Department of Philosophy and Culture Studies multiparty system. Lithuania reestablished political parties Vilnius University Kaunas Faculty of Humanities1962 03 17 (Christian democrats, Social democrats, Nationalists, Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 3

Democrats etc.) and associations which were active till constitutive congress of Lithuanian women party founded an 1940, founded new organizations, women, temperance and independent voluntary and self-directing political green movements. At the beginning of 1990 the first organization whose members were united by the aim of democratic election to the Supreme Council of Lithuanian participating in political activity and solving issues actual to Soviet Socialist Republic was held. In 1990 there were 14 the society. The party was a structurally new one in women who made up 10% of the elected in the Supreme Lithuania which did not have an equivalent in the history of Council of the Seimas (Parliament).On March 11, 1990 the country. Its main goal was to develop women‟s political restoration of the Lithuanian independence was proclaimed experience and represent them in state structures at all and democratic and free-market reforms were launched. levels, at the same time strengthening moral values that had Innovations in the post-communist parliamentary gender retreated from politics (Birmontienė/ Jurėnienė 2009: 41) representation started in Lithuania. KazimieraPrunskienė The number of party members grew: in May 1995 it was was designated the first Prime minister of independent 800 and at the end of 1995 – over 1000. In June 1995 the Lithuania. Revolutionary election in 1990 produced a party had 18 divisions in the country of which the most remarkable decrease of the number of women in the Seimas numerous were the ones in Vilnius, Kaunas, Klaipėda, to 9% (compared to 33% female representation in the Soviet Alytus and Šiauliai.Relevant political parties became more parliament). sensitive to women‟s issues. Democratic elections in 1996 brought 16,8% of women into the parliament. Parliamentary A. Effective Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania of 1992 consolidates the equality of men and women women‟s caucus, reuniting all women MPS across the political spectrum, has been created in this parliament. In Article 29 of the Constitution of Lithuanian Republic states 1996 upon initiative of the caucus a pioneering in the East that human rights cannot be limited or privileges provided Central Europe Law on Equal gender opportunities was on the basis of gender, race, nationality, language, ethnic adopted and respective Ombudsman‟s office was established origin, social status, religion, convictions or opinion. A legal in Lithuania. Yet, in 2000 level of women‟s parliamentary measure to eliminate gender discrimination is the Law of representation flattened again to low 10,6%. This drop Equal Opportunities which was passed in 1999 (called Law might be explained by party recruitment patterns of Women and Men Equal Opportunities then). This law (specifically positive conservative nomination of women was the first of its kind in Central and Eastern Europe. The candidates) and electoral results (left-center winning law is enforced by the Controller‟s Office of Women and coalition). However, it is worth mentioning that in the run Men Equal Opportunity. Besides, a number of legal acts up to the 2000 election there were serious economic regulating various fields integrate the principle of gender problems in Lithuania, related to the financial crisis in equality. On June 7, 2003 State Programme of Women and Russia (Matonytė 2004: 201). Later in 2002 Lithuanian Men Equal Opportunities for 2003-2004 became valid. This women party merged with Peasants party. In this way programme has been carried out up to these days. One of the Lithuanian women do not have an independent women‟s most difficult challenges to it is women‟s discrimination in party any longer.In 2004 women‟s representation in the labour market. From a normative viewpoint, Lithuanian Seimas reached satisfactory 22%. Again, the greatest part of laws ensure equal opportunities and rights for women and this success story is attributable to specific party candidate men and do not discriminate citizens on the basis of gender. nomination strategies, namely to emerging populist Labor Yet, from a factual viewpoint, there are a lot of gender- party, which used female candidates to attract voters‟ related problems in practice. Realization of equal sympathies. The social-democratic party followed the 33% opportunities is hindered by institutional, political, quota principle and conservatives used their peculiar women ideological and cultural factors. In particular, cultural factors friendly nomination techniques.Indeed, in 2004 women related to society‟s attitudes are important because they composed 22% (31) of the Seimas. It has been a record contribute to daily discrimination of gender (Tereškinas number in Lithuanian history. However, in Lithuania 2004). To quote a sociologist Artūras Tereškinas: [„...when comparisons to the post-communist countries began having a close look at Lithuanian pop-culture one can notice disappearing once the country joined the European Union. that women are often described as sensitive, passive, weak In the elections of the Seimas in 2008, 27 women were in contrast to rational, assertive (aggressive), strong men. elected, which constitutes 20%. A woman, Vida Woman in our culture is constantly related to the “lower”. MarijaČigrijienė was the chairperson of the Woman‟s activity is not that significant as men‟s. Woman‟s Seimas(Birmontienė/Jurėnienė 2009:41). During the works are never-ending. Woman‟s behaviour is the one of election in 2008 the proportion of women candidates in the the weaker. These gender-related differences in our society party lists in general and at the top of the lists was higher exist as a dominating form which is expressed through direct than in 2004. Then, women comprised 25,46% of the physical violence against women as well” (Tereškinas candidates on the lists. 25,33% were among the first ten on 2004)].In 1990 after regaining Lithuanian independence, the lists. In 2000, they constituted 17,85% of the lists, and women organizations started their active performance. The just 10% among top 10. Three parties out of 15 had 2 majority of these organizations summoned reconstructive women among the first ten candidates on their lists. Three congresses, for example Lithuanian Women Catholic parties did not have women candidates at all. In 2004 and organization which was forbidden in the 1940s when the 2008 all parties and coalitions included women into the first Soviet Union occupied Lithuania.February 25, 1995 a ten candidates on their lists. In 2008 one party had 6 women, P a g e | 4 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science two parties 5 women in top 10 of their lists. In total on Blinkevičiūtė showed up in the run for presidency. The party lists in 2000 there were 209 women, in 2004 – 305, in Defence Minister Rasa Juknevičienė and Seimas Speaker 2008 – 456. Among the first ten candidates on the lists there Irena Degutienė are well-known politicians with experience. were 15 women in 2000, 38 in 2004 and 43 in 2008. The [„It just coincided that talented women who were in proper number of women in the Seimas considerably depends on place at proper time rose to the top”, he thinks (Sytas their place in the lists of parties and coalitions. Only 15 2009)]. However, a sociologist Rasa Ališauskienė does not women were elected to the Seimas of 2000, which think that women‟s stronger position in the government was comprised 10,6% of the elected, 31 in 2004 and they determined by the current critical situation. She points out constituted 22% of the MPs (Matonytė 2004: 203). that Irena Degutienė became the Speaker not because of her On August 21, 2008 the Ministry of Social Security and gender but because of her human and professional Labour discussed recommendations of the United Nations characteristics (Ramelienė 2009). Yet, a research in 2003 Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against „Survey of Lithuanian population: women and politics” Women to Lithuania. According to representatives of the showed 4 out of 10 (41%) respondents thought that women Ministry, the recommendations listed shortcomings of could be encouraged to become more active in politics if realizing the politics of elimination of discrimination against they were free from housework, less occupied, personally women. Possible changes in ensuring equal rights in determined to strive for career, motivated and supported by Lithuanian society can be evaluated in 2011 when the state men, an old-fashioned attitude to women changed and more has to submit a report on actual steps to eliminate women respect to them were shown. Today we can discuss whether discrimination.On September 29, 2008 the Seimas signed the above-mentioned “incentives” have come true. The National agreement on realizing women and men‟s equal leading positions in the national defense, finance, legislation rights and opportunities. The agreement was initiated by the and the country as a whole are held by women (Population National women‟s consulting forum striving to enforce survey of 2003:45). It follows that acknowledgment of equal opportunities of genders in reality. The National women as leaders has been maturing in Lithuanian society agreement was signed by all 9 parliamentary parties, for a long time. Besides, it is a proof that changes in the business community and representatives of trade unions. attitude to woman have been taking place for the last The situation has considerably changed not only in the bod decades (Budrys 2009). However, an important question is of the Seimas where women comprise 20% but also in other open: why women electorate do not vote for women state institutions. Alongside modernizing changes in candidates. One answer flows from the question: there are Lithuanian society, the number of women competing with not many popular women politicians and they are not men is increasing. More and more often they seek the granted a possibility to earn the electorate‟s trust in an highest positions in the state. At present women‟s influence important position. Secondly, there is a characteristic in in political life of the country is increasing. In 2008, Dalia Lithuanian political culture that is not favorable to women. Grybauskaitė was elected president by the 80% of the Even when they occupy state positions, they do not, in fact, electorate. However, this fact speaks of the growing participate in formation of politics because they are not importance of competence, and not gender. In September integrated into informal social networks, actual decision- 2009, Irena Degutienė, a member of the Christian- making groups which generate ideas for political moves in Democrats party, was elected the speaker of the 10th the future. According to a sociologist GiedrėPurvaneckienė, Seimas. The position of Minister of National Defence is politics is a contest of hunting, sauna and sports but not held by a member of the same party, Rasa sittings and official banquets. Therefore, women politicians Juknevičienė(Ramelienė 2009). Hence, Lithuanian society need to exploit all forms of political activity (Purvaneckienė has an opportunity to consider whether the presence of three 2004:15).In conclusion it could be stated that current women in high positions is an accident or a result of the changes in the country life are favourable to women‟s society‟s maturity in respect of gender equity. An answer to movement. Only deeper and wider research of society will this question is not yet available and can only be found in allow to answer the question which factors encouraged the course ofpolitical development.A political scientist women to strive for the highest positions in the government. Tomas Janeliūnas acknowledges that it is no longer a i. Indirect social women discrimination sensation that women begin dominating the government: [„I think that it is a result of certain favorable conditions that A crucial characteristic of Lithuanian feminism is criticism women were elected or appointed to these positions. They of composition of women„s family names and attempts to best met the needs and expectations to politicians or state change it. The main reason for these attempts is that a officials of that level” (Sytas 2009)].In his opinion, it is a family name‟s composition reflects woman‟s social status promising tendency that fictitious differences between men (Čepaitienė 2004: 21). For example, a doctor of natural and women are naturally disappearing, a false opinion that sciences Angelina Zalatorienė claims that [„the suffix –ait– politics is a male profession is denied. [„It is the best creates a certain dike of energy. In such a conservative example that the principle of gender equity should not country with patriarchal traditions like ours, a woman with artificially promoted because it naturally roots in all fields”, such a family name is noticed by the surrounding Janeliūnas contends. (Sytas 2009)].A sociologist Vladas environment. A question arises whether she is married or Gaidys argues that Kazimiera Prunskienė and Vilija not; if not why” (Vazbutaitė:2009).]Her words reflect Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 5 some traditional and stereotypical attitudes to woman in recomposed in other ways by foreign [ruling] Lithuanian society. They are more important in labour administration” (Zinkevičius 2009:300).]In 1927 Lithuanian market than in private life, affecting the employer‟s decision women addressed the League of Nations with a request to to hire a female employee. Young women till 30 with a solve existing social as well as moral discrimination in the family name with the suffix of a married woman ienare society. A single woman in her 50s with a maiden family viewed with suspicion because the possibility of maternity name was viewed with contempt and called a spinster. The leave or absence from work due to child care is very high. League of Nations considered the Lithuanian request, yet, it On the other hand, women around 35-40 and above with a made a decision that this was an internal issue in the state maiden family name are also viewed with certain suspicion, (Jurėnienė 2007: 87). Hence, Lithuanian women did not questioning her character and the ability to get along with manage to solve an actual issue of discrimination. From other people, leaving her competence and qualification aside 1940 to 1990 Lithuania was occupied by the Soviet Union, when making a decision to hire. A victory by Lithuanian thus, the most important issue was preserving national feminists was achieved on May 14, 2003 Lithuanian women identity. Besides, independent women organizations which gained the right to have their family without a suffix could raise and solve the issue did not exist. After indicating their marital status (e.g. Jurėnienė is a married reestablishment of the state in 1990 the question of women‟s woman as indicated by the suffix –ien–; if she were not family name was not raised until 1998 when the problem of married she could be Ališauskaitė (her father‟s family name social discrimination appeared in the public discourse. That as indicated by the suffix –ait-). That was not an can be explained by increased women‟s self-awareness as achievement of various Lithuanian women‟s non- politically independent and free to speak about their self- governmental organizations. On June 26, 2003 State expression. This personal freedom was understood as the Commission of the Lithuanian Language passed a decree right to have a family name that does not indicate a social No. N-2 (87) „On Composition of Women‟s Family Names” status.In 1998the law of Women and Men‟s Equal which eliminated the discriminating suffix. Yet, Lithuanian Opportunities was passed. It came into force in 1999. The women still cannot have a family name with a feminine law is made of six chapters that foresee means, articles and ending a if her husband‟s family name ends with it. For functions of law execution. There is Control Office of example, Duoba‟s wife cannot take the same name but Women and Men‟s Equal Opportunities which solves rather Duobė or Duobienė, Kalėda‟s wife Kalėdė or gender discrimination, sexual harassment and other Kalėdienė. Besides, girls can change their family name only questions. This is the only institution in Lithuania that can after attaining majority (in Lithuania, 18 years), her parents be addressed by women and men who experienced do not have the right to give her a family name without a discrimination at work. Thus, gender equality in legal, social suffix. The right to change the family name to a neutral one and economic spheres has been sought to be achieved and is obtained by major single women. State Commission of secured.In1998 women grew concerned about the Lithuanian Language granted the right that girls‟ family discrimination on the basis of their family names and names may be composed with the neutral ending –ė, e.g. addressed the control officer of Equal Opportunities Talmantė, Urbė, Laukaitė, Sutkė, Zujė, Naudţė .. The same AušrinėBurneikienė who investigated the complaint and decree states that, when getting married, a woman may made a conclusion that names do not discriminate women. choose a compound family name consisting of a maiden and Active women turned with this issue to the European Court husband‟s family name, e.g. RūtaSimutytė-Gaidienė, of Human Rights in Strasbourg. Their argument was based AstaButkė-Jurgaitienė.Letus shortly consider the history of on the European Convention of human rights which development of family names in Lithuania. Lithuanian guarantees the right to privacy, keeping information about woman‟s family name has a long history. Writing of a given one‟s marital status private. Hence, they asked the Court to and a family names became a norm in the 16th-17th decide whether human right to privacy or the state‟s right to centuries.In the 16th century Lithuania, acts of civil, criminal keep a tradition of some centuries was more important. The and family law were passed and standardized in statutes. Court refused to consider the case and sent an answer that at Based on a Polish example, they established a norm that first national courts should be appealed. In this story there is woman‟s social status was determined by the family name. a fact that calls for specific attention. In the fight for As it has been mentioned, woman‟s family name indicated abolishing the rule to have family names without suffixes whether she was married or not. This norm became were only single women (journalists, writers) active. Where widespread because according the first Statute (1529) and were women organizations? It has to be acknowledged that later ones (the second Statute 1566, the third one 1588) none of the existing non-governmental women organizations noble women got the right to inherit (a part of the) noticed discrimination in family names or considered the husband‟s estate after his death based on her family name. issue important. A majority of them were rather passive and This practice did not exist in any other European country at interested in gaining profit but not women, children, family- that time. Yet, in his book „Lithuanian names” a linguist related issues. Society was passive and the issue did not ZigmasZinkevičius states the opposite, i.e. that [„The resonate in it. However, in May 2003 AušrinėBurneikienė system of naming a Lithuanian person developed passed a decree to change the rules of the Lithuanian independently from the influence of the Polish language, language on which the registry office grounded its what is often maintained. Names themselves are a different prohibitions on changing the family name. The Officer story because they were Polonized, Germanized and explained that since 1998 a notion of indirect discrimination P a g e | 6 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science was introduced to the Law of Women and Men‟s Equal business woman DainaPetrauskaitė-Bosas says, [„I would Opportunities, based on the EU directives. Lithuanian prefer my maiden name. One can have more than one family names violated an act that forbids to request husband, as practice shows, and father‟s name is father‟s, it information concerning a person‟s marital status and private should be respected” (Vazbutaitė 2009). ] Her opinion is life from job-seekers. supported by Angelina Zalatorienė, [„Those who respect old Some merits of the achievement go to the linguist Irena traditions could keep not only their father„s but also their Smetonienė who became the head of the National mother„s family name when getting married” (Vazbutaitė Commission of the Lithuanian Language at that time. The 2009). ]Finally, a reverse effect of the phenomenon should Commission considered the issue and announced a be noted as well. The number of family names with suffixes conclusion that the Lithuanian language has resources for is not decreasing. As a reaction to the possibility to refuse a women‟s family names without suffixes. Smetonienė says, suffix, a lot of women claim that they appreciate a family [„I came to lead the Commission not from academic world, name with a suffix and proudly pronounce their long name. thus, I am very well aware of real life needs” (Vazbutaitė th th II. CONCLUSIONS 2009).]She explained that the suffixes of the 16 -18 century were based on property and legal relations as well as It has been 20 years since reestablishment of Lithuanian inheritance matters. The conclusion was sufficient to independence. In 1990 Seimas (Parliament) was elected crumble a tradition of 4 centuries. However, there have been which was based on multiparty system and multimandate no signs so far that the Lithuanian language has become election system. 141 MPs were elected. Women have taken poorer.Beside linguistic changes, social meaning of the right part in Seimas activity since the state‟s reestablishment and to choose a family name without a suffix is much more their percentage has ranged from 10 to 20. Lithuania does important. Women more and more clearly understand that not have a quota system for gender representation, although the right not to have a family name with a compulsory suffix some parties apply it voluntary, e.g. Social democrats. The has become the right to choose the information which she year 2009 was the apogee of women‟s success in politics. wants to make public about herself. Moreover, it is a right to Women take the two most important positions in the a lifestyle and different self-perception. According to the country, i.e. the ones of President and the Speaker. The deputy director of Vilnius civil registry office Dalia ministries of Finance and National Defense are also led by Sivickienė, when the law came into force in 2003, change of women. Most researchers agree that this happened not by women‟s family name was not a phenomenon of mass scale. chance but because of women‟s competences. There are also In her opinion, determination to have a neutral family name observations in Lithuanian public discourse that in reality does not depend on age or family/marrital status. However, gender issues do not exist and they are artificially made it is mostly women aged from 30 to 45 who more often topical. The year 2003 is noted for solving the issue of apply to the registry office. In particular women who often indirect women‟s discrimination in the state. From the travel or have other relations with foreign countries are 16thcentury a Lithuanian woman‟s social status has been active. Divorced middle-aged or elder women also prefer a shown by the suffix of the family name, i.e. ien for a neutral family name because they do not want to become an married woman and –ait– or –yt– for a single one. Women aitė or ytė (Lithuanian women 2006).From time to time in their 30s, not speaking about 40s, with a maiden name there are attempts in the society to call out discussions on were considered spinsters and discriminated in the labour women‟s family names with the aim to persuade its market, morally humiliated in the society. After the members that family names without suffixes are a negative Republic of Lithuania, in compliance with legal acts of the phenomenon. For example, a journalist Rūta Grinevičiūtė EU, changed or amended its laws and allowed women to expresses her opinion as follows: [ „Change of the maiden shorten their family names so that they do not reflect their family name to the one of the husband speaks of the attitude social status, the issue became less actual. The equal to the man who I married. (…) I like the archaic character of opportunity policy is realized in post-soviet Lithuanian the Lithuanian language, and the new composition of the society, although actual changes are slower than legal women‟s family names which sounds similar to the Latvian advances. The field of political representation is noted for is not my favourite. Some people say that if one can the most visible changes meanwhile other fields of social distinguish whether a woman is married from her name they life remain rather neglected. Barriers to ensuring equal discriminate her. It is fun that we have something antique!” opportunities in different professions and industry sectors (Vazbutaitė 2009). ] The journalist‟s words illustrate a and instruments to eliminating them still have to be popular attitude in Lithuanian society that reproaches the identified and created in the future. achievement of Lithuanian feminists because it destroys unique heritage of the nation. However, newly married III. REFERENCE women more often shorten their family names, which 1) Birmontienė, Toma & Jurėnienė, Virginija. (2009). increases their safety in social sphere and employment Development of women‟s rights in Lithuania: relations.Another interesting attitude that has become recognition of women‟s political stronger in Lithuanian society which has been witnessing an rights.Jurisprudencija, 2 (116), 23-44. increasing number of divorces is whether a marrying women should not keep their father„s family name. For example, a Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 7

2) Budrys, Nerijus. (2009). Dvi iš trijų moterys (Two December 2004 at out of three are women). Date of access 17 http://www3.lrs.lt/pls/inter/w5_show?p_r3371&p_ September 2009 at http://www.verslosavaite. Lt d38027&p_k1 3) Čepaitienė, Rasa. (2004). Feminizmas ir visuomenė 15) Vazbutaitė, Jolanta. (2009). Lietuvoje (Feminism and Society in Lithuania). Kokiąpavardęrenkasiištekėjusiosmoterys (What Kultūros barai (Cultural bars), 8/9, 23-29. family name is chosen by married women). Date of 4) Dėl moterų pavardţių darymo. (On Composition of access11 May 2009 at http://www.moteris.lt Women‟s Family Names). 2003 Valstybės Ţinios( 16) Zinkevičius, Zigmas. (2009). Lietuvių State news), 2(87), 1. asmenvardţi ai (Lithuanian names). Vilnius: 5) Lietuvos moterys neutralias pavardes renkasi retai, Lietuvių kalbos institutas. bet daţ niausiai – visamlaikui (Lithuanian women 17) Ţevţik ova, Elena. (1999). seldom choose neutral family names but most often EmancipuotaKlėjaarbamoterisšiuolaikinioistorijos – for ever). Date of access 4 March2006 at mokslopoţiūri u (Emancipated Clio or woman from www.delfi.lt the perspective of contemporary history science) 6) Jurėnienė, Virginija. (2006). Lietuvių Feminizmas, visuomenė, kultūra (Feminism, moterųjudėjimas XIX amţi auspabaigoje–XX society, culture),40-48 amţi auspirmojepusėje (The Lithuanian Women‟s 18) Ţvinklienė, Alina.(2000). movement from the End of the 19th to the Middle Moterųirvyrųdialogasapiefeminizmąirfeministes of the 20th Century).Vilnius: (Women and men‟s dialogue on feminism and Vilniausuniversitetoleidykla. feminists) Feminizmas, visuomenė, kultūra) 7) Matonytė, Irmina. (2004). Women in politics- (Feminism, society, culture), 5-10. “Europeanization” of the Lithuanian parliament?(Post-Accession in East Central Europe.The Emergence of the EU 25).Budapest: Hungarian center for democracy studies. 8) Pociūte, Rima. (1999). Postfeminizm, katorinpinadleţi tnam.Ţenskuje i genderskije isledovanije v Baltiskix i cevernix stranax, 32-37. 9) Purvaneckienė, Giedrė. (2004). Gender dimension in the process of social change. Socialiniai mokslai (Social sciences), 1, 11-19. 10) Research of 2003 Lietuvosgyventojųapklausa: moterysirpolitika.(Lithuanian population survey: women and politics).Baltijostyrimai (Baltic researches).Date of access 2003at http://www.gap.lt/tyrimai/moterys_ir_politika 11) Ramelienė, Raimonda.(2009). Lietuvą valdo moterys: sutapimas ar taisyklė? (Lithuania is governed by women: a coincidence or a rule?). Date of access 19 September 2009 athttp://www.delfi.lt/news/daily/lithuania/lietuva- valdo-moterys-sutapimas-ar- taisykle.d?id=24123908 12) Ramelienė, Raimonda.(2009). Kodėlvaldomoterys? (Why do women rule?). Date of access 19 September 2009 at http://www.balsas.lt/naujiena/310078/kodel-valdo- moterys 13) Sytas, Andrius. (2009). Lietuvos valdţ ia – moteriškiausia Europos Sąjungoje (Lithuanian government is the most feminine in the EU). Date of access 21 September 2009 at http://www.alfa.lt 14) Tereškinas, Artūras. (2004). Lytinė diskriminacija: moterys ir vyrai stereotipų ir įvaizdţi ų nelaisvėje (Gender discrimination: women and men imprisoned by stereotypes and images). A presentation made in the event for commemoration of International Day of Human Rights in the Seimas of Lithuanian Republic. Date of access 10 P a g e | 8 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science An Assessment of the Awareness of Local Populace on Ozone Depletion: An Example of Jimeta-Yola, Nigeria GJHSS-C Classification FOR 1 2 Ambrose A. Zemba ,Abel A. Adebay 0 4 0 6 0 4 , 0 4 0 6 0 8 ,050205,05020 6

Abstract-An appraisal of the local peoples’ awareness about the system of the body when exposed for a long period of ozone depletion is presented. The study was carried out with time. Ozone has some other advantages apart from the the aim of evaluating the effectiveness of the ongoing above. It is used for bleaching substance and for killing campaigns regarding this lethal phenomenon. Structured bacteria. Many municipal drinking water systems sometimes questionnaires were administered to 201 Local populace in use ozone instead of the more common chlorine. It is also Jimeta-Yola metropolitan area in March 2010. Results showed that majority (68%) of the people in the study area do not used in the processing of plastics to clear and bleach fabric know what ozone depletion is all about. They neither know and to kill bacteria on food contact surface.The atmosphere what ozone itself is or its depletion nor its causes and effects. becomes impure when dangerous gases are released from Apart from the few educated ones, majority of those who industries, exhaust pipes of vehicles, cooling and other claimed they are aware of the problem could not give a precise systems in our homes such as air conditioning devices and description of the concept even in their local languages. This refrigerators. These materials emit substances like carbon high level of ignorance, among the populace, about ozone monoxide (Co) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), depletion could be attributed to their inaccessibility to hydrocarbon, smoke, soot, dust, nitrous and sulphur oxides, communication media, as a result of poverty on one hand and which cause health problems in form of skin cancer, inability of the awareness campaign agencies to be more intensive and also be able to come to the level of understanding bronchitis and other respiratory related health problems. of the common people in their explanations to the problem. Acid rains are formed when some of these gases react with Some recommendations were proffered, based on these rain water. Generally, ozone is deteriorated when it comes findings. The use of ozone depleting substances should be into contact with chlorofluorocarbons and carbon highly regulated and efforts should be intensified towards monoxides.The deterioration of ozone is commonly known educating people on the danger of using ozone depleting as ozone depletion. The depletion is accounted for by the substances. release of ozone depletants: CFC, sulphur and nitrous oxides etc, through industrial and municipal activities. Meanwhile, I. INTRODUCTION ozone layer (region of high ozone concentration) is being zone, by simple definition, refers to a colourless gas adversely threatened. This is because a hole has been Owith strong smell; a molecule consisting of three atoms discovered earlier, in 1985, as being developed on it due to and soluble in water; a strong oxidizing agent that can be the effects of these gases or depletants (Butkin and Keller produced by electric discharge in oxygen or by action of 1995). Considering the harmful effects of ozone depletion ultraviolet radiation on oxygen in the atmosphere. It is on widening the ozone hole, efforts are being made at both highly corrosive, a poisonous substance and a common national and international levels to minimize or phase out pollutant; it has a sharp, pungent odour and is present in low the use of CFC and other ozone depleting gases (Khitoliya, concentration throughout the earth‟s atmosphere. Ozone was 2004). Some of these efforts involved meetings and discovered in 1840 by Christian Fredrick Schonbein, who conferences where issues pertaining to ozone depletion are named it after a Greek word ózien‟ (meaning smell), from addressed. Among these are Vienna Convention in 1981, the peculiar odour in lighting storms. The highest levels of Montreal Protocol in 1987 and the launching of Global ozone in the atmosphere are in the stratosphere, a region Environmental Facility (GEF) in Rio Summit in 1992 and also known as the ozone layer at about 22km above the Kyoto in 1997. During the above occasions, some earth. Here it filters out much ultraviolet light from the sun resolutions were arrived at. Some of these have to do with that would be harmful to most forms of life. In other words, setting up a working group to prepare a global framework it minimizes the entry of sunrays in the form of ultraviolet for the protection of ozone layer; agreement in 1985 to and infrared radiation to the surface of the earth and thus to appropriate measures to protect human health and ______environment against the adverse effects resulting or likely to 1 About -Geography Department, Federal University of Technology, P.M.B. result from human activities which modify the ozone layer; 2076, YolaPhone: +234 806 913 7173; e-mail: [email protected] About2-Geography Department, Federal University of Technology, P.M.B. signing of protocol as an evidence of commitment to 2076, YolaPhone: +234 803 437 0211; e-mail: eliminate or reduce the use of ozone depleting [email protected] gases.However, despite all these efforts by international and national bodies through enlightment campaigns, majority of Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 9 the local masses do not seem to know what ozone depletion N = Population of all the sampled wards is or understand its causes and effects. It is based on this that n = Number of questionnaires to be distributed this study is formulated to study the awareness of the local Table 1 shows the total population and the samples taken people in Jimeta so as to recommend appropriate measures from each ward. The population figures used was projected to be adopted as means of letting every individuals know to 2009, from 2006 census figures. about this and need to reduce or do away with it. Though, Jimeta-Yola is not industrialized as such but it is a well Table 1: Population and Sample of the wards in Jimeta known fact that being in the tropics, its weather conditions 0 ranges from very low temperatures (about 15 C) of Ward Population Sample 0 December/January to very high temperatures (about 43 C) Alkalawa 10,064 28 during April/May periods (Zemba 2006), which necessitates Doubeli 13,487 37 the use of some ozone-associated depletion equipment like Nasarawo 13,581 38 air conditioners, refrigerators and etc. Gwadabawa 10,104 28 II. STUDY AREA Jambutu 6,585 19 Yelwa 7,448 21 The study area for this research is Jimeta metropolitan area Karewa 10,695 30 of Adamawa State, Nigeria. Jimeta is a twin city to Yola Total 71,964 201 (the nominal headquarters of Adamawa State). Jimeta serves as the administrative headquarters of Yola North Local 0 0 Government Area. It is situated between latitudes 9 10‟to 9 IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 15‟N and Longitudes 120 11‟ to 120 17‟E. The area has a northern savannah type of vegetation and a tropical climate For the purpose of convenience and simplicity, results of marked by wet and dry seasons. The mean temperature of this study are presented under the following topics: 0 0 the area ranges between 18 C to 32 C, depending on the 1) Use and/or Release of Ozone Depleting Substances season (Zemba 2010). The general hot climate condition of the area encourages the use of air conditioning devices and Table 2 represents the categories of people interviewed refrigerators both for human convenience and preservation during questionnaires administration. From the table, it is of perishable goods that decay very easily under very hot clear that majority of the respondents were business weather condition. The use of computers in homes, offices men/women and civil servants. It is not surprising because and commercial units nowadays also encourage the use of the settlement is an urban set up. It was discovered that quite air conditioning devices.ThoughJimeta metropolitan area is a number of ozone depleting substances are used by the not industrialized, but its atmosphere cannot be said to be people in the study area. These range from refrigerators, air free of ozone depleting substances, since refrigerators, air conditioners, aerosols and emission from vehicles (Table 3). conditioners, as well as aerosols and solvents are used in The percentages of the respondents who make use these homes and offices and small-scale factories found all over in equipment may not add up to 100 because some respondents the town.Also, the emission of gases from the very few reported making use of two or more of these equipments industries, automobiles and factories cannot be overlooked. may not add up to 100 because some respondents reported Moreover, more industries and factories may likely evolve making use of two or more of the materials. For instance, in very near future. Thus, this study is considered quite about 69% of the respondents make use of two or more of imperative and timely. refrigerators and other equipment, 24% use air conditioners in addition to other equipments etc. III. MATERIALS AND METHODS The major source of data for this study was the use of Table 2: Categories of the respondents structured questionnaires administered to 201 respondents. A multistage sampling method was adopted in the selecting Category Frequency Percentage individual respondents. Firstly, seven wards were randomly Civil servants 57 28.4 selected out of the eleven wards of the study area. These are Farmers 36 17.9 Gwadabawa, Alkalawa, Doubeli, Yelwa, Karewa, Jambutu Business men 73 36.3 and Nasarawo wards. Each of these wards formed a stratum. Students 14 7.0 A population of each of the ward or stratum was Others 21 10.4 obtainedfrom National Population Commission (NPC 2006) Total 201 100 census data and Cochran‟s (1977) proportional allocation formula was used to determine the number of questionnaires to be allocated to each of the selected wards, proportional to their population. The formula is: , where: nh = sample ward Nh = Population of sampled ward P a g e | 10 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science

Table 3: Equipment associated with ozone depleting estimates that 60 million Americans born by the year 2075 substances used by the respondents will get skin cancer because of ozone depletion. About one Equipment Respondents Percentage million of these people will die. Other studies have also Refrigerator 137 68.5 warned that, in addition to cancer, a decreased in ozone Air conditioner 47 23.5 layer will increase rates of malaria particularly in tropical Sprays (aerosols) 43 21.5 African countries, Nigeria inclusive. About 17 million more Fire extinguisher 18 9.0 cases of cataracts can also be expected. The life cycles of Cleaning agents 56 28.0 plants will change, thereby disrupting the food chain. Hence, All of the above 16 5.0 effects on animals will be severe. Oceans will be hit hard as well. The most basic microscopic organisms such as plankton may not be able to survive. If that happens, it Discovered in 1930s by an American chemist (Thomas would mean that all of the other animals that are above Midley), chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) came to be used in plankton in the food chain would also die out.These refrigerators, home insulation, plastic foam and thrown catalogues of the consequences of ozone depletion are away food containers (Tuck 1997 and Calm 2000). Getis et enough to sound a serious warning to human beings. It is al (2004) also confirmed that chlorofluorocarbon can be even enough to alert man and moves him into taking prompt found in products like refrigerators, air conditioners, aerosol and stringent precaution and measures towards minimizing spray, components in foam packing, home insulation, or if possible, put a halt to the use of ozone depleting upholstery, fire extinguishers, carbon tetrachloride and substances. The menace of this is, of course, can be methyl chloroform used in solvent and cleaning agents. considered to be more than the current frequently talked Considering the fact that emissions of CFC accounts for about HIV/AIDS and other deadly diseases and ailments. As roughly 80% of the total stratospheric ozone depletion such, its presence is ought to be known to every human (Heimlich 2005), it may not be out of place to conclude that beings on the surface of the earth. Unfortunately, the the study area contribute a significant quantity of ozone situation here is the reverse of the case. This could better be substances into the atmosphere. Moreover, about 50% of the described as a paradox of life. This situation perhaps respondents make use of all the equipment considered as represents the scenario in most areas in Nigeria (may be associated with ozone emitting gases. worst in rural areas) in particular and many parts of the 2) Awareness of the people on the effects of ozone world in general. Worse still, 32% of the respondents who depletion. claimed they are aware of the problem, 74% don‟t know its Findings of this study have revealed that, despite the usage effects while 66% could not describe or explain precisely of the ozone depleting substances by the respondents, the problem even in their local languages. majority of them do not neither know what ozone itself is 3) Implications of the findings nor its depletion. Not only that, majority (68%) of the Despite the efforts made by the government and non- people reported that they are unaware of its causes and governmental organizations in creating awareness amongst effects. This situation calls for great concern, considering the populace on the danger of ozone depletion, it is quite the unfortunate consequences of this on human health and disturbing to observe that majority (64%) of the people in plants and animals life. A review of the effects of ozone Yola area still claimed they are unaware of such campaigns. depletion shows that the more human beings are exposed to This could be attributed to their inaccessibility to ultraviolet radiations, the greater is the likelihood of cancer communication media, which could in turn be attributed to infection. Indeed, it is now a common fact that only 1% high level poverty among the people on one hand and high thining of the ozone layer can produce about 5-7% cases of level of illiteracy on the other. Only about 36% of the cancer, cataracts infection and weakening of the immune respondents claimed have ever came across at least one system (Heimlich 2005). Studies have also shown that enlightment campaign programmes and mentioned their exposure to ozone over a period of 6 – 8 hours can cause sources of information as from television, radio and respiratory problems, damages to lungs and other ailments newspapers; with radio having the larger percentage. When such as pneumonia and emphysema (Getis et al 2004). Fish asked whether they will be willing to stop using equipment larva and phytoplankton near the ocean surface are that are associated with ozone depleting gases or substances, destroyed by exposure to increased levels of ultraviolet majority (63%) felt it may not be possible for them. Only radiation. In the same manner, exposure of ozone 28% indicated their willingness to stop using them, if some concentration even as low as 1 (one) part per million (ppm) conditions are made. People are not willing to stop using damages trees, plants and crop. Depletion in the ozone layer ozone depleting substances like refrigerators, air could also cause general increase in temperature thereby conditioners etc because they claim are necessities for living leading to drastic reduction in water bodies, hence drought especially in Yola environment where weather conditions situation. The general rise in temperature is a current issue are most of the times hot or at best very warm. This finding known commonly as global warming, which may cause corroborates with that of Calm et al (1999), which affirms increase in the number of infective diseases. The that industries that do make use of CFC gases did not want Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) report of 2001 Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 11 to discontinue the usage of this highly valuable but VII. REFERENCES dangerous industrial chemicals that produce ozone depleting 1). Botkin, D.B. and Keller, E.A. (1995) gases. Environmental Sciences: Earth as a Living Planet nd V. CONCLUSION (2 ed). JohnWiley and Sons inc. USA 2). Calm, J.M., Wuebbles, D.J. and Jain, A.K. (1999) This study was formulated to assess the level of awareness Impacts on Global Ozone and Climate from Use of the local populace on a dangerous but insidious climatic and Emissions of 2, 2-Dichloro-1, 1, 1- problem of ozone depletion. Despite the seriousness of this Triflooloethane.Journal of Climate Change, Vol.42, problem and the enlightment campaigns programmes on pp439-474. media, very few people have been found to be aware of it. 3). Calm, J.M. (2000) “Options and Outlook for Even those who are aware do not seem to have a full Chiller Refrigerators”.Proceedings of Earth knowledge of the problem, since they could not substantiate Technology Forum, Washington DC. their claims of understanding of the problem. More so, they 4). Cochran, W.D. (1977) Sampling Techniques neither know its causes and effects. This poses more rd (3 ed), John Wiley and Sons, New York. problem than any diseases and/or ailments frequently talked 5). Getis, A., Getis, J., and Fellman, J.D. (2004) about like HIV/AIDS in the media, since it can spell doom nd Introduction to Geography (2 ed) McGraw Hill to the whole world within a twinkling of an eye. It is Publishers, New York worrisome to note that majority of urban people are unaware 6). Heimlich, J.E. (2005) “The Ozone Layer” from: of its existence. Efforts should be intensified towards http//:healthgood.com/environmentinformation/cli educating the people at all levels on the danger of releasing matechange/ozone ozone depleting substances into the atmosphere and its 7). National Population Commission (NPC 2006) consequences to plants, animals and human life. Details of the Breakdown of the National and State VI. RECOMMENDATIONS Provisional Population Totals, 2006 Census, Nigeria. Based on the findings of this research, the following 8). Khitoliya, R.T. (1997) Environmental Pollution recommendations are proffered: Management and Control for Sustainable 1) That legislation on regulation of the production and Development, Chand Publications, India, pp253- use of ozone depleting substances such as CFC 254 should be properly enforced. 9). Tuck, A.J. (1997) The Chemistry of Stratospheric 2) People should be encouraged to as much as Ozone Depletion, HPAC Engineering, Vol.69, possible make use of alternative items, for pp111-116. example, the use of cooling pots instead of 10). Zemba, A.A. (2006) Assessment of Urban Heat Island Effects in Jimeta-Yola, Nigeria, Journal of refrigerators. Alternatively, ozone friendly models Environmental Sciences, 2(1), pp44-47 of these items should be used in place of those that 11). Zemba, A.A., Adebayo, A.A., and Musa, A.A. contain ozone depletants. This can easily be (2010) Evaluation of the Impact of Urban achieved if governments of world nations can Expansion on Surface Temperature Variations reduce the import duties on these items as well as Using Remote Sensing-GIS Approach, Global improvising means of reducing their costs. Journal of Human Social Science 10(2), pp20-29. 3) Individuals can act to have an impact on ozone depletion in several ways by avoiding using gas propellants of any sorts. They can comply with disposal requirements of old refrigerators and have automobiles and their air conditioners looked forward before disposal. The creation and reduction of ozone molecules is relatively short in nature but until recently, ozone can be created at least as quickly as it is destroyed, since the oxygen molecules continually regains to rejuvenate the ozone layer. When emissions of the chemicals are ceased, the ozone layer will eventually repair itself. Although, many countries have agreed to end the production of many of these damaging substances by the year 2015, it is individuals who will end the use of these substances through choices as consumers. P a g e | 12 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science Studies on Effects of Nutrient Supplements fortified with Phagostimulants Formulation H1 on growth and development of indoor reared Antheraea assamensis Helfer (Lepidoptera : Saturniidae) GJHSS-B Classification - FOR Himangshu Barman ,R. K. Rajan 050202,050209,050101,030403

Abstract-A phagostimulant formulation H1 was fortified with must process large volumes of plant sap in order to extract different combinations of ascorbic acid, proline and Na enough proteins to meet their metabolic needs. Protease cyclamate to study their effect on growth and development of enzymes in insects digestive system break down proteins Muga silkworm under indoor rearing. All the chemicals into constituent amino acids which are in turn used by cells fortified with formulation H1 had positive effect on body tissue growth of Muga silkworm, the best fortified combination being to build enzymes and hormones as well asproteins needed ascorbic acid-proline that gave highest average tissue growth of for muscle, egg yolk, ribosome, cuticle and many other 2.8861 g against the average tissue growth of 2.55934 g in purposes. As ten essential amino acids like lysine, control. In larval survivability, the fortified nutrient tryptophan, histidine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine, combination ascorbic acid – proline and ascorbic acid – Na threonine, methionine, valine, and arginine that cannot be cyclamate had profound effect in all the instars. In respect of synthesised from other amino acids or similar chemical cocoon qualities, measured as cocoon weight, shell weight and building blocks, must be supplemented in insect feed. silk ratio, all the nutrient combinations with phagostimulant Proteins required by insects are actin, myosin, resilin, formulation H1 were high in contrast to control. Leaf extract of arthropodin enzymes, hormones, ribosomes and peptides Som plant has positive effect if used in the spray solution as substitute of blank water. like brain hormone, bursicon, et al. It is usually true with the insect larvae that the nitrogen content of the early stages is Keywords: Phagostimulant,Formulation H1, Ascorbic acid, greater than later stages. Lipids are important in the later proline, Na cyclamate, leaf Extract, spray solution larval stages for survival, reproduction, and development I. INTRODUCTION (Nation, 2001; Chapman, 1998). Lipid compounds for insect growth and development are fats, fatty acids and steroids. eing heterotrophs insects must consume other The fats molecule through enzymatic breakdown by lipase B organisms either plant or animal in order to acquire in the mid gut releases energy required by insect body for energy-rich molecules needed. Findings of a good number various life processes. Fatty acids also serve as building of workers depicted insect‟s dietary requirements as blocks for cuticular waxes and the glandular synthesis of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleotides, vitam ins, certain pherom ones and defensive compounds. Insects minerals besides water as essential component. appear to lack enzymes for metabolic pathway of steroid Carbohydrates requirements include polysaccharides such as synthesis and they must obtain steroid compounds especially starch, glycogen, chitin, celluloses; oligosaccharides cholesterol, directly from their diet. Steroid building blocks including sucrose, trehalose and, simple sugar like glucose, are used to make hormones like ecdysteroids and growth galactose, and fructose. Com plex carbohydrates as chitin, factors. Insects feeding on steroid-deficient diets generally celluloses are digested by enzymes secreted by symbiotic survive as immatures but fail to moult properly into the bacteria and protozoa living inside their digestive tract. adult stage. Lipids, phospholipids, triglycerides, sterols, Motoyuki Sumidaet al (2007) found that dietary sucrose sterol esters and fatty acids are usually important functions as an effector molecule to midgut cells in the 5th phagostimulants for many different insects (Nation, 2001). instars B. mori larvae and as an output response, produces For nutrition insect body also have the requirement of suppressed sucrase protein. The highest activity was nucleic acids, purines, pyrimidines, mono-nucleotides and observed with 3% sucrose diet and it was higher than the di-nucleotides.In addition insects also acquire water, control, indicating apparent activation. Phytophagous insect vitamins, and minerals from their food. Most insects are ______highly-adapted for water conservation and get most of the water they need directly from their food. A drop of About-CMERTI, Central Silk Board, M/O Textiles, Govt. of India, JorhatX morning dew is usually sufficient for the few insects who E-mail: [email protected] actively drink water. Insects usually require a good source of seven vitamins: thiamine, riboflavin, nicotinic acid, pyridoxine, pantothenic acid, folic acid, and biotin, in small Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 13 amounts, because they can‟t synthesize the vitamins. The nutrient phagostimulants. Perhaps the combined deficiency of carnitine cause molting difficulties and fatty phagostimulatory effect is greater than that of nutrients in acids degradation of midgut and then the beetles larvae die the plant. This effect could arise through the interaction of (House, 1965). Insects have the dietary requirements of chemicals at the insects sensory receptors so that the sign minerals in very small amount such as Iron, copper, stimulus dominates the information that the insect receives. calcium, sodium, potassium ions, phosphorus, and sulphur. So in the present context of studies certain insect Given the known composition of insects, it is reasonable to phagostimulants fortified with some nutrient supplements assume that sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium; were attempted in growth and development of Muga chloride and phosphate are essential minerals for the Silkworm (Antheraea assamensis Helfer function of insects (Nation, 2001). Many phytophagous II. MATERIALS AND METHOD insects need quite large amount of potassium and only trace amounts of sodium (Nation, 2001).Host selection by Some Phagostimulant chemicals already found positive phytophagous insects is mediated principally by secondary effect on growth and development of Muga Silkworm in a plant metabolites. Both larvae and adults insect herbivores formulation termed as H1 was fortified with different are known to be responsive to a variety of plant chemical combinations with ascorbic acid, proline, sodium cyclamate stimuli. Some plant secondary compounds that are produced and Som leaf extract and prepared stock solutions in by different groups of plant, some of this even taxon sterilizeddistilled water designated as solution-1, solution-2, specific, are phagostimulatory for some insects. In some solution-3, solution-4 and solution-5. The concentration of cases phagostimulation only occurs when the chemical is all chemicals including H1 remained same in these present in low concentration. Some of such secondary solutions. Solution-1 contained phagostimulant formulation metabolites are anthraquinone, caffeic acid, chlorogenic H1, ascorbic acid, proline and sodium cyclamate. Solution-2 acid, chrysophanol, cinnamic acid, quercitrin, linamarin, had the same constituents except Som leaf extract in place luteonin-7-glucoside, rutin, tannic acid, catalpol, cyticine, of distilled water. Other solutions were also same with gossypol, hypericin, monocrotaline, morin, solution-1 except each one missing one chemical constituent nordihydrogualaretic acid, phloridzin, populin, salicin, i. e. solution -3 and solution-4 missed ascorbic acid and sinigrin, sparteine etc. Nutrients are the principal proline respectively while solution-5 did not included phagostimulants and especially the sugars are stimulating sodium cyclamate. These stock solutions were kept in freeze for different species, sucrose and fructose being the most for 48 hours after preparation.Three years old healthy potted effective. Hexose sugars and sucrose are main nutrients and Som (Litsea monopetela) plant grown separately in 6 nos. phagostimulants for many leaf-eating insects (Chapman, cemented pot were selected and brought to indoor veranda 1998).In all cases, effectiveness of sugar increases with its of the laboratory. These were labelled as T1, T2, T3, T4, T5 concentration at least within the limits occurring in most and T6 corresponding respective solution sprayed. The plants. Although proteins are nutritionally important, there potted plant labelled as T6 was treated as control. Prior to is, as yet, no good evidence that insect can taste proteins. brushing, spray solutions were prepared by diluting 10 times But some of protein‟s constituents i.e. amino acids showed of each solution separately in hand poly sprayers, so as the stimulating effects on insect feeding, yet their effectiveness concentration of ascorbic acid, proline and sodium are lesser than sugars. It is known that adultwestern corn cyclamate became 0.5%, 0.2% and 1.0% respectively. All rootworms express phagostimulatory responses to several L- the plants except T6 were sprayed with respective spray amino acids (Kim and Mullin, 1998). In caterpillar and solutions 24 hours before brushing newly hatched out Muga grasshopper, sucrose concentration occurring to that in host Silkworm (Antheraea assamensis Helfer) larvae. Muga plant is sufficient to make the insect to eat a maximum sized Silkworm dfls were hatched by „Black Boxing‟ method. meal on an otherwise neutral substrate. Lipids, Newly hatched out larvae were brushed on each potted phospholipids, triglycerides, sterols, sterol esters and fatty plants @ 125 nos. per treatment. Every day from the date of acids are usually important phagostimulants for many brushing onwards plants were prayed two times in a day different insects (Nation, 2001).The balance of nutrients is with respective spray solutions. Plant considered as control very important to most studied insects (House, 1965; Dadd, was not sprayed with any solution. During moulting times 1985). Balance may be important due to small body size and sprayings were avoided. Continuous feeding by larvae was the stress placed on several physiological systems by having maintained by replacing with new suitable potted Som to deal with excesses while attempting to accumulate plants. The cultures were maintained as such up to suboptimal levels of the major nutrients (Genc, 2006). cocooning. According to Spencer T. Behmer (2009) most phytophagous insects strongly regulate their nutrient uptake and in case of III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION imbalanced diets, they employ regulatory rules that govern Results of different treatments by fortified solutions on the extent to which nutrients occurring in excess or deficit larval weight, larval survivability, effective rate of rearing, are eaten.It has been found by several researchers that if cocoon weight, shell weight and silk ratio are tabulated in these nutrient chemicals are synergised by other constituents table -1. From the tabulated results it has been observed that that enhance their phagostimulatory effect well above that of 1st instars larval weight increased significantly over T6 in all P a g e | 14 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science spray treatment except T5. In 4th and 5th instars larval weight survivability was significantly high in T4 and T5 (Fig. 3). in contrast to control (T6) is significantly higher in all Therefore, all the combinations of fortified chemicals treatments with fortified spray solutions. The larval weights including host plant leaf extract have positive effect on range within 2.680 g to 3.109 g against control weight 2.502 larval survivability at different growth stages of Muga g in 4th instars. The same trend of enhanced larval weight in silkworm. While studying on „nuptial gift‟ produced by 5th instars has also been found in each spray treatments in male insect that mixes with feed to attract females, Stuart comparison to larval weight of control (T6), i.e. 9.741 g to Warwick et al (2009) found free amino acids particularly 10.253 g > 9.280 g. The results are indicative that tissue proline and glycine as main phagostimulatory chemicals that growth of larvae treated with fortified solutions is more than restrict movement of female insects. Chapman R.F. (1998) untreated larvae. This, in turn may be assumed only because reported that proline is essential for development and as of more feeding response to host plant leafs. Campbell, F. L. energy sources in certain insects. Nation (2001) found (1927) found that nutritive liquids can be fed quantitatively ascorbic acid is essential to maintain normal growth and to certain insects.The spray solutions containing nutrients development of some insects, particularly required by like ascorbic acid, proline, and sodium cyclamate enhanced phytophagous insects. Although the final product of rearing nutritional qualities of the host Som plant leafs.Farrar J. R. of different treatments strictly correspondence with et al (1994) conducted experiments with five different respective larval survivability, the cocoon qualities nutrient based phagostimulants on the feeding behavior of measured as cocoon weight, shell weight and silk ratio were six lepidopteron insects and found great response of larvae found different in each treatment. Cocoon qualities of all in terms of attraction and arrestancy on feed used treatments with differently fortified spray solutions were phagostimulants in comparison to feed without significantly higher in respect of all parameters of cocoon phagostimulants.The phagostimulant formulation used in over T6 (table-1). Cocoon weight and shell weight in the these spray solutions must have attracting and arresting treatments with fortified chemical solutions distributed in effect on feeding leafs that ultimately increased feeding rate the range of 4.572 g 5.391 g against 4.219 g of T6 and, of Muga larvae. Further, the constituents of H1 formulation 0.446 g 0.627 g against 0.358 g respectively. Similarly, the may also be reacted as nutrient phagostimulants.According distribution of silk ratio of these treatments falls within9.637 to Nation (2001), phagostimulants are chemical compounds 12.496 in contrast to 8.491 of T6. In silk industries, the yean having an effect on insect feeding.Further, different outcome is determined by numbers of cocoon production combinations of fortified spray chemicals exhibited measured by effective rate of rearing (ERR) and silk ratio differentialresponses on larval weight. Fortified solutions (SR) higher the ERR and SR, yarn production is also with ascorbic acid, proline, sodium cyclamate used in T1 more. From the table-1 it is obvious that the phago-stimulant gave negative results whereas positive responseachieved formulation (H1) fortified with ascorbic acid and sodium with the same combination mixed with host plant leaf cyclamate gave higher number of cocoon production with extract as substitute of distilled water. Host plant leaf extract more yarn yield of Muga crop. It has been concluded that surely added some extra water soluble nutrient supplements the supplemented nutrients with phagostimulants works increasing the nutritive qualities of feed that might increase synergistically that Muga silkworm larvae responded efficiency of spray solution in T2 and, showed positive and positively in their growth and development. All the modified results over T1. H. L. House (1969) found that supplemented nutrients ascorbic acid, proline and Na provided all essential nutrients are present, the proportions cyclamate responded positively and may be the constituents of essential nutrients in a foodstuff contribute more to in a nutrient supplemented phagostimulant spray nutritional quality than do the absolute amounts of nutrients. formulation in their best combination for Muga silkworm. According to Spencer T. Behmer (2009) most phytophagous The nutrient combination ascorbic acid-proline has strong insect‟s performance is modified depending on food‟s synergistic response in larval tissue growth while ascorbic nutrient composition. Again fortified chemical combinations acid-Na cyclamate combination has synergistic effect on proline-sodium cyclamate, ascorbic acid-sodium cyclamate cocoon production e.g. ERR. Thus, ascorbic acid is an and ascorbic acid-proline projected different but all positive essential nutrient supplement for both body tissue growth responses over the control T6 evidenced by their body tissue and survivability. Above all, it can be inferred that if host growth, survivability, cocoon weight, shell weight and silk plant leaf extract is used as substitute of water in a nutrient ratio. The average body tissue growth in T3, T4 and T5 were spray solution, better yield of Muga silkworm (A. 2.77128, 2.7173, 2.8861respectively against the average assamensis Helfer) crop may be expected. tissue growth 2.55934 recorded in control T6. So, fortified IV. REFERENCE combination ascorbic acid-proline had more effect on larval body tissue growth among these combinations.On the other 1) Campbell, F. L. (1927); Notes on Silkworm hand, larval survivability in the treatments was positively Nutrition. Journal of Economic Entomology, significant over T6. In the table-1, larval survivability after Volume 20, Number 1, February 1927, pp. 88- 4th instars of all the treatments has been found higher than 90(3). that of control. However, some degrees of variation exist at the end of 5th instars in T2 and T3, still than larval Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 15

2) Chapman R.F.(1998); The Insects: Structure and 8) House H. L. (1965); Insect Nutrition, in M. Function. 4th edition. Cambridge University Press, Rockstein (Ed.), Physiology of Insecta, 1st ed., UK. 770pp. Vol. 2, Academic Press, NY. pp. 769-813. 3) Dadd R. H. (1985); Nutrition: Organisms, In G A. 9) Kim J. H, Mullin C. A. (1998); Structure- Kerkut and L.I. Gilbert [Eds.], Comprehensive phagostimulatory relationships for amino acids in Insect Physiology, Biochemistry and adult western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera Pharmacology, Vol. 4. Pergamon, Oxford. National virgifera. J. Chem. Ecol. 24:1499-1511. Academy Press, Washington, DC. pp. 313–390. 10) Motoyuki Sumida and Hiroki Ueda (2007); Dietary 4) Farrar JR., Robert R.; Ridgway, Richard L. (1994); Sucrose Suppresses Midgut Sucrase Activity in Comparative Studies of the Effects of Nutrient- Germfree, Fifth Instars Larvae of the Silkworm, Based Phagostimulants on Six Lepidoptera Insect Bombyx mori.Journal of Insect Biotechnology and Pests.Journal of Economic Entomology, Volume Sericology; Vol. 76 (2007), No. 1 pp.1_31-1_37. 87, Number 1, February, pp. 44-52(9). 11) Nation J. L. (2001); Insect Physiology and 5) Genc H. (2006); General principles of insect Biochemistry.Boca Raton, Fla., CRC Press.485 pp. nutritional ecology.Trakya University Journal 12) Spencer T. Behmer (2009); Insect Herbivore Science. 7(1); pp 53-57. Nutrient Regulation.Annual Review of 6) H. L. House (1969); Effects of different Entomology.Vol. 54: pp.165-187. proportions of nutrients on insects.Effects of 13) Stuart Warwick, Karim Vahed, David different proportions of nutrients on Raubenheimer and Stephen J Simpson (2009); Free insects.Volume 12, Number 5; pp 651-669. amino acids as phagostimulants in cricket nuptial 7) Hanife GENÇ (2006); General principles of insect gifts: support for the ‘Candymaker’ hypothesis. nutritional ecology. Trakya Univ J Sci, 7(1): 53- Biol Lett. 5(2); pp.194 – 196 57. P a g e | 16 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science

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Integracion Economica Colombo Venezolana: Dinamica En Medio De La Incertidumbre Politica Y El Regionalismo Abierto En El Hemisferio (Spanish to English)Colombian Venezuelan Economic Integration: Dynamics Amid political uncertainty uncertainty and open regionalism in the hemisphere GJHSS-C Classification FOR Por: Luis Nelson Beltrán Mora 140202,140210,140218,160619 Resumen-Colombia y Venezuela han demostrado que la políticos, los dos países tienen altas complementariedades integración económica está por encima de la agenda política, al que, den ser aprovechas, mediante nuevos acuerdos punto que el intercambio de bienes llegó a US $8.000 millones comerciales bilaterales o andinos, las dos naciones podrían en 2008 en medio del inicio de crisis internacional. La reactivar sus relaciones comerciales, incluso proyectarlas a incertidumbre sobre los desencuentros diplomáticos y el interés los nuevos mercados objetivo. El artículo se divide en tres de los dos países por realizar negociaciones con terceros mercados; intensión de Colombia de poner en funcionamiento grandes ítems; en el primero a manera de estado de arte se un Tratado de Libre Comercio (TLC) con Estados Unidos, y de describe lo que ha pasado con la integración colombo- Venezuela de ser socio pleno del Mercado Común del Sur venezolana, después del regionalismo abierto de los años (MERCOSUR), aunque podrían estar generando desconfianza noventa en América Latina, y de los fracasos del ALCA en en las inversiones; sugiere este artículo que la integración el hemisferio; se mostrará que los dos países siguen económica es sólida. Aún en los escenarios de la nuevo interesados en formalizar sus relaciones comerciales con regionalismo abierto en el hemisferio, Colombia y Venezuela terceros, lo cual aunado con los desencuentros políticos, tienen varias ventajas comparativas y competitivas para continúa generando una agenda bilateral difícil de relanzar conjuntamente la integración andina, incluso concertación en el campo político y por lo tanto comercial. proyectarla a los nuevos mercados objetivos. Palabras claves- CAN, MERCOSUR, TLC, comercio En el ítem 2, se presentan las cifras de comercio bilateral del bilateral, zona de libre comercio, mercado común. período 2005-2009; especialmente lo que ocurrió en el último año, cuando el comercio cae a su nivel más bajo; se I. INTRODUCCIÓN concluirá que pese a todas las adversidades políticas que se han impuesto a las transacciones económicas, el comercio l próximo abril de 2011 cesarán las preferencias sigue siendo dinámico e importante. Finalmente en el ítem arancelarías que, Venezuela le da a los países andinos, E 3, se realiza algunas proyecciones de lo que podría ser el en cumplimiento del artículo 135 de la Comunidad Andina comercio bilateral en dos escenarios: el primero, pesimista, CAN, que había conminado a ese país, después de su retiro donde colapsa definitivamente la integración bilateral por al bloque regional, a mantener por cinco años más el falta de acuerdos y entendimiento político; y el otro, acuerdo de Cartagena; sobra advertir que en abril de 2006 optimista, donde los dos países proponen una agenda de Venezuela había denunciado el acuerdo y que los andinos concertación bilateral o regional. aspiraban en ese período a que esa nación retornara a la CAN. No obstante que, los últimos cuatro años se II. LAS RELACIONES COMERCIALES EN EL HEMISFERIO acompañaron de diferencias entre Venezuela y Colombia, el Y EL RETIRO DE VENEZUELA DE LA CAN comercio de los dos países fue altamente satisfactorio pues; En los últimos cinco años, el hecho más importante de la el mismo llegó a US $7.900 millones en 2008, 15 veces integración colombo-venezolana, se produjo en abril de superior a 1991. Sólo en 2009, producto de la crisis 2006, cuando Venezuela se retiró de la Comunidad Andina internacional y los roces políticos que llevaron a imponer (CAN), denunciando el Acuerdo de Cartagena1. El vecino trabas comerciales de Venezuela a Colombia, llevaron el país, arguyó incompatibilidad política por lo que podría ser comercio a menos de US $5.000 millones. Este artículo, los tratados de libre comercio que venían negociando los muestra que la dinámica de los flujos comerciales sigue miembros de la CAN: Colombia, Perú y Ecuador, con los coincidiendo con el interés de los dos países por consolidar Estados Unidos; el Presidente Chávez, afirmó el 20 de abril sus relaciones comerciales con terceros mercados; esto es, el de 2006, en Paraná Brasil que: “Los Estados Unidos han interés de Colombia por echar andar el TLC con Estados firmado un tratado de libre comercio con Colombia, lo cual Unidos, y la aspiración de Venezuela por ser miembro pleno mató a la Comunidad Andina. Yo lo he anunciado ayer: del Mercosur. Mostraremos que, no obstante los problemas ______About-Luis Nelson Beltrán Mora es Ph.d en Integración y Desarrollo 1 Económico, y que es profesor asociado del Programa de Economía de la El acuerdo de Cartagena, prevé en su artículo 135 que, Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Sociales de la Universidad de La Salle cualquier país que decida retirarse de la Comunidad Andina, en Bogotá.email: [email protected] debe denunciar el tratado, así Venezuela lo había anunciado en junio de 2005 y lo ratificó en abril 2006. Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 19

Venezuela renuncia a la Comunidad Andina y nos vamos de negociaciones (CAN, 2007).En la última reunión se la Comunidad Andina," dijo en un discurso en la desataron profundas diferencias, entre Estados Unidos y gobernación del estado de Paraná, en esta ciudad, a donde Mercosur sobre el proyecto ALCA. La posición de Brasil vino a la cabeza de una delegación empresarial. Chávez en aquella reunión no fue otra que el proyecto debería repitió impaciente: La comunidad andina "no tiene esperar a las negociaciones en OMC, sobre temas sensibles sentido.Eso está muerto. ¿Cómo va a tener sentido una como subsidios agrícolas, marcas, patentes y propiedad Comunidad Andina en la que se firma un tratado de libre intelectual; se quería determinar que se podría negociar, comercio con Estados Unidos, sin siquiera coordinar con entre Estados Unidos y los países de Suramérica. (Beltrán y los demás países?". (El Universal, 21 de abril de 2006) En Vieira, 2008). En este contexto, el bloque Mercosur y la los noventa, dentro del esquema de la Asociación propia Venezuela consideraban que, ALCA, al igual que lo Latinoamericana de Integración ALADI, se debe aceptar que proponía la OMC, no ofrecía las condiciones para que, en el hemisferio americano, a la vez que se desmontar los subsidios de los países desarrollados, por consolidaban los bloques comerciales regionales considerar que afectaban la competitividad del agro de los tradicionales: Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del países pequeños4; el Presidente Lula Da Silva y su canciller Norte (NAFTA), MERCOSUR, COMUNIDAD ANDINA Amorim, afirmaban en Mar del Plata que: “Cualquier cosa (CAN), Tratado de Libre Comercio o Grupo de los tres: que hagamos, antes de la reunión de la OMC podría crear México, Colombia y Venezuela G-3 y el tratado de libre confusión y estaríamos creando un impedimento a la comercio de la Comunidad del Caribe (CARICOM), entre OMC", y Amorim aseguró que "hay un exceso de otros2; se desató en el hemisferio, otras negociaciones entre ideologización del debate" sin razón porque se trata de un países y bloques que terminaron consolidando lo que se "tema comercial en el que es necesario, como en todos, denomina el nuevo “regionalismo abierto”; así se sopesar ventajas y desventajas". En ese sentido, el canciller emprendieron varias negociaciones entre países y bloques, explicó que la posición de Mercosur, bloque que forman, con dos ejes centrales (ALADI, 2009).El primero, liderada además de su país, Argentina, Paraguay y Uruguay, de no por Estados Unidos desde 1994 que, pretendió, la creación aceptar fechas para reactivar el ALCA, no se debe a una de una Zona de Libre Comercio del Continente, denomina "preconcepto" contra ese proceso. Hay que ser realistas, Área de Libre Comercio de las Américas (ALCA), que fechas podemos poner, el papel acepta cualquier cosa.Si debería comenzar a funcionar en 20053; y la otra, ponemos por ejemplo enero, y llegamos allá y de pronto promocionada por Brasil, tendiente a consolidar la tenemos que aplazar la discusión para septiembre o para integración suramericana, por la vía de integrar a la CAN y octubre, eso es una fuente de desgaste", (Univisión, lo MERCOSUR (BID 2002, y CEI, 2008). Sin entrar a destacado, Noviembre 24 de 2005).El proyecto ALCA, ahondar en cada propuesta y sus objetivos políticos y también fracasó por la posición de Brasil en torno a firmar económicos; los acercamientos y las nuevas negociaciones un ALCA “Light”5, consistente en realizar negociaciones a de Venezuela y Colombia con otros bloques y países la medida de cada país, teniendo en cuenta, los niveles de disminuyeron el interés por consolidar el proyecto de un desarrollo y preferencias arancelarias para los países mercado común andino. La propuesta ALCA, sedujo más a pequeños; esta posición no fue aceptada por los países del Colombia; en tanto que, el proyecto de Brasil, fue más norte, especialmente por Estados Unidos y México. Fueron aceptado por Venezuela (Vera, 2007 y Vieira, 2008). tan concluyentes las cinco últimas reuniones del ALCA Después de nueve reuniones ministeriales, entre 1994 y sobre la necesidad de que el proyecto se aplazara que, los 2003, y de la oposición que desató Brasil en todas las mismos Estados Unidos desde 2003 empezaron a seducir a reuniones del ALCA, el proyecto que conformarían 34 países sucumbió. En la cumbre de Ministros de Miami en 2003, y especialmente en la reunión de la IV Cumbre de las 4 Los estudios del Ministerio de Agricultura de Colombia Américas en Mar del Plata, en Argentina, noviembre de calculaban que los subsidios de Estados Unidos a la 2005, los países participantes decidieron aplazar las producción agropecuaria, ascendían a más US $80.000 millones anuales, es decir casi el 80% del valor del PIB del 2El Nafta es la zona de libre comercio de Estados Unidos, país. Canadá y México; el MCCA es el Mercado Común Centroamericano; el CARICOM es el Mercado Común del 5 Un ALCA "light", significaba excluir del acuerdo aquellos Caribe, el G-3, es el tratado de libre comercio de Colombia, sectores que le interese preservar a algunos países: el Venezuela y México; y CAN es la Comunidad Andina, consenso parece ser el de evitar los temas más complicados, grupo que antes se denomina Grupo Andino GRAN. entre éstos los subsidios agrícolas que aplica sobre sus 3El proyecto ALCA, que aspiraba a crear una zona de libre productores el gobierno estadounidense. De esa forma tanto comercio de Alaska a Tierra del Fuego como motor de los más férreos defensores del ALCA como aquellos que desarrollo, es el objetivo fundacional del proceso de mayores reservas presentaban, acomodaron sus intereses en Cumbres de las Américas lanzado en 1994 en Miami por un acuerdo flexible y hecho a la medida de cada país Estados Unidos. involucrado.

P a g e | 20 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science los países latinos, especialmente de Centroamérica y de la que el G-3, dejó grandes déficits para Colombia y CAN, para negociar tratados de libre comercio bilateral por Venezuela en sus intercambios de bienes con México, se separado (CAF, 2004). Los Estados Unidos, tampoco le destaca de la relación con el país azteca, la importancia que dieron la razón a Brasil de ALCAs a la medida, arguyendo ganaron, Colombia y Venezuela, como ejes de la como lo dijo el secretario de Estado americano, Shannon en integración Sur y Norte, en América Latina. Para algunos Argentina que:Lo llamamos ALCA y nuestra meta es un analistas como Monteagudo y Masakazu (2003), la continente integrado económicamente... pero si un país de proyección del comercio bilateral a México generó más la zona decide que no puede sumarse, será su decisión interés de losotros países de la región para firmar soberana y no hay nada que podamos hacer al respecto"."A otros acuerdos comerciales con más países medida que se avanza en las negociaciones, un país podrá Bolivia y Perú en 1996 y 2003, excluirse si lo desea" (ibíd., Univisión).Entre 2004 y 2006 latinoamericanos. las propuestas de los Estados Unidos y Brasil, sirvieron respectivamente solicitaron adhesión al MERCOSUR; para que políticamente cada país se inclinara por un eje u sobra advertir que estos países fueron aceptados y que, en el otro, y finalmente poder justificar su adhesión a uno u otro caso de Bolivia, la Nación, firmó una zona de libre proyecto; en medio de esa división es que en abril de 2006, comercio con ese grupo, en lo que se conoció en su cuando Venezuela renunció a la CAN denunciando el momento como una negociación de “4+1” (García, Acuerdo de Cartagena , arguyó incompatibilidad política 2004).En el contexto de negociaciones de la CAN que, por lo que podría ser los tratados de libre comercio que permite a cada país realizar acuerdos comerciales con otros venían negociando los miembros de la CAN: Colombia, bloques o países, Venezuela le apuntó a MERCOSUR; Perú y Ecuador, con los Estados Unidos.Si bien, la como objetivo estratégico para el desarrollo de su política estimación de pérdida de competitividad de Venezuela en económica exterior. En 1997, el Presidente Rafael Caldera, los mercados andinos, ante la eventual entrada en vigencia con la intención de fortalecer la integración de frontera, y la de los TLC, puede ser, con razón, la explicación de fondo complementación energética con Brasil, solicitó a que argumenta el vecino país para la decisión de abandonar MERCOSUR ser tenido en cuenta, como observador de las el bloque andino; hay que señalar también que, Venezuela, reuniones presidenciales del grupo; pero entre 1997 y 2001, desde mediados de los años noventa con el inicio de la la crisis de Brasil y Argentina, deterioraron la estabilidad nueva reconfiguración de los ejes de integración del Mercosur, y mantuvieron en expectativas a hemisférica , ya le apostaba a estar en otros mercados Venezuela.(Cárdenas, 2005)La intención de Venezuela, diferentes a la CAN; desde ese entonces su interés legitimo desde el mandato del Presidente Chávez en 1999, era era el de ser socio de Mercosur (Moncayo, 2003). también ser socio del MERCOSUR; pero hay que recordar que la concertación conjunta con Colombia, permitieron 1) Venezuela hacia el Mercosur renovar el interés y la institucionalidad regional andina, Sin duda que el rechazó al ALCA, por parte de Venezuela, para avanzar en una negociación bloque a bloque: CAN y fue el aval para que ese país fuera aceptado como miembro MERCOSUR. En 2004, los dos bloques concretaron una de Mercosur; toda vez que Brasil y la propia Argentina, zona de libre comercio, en lo se denominó posteriormente desde allí se comprometieron con Venezuela para su la “Comunidad Suramericana” que, fue considerada como aceptación definitiva en el grupo del sur. La solicitud de favorable para los objetivos comerciales de los dos países Venezuela a MERCOSUR tampoco fue concertada al frente a MERCOSUR; en el sentido que Brasil y Argentina, interior de la CAN, en particular con Colombia; cabe ______recordar que, hasta ese año Venezuela al interior de la CAN 6 había concertado con nuestro país, los proyectos de El acuerdo de Cartagena, prevé en su artículo 135 que, integración regional de interés; se tenía conciencia que los cualquier país que decida retirarse de la Comunidad dos países, eran el eje andino; lo mismo que, su posición Andina, debe denunciar el tratado, así Venezuela lo había anunciado en junio de 2005 y lo ratificó en abril 2006. conjunta, siempre había aumentado la capacidad 7 negociadora de la región en el Continente (Grien, 1996, y Los analistas internacionales señalan que desde 1993, los Fernández, 2005). No se puede olvidar, que Colombia y Estados Unidos y Brasil, quieren ser los ejes de la Venezuela eran el eje de la integración andina, al punto de integración hemisférica. El primero, busca construir un lograr la cohesión necesaria para que el grupo fuera tenido bloque regional continental para competirle en el mundo a en cuenta en las negociaciones con México y la propia la Comunidad Europea; y el segundo persigue consolidar el Comunidad Suramericana que, había propuesto Brasil. Mercosur, en América Latina. (Bauzas, 2002). Colombia y Venezuela firmaron en 1994 una zona de libre comercio con México, conocida como el Grupo de los tres reconocieron las asimetrías que sus mercados generan (G-3) que, a pesar que, en su comienzo se decía que era el frente a países de la CAN . La Comunidad Suramericana, medio de acceso de los dos países al Nafta; fue apenas una hoy denominada Unión de Naciones del Sur (UNASUR) ya forma de fomentar las negociaciones entre los países de tuvo los primeros resultados: el intercambio de Colombia y América Latina (Beltrán, 2004 y Beckerman, 2005). Pese a Venezuela, con Brasil creció más de 40% entre 2005 y 2009 (ALADI, 2009), y su proyección que, tiene estimado Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 21 realizar más acuerdos bilaterales podría decantar en un incompatibilidad arancelaría que le producía la CAN para impulso más claro a la integración latinoamericana, antes estar en MERCOSUR. Sobra señalar también que la que a la propuesta norteamericana del ALCA .Venezuela aceptación de Venezuela en MERCOSUR debe producir complementó su adhesión formal a MERCOSUR, en pérdida de competitividad de Colombia en el mercado diciembre de 2005, en 2007 recibió aprobación de los vecino, toda vez la alta competencia que desatarán Brasil y Congresos de Argentina y Uruguay, y en 2010 continúa Argentina, en ese mercado (CEPAL, 2007) esperandopor la aprobación plena de los Congresos de Brasil y Paraguay. Se puede concluir que en 10 años de acercamientos y negociaciones, Venezuela si se preparó para incursionar en los mercados del sur, y perfeccionar sus acuerdos de complementación económica con Brasil y Argentina. Cabe resaltar que, a pesar que el vecino país sigue siendo considerado como una vecindad minera, productora de petróleo, para el grupo de Mercosur,- en los últimos cinco años, las relaciones comerciales de Venezuela con ese bloque, fueron deficitarias en cerca de US $4.500 millones anuales. (Ver gráfico No.1), producto del fuerte crecimiento de las compras de Venezuela procedentes de Brasil y Argentina,- Venezuela, espera consolidar estos mercados y realizar alianzas estratégicas para aumentar y diversificar sus exportaciones a esos mercados por la vía de cadenas complementarias en la industria energética y petroquímica.6 (Ortega, 2004)Los anteriores argumentos son los que permiten poner en entredicho la explicación política de Venezuela, en torno a que su dimisión de la CAN se dio exclusivamente por las negociaciones de los 2) TLC Colombia, y Estados Unidos TLC de Colombia, Perú y Ecuador, con Estados Unidos; no hay que olvidar que, al ser aceptado Venezuela como socio Colombia no ha argüido que las negociaciones del vecino y pleno del Mercosur, el vecino país queda comprometido MERCOSUR son la causa para que la nación pierda interés para que un periodo relativamente corto, adopte toda la en la CAN y en Venezuela; sin embargo si es claro que estructura arancelaría del MERCOSUR, que en principio no Colombia, también dentro de la reconfiguración del espacio es compatible con la de la CAN: en el primero hay 12 hemisférico, ha buscado ser socio formal de los Estados niveles de aranceles que riñen con el segundo bloque donde Unidos. No cabe duda que Colombia como la mayoría de apenas hay 4. En el anterior contexto, fue contundente la los países andinos y latinos, tiene el interés, en el contexto dimisión de Venezuela a la CAN,7 toda vez la de globalización e integración del hemisferio, de formalizar acuerdos comerciales con sus principales socios (Wagner T, (2005). En el caso particular de Colombia y de cualquier 8El Ministro de Energía y Petróleo de Venezuela, Rafael país andino, de concretar con Estados Unidos una zona de Ramírez, dijo que delegaciones de Venezuela, Brasil y libre comercio que, permitan mantener ese mercado; a Argentina se reunirán cada tres meses para revisar los donde se dirigen cerca del 40% de las exportaciones, y de avances del proyecto del mega-gasoducto que impulsan los donde también provienen aproximadamente el 35% de las tres países para abastecerse del energético y prevenir futuros importaciones totales del mundo. Colombia es consciente desabastecimientos. Desde 2003 a propósito del paro en que debe negociar con Estados Unidos, toda vez la pérdida Venezuela, Brasil ha recibido preferencias por parte del de competitividad que puede estar sucediendo con sus vecino país en las compras de alimentos, medicinas y otros exportaciones en ese mercado, por la entrada de nuevos bienes básicos para atender la demanda interna en los países abastecedores al mercado del norte, como supermercados MERCAL de propiedad del gobierno. consecuencia de los acuerdos comerciales que ha firmado 7La Secretaría General de la Comunidad Andina recibió, en esa Nación. Se estima que entre 2000-2009, los Estados su sede en Lima, una comunicación del Canciller de Unidos negociaron más de 10 tratados comerciales, dentro Venezuela, Alí Rodríguez Araque, por medio de la cual este de los que se cuenta, el de Chile,Tailandia, y el de Centro país informa formalmente su decisión de denunciar el América denominado el “Central America Free Trade Acuerdo de Cartagena, según confirmó el Secretario Agreement, CAFTA ”, entre otros (Beltrán, 2007).Desde General de este organismo, Embajador Allan Wagner Tizón. 1992, en la administración del Presidente César Gaviria, El Secretario General de la CAN informó, asimismo, que se Colombia ya tenía interés en realizar negociaciones con el ha recibido una comunicación de la Ministra de Industrias país del norte, insistiendo en principio en un tratado Ligeras y Comercio de Venezuela, en relación con la mencionada denuncia, en la que solicita que se convoque a Ministros de Comercio), a más tardar el 26 de abril en curso, una reunión de la Comisión de la CAN (integrada por los en cumplimiento del artículo 135 del Acuerdo de Cartagena P a g e | 22 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science comercial con el bloque del NAFTA; en 2000, en la generación de más de 1 millón de plazas de trabajo a la administración del Presidente, Andrés Pastrana, se comenzó economía local. Entre 2005 y 2008 los intercambios de hablar de un tratado de libre comercio con esa nación; y en Colombia con Estados Unidos arrojaron sendos superávit 2004, formalmente la administración del Presidente Uribe, comerciales por más US $2.000 millones anuales, con un con autorización de la CAN, emprendió junto con Ecuador ingrediente más importante; el 37% de las exportaciones y Perú, las negociaciones de los TLC con los Estados colombianas fueron manufacturas, 10 puntos porcentuales Unidos. (Beltrán, 2004)Entre 1993 y 2009, las relaciones superiores a la participación que tuvieron éstas a comienzos comerciales CAN y Estados Unidos, dependieron de la década de los noventa (Beltrán, 2009). Tampoco se fundamentalmente de las preferencias unilaterales, que puede olvidar que, el país con las mayores inversiones otorgó esa nación a los andinos, mediante el instrumento directas en Colombia son los Estados Unidos, con montos ATP que, en 2005 pasó a llamarse a APTDEA , que por sus superiores a los US $500 millones anuales y un acumulado siglas en ingles, “Andean Trade Partnership and Drug de US $8.000 millones entre 2000 y 2008. (Ver gráfico Eradication Agreement”, traduce “Sociedad y Acuerdo de No.2) Si bien el TLC Colombia y Estados Unidos no genera Comercio y de Erradicación de la Droga”. Desde 1994, incompatibilidades en materia arancelaria con la CAN; toda mediante ese instrumento, los Estados Unidos otorgaron vez que el país del norte reconoció a los andinos en las 14 preferencias arancelarias a las exportaciones de los países ruedas de negociaciones, el patrimonio histórico, esto es andinos. Colombia, Perú, Ecuador y Bolivia, reciben un que los andinos pueden seguir comerciando entre ellos, con trato preferencial arancelario para más del 40% de sus las preferencias negociadas en la CAN, la entrada en exportaciones a ese mercado, por la lucha que las mismas funcionamiento del acuerdo comercial si generaría pérdida naciones acometen contra la producción y tráfico de drogas de competitividad de Venezuela en el mercado colombiano, ilícitas (CAF, 2004).En 1994, el comercio andino con toda vez que la reducción de aranceles que, debe realizar Estados Unidos quedó determinado así por factores Colombia a Estados Unidos, desplazaría parte de la oferta políticos antes que por acuerdos comerciales formales. Con de Venezuela en el mercado colombiano. De los apartados el acuerdo político siempre se ha amenazado a la pérdida de anteriores se puede concluir entonces que, tanto los competitividad de los productos colombianos en el mercado acercamientos de Venezuela a Mercosur, como los de americano, por el vencimiento y la renuencia de los Estados Colombia a Estados Unidos, fueron las causas que Unidos a continuar otorgando el APTDEA a los andinos . comenzaron a propiciar la desintegración andina y bilateral Sin desconocer que también hay intereses políticos que entre Colombia y Venezuela; también que, proyectados los presionan para que la relación Estados Unidos y Colombia nuevos escenarios comerciales donde se moverán los dos se estreche en momentos en que, el primer país luce aislado países: Estados Unidos y Brasil, habrá pérdida de oferta de América Latina, Colombia es consciente que en una exportadora, de ambos mercados, por la alta competencia economía de más de 320 millones habitantes, una zona de que ejercerán los Estados Unidos, Brasil y Argentina, en el libre comercio, abre la oportunidad para ampliar el mercado espacio bilateral (Blanco, 2003).objetivo nacional de y poner a prueba el objetivo nacional de diversificación de diversificación de las exportaciones9. Hay que acotar que, las exportaciones8. Hay que acotar que, Colombia en la Colombia en la región andina, contrario a Venezuela, es región andina, contrario a Venezuela, es considerada una considerada una verdadera vecindad manufacturera que, verdadera vecindad manufacturera que, fácilmente podría fácilmente podría acomodarse a las necesidades de acomodarse a las necesidades de demanda del consumidor demanda del consumidor americano (CEPAL, 2008 y americano (CEPAL, 2008 y 2009). Entre 1998 y 2008, 2009).Entre 1998 y 2008, Colombia logró duplicar sus Colombia logró duplicar sus exportaciones a Estados exportaciones a Estados Unidos; mercado que podría estar Unidos; mercado que podría estar contribuyendo a la contribuyendo a la generación de más de 1 millón de plazas de trabajo a la economía local. Entre 2005 y 2008 los intercambios de Colombia con Estados Unidos arrojaron 9 El CAFTA está formada por los países de: Costa Rica, El sendos superávit comerciales por más US $2.000 millones Salvador, Estados Unidos, República Dominicana, anuales, con un ingrediente más importante; el 37% de las Guatemala, Honduras y Nicaragua; actualmente se sumo la exportaciones colombianas fueron manufacturas, 10 puntos República Dominicana y se estima un comercio de US porcentuales superiores a la participación que tuvieron éstas $30.000 millones entre los socios. a comienzos de la década de los noventa (Beltrán, 2009). 10 Esta ley se firmó en 1993 en la administración del Tampoco se puede olvidar que, el país con las mayores presidente de los Estados Unidos, George Bush padre, y los inversiones directas en Colombia son los Estados Unidos, países andinos de Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y Bolivia. con montos superiores a los US $500 millones anuales y un Venezuela no hace parte del acuerdo. Bajo esta Ley, se acumulado de US $8.000 millones entre 2000 y 2008. (Ver podrá reclamar un tratamiento libre de arancel para ciertos productos anteriormente excluidos del ATP 1993. 11Colombia durante 1995 y 2002 se sometió a ser certificado 9 En el Estudio del Banco de la República se estima que, las por los Estados Unidos por su lucha contra las drogas, en exportaciones colombianas podrían crecer con el TLC y la por lo menos tres años, los Estados Unidos no certificaron al abolición de todas las barreras para-arancelarias hasta 6% país o le condicionaron a una certificación parcial. anual. Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 23 gráfico No.2) Si bien el TLC Colombia y Estados Unidos instrumento más expedito para integrar los mercados de no genera incompatibilidades en materia arancelaria con la capitales, mejorar el flujo de servicios y garantizar la libre CAN; toda vez que el país del norte reconoció a los andinos circulación de personas en la región; amén de lo que el en las 14 ruedas de negociaciones, el patrimonio histórico, mismo representaría por frenar la carrera loca del esto es que los andinos pueden seguir comerciando entre regionalismo abierto en que se han empeñado nuestros ellos, con las preferencias negociadas en la CAN, la entrada países, después de la segunda mitad de los noventa (BID, en funcionamiento del acuerdo comercial si generaría 2002).Hasta 2009 y pese a que, el Acuerdo de Cartagena pérdida de competitividad de Venezuela en el mercado garantiza el trato nacional a los inversionistas de los países colombiano, toda vez que la reducción de aranceles que, integrantes, Venezuela no lo ha venido otorgando en el debe realizar Colombia a Estados Unidos, desplazaría parte tema de compras gubernamentales a Colombia; con el de la oferta de Venezuela en el mercado colombiano. pretexto de fomentar la producción local, ese país ha De los apartados anteriores se puede concluir entonces que, excluido a las empresas colombianas de las compras tanto los acercamientos de Venezuela a Mercosur, como los estatales que realizan empresas como: Petróleos de de Colombia a Estados Unidos, fueron las causas que Venezuela (Pdvsa), y la Corporación Venezolana de comenzaron a propiciar la desintegración andina y bilateral Guayana (CVG).También, con la excusa política de la entre Colombia y Venezuela; también que, proyectados los seguridad y protección de la frontera, la mayoría de los nuevos escenarios comerciales donde se moverán los dos países andinos han incrementado los trámites consulares países: Estados Unidos y Brasil, habrá pérdida de oferta para sus socios comerciales, especialmente, el tránsito de exportadora, de ambos mercados, por la alta competencia los colombianos para ingresar a sus territorios; después de que ejercerán los Estados Unidos, Brasil y Argentina, en el 40 años de integración, los países andinos exigen como espacio bilateral (Blanco, 2003). condición de transito para sus ciudadanos la visa consular y hasta permisos de transito especial a los empresarios; es el caso particular de Venezuela que, impone a los colombianos la visa para la realización de negocios y turismo.Si bien los países andinos decidieron en 2002 poner en práctica el “pasaporte andino” para agilizar la circulación de personas y aumentar el intercambio de servicios, Venezuela pidió a la propia CAN aplazamiento para su ejecución, alegando su política de seguridad en la frontera antes que los preceptos del libre comercio.Hay muchos incumplimientos institucionales en la CAN que le han hecho perder credibilidad y supranacionalidad a las decisiones del bloque. Colombia por su política de protección al sector agrícola, reiteradamente no ha cumplido los fallos del Tribunal Andino de Justicia (TAJ) que, lo han conminado a abolir las cuotas de importación de arroz que les impone a Ecuador y la propia Venezuela. De igual manera, el vecino país alegando problemas del mismo tratado, no cumplió la decisión del TAJ de levantar la restricción del paso de vehículos colombianos a su territorio10. Desde 1999, Venezuela mantiene la medidaque, Otra de las causas de la desintegración andina y la búsqueda obliga al trasbordo de mercancías en la frontera de Cúcuta, de nuevos mercados por Colombia y Venezuela, podría situación que ha aumentado los costos de transporte a los estar en los grandes incumplimientos institucionales exportadores colombianos, y entonces al reclamo reiterado ocurridos al interior del bloque de la CAN. Colombia desde por Colombia a Venezuela del respeto a la institucionalidad hace más de ocho años, ha insistido en la necesidad de que de la CAN.11(Fernández, 2004)Finalmente los países la Comunidad Andina cumpla sus preceptos de avanzar en el “Mercado Común”, y mejor aún que, las decisiones y sanciones del Tribunal Andino de Justicia (TAJ) se acaten, 10 para defender la institucionalidad y supranacionalidad del La medida adoptada por Venezuela se tomo luego de que bloque comercial (Fernández, 2005). Si bien, como se ha los transportadores de San Cristóbal Venezuela, bloquearan señalado atrás, la Comunidad Andina ha logrado en su el paso de frontera y exigieran al Presidente Chávez, historia pasar de una zona de libre comercio en 1969 a una prohibir el paso de vehículos colombianos a su territorio. unión aduanera común imperfecta en 1994, por las Bloquearan, haciendo que los vehículos de carga preferencias otorgadas a Perú, Ecuador y Bolivia, se colombianos, deben cambiar de “chuto” en la frontera, para considera que el bloque regional, ha dilatado la entrada en realizar el resto del trayecto en vehículos de ese país. 11 funcionamiento del “Mercado Común” que, sería el Colfecar el gremio del transporte de Colombia por carretera afirma que los costos de transporte para las P a g e | 24 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science andinos no han cumplido con el precepto de convergencia macroeconómica, para luchar contra la inestabilidad inflacionaria y cambiaria que afrontan sus mercados y que, afecta particularmente al comercio regional. Desde 2002 los países de la CAN habían establecido unos criterios de convergencia macroeconómica que, cinco años después se incumplieron.(Ver recuadro No.3). El primero que consistía en tener una inflación de un dígito en 2006, se dilató, toda vez las continuas emisiones monetarias de Venezuela que, llevaron el IPC de ese país a niveles de 30% anual entre 2003 y 2007. Venezuela no ha aplicado políticas de estabilidad en la medida que en la administración del Presidente Chávez se le quitó independencia al BCV para el manejo de la política monetaria y cambiaria. Colombia sí logró el propósito de reducir la inflación gracias la acertada política monetaria que realizó el Banco de la República como entidad independiente después de la Constitución Política de 1991. La inflación cayó de un promedio de 26% entre 1990 y 1998, a menos de 5% entre 2001 y 2009.Otro de los objetivos incumplidos para la estabilidad, era lograr un déficit fiscal del Sector Público No financiero (SPCNF), no superior a 3% del PIB en la región, esta meta tampoco se cumplió; esta vez por los desequilibrios presupuestales en Colombia. El déficit fiscal en nuestro país superó el 3.5% 3) Tomado de la Comunidad Andina, 2007 del PIB entre 2002 y 2009, producto del excesivo gasto en las finanzas del Gobierno Central Nacional (GCN), donde Finalmente, tampoco el objetivo de convergencia en el déficit surera 5% del PIB. En Venezuela si bien en los materia de deuda pública se cumplió. Venezuela debido a últimos años se ha presentado superávit fiscales superiores su estrategia de pre-pagar deuda con recursos petroleros, a 3% del PIB, como consecuencia de la bonanza de precios logró que el indicador fuera de menos de 30% del PIB en el del crudo, no se ha corregido la dependencia que tiene el período 2002 y 2009; en cambio la deuda pública presupuesto a las rentas petroleras; los estudios indican que colombiana superó el 53% del PIB en ese período, 3 puntos al restar del balance fiscal los ingresos del crudo, se porcentuales superiores a la meta andina. El generaría un desbalance en el presupuesto público superior incumplimiento de las metas macroeconómicas andinas a 5% del PIB hace distante la posibilidad de llegar a un mercado común. De la falta de convergencia macroeconómica, preocupa finalmente el manejo de los tipos de cambios. Colombia ha garantizado los tipos de cambio flexible, pero Venezuela, por la alta volatilidad externa del petróleo, todavía implanta medidas como los controles de cambios fijos que, desde 2003 han generado distorsión en los mercados de capitales, los precios y los propios intercambios de bienes (Beltrán, 2009).

III. LOS RESULTADOS COMERCIALES ENTRE 2005-2009 Los resultados de la búsqueda de nuevos mercados, y particularmente el desencuentro de agendas políticas de Colombia y Venezuela provocaron una disminución del comercio andino pero no bilateral. Desde la dimisión de Venezuela, la CAN pasa de un comercio de US$10.000 millones anuales en 2005, a menos de US $6.000 millones en 2009. Es importante resaltar que la salida de Venezuela también produjo un menor grado de maniobra a la CAN en sus negociaciones con terceros. Si bien en noviembre de 2006, la CAN acepta a Chile como país miembro con estatus de observador del grupo, también es cierto que la política exterior y los objetivos del mercado común en la CAN se exportaciones colombinas a Venezuela se han aumentado en comienzan a aplazar en la agenda comercial, esta situación más de 8% en la frontera. Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 25 hace que los países integrantes de la CAN miren cada vez aplazó la agenda de negociones con México y los más hacia otros mercados, antes que los acuerdos centroamericanos que se venía desarrollando desde finales regionales. de la década de los noventa; estos países han preferido dirigir sus acuerdos a Estados Unidos, antes que a la región. Finalmente la política exterior de la CAN se ha extendido a China, Rusia e India, a través de diversos mecanismos de diálogo y cooperación en temas de interés común en lo social, ambiental, político, pero no en la concertación de verdaderos acuerdos comerciales, con una posición de bloque. (CAN, 2008).

1) La agenda económica colombo-venezolana

A pesar de la búsqueda de nuevos socios comerciales, de la retirada de Venezuela de la CAN, y de los últimos acontecimiento de los desencuentros políticos, el comercio colombo-venezolano ha mostrado un importante dinamismo; en 2006 el intercambio finalizó en US $6.000 millones, en 2007 alcanzó US $7.000 millones, y en 2008 llegó a la cifra US $7.950 millones, la dinámica comercial del período 2006 y 2008 se da como resultado del comportamiento económico de los países, especialmente del crecimiento del PIB y de la En efecto, no sólo el comercio de la CAN comienza a ser revaluación del bolívar que se ha presentado a propósito de inferior como lo muestra la gráfica anterior, sino que la la bonanza petrolera que viene experimentando Venezuela agenda económica andina, como el arancel externo común desde 2004, cuando el precio de la cesta OPEP pasa de US ya no se tiene en cuenta en él bloque; desde la retirada de $45 a más de US $100 el barril en 2006 y US $80 en 2009. Venezuela, la CAN tiene como máxima la perfección de la La bonanza fue importante toda vez que el vecino país zona de libre comercio al interior del grupo, y las relaciones recobró el crecimiento económico con tasas superiores 6% con otros países del mundo antes que la regional y la propia anual entre 2005 y 2008. De igual manera la bonanza generó latinoamericana. La consolidación de una política común y acumulación de divisas, llegando a aumentar las reservas de integración regional se queda sólo en lo que se pueda internacionales del vecino país hasta cerca de US $50.000 consolidar en UNASUR. La falta de una de política exterior millones en 2008; las divisas incentivaron todas las común es lo que más se ha notado en estos últimos cuatro importaciones del mundo, incluyendo las de Colombia. años al interior de la CAN; cabe mencionar que antes del Entre 2005 y 2008 Venezuela aumentó sus compras del retiro de Venezuela la posición de los dos países se centraba resto del mundo de US $30.000 millones a US $50.000 en lograr un Mercado Común Andino. Hay que acotar que, millones (Conindustria, 2009), respectivamente; dentro de la decisión 598 de la CAN de 2005 que autorizó a cada país esta dinámica, Colombia en ese período ocupó el segundo de la región negociaciones con los Estados Unidos, sigue lugar de origen de las importaciones de Venezuela. En 2008 aplicándose para realizar nuevas negociaciones con terceros, las ventas colombianas, contra todos los pronósticos, en un claro reto al proyecto andino. Solo hay que resaltar sumaron US $6.700 millones, 87% superiores a 2007. La que la negociación de una zona libre comercio por ejemplo dinámica de las exportaciones colombianas, sirve para con la Unión Europea UE que, se está realizando en 2010 se concluir que hasta 2008 todavía Colombia era un socio da en el marco de negociaciones de Colombia y Perú con la importante para Venezuela, y que pese a los desencuentros UE; como se ha comentado en varias oportunidades los políticos y los acercamientos de los países a los mercados de andinos al negociar por separado pierden margen de Estados Unidos y del Mercosur, el espacio colombo- maniobra para consolidar el mercado y la política externa venezolano era altamente competitivo. Las exportaciones de común del grupo (Beltrán, 2006). La Decisión 667 de 2007 Colombia en 2008 se ven favorecidas por los intentos de los de la CAN, define el marco general para las negociaciones dos países por establecer una agenda económica comercial del Acuerdo de Asociación entre la Comunidad Andina y la para superar los impases políticos de ese año. Cabe recordar Unión Europea. En este contexto, entre el 2007 y el 2008 se que después de los incidentes de marzo de 2008, cierre de la celebran tres rondas de negociación para avanzar hacia un frontera y ruptura de las relaciones diplomáticas, por lo que Acuerdo de Asociación con tres pilares: político, fue muerte de “Raúl Reyes” en Ecuador, llevó a que los dos cooperación y comercial, pero en 2009 cada país otra vez países en la “Cumbre de Rio” celebrada en República comenzaron a negociar por separado con ese bloque. De Dominicana, abriera un nuevo encuentro de dialogo igual manera, podría señalarse que la CAN, desde el retiro comercial entre los Presidentes: Chávez y Uribe. El de Venezuela ha perdido interés como grupo para consolidar encuentro se celebró en Venezuela en agosto de 2008, la integración en América Latina; en los últimos 4 años se P a g e | 26 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science restableciendo la agenda política12 y económica con Las cifras que sí mostraban preocupación para el acuerdos de complementación. Cabe decir que producto de intercambio en 2008 eran las exportaciones de Venezuela a los acuerdos, se creó un fondo de US $200 millones para Colombia que ese año apenas fueron de US $1.500 millones apoyar al sector empresarial de ambos países para palear la (Ver gráfico No.4). El resultado anterior pudo haber sido crisis internacional del sector productive bilateral13. En la producto de los nuevos acuerdos de complementación de misma reunión se acordó, entre otros: creación de una línea Venezuela con países como China y Rusia a donde se de crédito para impulsar la exportación entre pequeñas y dirigió la oferta venezolana de productos como el hierro, medianas empresas, y el uso de monedas locales en acero y derivados de petróleo que eran tradicionalmente intercambios comerciales14."Otro acuerdo importante fue el exportados a Colombia; pues el ambiente económico en relativo a la exportación de vehículos a Venezuela, nuestro país era muy favorable para reactivar las compras intercambio que estaba paralizado desde abril de 2008, en el desde Venezuela: entre 2007 y 2008, el crecimiento del PIB mismo se le dio a Colombia el cupo de importación de de Colombia fue de 6% anual y el peso se revaluó en más de 10.000 permisos, dando prioridad a los destinados al 20% real.En conclusión el comercio bilateral alcanza US transporte público, taxis y camiones. $7.950 millones en 2008; producto de las exportaciones de colombianas de US $6.700 millones e importaciones de Venezuela de US $1.200 millones. El intercambio en 2008 conservó la especialidad natural del comercio bilateral; es decir que Colombia vendió productos a Venezuela en

12 industria liviana y automotriz, especialmente productos Este encuentro permitió que el nuevo embajador de como: alimentos, automóviles, confecciones y textiles, entre Caracas en Bogotá, Gustavo Márquez, asumiera Otros. Venezuela por su dotación de recursos naturales formalmente su cargo en Bogotá. El encuentro se denominó continúo siendo abastecedor de materias primas a Colombia: Agenda "para la paz", en una sesión Uribe aprovechó petróleo, química básica, papel y metalúrgica, entre otros. para reiterar que si las Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (FARC) quieren llegar a un acuerdo de paz deberán "cesar las actividades criminales". Una propuesta que fue respaldada por Chávez quien manifestó estar dispuesto a "respetar las decisiones del gobierno colombiano". "Venezuela no apoya ni apoyará movimientos armados y violentos en Colombia ni en ninguna parte del mundo", afirmó el presidente venezolano.Las relaciones entre Caracas y Bogotá afrontaron sus peores momentos en 2008, después de que las fuerzas armadas de Colombia bombardearan un campamento guerrillero en territorio ecuatoriano en el que murió el número dos de las FARC, Raúl Reyes.

13 El Fondo también se utilizaría para promocionar y financiar proyectos relacionados con el transporte, la salud, el ambiente, la educación, la agricultura y la infraestructura, entre otros campos, impulsar las exportaciones e importaciones de las pequeñas y medianas empresas de los 2) Crisis y desintegración bilateral en 2009 dos países. En cuanto al suministro de energía entre Puerto Inírida y San Fernando de Atabapo, el memorando firmado En 2009 las exportaciones colombianas bajaron hasta 4.000 permitirá realizar los estudios para verificar si el proyecto es millones, 150% inferiores a 2008, las exportaciones viable. venezolanas alcanzaron apenas US $900 millones; es claro anotar que el resultado comercial seda en medio de la crisis 14 El Presidente Chávez afirmaba que, “para que no internacional y las agitadas relaciones políticas después de necesitemos de los dólares ni de ninguna otra moneda, que Colombia firmara un acuerdo con los Estados Unidos, utilizaremos el peso y el bolívar. Pediremos a los bancos consistente en la operación de bases militares por agentes centrales que incorporen una cámara de compensación, un norteamericanos en territorio colombiano. La disminución sistema parecido al Sucre -moneda única que se pretende de 40% del intercambio también coincide con el crecimiento establecer en los países que conforman la Alternativa negativo del PIB de Venezuela de 2%;y del magro Bolivariana para los Pueblos de nuestra América (ALBA)-". incremento del PIB colombiano de apenas 0.5%. Finalmente indició de manera negativa en las ventas de los dos países, las revaluaciones del peso y el bolívar que alcanzaron 10% y 30%, respectivamente. Los resultados que Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 27 son consecuentes con la incidencia política en la agenda Donde se observa con preocupación la pérdida de mercado comercial y la desintermediación entre los dos países son los en el espacio bilateral, es en las importaciones de Colombia relacionados a las inversiones bilaterales. La inversión provenientes de Venezuela. Como se comentó anteriormente cruzada en 2009 fue negativa en ambos mercados, los Venezuela ocupó el 10 lugar como abastecedor de Colombia colombianos sacaron capitales de Venezuela por US $ 80 en 2009, cuando en 2005 ocupaba el 2 lugar. En los últimos millones, y de Venezuela en Colombia por más de US $50 cuatro años, en cambio los Estados Unidos se han millones.. Sobra advertir que, los estudios de inversión consolidado como el primer lugar de origen de las bilateral señalan que los flujos de capitales son muy importaciones colombianas con una participación que ha sensibles a la incertidumbre política en cada país; los pasado de 35% en 2005, a 38% en 2009; también han anuncios del Presidente Chávez de nacionalizar empresas de ganado participación en el mercado colombiano los países comercio como la empresa Éxito de propiedad de de China, México y Brasil, antes que Venezuela.La colombianos, ya habían provocado incertidumbre en los resistencia del dinamismo comercial bilateral ante los inversionistas colombianos. nuevos escenarios de integración hemisférica es la variable que permite seguir insistiendo en el relanzamiento de la 3) Comercio bilateral con MERCOSUR y Estados Unidos integración entre Colombia y Venezuela; la agenda Como se comentó en el ítem anterior todavía no hay económica común como lo expresa Ramírez (2006) es la evidencia clara de desplazamiento de oferta colombiana en que ha contribuido a relajar la agenda política conflictiva.En Venezuela por los mercados de Brasil y Argentina que, son primera instancia, Colombia podría llevar a Venezuela al en la práctica los grandes competidores de Colombia en ese TLC con Estados Unidos si el vecino país, en un posible país. Venezuela le ha dado beneficios en materia comercial tratado con Colombia, profundiza sus políticas encaminadas a Brasil y Argentina, no sólo firmando acuerdos de a abastecer de materias primas a Colombia para complementación económica y organización de misiones transformarlas y enviarlas a Estados Unidos; cabe empresariales, sino que les ha dado cupos de importación y mencionar que en las negociaciones del TLC, Estados preferencias en la entrega de divisas a esas naciones. Al Unidos permitió que Colombia no tenga aranceles para observa el cuadro de importaciones de Venezuela, se componentes importados de la CAN, lo que hace atractivo encuentra que Colombia con un participación de 12% es el reactivar la cadena petroquímica. Hay muchos sectores de segundo proveedor de Venezuela, después de los Estados exportaciones de Colombia a Estados Unidos que, compran Unidos. Brasil ocupa el cuarto lugar como lugar de compra materia prima de Venezuela para exportar a los Estados de Venezuela sobrepasando a México; el país azteca es otro Unidos (CEPAL, 2008), sólo basta citar productos como los país que ha perdido importancia para las importaciones de agrícolas, los plásticos, los textiles y las confecciones que Venezuela, toda vez la retirada de Venezuela del G-3 en tienen altos componentes importados por Colombia, 2006. (Ver Cuadro No.2) provenientes de las industria agro-industriales y química de Venezuela (Araujo, 2006; VenEconomía, 2006).

IV. PROYECCIONES COMERCIALES Revisando los escenarios de la integración colombo- venezolana cabe mencionar que en 2006, las principales proyecciones académicas (Beltrán 2009), indicaban que las negociaciones con terceros mercados serían el punto nodal para entender lo que pasaría con la integración bilateral; sin embargo por lo que se ha visto es necesario en la agenda introducir nuevas viables de análisis como la agenda política y en especial la posibilidad de tener entre los países nuevos acuerdos comerciales, bien dentro del marco bilateral o andino. Así se han elaborado dos escenarios uno que llamaremos pesimista y otro optimista en la integración bilateral para el período 2010-2012..

1) Escenario pesimista

Los supuestos de este escenario parten de reconocer que la crisis internacional de 2009 golpearía a las economías de Colombia y Venezuela; dado que la misma no sólo disminuiría las compras externas e inversiones extranjeras, sino que la misma traería aparejado la caída del PIB de ambas naciones. El Departamento Nacional de Planeación de Colombia (DNP, 2010), estima que el PIB presentará crecimientos de 2% en 2010, para luego P a g e | 28 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science recuperarse entre 2011 y 2012 a tasas que oscilarán entre 2 y 3%. VenEconomía (2009) y el BCV (2010) estima que la economía venezolana apenas crecerá 2% en 2010, y en un escenario de cotización de cesta del petróleo venezolano de US $70, la economía para el período 2011 y 2012, presentará tasas de crecimiento de 4% anual. La proyección de tasa de cambio de equilibrio real peso/bolívar, para todos los años es de 120% que, significa con relación a diciembre de 1998 (año base 100%) que, el peso se devaluará 20% en términos reales con relación al bolívar. Es factible este escenario de tipos de cambio, toda vez la inflación en Venezuela que se En el escenario anterior, el primer año estimado es 2010, proyecta en más de 25% anual, y la estabilidad de cuando las exportaciones colombianas a Venezuela Colombia de una inflación de un digito no superior a 3% disminuirán a US $3.000 millones, es decir 35% anual.El escenario pesimista se complementa con la inferiores a 2009. El efecto es macroeconómico por la previsión trágica de desintegración; donde Colombia y desaceleración del crecimiento del PIB y disminución de Venezuela no realizarían ningún tratado comercial entre las importaciones de Venezuela provenientes de todo el 2010 y 2012, situación que llevaría desde el 2011 a los mundo; se estima que estas últimas apenas lleguen a US empresarios de los países al pago de aranceles en el $35.000 millones; escenario donde si bien Colombia no espacio colombo-venezolano. Este escenario fatalista pierde su mercado y mantiene una participación entre sugiere que más del 95% de los bienes del espacio 12% y 15% en las compras de Venezuela, las bilateral tendrán que pagar aranceles de 10.0% en exportaciones serán 30% inferiores a 2009. De otro lado, promedio a partir de abril de 2011; los aranceles son la las exportaciones de Venezuela a Colombia, ante la caída media que pagan los diferentes países en cada espacio y en el ritmo de crecimiento económico en Colombia, se que se suponen deben pagar los exportadores de los dos ubicarían apenas en US $1.000 millones en 2010; 25% países, si no hay ningún acuerdo comercial. también inferiores al registro de 2009. Hasta aquí se estima que el comercio bilateral será de alrededor de US $4.000 millones en 2010; 25% inferior a 2009.El escenario fatalista de largo plazo señala que, en caso que el comercio entre los dos países deba pagar aranceles a partir de 2011, tasas de 10% que es el arancel promedio de los dos países frente a terceros, el comercio bilateral a penas llegaría a US $ 2.000 en 2012; nivel igual al del año 2000; las exportaciones de los dos países ganan especialmente por la recuperación del PIB de ambos países, pero lo pierden por el pago de aranceles; no hay que olvidar que la elasticidad de las exportaciones colombinas es inversa al pago de aranceles en casi i6%.

2) Escenario Optimista

En este escenario donde prima la sensatez,- los dos países deciden firmar un nuevo acuerdo comercial, bien sea de complementación económica en el marco de ALADI, o porque no, la firma de un Mercado Común bilateral que se puede darse con el retorno de Venezuela a la CAN-, y se mantienen las previsiones macroeconómicas de crecimiento del PIB, y estabilidad cambiaria, como el no pago de aranceles; estima tasas de crecimiento anuales para el comercio de bienes cercanas al 50% después de 2010; esto complementado con el restablecimiento de las relaciones políticas, se traducirá en el aumento de las importaciones de ambos países, llevando de vuelta al comercio bilateral a la dinámica de los años 2005 y 2008; con un ingrediente adicional, y es el despeje definitivo de las ventas venezolanas que, siempre se estimulan más que las colombianas cuando hay nuevos acuerdos comerciales. Con las proyecciones de casuística, el escenario optimista Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 29 también refleja caída del comercio en 2010, pero unas muy El escenario optimista se acaba de complementar, buenas perspectivas para el período 2011 y 2012, por la estimando las inversiones cruzadas entre los países en los recuperación en el crecimiento económico en ambos países, próximos cuatro años. En efecto en materia de inversión y la entrada en vigencia del nuevo acuerdo; este escenario se cruzada se espera que entre 2011-2012, el proyecto sólo de ve complementado definitivamente por el mantenimiento de complementación energética en gas, aliente los montos de los precios del petróleo. Con una cesta del petróleo de US inversión pública entre los países y genere efectos $70 el barril, se estima que las importaciones totales de ese multiplicadores a los sectores privados. El gasoducto país lleguen a US $40.000 millones en 2010, y US $65.000 bilateral “Guajira-Zulia” que, llevará gas de Colombia a millones en 2012; sí Colombia mantiene la participación de Venezuela por siete años, y que, después durante otros siete 16% o 15% en ese mercado, las exportaciones llegarían a años, Venezuela sea el que abastezca a Colombia, US $9.500 millones en 2011; y a US $10.000 millones en demandará en su construcción inversiones públicas por más 2012. De otro lado, la recuperación de la economía de US $300 millones anuales, y se proyecta que su efecto colombiana llevaría las importaciones de Colombia a cerca multiplicador, produzca otras inversiones directas del sector de US $50.000 millones en 2012, con lo cual si las privado cercanas US $200 millones anuales15. Las exportaciones desde Venezuela suben su participación de 6 inversiones cruzadas también se beneficiarán si los dos hasta 12%,- como la tuvieron en la época en que se aceleró países deciden la construcción del “Poliducto Colombo- la zona de libre comercio en 1991, o el mismo año de 1995 Venezolano”; proyecto para sacar petróleo de Venezuela con la unificación del arancel externo común-, es factible por el pacifico colombiano con destino a los países de Asia, que las mismas se ubiquen por encima de US $6.000 particularmente a China; en este proyecto se estiman millones anuales en 2012.En el escenario optimista, inversiones de US $2.000 millones. En conclusión, sumando exportaciones de los países, el comercio bilateral podemos decir que en el mediano plazo, el comercio total llegaría a cerca de US $15.000 millones en 2012; es bilateral, en un escenario de mercado común y proyectos de decir 100% superior a lo que fue el “boom del 2008”; este complementación económica conjunta, acompañados de monto representaría cerca del 55% del total de comercio inversiones públicas y privadas, llevarían a una fuerte intra-grupo de MERCOSUR, lo que llevaría a concluir que expansión del comercio de bienes. Las inversiones públicas el comercio colombo-venezolano se convertiría de lejos en en el comercio colombo-venezolano siempre han el segundo grupo de interés para el comercio en suramérica. demostrado que pueden jalonar las inversiones privadas y el En el anterior escenario se propone, antes que una zona de intercambio de bienes, incluso en proyectos sociales que, libre comercio para consolidar los logros del comercio parecen ser la etapa más perseguida por nuestros hacedores bilateral, la creación de un “Mercado Común” que, implique de política internacional, para dar cabida y más compromisos más serios entre los dos países. participación de la sociedad civil a los beneficios del comercial bilateral.

V. A MANERA DE CONCLUSIÓN

El comercio colombo-venezolano tiene muchas posibilidades para continuar su dinámica; si bien el retiro de Venezuela de la CAN ha incidido en la desintegración bilateral y Andina para no tener un mercado común regional; las altas complementariedades bilaterales como

vecindades manufactureras (Colombia) y mineras (Venezuela), hacen que las dos economías sean

15 El ministro de Energía y Petróleo y presidente de PDVSA, Rafael Ramírez, informó que “por el nivel de inversiones, se ha decidido que el gasoducto lo operará y asumirá Petróleos de Venezuela y, sobre la base de esa decisión, tenemos un cronograma de ingeniería e inicio de obras para el primer semestre del año 2006”.Precisó el titular de Energía y Petróleo que la culminación del proyecto se espera dentro de los siguientes 24 meses. Asimismo, los recursos para la construcción de esta infraestructura, en la cual también participará la empresa estatal petrolera neogranadina Ecopetrol, están contemplados dentro del presupuesto de PDVSA y del Plan Siembra Petrolera 2006-2012.

P a g e | 30 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science competitivas en el espacio bilateral, incluso para proyectar BELTRÁN LUIS NELSON (2006). “Comercio colombo- esas ventajas a los mercados de Estados Unidos y Brasil.En venezolano a elegir entre la zona de libre comercio y el los últimos cinco años, el comercio de bienes ya alcanza el Mercado Común”, en Cinep, Actualidad colombiana, pp, 1- 40% de los intercambios de MERCOSUR, 20 puntos 2Edición No. 434 julio 31 - agosto 14, julio 2006. porcentuales superiores a 1991, cuando se relanzó la BELTRÁN,MORA LUIS NELSON (2007): “Estructura del integración bilateral.Colombia y Venezuela deben relanzar comercio colombo-venezolano y proyecciones en los nuevos la integración bilateral por la vía de la creación de un nuevo ejes de integración hemisférica”, trabajo de DEA, acuerdo comercial que supere la agitada agenda política Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, octubre 2007 que, ha impactado de manera negativa tanto los flujos de BELTRÁN,MORA LUIS NELSON (2009): “Ventajas inversiones como la consolidación de la CAN. Colombia y comparativas y competitivas en la integración colombo- Venezuela podrían firmar acuerdos de complementación venezolana, cadenas productivas conjuntas: las económica en el marco de la ALADI para aprovechar sus exportaciones a Estados Unidos Y Brasil”; Tesis doctoral altas complementariedades, incluso para proyectarlas a los UAM, noviembre de 2009 mercados de Estados Unidos y Mercosur, economías con BELTRAN L Y VIERA E (2008: “Colombia y Venezuela las cuales se adelantan negociaciones actualmente. en los nuevos ejes de integración hemisférica”, en Unisalle, Colombia podría llevar a Venezuela a disfrutar las 2008. preferencias que da el TLC con Estados Unidos, si el vecino BID (2002): “Más allá de las fronteras, El nuevo país reactiva sus ventas de materias primas a Colombia, regionalismo en América Latina”, EN Progreso Económico toda vez que las mismas se pueden transformar para luego y Social en América Latina D.C. venderlas como productos más elaborados a los Estados CAF (2004): “Hacia Una Mayor y Mejor Inserción de los Unidos. 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BECKERMAN PAUL (2005): “Andean Exchanges-rate GARCÍALARRALDE, H (2004): “Competitividad en el regímenes, 1994-2003: a Brief for Stable but Flexible Comercio Bilateral Colombo-Venezolano ante los desafíos Regimenes” Series Macroeconomía del Desarrollo, No 34, del ALCA”, en Integración 2003-2004, Cámara Colombo Santiago de Chile: CEPAL. Venezolana. BLANCO, HERMINIO Y JAIME ZABLUDOVSKY GRIEN, RAUL (1996): “La integración económica como (2003): “Alcances y límites de la negociación del Acuerdo alternativa inédita para América Latina”, FCE, México, de libre Comercio de las Américas”, Documento de trabajo 1996. IECI – 01, BID / INTAL, Buenos Aires. MONCAYO EDGARD (2003): “La Geografía económica BELTRÁN, LUIS NELSON (2004): “El Nafta; México de la Comunidad Andina; regiones nuevos actores de la una Experiencia para tener en cuenta”, revista integración”, Lima: Secretaria General de la Comunidad Administración EAN, Bogota Andina. 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ORTEGA ALVAREZ, (2004): “Intentando el crecimiento liderado por las exportaciones” en ¿Quién se beneficia de libre comercio?, PNUD 2004. RAMÍREZ, Socorro (2006): “¿De una aguda tensión a una asociación estratégica?” en Colombia-Venezuela, Retos de la Convivencia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, CAF editorial Unibiblos, 2006. VENECONOMÍA (2006):“Nuevos horizontes para la petroquímica venezolana”. VENECONOMÍA (2009): “Previsiones socio económicas de Venezuela 2009-2013, en www.veneconomia.org VERA, L. (2007): “Venezuela: encrucijada de un modelo de desarrollo productivo”. Real instituto Elcano. 10 de octubre de 2007. Disponible en línea en:http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/wps/portal/rielcano/co ntenido?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/Elcano_es/Zonas_e s/Cooperacion+y+Desarrollo/ARI107-2007. VIEIRA POSADA, E (2008): “Consideraciones de la integración andina en el contexto hemisférico”,en Colombia y Venezuela, Unisalle 2008 WAGNER TIZON, A (2005): “El futuro de la Integración Andina”, en “Hacia una mayor y mejor inserción de los países andinos en la economía global”, Fescol 2005 P a g e | 32 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science Crecimiento Económico, Distribución Y Conflicto (Spanish to English)Economic Growth, Distribution and Conflict José Reyes Bernal Bellón GJHSS-C Classification FOR 140202,140202,140104,140303

Resumen- Este artículo presenta una relación entre el tiempo, como regularidades internacionales. A estos hechos crecimiento económico, la distribución del ingreso, y el se les ha denominado, “ hechos estilizados del crecimiento”. conflicto. Justamente, uno de los hechos estilizados del crecimiento económico se refiere al impacto negativo que tiene II. HECHOS ESTILIZADOS DERIVADOS DEL la mala distribución del ingreso y el conflicto sobre la tasa de COMPORTAMIENTO ECONÓMICO crecimiento de la economía. Mediante un modelo Kaleckiano, Kaldor (1961), fue el primero en plantear este concepto de se presenta la relación entre distribución y crecimiento y a su vez, la relación entre distribución y conflicto. Se concluye para hechos estilizados, encontrando seis regularidades que la economía Colombiana que la mala distribución del ingreso parecen darse en todos los países del mundo. Estos hechos genera, no solamente, menor crecimiento, sino que también son: a) crecimiento de la renta per cápita, b) relación capital- genera mayor conflicto. producto, se mantiene constante en el tiempo, al igual que su Palabras Clave:crecimiento económico, distribución del variación, c) la tasa de interés es constante en el largo plazo, ingreso, conflict d) la relación capital-trabajo siempre crece, e) las Abstract -This article presents a very close relationship between participaciones a la remuneración de los factores han economic growth, income distribution, and conflict. Precisely, permanecido relativamente constantes, y f) el crecimiento de one of the stylized facts of economic growth refers to the neg- la renta per cápita difiere entre países y no es ative impact of poor income distribution and conflict on the constante.Posteriormente Romer (1990), identifica otros rate of growth of the economy. By Kaleckian model shows the hechos estilizados. Easterli y Levine (2000) y Agenor (1999 relationship between distribution and growth and in turn the relationship between distribution and conflict. The conclusion ) diseñan algunos hechos estilizados y tratan de cuantificar for the Colombian economy is that poor income distribution su relación con el crecimiento económico. Por ejemplo, generates, not only, lower growth, but also generates greater Easterli y Levine (2000) plantean que el crecimiento conflict. económico no es resultado únicamente de la acumulación de Keys words: economic growth, income distribution, factores, sino que también influye en él un “residuo” conflict.JEL: O15, O40, Z13 conocido como la Productividad Total de Factores (PTF). Se consideran cinco hechos estilizados para explicar que el problema central del crecimiento económico no es entender I. CRECIMIENTO ECONÓMICO Y CONFLICTO el proceso por el que una economía aumenta sus tasas de a teoría del crecimiento económico identifica los ahorro y su acumulación de capital físico, sino entender a factores que inciden en el comportamiento de la qué se refiere la PTF y cuáles son sus determinantes. Los econoL mía a través del tiempo en un contexto de largo plazo. cinco hechos estilizados que examina el documento son: La teoría económica dominante que explica este hecho, es la 1) La acumulación de factores no explica las grandes teoría neoclásica, es decir, el modelo de crecimiento de diferencias en el nivel y el crecimiento del PIB per Solow - Swan (1956) y sus diferentes modificaciones y cápita entre países, mientras que sí lo hace la extensiones. Este enfoque plantea que el crecimiento está productividad total de factores. De ahí, la necesidad de condicionado por factores de oferta como el ahorro, el definir rigurosamente el término PTF e identificar las crecimiento de la población, el stock de capital, el cambio políticas e instituciones que permiten su crecimiento. técnico, el capital humano, etc.En contraposición a estos 2) El PIB per cápita, diverge sustancialmente entre países. planteamientos, se encuentra el enfoque heterodoxo que En 1820 la razón del crecimiento entre países ricos y plantea que el crecimiento está explicado por elementos de pobres era de 6 a 1, en 1992 esta relación fue de 70 a 1. demanda como la inversión autónoma, el gasto del gobierno, La historia muestra que durante los últimos 200 a 300 el sector externo y la cantidad de dinero ( Harrod;1939, años hay mayor divergencia entre los niveles de ingreso 1966, 1979), (Thirlwall ;1979, 2000), (Paley; 1996a, per cápita entre el rico y el pobre. Es decir, que el rico 1996c.).No obstante, en estas dos vertientes de pensamiento, crece más rápido que el pobre. la teoría del crecimiento ha identificado algunos hechos que 3) La acumulación de factores es persistente sobre el se repiten en todas las economías del mundo y que tiempo, mientras que el crecimiento no. La correlación permanecen a través del del crecimiento per cápita en 1977-92 con el 1960-76 entre 135 países es sólo del 0,8. De lo contrario, la ______correlación entre períodos del crecimiento del capital About -Ph. D en ciencias Económicas, Magíster en ciencias Económicas y per cápita es de 0.41. Economista.Profesor asociado de la Universidad de la 4) La actividad económica está altamente concentrada con [email protected] todos los factores de producción fluyendo en las áreas Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 33

más ricas. Los autores prueban el nivel de 1,2% en ese mismo periodo; el ingreso per cápita de India concentración de la economía con datos de provincias como porcentaje del de Estados Unidos habrá caído a 3.3% dentro de Estados Unidos, información de los países en en el 2100 luego de ser 6.3% en 1992. El ingreso per cápita desarrollo, y datos de los flujos internacionales de de Estados Unidos se incrementa siete veces, mientras que capital, trabajo y capital humano. A nivel global, los el de la India 3.63 veces.Adicionalmente, Agenor desarrolla estados con ingresos altos están concentrados entre un los hechos sobre crecimiento económico, factores de pequeño número de naciones, 20 naciones en el mundo producción y población: a) El producto por trabajador tiende tienen únicamente el 15% de la población mundial pero a crecer en el tiempo a pesar de las grandes diferencias de producen el 50% del PIB mundial. De lo contrario, los las tasas entre países, b) las tasas de crecimiento de los más pobres tienen la mitad de la población mundial y factores de producción no explican completamente la tasa de producen únicamente el 14% del PIB global. crecimiento económico, c) el concepto de tasa de 5) Las políticas nacionales afectan el crecimiento crecimiento no está relacionado con el nivel inicial del económico de largo plazo. En modelos con crecimiento ingreso per cápita entre países y d) las tasas de crecimiento de productividad cero, retornos decrecientes de los poblacional se relacionan negativamente con el nivel de factores de producción y algunos factores fijos, las ingreso per cápita y su tasa de crecimiento entre políticas nacionales que impulsan a la acumulación de países.Agenor también menciona los hechos relacionados capital tienen un efecto sólo de transición en el con ahorro, inversión y crecimiento: a) Las tasas de ahorro crecimiento. En modelos que enfatizan el crecimiento están relacionadas positivamente con el nivel y el de la PTF, las políticas nacionales que aumentan la crecimiento del ingreso per cápita, b) el crecimiento de la eficiencia del capital y el trabajo, estimulan la inversión y la participación de la inversión en el producto productividad y con ello el crecimiento económico de están positivamente relacionadas con el crecimiento del largo plazo. ingreso per cápita. El autor introduce claramente la relación El trabajo de Agenor (1999) establece que la variación de entre pobreza y crecimiento. Menciona dos indicadores para las tasas de crecimiento anual entre países, no se pueden medir la pobreza: el índice de pobreza que mide la mediante modelos neoclásicos que le atribuyen el proporción de individuos que ganan menos de un valor de crecimiento al progreso tecnológico.Su artículo está dividido ingreso y la brecha de la pobreza que es el promedio de la en tres partes: la primera presenta algunas características del diferencia del ingreso de los pobres respecto a la línea de crecimiento económico en el largo plazo; la segunda, realiza pobreza, multiplicado por el número de personas. Y verifica algunas operaciones aritméticas que permiten cuantificar los por comparación estadística entre países, el siguiente hecho: efectos en el nivel de vida de las diferencias en el las reducciones en las tasas de pobreza requieren de tasas de crecimiento y medir cuánto tiempo necesitaría un país para crecimiento sostenidas.Otro factor que Agénor enuncia es el duplicar su crecimiento y qué tasas de crecimiento efecto de la inflación en la pobreza (en los gráficos se ve necesitaría para cumplir con un nivel de ingreso per cápita a una relación inversa).Otros autores han señalado la relación largo plazo. En la tercera parte, desarrolla algunos hechos entre inequidad en el ingreso y pobreza en el caso de básicos sobre a) Crecimiento, factores de producción y Latinoamérica (Londoño y Skékely).Finalmente el autor población, b) ahorro, inversión y crecimiento, c) pobreza y relaciona el comercio, la inflación y el desarrollo financiero crecimiento, d) inequidad, crecimiento y desarrollo y e) con los siguientes hechos: a) El crecimiento del volumen de comercio, inflación y desarrollo financiero. En la primera importaciones y exportaciones esta asociado positivamente parte, Agenor analiza la perspectiva de largo plazo y con el crecimiento económico, b) la relación entre inflación menciona cinco características: a) Las altas tasas de ingreso y crecimiento es negativa si se busca estabilidad per cápita desde 1820 están concentradas en aquellos países macroeconómica y no lineal si la reducción de la inflación que ya eran prósperos desde inicios del S XIX, b) los de niveles bajos es poco significativa en el crecimiento, c) el patrones en conjunto sugieren que los niveles de ingreso per desarrollo del sistema financiero (crédito del sector privado) cápita convergen en el largo plazo entre los países está asociado positivamente con el crecimiento desarrollados, mientras que con el tiempo divergen entre los económico.Estos hechos se muestra a través de gráficos que países ricos y pobres, c) de 1870 a 1990 la razón del ingreso comparan estadísticas entre diferentes países. per cápita entre el país más rico y el más pobre se III. HECHOS ESTILIZADOS DEL CONFLICTO Y incrementó por un factor de 5, d) existen grandes diferencias CRECIMIENTO en el crecimiento entre los países en desarrollo y a través del tiempo, y e) la tasa de crecimiento por año entre 1973-1992 Uno de los hechos estilizados del crecimiento (Romer; fue de 1,7% para Etiopía y Perú y de 6.9% para Corea del 1990), se refiere a La inestabilidad política y a los Sur.Asimismo, el autor analiza aritméticamente la relación conflictos internos que pueden dar cuenta de bajas tasas de entre crecimiento y niveles de vida. Las pequeñas crecimiento. En este sentido, es necesario precisar qué se diferencias en el crecimiento económico entre países entiende por conflictos internos, para no confundir con conducen a grandes diferencias en el nivel de vida a través brotes de violencia o delincuencia inesperada entre del tiempo. Por ejemplo, si se espera que Estados Unidos individuos.El concepto de conflicto es tomado de Echeverri crezca 1,8% en los próximos dos siglos y que India crezca (2002) el cual se refiere al enfrentamiento entre grupos P a g e | 34 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science organizados de un mismo país y que genera al menos mil precios.Por el contrario, en el sector agrícola cualquier muertes por año. Este conflicto se caracteriza por: adición en la demanda puede ser cubierto con incrementos en precios o en precios y producción cuando esta es Enfrentamientos armados. insuficiente.Las empresas fijan sus precios teniendo en Larga duración del conflicto. cuenta sus costos primos medios y el precio promedio Migraciones forzosas. establecido por las otras empresas. La idea es que al fijar el Dilemas éticos. precio, este no sea superior al de las otras empresas y no Requerimiento de un alto grado de voluntad puedan vender su producción. Este tipo de fijación de política y de negociación. precios se presentan en la ecuación 1. Necesidad de un proceso para hacer o conservar la p = mu + n p* [1] Donde p es el precio fijado por la empresa considerada, u paz. La vía por la que el conflicto incide negativamente sobre el refleja los costos unitarios, p* es el precio promedio nivel de actividad económica, parece evidente; pero aún se ponderado de todas las empresas competitivas.Los requiere investigación para determinar las vías por las cuales coeficientes m y n positivos y reflejan el ajuste en precio que el conflicto afecta la tasa de crecimiento de la economía. realiza la empresa si suben los costos primos o si las Algunas de estas vías son: empresas rivales suben sus precios. Si se supone que el precio p de la empresa es igual al precio Incidencia del conflicto sobre el ahorro de las economías que padecen este problema. Si el conflicto medio p* de las demás empresas, entonces se sigue que: es fuerte se des- ahorra y viceversa. p = mu + np [2) En la ecuación 2, n<1 para que se cumpla la ecuación. El Impacto sobre el stock de capital. El conflicto puede grado de monopolio puede obtenerse de la siguiente manera: generar daños a la infraestructura del país, orientar p/u =m / (1-n ) [3] los recursos a actividades ilegales y finalmente, no Los coeficientes m y n caracterizan la política seguida por la permitir la acumulación de capital físico y humano empresa para modificar el precio con forme a variaciones en que conlleva a bajos niveles de tecnología. sus costos unitarios y en el precio medio ponderado. Estos es, reflejan el grado de monopolio que posee la empresa. El impacto negativo sobre la inversión se traduce en Este grado de monopolio es importante porque determina la un impuesto más para los empresarios, pues el costo distribución del ingreso entre capitalistas y trabajadores. de oportunidad se incrementa. Kalecki relaciona la distribución del ingreso con el grado de monopolio de la siguiente manera: El valor agregado (valor Impacto negativo sobre el gasto público y el déficit de los productos menos el costo de los materiales) es igual a fiscal.Existe una desviación de los recursos de gasto la suma de los salarios W, los gastos generales y las social hacia el financiamiento de la guerra. ganancias. A su vez, la suma entre gastos generales y ganancias puede representarse por, Impacto negativo sobre el mercado laboral. Hay una (k – 1)(W + M) [4] desviación del capital humano hacia las fuerzas De la ecuación 4, el costo total de los materiales es M y la armadas o migraciones de la mano de obra calificada relación entre los ingresos brutos y los costos primos es k. hacia otros países. Ahora, la participación de los salarios en el valor agregado (w = W/Y) se puede escribir como: IV. UN MODELO DE DISTRIBUCIÓN w = W______[5] El enfoque que se utilizará para tratar de cuantificar la W + (k -1)(W + M) relación entre la distribución de la renta en la sociedad y el Si decimos que j es la relación entre el costo total de los crecimiento económico, será el modelo de Kalecki que materiales y el importe total de los salarios la ecuación involucra explícitamente esta relación.Este modelo da anterior se convierte en: cuenta de la realidad económica colombiana, puesto que la w =______1______[6] estructura de mercado es oligopólica, existe desempleo y la demanda finalmente es la que determina la producción. 1 + (k-1)(j + 1) Asimismo, se incluye dentro de este modelo la relación entre distribución y conflicto.El análisis de Kalecki (1952 ), La participación de los salarios dentro del ingreso, depende parte de la determinación de los precios a través de los inversamente del grado de monopolio (k – 1) y del costo de costos de producción y de la demanda. Las variaciones en materias primas respecto a los salarios. En este caso, un los precios son diferentes en el sector industrial donde la mayor grado de monopolio conduce a un empeoramiento en mayor influencia la hacen los cambios en los costos de la distribución del ingreso, a través de la caída en la producción, porque se supone la existencia de una capacidad participación de los salarios dentro del ingreso. ociosa y por tanto, al aumentar la demanda las empresas pueden acrecentar la cantidad producida sin incrementar los Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 35

Los sueldos y salarios dependen del nivel de producto de la Y= Pt/ (1- ) [14] siguiente manera: Combinando la ecuación 18 con la ecuación 15 se V = B + Y [7] encuentran las determinantes del ingreso de la economía; Y = It - / (1 - )(1-q) [15] Donde B es una constante positiva a corto plazo, pero sujeta La ecuación muestra que los cambios en el ingreso están a cambios a largo plazo.Estos cambios a largo plazo serán determinados por los cambios en la inversión y por la considerados posteriormente.Después de tener la relación distribución del ingreso y por el consumo inducido de los entre sueldos y salarios e ingreso, se plantea la relación entre capitalistas. En consecuencia, un incremento en la inversión los beneficios de la economía, los gastos en consumo y los conduce a un incremento del ingreso de la economía gastos en inversión, suponiendo inicialmente que el sector manteniendo las otras variables constantes. De igual manera, público y el sector externo están en equilibrio.Las ganancias una mejora en la distribución del ingreso conduce a mayor brutas reales están determinadas por las decisiones de crecimiento al igual que un consumo inducido mayor de los inversión y consumo de los capitalistas que han sido capitalistas.En la ecuación 9 (1 - ) es la participación de los formadas en el pasado. Suponiendo que el comercio exterior beneficios dentro del ingreso, mientras que es la y el presupuesto gubernamental están equilibrio y que los participación de los salarios dentro del ingreso, entonces, si trabajadores no ahorran, las ganancias (P) se expresan aumenta la participación de las ganancias el ingreso de la como: economía caerá. Por el contrario, si disminuye 1- es P = I + C [8] porque está creciendo, es decir, la participación de los Donde I es la inversión y C es el consumo de los capitalistas salarios está aumentando y por lo tanto este incremento e igual a: genera mayor crecimiento de la economía.Si se incluye el Ct= qPt- + A [9] sector público dentro de este análisis, el ingreso también El parámetro indica el retraso de la reacción del consumo quedará determinado por el déficit fiscal. En este nuevo de los capitalistas al cambio en su ingreso corriente. El valor contexto, un incremento en el déficit fiscal conducirá a un de q es considerablemente menor a 1 porque los capitalistas incremento del ingreso de la economía a través de su tienden a consumir sólo una parte del incremento de sus impacto positivo sobre las ganancias. La nueva fórmula de ganancias. El consumo posee un parte estable representada los determinantes del ingreso quedará de la siguiente manera por A.Entonces las ganancias en el momento t están Y = ( It - + def)/(1 - )(1-q) [16] definidas por la siguiente ecuación así: En la ecuación 16 def es el déficit fiscal y muestra que Pt = It +qPt - +A [10] mayor déficit conduce a mayor crecimiento del ingreso de la En la ecuación 10, las ganancias están determinadas por la economía. inversión en ese periodo y las ganancias en el momento t - V. DISTRIBUCIÓN Y CONFLICTO , que a su vez están determinadas por la inversión en esa época y por las ganancias en t - 2 , y así sucesivamente. Es La pobreza y la desigualdad son elementos determinantes de decir, las ganancias son función de la inversión actual y de la confrontación humana y el conflicto social y han sido la inversión en el pasado cercano. Bajo este supuesto es de temas de discusión entre los teóricos de las ciencias sociales esperarse que la inversión también dependa de las ganancias desde sus comienzos. Por ejemplo, para los clásicos existía en periodos rezagados, lo que se traduce finalmente en que una relación directa entre inequidad, riqueza y confrontación las ganancias dependerán de la inversión realizada en social. Smith sostuvo que la inequidad, era la principal causa periodos anteriores, así: de la pobreza, pero justificaba esa inequidad como fundamento inherente de la estructura económica que Pt =(It - + A) /(1 – q) [11] Gracias a la dependencia del consumo de los capitalistas de garantizaba la estabilidad del orden social. Al analizar el las ganancias pasadas, el valor actual de éstas queda proceso de acumulación de capital, Smith concluye que la determinado por la inversión rezagado con su pasado más división del trabajo impulsa el crecimiento de los salarios, cercano pero también con el consumo inducido de los pero no garantiza disminuir la inequidad. Para Ricardo, la capitalistas q acumulación de capital, es una parte del proceso de Como el total de sueldos y salarios es igual al ingreso menos distribución, que alimenta un conflicto sin fin, entre las las ganancias, entonces: clases sociales. El conflicto principal es entre salarios y ganancias, pero los terratenientes chocan a su vez contra B + Yt= Yt + Pt [12] capitalistas y asalariados.El esquema planteado Con base en la ecuación 16 se identifican cuáles son los anteriormente muestra que el crecimiento de la economía determinantes del ingreso de la economía, así: depende positivamente de la inversión pero también de la Yt = (B + Pt)) / (1 - ) [13] distribución del ingreso o de la participación de las El producto depende de las ganancias y como éstas a su vez ganancias y los salarios en ese ingreso y de la tasa de ahorro dependen de las inversiones en período pasados, el que en últimas es el coeficiente (1-q).Uno de los hechos crecimiento de la producción estará determinado por: estilizados del conflicto muestra que a mayor conflicto existe un des ahorro en la economía y viceversa. El modelo P a g e | 36 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science planteado arriba, muestra que menor ahorro genera mayor ingreso? Estas relaciones de comportamiento son las que a crecimiento, en consecuencia, no es claro como un mayor continuación se pretenden estimar. conflicto incidiría sobre el ahorro de la economía y como VI. ESTIMACIONES impactaría sobre el crecimiento.De igual manera, se ha planteado un impacto negativo sobre la inversión por efectos La siguiente estimación realizada por el método de mínimos del conflicto. Bajo este contexto es preferible pensar que las cuadrados ordinarios para la economía Colombiana entre mayores ganancias de los capitalistas generan menor 1970 y 2000, corresponde a la ecuación 16 donde se muestra crecimiento y es por esta razón que se genera mayor que existe un impacto positivo sobre el crecimiento de la conflicto. En síntesis, ¿podría explicar el conflicto la economía por efectos de mayor inversión, mayor déficit participación de las ganancias dentro del ingreso de la fiscal, menor tasa de ahorro y mejor distribución del ingreso. economía? O ¿podría mostrarse que el conflicto disminuye El cuadro 1 nos proporciona esta información. si se aumenta la participación de los salarios dentro del

Los resultados del cuadro 1 son concluyentes. En primer mayor crecimiento de la economía. Así, un incremento del lugar, un incremento en la participación de las ganancias 1% en el déficit fiscal (LDEF) aumenta el ingreso de la dentro del ingreso (LGAN), o lo que es lo mismo, una economía en 0,83%, mientras que un aumento de la disminución en la participación de los salarios en el ingreso, inversión del 1% eleva el ingreso en 0,82%.El cuadro 1 empeora el crecimiento de la economía. El resultado también muestra que las variaciones en el crecimiento de la muestra que un incremento del 1% en la participación de las economía están explicadas en un 97% por variaciones en las ganancias en el ingreso reduce el crecimiento de la ganancias, en la tasa de ahorro, la inversión y el déficit economía en 0,24%.De igual manera, un incremento del 1% fiscal. Todas estas variables son significativas con un nivel en la tasa de ahorro (LS) genera impactos negativos sobre el de confianza de más del 99% para explicar las variaciones crecimiento en 0,33%. Tanto la inversión como el déficit en el ingreso de la economía. fiscal juegan un papel importante como jalonadores de Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 37

Las estimaciones del cuadro 2 son realizadas con base en las conflicto entre las clases. En consecuencia, si existe un series de violencia del Departamento Nacional de crecimiento del 1% en los secuestros la participación de las Planeación desde 1970 hasta 2000. Estas series comprenden ganancias dentro del ingreso disminuye en 0,16%. los delitos cometidos contra el Estado, los delitos cometidos El resultado que no es claro, aunque estadísticamente es contra la libertad, los delitos contra la propiedad, los delitos significativo, es el que se refiere al impacto de los delitos contra la vida, total de homicidios y total de secuestros. contra la vida (ldcv). Este resultado obtenido indica que de Desde el punto de vista estadístico, los resultados del cuadro incrementarse en 1% el delito contra la vida entonces la 2 son robustos. Existe una correlación inversa entre la participación de las ganancias dentro del ingreso aumenta cantidad de secuestros (lsec) y la participación de las 0.99%. Esta correlación debería ser analizada con más ganancias dentro del ingreso. Tal como lo expresa Smith cuidado, pero esta tarea supera los alcances del presente yRicardo la pugna distributiva y la mala distribución del estudio ingreso son los causantes del P a g e | 38 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science

que este comportamiento es uno de los hechos estilizados El cuadro 2a muestra también que la participación de las del conflicto y crecimiento, solamente que en este contexto ganancias en el ingreso se reduce en un 0,52% por efectos una menor tasa de ahorro genera mayor crecimiento por los de un incremento del 1% en el total de delitos cometidos en efectos inducidos del consumo sobre la actividad económica Colombia. Este hecho desde luego, presiona sobre a un en general. Desde luego, el documento no está sugiriendo mayor crecimiento y a una mayor distribución de la renta. mayores delitos para generar mayor crecimiento, este En el cuadro 3 se presentan los resultados de la relación ejercicio tan sólo muestra una correlación entre las entre la tasa de ahorro en Colombia y las variables de diferentes variables. Pero si se piensa en que por ejemplo la conflicto y o violencia.Los resultados sugieren en primer guerrilla secuestra a personas diferentes a las fuerzas lugar, que existe una relación inversa entre ahorro y armadas es porque han hecho un rastreo de su riqueza y de secuestro. Un incremento del 1% conlleva a reducir la tasa sus movimientos bancarios. Y si no es la guerrilla quien de ahorro en 0,03%, esto quiere decir, que es preferible secuestra, sino la delincuencia común, entonces ellos consumir y gastarse sus ingresos en bienes y servicios a también tienen información de la riqueza de quien tener que entregarlos a cambio de la libertad. Se recordará secuestran.

En segundo lugar, también se evidencia una relación inversa general las variaciones en la tasa de ahorro son explicadas entre la tasa de ahorro y los delitos contra la libertad (ldcl) y en un 50% por las variables de conflicto. Se considera que los delitos contra la propiedad (ldcp). Aí por ejemplo, un es un buen modelo, dado que en teoría económica las incremento del 1% en los delitos contra la variables que determinan el ahorro son la tasa de interés, el propiedad,disminuye la tasa de ahorro en un 0,85%. En nivel de ingreso y los impuestos como las más relevantes.

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Los resultados del cuadro 4 no reflejan ninguna correlación infraestructura del país y, por tanto, el Estado tiene que entre aumentos en el secuestro y disminuciones de la recurrir algunas veces al sector privado para restaurar la inversión. Esto sugiere que las ganancias pueden ser tan altas que inclusive dan para pagar posibles secuestros. De infraestructura Colombiana.Los siguientes cuadros muestran todas formas esta hipótesis hay que desarrollarla y probarla la relación que puede existir entre la mayor participación de con mayor rigor.Por su parte, tanto los delitos contra la las ganancias dentro del ingreso a costa de la menor libertad (ldcl) como los delitos contra el Estado (ldce) participación de los salarios. Este hecho puede orientar la generan impactos positivos sobre la inversión. Así por discusión en torno a que la mala distribución del ingreso es ejemplo, un incremento del 1% de los delitos contra el una de las variables que genera mayor conflicto en Estado incrementa la inversión en 0,06%. Esto es cierto si se Colombia. tiene en cuenta que este tipo de delitos atenta contra la P a g e | 40 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science

El resultado del cuadro 5 muestra que un aumento en la significativas para explicar este hecho de violencia.En el participación de las ganancias dentro del producto interno cuadro 6 se observa que el crecimiento de la economía bruto (lgan) conlleva a un número mayor de homicidios genera mayores delitos en Colombia. En este contexto, un (lthom) en Colombia, es decir, ante un incremento del 1% incremento del 1% en la renta de la economía conlleva a un en las ganancias como proporción del ingreso el número de incremento en el total de delitos (lude) en cerca de 0,32%. homicidios se incrementa en 0,2%. Asimismo, un Este resultado no es más que el reflejo de un crecimiento sin crecimiento de la población también incrementa el número distribución del ingreso. de homicidios en un 2,4%. Ambas variables son muy Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 41

En el cuadro 7 se presentan los resultados de correlacionar contra la vida en un 0,2%. Así mismo un mayor tamaño de los delitos contra la vida (ldcv) versus la participación de las la población del 1% aumentaría los delitos contra la vida en ganancias dentro del ingreso y el tamaño de la población. cerca del 0,8%Los resultados también sugieren que las Estos resultados sugieren que entre más inequidad exista en variaciones en este hecho de violencia son explicadas en el la distribución del ingreso mayores serán los delitos contra 81% por las variaciones en la participación de las ganancias la vida. Un incremento en la participación de las ganancias y por el tamaño de la población dentro del ingreso del 1% conlleva a incrementar los delitos . P a g e | 42 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science

No se encontró ninguna correlación entre los delitos contra resultado muestra que un incremento del 1% en la la propiedad y las ganancias o el crecimiento de la participación de las ganancias en el ingreso reduce el población. Se sugiere que los dueños del capital y la crecimiento de la economía en 0,24%.De igual manera se concentración del ingreso no deben estar afectados por la demostró que un incremento del 1% en la tasa de ahorro, misma acumulación de ganancias. Tampoco existe evidencia genera impactos negativos sobre el crecimiento en 0,33%. que un mayor déficit fiscal sea explicado por los hechos de Tanto la inversión como el déficit fiscal juegan un papel violencia o del conflicto, pero desde luego se ha mostrado importante como jalonadotes de mayor crecimiento de la que un mayor déficit fiscal si conduce a mayor crecimiento, economía. Así, un incremento del 1% en el déficit fiscal es más, parece ser que la participación de los salarios dentro aumenta el ingreso de la economía en 0,83%, mientras que del ingreso mejora con incrementos en el déficit fiscal. No un aumento de la inversión del 1% eleva el ingreso en obstante, en un trabajo posterior se mostrará con mayor 0,82%.Los resultados no reflejan ninguna correlación entre profundidad las implicaciones de mayor gasto público y o aumentos en el secuestro y disminuciones de la inversión. déficit fiscal sobre el crecimiento pero analizando la cuantía Esto sugiere que las ganancias pueden ser tan altas que del gasto en cada subsector. Asimismo, se realizará un inclusive dan para pagar posibles secuestros. De todas análisis sobre la productividad total de los factores y las formas, esta hipótesis hay que desarrollarla y probarla con variables de conflicto. mayor rigor.Finalmente, se ha mostrados que una mala distribución del ingreso, es decir, una mayor participación VII. CONCLUSIONES de las ganancias dentro del ingreso conduce a mayores El trabajo muestra que existen algunos hechos estilizados niveles de delitos, homicidios, secuestros, atentados contra del crecimiento que hacen referencia no sólo a elementos el Estado, etc. Los resultados también sugieren que las económicos o geográficos o sociales, sino que también los variaciones en este hecho de violencia son explicadas en el conflictos internos desempeñan un papel decisivo sobre la 81% por el tamaño de la población. tasa de crecimiento de la economía.El trabajo muestra que VIII. REFERENCIAS existe una relación inversa entre crecimiento de la economía y la mala distribución del ingreso. Un aumento en la 1) Agenor, P. (1999) “Macroeconomic fluctuations in participación de las ganancias dentro del ingreso reduce el developing countries: some Stylized Facts” World crecimiento de la economía. Más explícitamente, el Bank Economic Review, vol 4. Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 43

2) Easterly W. and Levine R., (2002). "It's Not Factor Accumulation: Stylized Facts and Growth Models," Working Papers Central Bank of Chile 164, Central Bank of Chile 3) Echeverri, J. C. (2002). Las Claves del futuro.Ed. Oveja Negra. 4) Harrod R. F. (1939). “An Essay in Dynamic Theory”. 5) Harrod, R. F. 1966, Hacia una economía dinámica, Madrid, Tecnos. 6) Harrod R. F. (1979) ¨Dinámica Económica¨. Alianza Editorial. 7) Hussein K. y Thirlwall A. (2000). ¨The AK model of New growth theory is the Harrod-Domar growth equation: investment and growth revisted¨ en Journal of post Keynesian Economics. Vol 22 No. 3. 8) Kaldor, N. (1961): " Capital Accumulation and Economic Growth", en F.A. Lutz y D.C. Hague editors, The Theory of Capital. New York: St. Martin's Press. 9) Kalecki, M. “Teoría de la Dinámica Económica”.Ensayo sobre los movimientos cíclicos y a largo plazo de la economía capitalista.(1952). Fondo de Cultura Económica.Segunda reimpresión, 1977. 10) Palley, T. (1996), “Post Keynesian Macroeconomics:Debt, Distribution and the Macroeconomiy”, Londres Macmillan. 11) Palley, T. (1996), “Growth Theory in a Keynesian Mode: Some Keynesian foundations for the theory of economic growth” Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, No. 19. 12) Solow R. (1956). “Un Modelo de Crecimiento” en Economía del Crecimiento de Amartya Sen. Fondo de Cultura Económica. 1989. 13) http://www.dnp.gov.co/PortalWeb/EstudiosEcono micos/Estad%C3%ADsticashist%C3%B3ricasdeC olombia/tabid/114/Default.as P a g e | 44 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science Portable Water Availability and Consumption Pattern in Ilorin Metropolis, Nigeria GJHSS-C Classification FOR Ajadi.B.S. 0 4 0 6 0 3 , 0 4 0 6 0 8 ,04050105020 9

Abstract-In Nigeria and most developing countries, the water man is in his critical period in water consumption, and that supply industry is managed by the State which transfer its demand is already overtaking supply. The other view is that ownership and administration to water agencies like Water water is sufficiently available for all the time every where Boards, Water Corporations. Utility Board and water charges worldwide. Both views may be acceptable in terms of water applied. Increased urbanization, rapid growth of population resources availability across the geographical space.For and living standards have been the major causes for the instance, Sule and Okeola (2002) studied the performance increase of urban and semi-urban water use resulting in changing supply patterns and more water consuming lifestyles. assessment of a regional water supply arrangement in Kwara Increasing population, more household and industries State, Nigeria. Kolars, (1992) studied water resources of the connected to public water supply particularly in Ilorin, coupled Middle East to verify its availability and management (see with ineffective management of water resources have been also Ghali, 1992; Gleick, 2002; Sule, et. all, 1999, Shabam leading to water crisis being experienced in the metropolis. and Sharman, 1985 and Oyegun (1983) who studies water This study focuses on the examination of the sources of water resources development in Kwara State. The results of their resources in Ilorin. water supply and consumer problems studies revealed that increasing urbanization, population and regarding the availability of water from the water Board, as ineffective management of water resources has been leading well as the relationship between the family size and daily water to water crisis.The objective of this paper therefore is to consumption patterns. The methodology involve the use of questionnaire and interview method to gather necessary examine the pattern of water availability and consumption in information from the state water Board and the results of the Ilorin metropolis and its attendant problems. study area. The analytic techniques involve both the II. THE STUDY AREA descriptive and inferential statistics such as simple percentage and correlation analysis as well as ANOVA. The study Ilorin is located on Latitude 830 North and Longitude 4350 recommends that not only the urgent step by the state are East of the Greenwich Meridian. It is occupying an area of needed in augmenting and as well as conserving the water about 100km 2 (Kwara State Diary, 2005) situated in the resources to meet the needs of the populace in Kwara State but transition Zone between the deciduous woodland of the also citizens have to play an important role in managing consumption and wastages. South and the Savanah of the North, thus giving it a status of Keywords-Portable water, availability, consum ption, pattern, “Gate Way City” in Nigeria. Ilorin is a major Nigeria Ilorin Metropolis, Nigeria indigenous city which evolved through a period of traditional urbanization which took place in some parts of I. INTRODUCTION West Africa. It has passed through three stages pre-colonial, he importance of water to man cannot be over- colonial and post – colonial era. (Ajadi, 1996) See Fig. 1). emphasized. It holds the most importance benefit to Ilorin metropolis has the tropical wet – dry climate, days are T very hot during the dry season from November to January man‟s sustenance, besides shelter, food and clothing (Ajadi, 0 0 1996). It is recognized all over the world that water is a vital while temperatures typically ranges from 33 C to 37 C. The daily range of temperature during rainy season is resources for human existence and that is a major factors in 0 commanding the progress of civilization.Nigeria is 8 C.Rainfall condition in Ilorin exhibits greater variability experiencing an increasing rate of changes in her population both temporarily and spatially. The mean annual rainfall has coupled with increased urbanization and living standards. been estimated to be 1,318mm. It normally start in April and Thus, the increasing needs of water for domestic and other ends in October, however, the rainfall intensity, frequency uses, places an increasing demand on our water and amount vary from month to month. The dry season is resources.Water as a very vital resource is not in short in characterized by cold and dry due to harmatan. According to Nigeria and Ilorin in particular, but regulating its availability the geological map of Ilorin, reproduced by Oyegun (1983), and ensuring even distributions is in fact a serious problem. the city is one of the Caribbean and pre-cabberean ear. The (Sule et al 1999). However, the quantity of portable water main river in Ilorin is Asa River close to the month of Asa available to the inhabitants has received cries of ewe ore two dams, the Agba dam and Asa dam respectively. inadequacies. Two extreme views have been often expressed It divides the city into two parts, the western part regarding availability of water to man. Some believe that representing the core indigenous area and the Eastern part ______consisting of the modern residential areas and the GRA. Generally, the elevation of the land in the western side About-Dept. of Geography, Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin ranges from 273m to 364 (900ft – 1000ft) while the eastern part varies from 273m to 364m (900ft – 1200ft). The western part of the state harbours the Sobi Hill (394m ) Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 45 above the sea level.The characteristics of the soil in Ilorin study to assess for demand and supply relationship of largely by the nature of the parent material. The great portable water supply Nigeria by examining the solution in variety of basement complex rocks give rise to a large one city in the capital part of the country and further country number of ferruginous group of soils. Thus, the main soil and assess the contribution of the government and private type in Ilorin is ferrallitic type, usually deep red in colour organizations in the supply of portable water to urban with high clay content.There has been a tremendous increase dwellers.The choice of the study area is informed by the in the population of Ilorin since it became the state capital in density of its population, large numbers of households, the 1967. It population growth rate is much higher than other persistent shortage of water and the poor supply faced by cities in the country (Oyegun, 1985). The 1991 census put increasing demand of water.Kwara State Water Corporation the city population at 532, 088 (Emielu 1991; Jimoh 1997; (KWWC) – An Urban Water Supply AgencyKwara State NPC 1994, Oloru 1998). The inhabitants of the core Water Corporation was established by the State Government traditional sector arte predominantly farmers, craftsmen, with definite mandate do develop and distribute water to the drivers, petty traders and Muslim scholars. The modern urban, semi-urban and the rural populace. The agency sector of the city is occupied mainly by immigrants activities is backed by edicts which stipulated the functions belonging to the middle and high-income groups. The and responsibilities under which they operates. KWWC has immigrants are engaged in trading and in industrial and only four departments namely: Engineering / Technical administrative activities (Emielu, 1991).The rationale of this Services, Operations and maintenance, Commercial Services study is that despite all these attempts at ensuring adequate and Financial and Administration.The management ensures access to portable water supply, majority of Nigeria have the provision of water in adequate quantity and quality to been reported to suffer a lot of deprivation in terms of the populace. Low tariffs are charged by the water agencies availability if safe water for human consumption. It is as most household are not willing to pay for water and estimated that only about 30% of the 70% of the urban sanitation services. Private sector involvement in water populace had access to safe water is at 1994. In addition, the supply has yielded positive results especially in the areas of general assessment of frounmate researchers in Alive and service contracts are used to assign specific task to private Middle East has facilitate the need for more researches in companies for specific periods of time or between two years certain areas including water demand and supply as well as or more. The distribution and collection of bills, is handled water rate setting and billing problems (Tall, 2002). The by a private firm for the KWWC while the overall utility availability, distribution and maintenance of the various management remains the major responsibility of the Board. sources of water supply Ilorin metropolis Nigeria will III. METHODOLOGY further assist in filling the gap identified as the bane adequate water with distribution and provide adequate Primary data on water availability was generated from the platform for further researchers into this sensitive water State. Public Water Board, (KWWC) where people and researches areas as well as assist in decision making process residents are connected to water supply systems while data in portable water supply in Nigeria. Nigeria was a signation on consumption pattern were based on household water – to the International water supply and sanitation decade consuming lifestyles specifically on washing, baths, (IDSWSSD) between 1981 and 1990. The main objective showering, garden use, etc. This amount of household water was to supply water to all citizens of member countries. used is based on litres / per day. Secondary data for this Nigeria established institutions such as Federal Ministry of study were more obtained from published books diary and Water resources, River Basin Development Authorities, the journal.To elicit information on the households water use a Directorate for food, roads and rural infrastructure, water total of 300 questionnaire were distributed randomly while board at state level whose activities are often supported by informal interview was conducted to collect data from the external support agencies such as UNICEF, UNDP, the management of Kwara State Water Corporation. The wards World Bank, ZOWTA International to implement goals were picked randomly from a total of 34 wards in Ilorin especially the supply of portable water to the people at the metropolis for this purpose.KWWC information archieve state and local levels.Despite all these attempts at ensuring and a field work by the researcher on reason justify the adequate water supply to meet the increasing demand, the pattern of water distribution to open and close ended necessary sale 2000 reported that about half of the questionnaire are distributed round in the sampled areas. population of the Ilorin metropolis.Lack access to safe and Further subjected into simple percentage analysis. portable water supply in.It is therefore, the attempt of this

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See Table 1. Table 1: Percentage Estimated of Questionnaire for the study Area

Study area Total no questionnaire %of total Cumulative % Zone GRA (Zone I) 117 34.3 34.3 MODERN RESIDENTIAL 106 31.1 65.4 LAYOUT GRA (Zone II)

HOUSING ESTATES 44 12.9 783 (Zone III)

TRADITIONAL AREA 74 21.7 100 (Zone III)

TOTAL 341 100 100

Source: Authors, survey, 2006

Table 2: Name of the Study Area sampling over each zone in the thoymea.

ZONE I ZONE II ZONE III ZONE IV Ilorin Metropolis 3 4 4 6 4 3 4 5 3 3 3 3 1 2 2 4 Mean (X) 2.20 2.40 3.0 3.8 SD( δ ) 1.64 1.52 1.00 1.30

Source : Authors, survey, 2006 After Sneeder and Cachron (1967)

Note: Zone I - GRA the two other members of the household above fifteen years Zone II - Modern Residential layout of age use interviewed.The information collected from each Zone III - Housing Estate interview on all the households visited include sources, Zone IV- Traditional Covered Area regularity if permit water supply , pricing system and Formula: L = 20. = (n = size of prelimary study) adequacy.For the purpose of grouping, the study area was n = Minimum sample size divided into four zones. This was to allow for meaningful d = Standard deviation comparisons between various areas within the city and to L = Limit of accuracy of established mean permit easy aggregation of data. The methodology See appendix for the estimated minimum of questionnaire employed to divide the metropolis into zones is for the study area. comprehensively discussed in Ajadi (1996) after Sneedeer and Cochran (1967).Household survey was carried out IV. DATA COLLECTION within the four zones in the metropolis to elicit data on The information required for studying the portable water socio-economic characteristics of the urban dwellers. It was supply in Ilorin Metropolis include household, socio- not possible to interviewed all the households within city, economic were on water availability which was generated and in order to achieve precision, sampling techniques was from the state public water Board, where people and used.Systematic stratified techniques was aelopled to ensure residents are connected to water supply system while data that the sample is representative of the entire population and on consumption pattern include household water consuming for adequate coverage, households included were distributed lifestyles especially on washing, bathing, flowering, garden uniformly throughout the study area.In conventional sample use. This amount of household water use. It based in litres / design for data collection in urban study, Sneeder and per day. Because of time constrant, the household head and Cochran (1967) recommends a sample to be chosen Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 47 statistically determined from the pilot survey.The whole of test for whether the figures arrived at were truly the study area was divided into four strata (Oyegu, 1983) representative of real difference existing within the four after which sample use were selected systematically. The zones. four Zones in the area the Government Reservation Area V. RESULT (GRA), Modern Residential Layout, (MRL) Housing Estates and the Traditional (Core Area). A total of 341 1) Sources Of Water Supply In Ilorin Questionnaires were obtained The structured questionnaire The water supply to the people of Ilorin as revealed is were distributed using systematic random sampling method mainly through the Water Corporation established by the as shown in table 2: The Water Board Management and State Government with definite mandate to develop and employees observation yielded rich quality data which distribute water to the people, boreholes and wells and also formed the basis for the interview of the key officers and constitute an important source (See Table 3). The study their perception of the problem of water supply in Ilorin shows that a fairly large members of respondents in GRA, metropolis. The data analytic techniques employed were Housing Estate and Modern Layouts have storage facilities analysis of variance to compare the consumption of water and some even have motorized boreholes in their residence per household in the four zones. This technique enabled the

Table 3: available source of Portable Water Supply in Ilorin

Zones Pipe Borne Water Bore hole Well Stream / Pond Group

Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % Frequency %

GRA 40 90.9 4 9.1 - - - -

Modern 85 74.5 21 24.5 - - - - Layout

Housing 90 75.9 20 17.1 6 0.5 1 0 Estate Traditional 50 6.76 20 27.1 4 5.4 0 0 Area

For the purpose of determining the variation of the rejected to 0.01 significant level. Kwara State Utility Board responses of people through the preventatives: which Source its water from Asa River from which water is showed the differences in spatial pattern, rates and the pumped through its two main dams to the reservoirs from sources therefore descriptive spatial statistics rate are more which it is distributed is the metropolis relevant.The result of the calculated of value 37.9 is greater than the value 3.78. Therefore our earlier hypothesis is P a g e | 48 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science

Table 4: Reservoir: Capacity and Areas – served in the study Area.

S/N LOCATION CAPACITY AREA SERVED 1. Eastern Reservoir 2.2 Million Gallons University of Ilorin (PS), Tanke, Gaa- (110 Million Litres) Akanbi, Gaa Imam, Fate, Offa Garage, Central Bank Qtrs, Basin and Pipeline Qtrs. (Modern Residential Layout). 2. Western Reservoir 2.2 Million Gallons Omoda, Alore, Kuntu, Adewole Estate, (110 Million Litres) Mandate Estate, Air port Road, Odoota, Gari Alimi and Olorunsogo Qtrs. (Traditional area and Housing Estate). 3. General Hospital elevated 2.7 Million Gallons Abdul Azeez Attah, Teaching Hospital, Tank (135 Million Litres) Emirs Palace, Market areas, Baboko, Surulere, Oko erin, Agbooba, Gambari (Traditional Areas). 4. Underground Reservoir Not available Government House, G.R.A, part of Fate, University Qtrs, State Secretariat, Sango, Sobi.

Source: Kwara State Utility Board (2006).

There is a uniform pattern from the avenue through which is and the results revealed that all values are statistically sourced in the study area as revealed in table 3.90.9% of the significant at the 0.01 significance level. respondents in GRA draw from the service pipes with the The result of our analysis of variance revealed that the exception of few that have borehole drilled in their calculated of value 37.9 is greater than the table value 3.78 residences. Similarly, in the traditional area, and those from at 0.01 significant value. This shows there is enough modern area, 76.9% relied on water supply networks for evidence that the discrepancies in water, consumption their water use and a little 17.1 and 0.5 respectively sourced between the 4 zones are representative of real difference in their water from boreholes and wells provided by other the water consumption pattern of the population and their government agencies or non-governmental, international living standards and that sample are real representative. To donor agenciesor community efforts. Both the modern test for the significance of these value, the stalise were residential layout and housing estates constructed by the compulsory and the result indicate all values are statistically government (Adewole, Kulende, Irewole and Mandate) significant at the 0.01 significance is 3.75, when compare exhibited similar pattern of sourcing their supplies from the with the 4 observed value is greater than the value i.e 34.28 State Water Supply system. Just a little more than 20% for GRA, modern Residential 30.68, Traditional Area 43.28 however enjoyed their supplies from boreholes constructed and 18.8D. For Housing Estate respectively confirming our either by individual, government, World Bank Assisted or hypothesis. As at the time of this of study a new contract UNICEF and Non-governmental agencies. had been awarded for the expansion of Asa dam and other facilities. Water is being ration to the city. The implication VI. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FAMILY SIZE AND DAILY WATER CONSUMPTION of the rationing is that some sections of the metropolis get water when valves regulating water to those areas reopened Some models of predicting demand for water are based on while others are closed simultaneously. This become information on household size. Since the amount imperative due to inadequate number of reservoirs, obsolute requirement by any community depend on the population equipments such as pumping machine, biotechnology, and living standards. In order to examine the significance incurssement, power supply, technical and manpower relationship existing between these variables, product inadequacies, institutional and poor funding from the moment correlation technique and graph analysis were government. Presently, 12 million gallons of water is employed to find out the relationship between family size pumped to the city per day against the 40 million gallon and water consumption in order to reveal the pattern within needed per day by the residents revealing a deficit of about the four wards.The result shows that there is a strong 28 million gallon per day and goes to explain why there is positive relationship existing between those variables. For water shortage in the study area. Therefore, in terms of modern Residential layout, +0.95, housing estate +0.96, coverage, service connections, regularity of water supply, GRA +0.96 respectively while a perfect correlation was the activities of the State Water Corporation could be said to formed for traditional sectors +1.0. To test for the have perform just fairly well. Residents of the study areas significance of these values; the t-statistics were computed able in all the four zones identified were being under supplied through some areas enjoy regular supply after due Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 49 to their locations or as a result of the deliberate state policy. lead to appropriate institutional arrangements and strengthen The present number of reservoir currently available managerial technical and financial capabilities of the insufficient to service the increasing population with public delivery agent. water supply adequately and regularly. However, these are Independent distribution companies can also be engaged by quite a number of boreholes and well pitted with either hand the Kwara State Corporation on concession contracts so as pump or electric pumps in the study areas to complement to ensure sustainable water supply in the State. The the supply from the water corporation. Unfortunately, only companies when contracted would provide water supply in few of these schemes are functioning due to lack of designated areas within a regulatory framework. That will maintenance. Therefore, water availability in Ilorin limit their partnership to use, rehabilitate or expand facilities metropolis varies widely with socio-economic groups and for the purpose of water production and distribution to a areas. GRA, Modern Residential Layout (Tanke, Basin, leased area. Catchy (2001) however, suggested that the best Gaa-Akanbi, Fate, Sango) and the Housing Estate were practice is to start from the smallest change possible and that households income is above N80,000 per month and above lease contract is more appropriate in this case than have more consuming activities as their main water concession contract. guzzlers are washing machines, baths, swimming pools, VIII. REFERENCES showering, garden use, public services and Industrial uses. The traditional area consists of households with income 1) Ajadi, B.S. (1996): Pattern of Water Supply in below N30,000 per month and thus suffer a lot and in turn Ilorin City , Unpublished B.Sc Thesis Department are water deficient. Among water consuming activities of of Geography, Unilorin. their households are bathing, ablution washing clothes and 2) Ayoade, J. (1985): Water resources in Nigeria drinking. The relatives high use in traditional area reflects Journal of economic and social studies 17 (1): 24 - their population density and increasing households. 36. The Water Corporation in Kwara Sate has failed in its 3) Akniola Emielu, S.A (1991): Guide to Kwara State primary responsibility for water supply as are yet to provide Ilorin: Gran Naak Publishers, Ilorin, Nigeria satisfactory service to the public, though these inadequacies European Economic Union (2003). Assessment of have been attributed to inadequate supply and coverage, low Water Used in Urban revenue base, poor organization management and poor Areas.http:themes.ea.europo.eu/specific operations and maintenance of facilities as observed and 4) Jimoh, H.I (1994): Response of Land Ude to revealed by the respondents. However, the regularity or Erosion During Intense Rainfall in okun Drainage otherwise of supply of water from water board will have Basin of Ilorin city, Nigeria. Unilorin: Social multiplied effect on class of activities thereby ensuring Services Seminar Series. improve socio-economics development in the study area. 5) Jimoh, H.I (1997): Individual Rainfall Events and Sediment Generation on Different Surfaces in VII. CONCLUSION Ilorin. Unplished Ph. D Disseratation, Department The result of the analysis has shown that each zones behaves of Geography, University of Ilorin. in similar pattern in terms of their relative sources of water 6) Oloru, A.J (1996): “A Guide to Ilorin” Ilorin: supply, availability and consumption in the study area. The Famost Publishers. result indicates that water is rationed to different parts of the 7) Oyegun, R.O. (1985): The use and Waste of Water city without any preferential treatment to any group of in Third World City. Geographical Journal.Vol. 10. people, but power supply, non-expansion of the dam and 8) Snedecor, G. and Coheran, J. (1967): Statistical inadequate reservoirs as well as obsolete equipments are Methods. The Lowa State College Press. responsible for the problem of insufficient and non- 9) Sule, B.F. et (2000): Impact of Ilorin Water Supply availability of water to the people Ilorin metropolis. Expansion on Asa River Catchment. Journal of Therefore, for an improvement in Kwara State Water Water Supply ands Research, AQUA.43(5). Corporation to be achieved, the Organization should be 10) Sharma (1981): Population Dynamics, Ground restructure, commercialise and private sector should be Water Quality in Visakhaatraining, Basin, India, involved in certain aspects of water delivery services. Water Air and Soil Pollution 16 (3). Adequate renovation of old pipe systems needs to be carried 11) World Bank (2002): Water Resources Sector out and introduction of water – metering, so as to solve Strategy: Strategic Direction for World Bank problem of water losses and wastage. Government should be Engagement‟ workshop paper, Abuja, Nigeria. encourage the State Water Board to partner private 12) World Bank (1993): Water Resources companies which can bring about relatively high water Management: A World Bank Policy Paper. prices, proper delivery and decrease in urban water wastage Washington DC. The World Bank Kwara State and to design a better model for optimizing distribution Printing press, Ilorin. system. Most importantly, building local capacity in terms 13) National population commission (1994): of skill up grading and Training, transfer of new technology, Population census 1991 sectorial summary, NPC, for an effective management of water service that would Lagos. P a g e | 50 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science

14) Tall, O. (2002): Management of water demand in Africa and the Middle East www.idrc.ca/books/focus/844/chap.3html 15) UNCentre for Human Settlement (1983): Water supply and Sanitation coverage by region 1983 in sages consult (2003). Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 51 Analysis Of Sustainable Crop Production Practices Among Farmers In Shaki Agricultural Zone Of Oyo State, Nigeria. GJHSS-C Classification FOR 1 2 Ayanwuyi, E .,Ogunlade, I 050205,050304,0406 0 3 , 0 7 0 1 0 5

Abstract -This study investigated sustainable crop production persistent application of chemical fertilizer that does not practices used by farmers in Shaki Agricultural Zone of Oyo produce the require results. Ogunwale (2004) also reported State. Structured interview schedule was used to elicit that crop production in developing countries is characterized information from one hundred and forty four (144) crop by losses in soil nutrients as a result of depletion in forest farmers were selected through multistage sampling method and water resources.United Nations Conference on .Data collected revealed that sustainable crop production practices used in the study area included crop rotation, mixed Environment and Development (UNCED) (1992) Lele, cropping, mulching and planting of cover crop. The study (1991),Dunlap, (1996) asserted that assessing sustainable further revealed factors that influenced use of sustainable crop agricultural development were differ due to conflict between production practices included excessive use of farmland short term and long term goals, that had hindered the (68.1%), visibility of the practice (67.4%), high population practical implementation of sustainability. Therefore, pressure (66.0%), more farmland fragmentation (65.3%), high sustainable crop production should in principle include relative advantage and limited arable land (64.0%)and ecological as well as economic and social considerations environmental –friendliness of the practice (62.5%) . There because crop production depends primarily on natural were constraints that hindered the use of sustainable crop resources. (Nether, 1992), Crop production is ecologically production practices in the area;, such included long term process (83.3%), effects on the soil (73.4%), labour sustainable if the productivity as well as the ability to intensiveness (69.4%), vulnerability of the land to erosion function or regenerate power and buffering capacity of the (68.8%), high rate of weed emergence (64.6%) and competition farming land are permanently maintained. Birch between crops for light, water and nutrient (62.5%) (2001),Younlong and Smit, 2004) .Sustainable crop The study also established that sex, age, household size, land production is the management and utilization of the acquisition method, crop yield and years of farming experience agricultural ecosystem in a way that maintains its biological were the significant determinants affecting the use of diversity, productivity, regeneration capacity, vitality and sustainable crop production practices. ability to function so that it can fulfill the present and future significant economic and social functions that does not harm other ecosystem (Budelman ,2002). Barbie (1990) and Bebbington (1992) reported that sustainable agricultural production is designed to take maximum advantage of existing soil nutrient and water cycles, energy flows and soil organism for crop production as well as aiming at producing crops that are nutritious without being contaminated with products that might harm human health. Butterworth et al(2003) observed that sustainable crop production practice rely on crop rotation, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off farm organic wastes, appropriate mechanical cultivation and mineral bearing rocks to maximize and maintain soil biological activity, soil fertility and productivity. Therefore sustainable crop production practices minimize the use of non-renewable inputs that damage the environment or harm the health of crop farmers and consumers (Agric system 1998). This study therefore sets out to analyse the sustainable crop production practiceuse by farmers in Shaki Agricultural Zone of Oyo State. The specific objectives are to described socio-economics characteristics of the respondents, investigate the sustainable practices used by the farmers About2- Department of agricultural Extension and Rural Development identify factors that influenced use of sustainable practices University of Ilorin,Ngeria Email :[email protected] in the area and examine the constraints that hindered use of P a g e | 52 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science such practices in the area. It was hypothesized that there was experience, 16.7% had between 1-5 years of farming no significant relationship between selected socio-economic experience. characteristics of the respondents and the level of use of 2) Crop Production Practices Used sustainable practices. Table 2 shows that among the sustainable crop production

I. METHODOLOGY practices, the use was highest in mulching with means The study was conducted in Shaki Agricultural Zone of Oyo value of 4.4 and rank order 1. The other sustainable crop State. This zone consists of nine agricultural extension production practices used were crop rotation and planting of blocks out of which four, namely, Igbeti, Igboho, Ago- cover crop with mean value of (M = 4.3) rank order 2 and 3 Amodu and Shaki were randomly selected for the study. respectively. This implies that farmers wish to maintain their Multistage sampling technique was used to select. one farming land soil fertility by using sustainable methods. hundred and forty four (144) farmers for the study. Three 3) Factors influencing sustainable practices extension cells, out of eight cells in each selected extension block, were randomly selected and three communities were Table 3 reveals that 68.1% of the respondents indicated randomly selected from each selected cell making a total of excessive use of farmland as the factors that influenced their 36 communities were selected for the study. Four use of sustainable crop production practices, further in the respondents where systematically selected from each table (67.4%) indicated visibility of the practices 66.0% community thereby making 36 respondents chosen from high population pressure, 65.3% more farm land each extension block. Finally, a total of one hundred and fragmentation, 64.0% high relative advantage and limited forty four (144) farmers constituted the sample size for the arable land respectively, 62.5% practice is friendly to the study.Structured interview schedule was administered on environment, 58.3% reduction in crop yield. Also (51.0%) respondents through personal contact in their various of the respondents indicated tri ability of the practice as the communities. The usefulness of sustainable crop production factor that influence their use of sustainable crop practices were measured by using a three point continuum, production practices, 50.0% indicated high effect of soil namely Useful, Moderately Useful, and Not Useful, which erosion while 33.3% indicated protection of natural were assigned scores of 3, 2, and 1 respectively. The ranking resources for future. This implies that factors indicated were of use of sustainable practices was done on the basis of their the ones that made the respondents to use sustainable weighted mean values.The data collected were subjected to practices in their crop production. The results conform with descriptive statistics, such as frequency counts, percentages the findings of OECD, (2004) and Ikerd (1s990) who and means . However, for testing research hypothesis reported that sustainable crop production practices are more multiple regression was used. effective in reducing soil erosion and maintaining soil productivity than conventional practice. II. RESULT AND DISCUSSION 4) Constraints to the use of sustainable practices 1) Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents Table 4 shows the constraints that hindered the use of Data in Table 1 show that 87.5% of the respondents were sustainable crop production practices by the respondents. male, while 12.5% were female. About 96% of the About ,83% mentioned long term process in case of bush respondents were aged between 31 and 60 years, 2.8% were fallow and crop residue, while 73.4% mentioned effects of above 60 years of age, while 1.4% of the respondent were use of inorganic fertilizer on the soil. Others include labour below 30 years of age. Data show that 96.5% of the intensiveness for pruning in case of leguminous crops( respondents were married, 8.7% were widowed while only 69.4%) and liability of farmland to erosion in case of mixed 1.4% were divorced. Finding show that 95.8% of the farming(68.8%)This implies that respondents encountered respondent acquired their farming land through inheritance. some problems that hindered the effective use of the This implies that majority of farmers inherited their farm sustainable practices. This agreed with findings of Daniel et land. This findings conforms with Adewale (1999) and al (1996) Roberts and Lighthall (1992) who reported that Kuponiyi (2003) who reported that 62.8% and 66.3% of the many farmers felt that the transition to sustainable practice respondents respectively inherited their farmland thereby may not occur in their life time and doubted if sustainable having absolute control on such land. Further analysis practice would be profitable .Also the result is similar to revealed that 83.3% cultivated yam, 55.6% maize, 51.4% findings of Boz et al (2005) and Bamire and Amujoyegbe cassava while 24.3% and16.7% cultivated groundnut and (2005). beans respectively.Implies that annual crops were cultivated by the respondents as it is common in the traditional farming III. RESULT OF REGRESSION ANLYSIS system in Nigeria. This finding agree with Okpara et al in Table 5 shows that all the variables considered had (2004) who found that grain yield (maize) was higher when positive relationship with the dependent variable and pre- intercropped with cowpea . It was also gathered that 61.1% dicted 50% of the variations in the farmers use of of sampled farmers had more than 10years of farming sustainable crop production practices. This explain that the experience. While 22.2% had between 6-10 years of farming more experienced the farmers were the more the use of Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 53 sustainable crop production practices. This conform with arable land among others. Also the constraints that hindered finding of Younglong and Smit (2004) who reported that effective use of sustainable practices identified included: skill and knowledge gained by continuous use of Longer process, effects of inorganic fertilizer on the soil, sustainable crop production practices assisted the farmers to Labour intensiveness, farmland liable to erosion, high rate maintain soil fertility of their farming land. of weed emergence and competition between crops. There was significant relationship between socio-economic IV. CONCLUSION characteristics and the use of sustainable crop production The study revealed that the farmers used sustainable crop practices. Therefore, farmers indigenous knowledge should production practices identified in the study area. It was always be taken into consideration in policy formulation on discovered that the factors that influenced the use of agriculture and crop production should continue without sustainable practices included: excessive use of farmland, damage to the ecosystem through regular training and visibility of the practices, high population pressure, more information dissemination by extension farmland fragmentation, high relative advantage and limited

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V. REFERENCES 13) Daniel, D.Gilbert, L.David, W.Bruce, M. and William, C. (1996) Barriers to adopting sustainable 1) Adewale, G.J (1999) Analysis of rice farmers use agricultural practices Journal of extension34(6)1- of indigenous agricultural practices in Ogun State, 10 August Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis Department Ikerd, J.E (1990) Agriculture search for Agricultural Extension services, University of sustainability and profitability, Journal of soil and Ibadan, water conservation 45(8) 18-23.June 2) Agric systems (1998) Impact assessment study- 14) Kuponiyi, F.A (2003) Involvement of private National soil and water conservation programme organization in agricultural extension delivery in ministry of Agriculture, Nairobi Kenya pp53-64. south-western Nigeria. Ph.D Thesis Department of 3) Bamire, A.S and Amujoyegbe B.J. (2005) Agricultural Extension and Rural Development Economics analysis of land improvement technique University of Ibandan 45-62. in small holder yam-based production systems in 15) Lele, S.M. (1991) Sustainable development; A the agro-ecological zones of south western Nigeria critical review of word development Journal of Journal of Human Ecology 18 (1) 1-12 March crop science 39(2): 184-193 September 4) Barbier, E (1990) The farm level Economics of soil 16) Dunlap, R.E. Beus, C.E. Howell, R.E and Waud, J conservation: The uplands of Java Journal of Land (1996) What is sustainable agriculture? An Economics 66 (3) 199-211.May empirical examination of faculty and farmer 5) Bebbington, A (1992) Searching for an indigenous definitions Journal of sustainable Agriculture 3(1) Agricultral development Indian Organizations and 155-39. December NGOs in the central Andes of Euador in Robert T. 17) Nether, D. (1992) Ecological sustainability in Wilson N, Michael R, Laura, S and Mahinda W. agricultural systems definition and measurement (eds) self-sufficient Labour and knowledge in Journal of sustainable Agriculture 2(1): 51-61.April small-scale farming. Earthscan publisher London 18) Ogunwale, A.B (2004) Influence of land and tree 101-106. use related factors on the adoption of Agro forestry 6) Bisong, F.E (2001) Natual resources and system in south-western Nigeria. International conservation systems for sustainable rural Journal of Food and Agricultural Research 1(1and development Nature publishing Group Minnesota 2) 64-69. USA 122-133. 19) Organization for economic cooperation and 7) Birch Thomsen, T. Fredriksen, P and Sano, H.O. Development (OECD) (2004) Economic (2001) A livelihood perspective on natural resource performance of sustainable farm management management and environmental change in semiarid practices in Korea. Korea Rural Economic Tanzania. Journal of Economic Geography 77(2) institutes, Seoul, Korea 42-44. 41-66.November 20) Okpara, D.A Awurun, A.N and Okeke, A I (2004) 8) Blaikie S,P. Cameroon, J. and Seddon D (2002) Effect of planting schedule and density on Understanding 20years of change in west – central cowpea/maize intercropping in southeastern Nepal: continuity and change in lives and ideas: Nigeria Journal of Sustainable Tropical Journal of World Development.30(4)pp1255- Agricultural Research. 1(1) 59-67.March 127April 21) Sara, J.S and Satya. Y. (2001) L and Degradation 9) BOZ, C. Akbay, E. Jorden G. and kamalak, A. in the developing world: Issues and policy options (2005) Measuring livestock farmers effect on for 2020 Brief 44 International food policy sustainable agriculture and rural development Research, Institute (IFPRI) Washington DC, USA. Journal of sustainable Agriculture, 2(3) 34- 35 40February 22) Roberts, R.S and Lighthall, D (1992) A 10) Budelman, A (2002) Effect of the application of the Development Approach to the adoption of low- leaf mulch of Gliricidia sepium on early input farming practices Journal of Extension 34(6) development and tuber yields of water yam 5-12 (Discorea alata) Journal of Agroforestry system 23) United Nation Conference on Environmental and 8(2) 243-256. June Development (UNCED (1992) Agenda 21- An 11) Butterworth, J. Adolph, B and Reddy, B.C (2003) action plan for the next century. Endorsed at the how farmers manage soil fertility: A Guide to United Nations Conference on Environment and support innovation and livelihoods in Robert, Development Rio-Janeiro Brazil 118-125. T.Catherine, E. Caleb, M.Nelson, M.Wilson, 24) World Bank, (1995) Toward the development of an N.Piyadasa, V.H. Micheal, R.Laura, S. and environmental action plan for Nigeria World Bank Mihinda, W.(eds) self-sufficient agriculture labour Report 2002 West African Departmental ashington and D.C 110-115 12) knowledge in small scale farming Earthscan, publisher London. 115-120. Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 61

25) Young I (2003) Agro forestry for soil conservation CAB International publisher Walligford oxo UK296. 26) Younlong, C and Smit, B. (2004) Sustainability in agriculture: A general review on agriculture, Journal of Ecosystems and Environment 49 (3) 299-307. May P a g e | 62 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science Arts as Related To Other Forms of Life GJHSS-C Classification FOR Olaomo. A. Azeez 050102,120101,120104,120303

I. INTRODUCTION surface and mass. some people who are colour blind may comparatively rare, while others have every reason tobelieve 1) The Meaning Of Art that people wholly unaware of the other visible properties efore one can perfectly make a study of art, it is are equally rare. Those are more likely to be B necessary to consider what art is and how it affects life undeveloped.The opinion of some experts is to regard the and society. Art is not a subject with definite limits, but sense of beauty as a very fluctuating phenomenon, with rather it is an aspect of mental development which is all emphasis on manifestations as a course of history that are encompassing. It is imaginative, creative and aesthetic in very uncertain and often very baffling. Such manifestations, nature.In the ancient Greek and Roman, art stood not only and the test of a serious student of art in whatever his own for utilitarian purposes such as agriculture, mining, medicine sense of beauty is, he must be willing to admit into the realm and he lives. Uzoagba (2005) was of the opinion that some of art that is genuinely exhibiting that sense in other people people speak of liberal arts to mean subjects as History, at other periods.“Most of our misconceptions of art arise Geography, Literature and Philosophy while others speak of from a lack of consistency in the use of the words art and language arts to mean the related skills of listening, beauty”. According to William (2007). We always assume speaking, reading and writing .But one can say that a person that all that is beautiful is not art and that ugliness is the who knows how to practice the art of basket weaving or negation of art. This identification of art and beauty is a calabash carving, playing flute and pottery making. In this new product of our difficulties in the appreciation of art way, one can record as many arts as there are kinds of even in people who are actively sensitive to aesthetic specialised activities of human beings.Art can also be impression generally found it difficult to give accurate defined as a means of self-expression, but for this assessment. This assumptions acts like an unconscious expression to be really artistic, it must create pleasing forms censor in some cases when art is not beauty. which can satisfy our sense of beauty. Expression can be 3) Art And Aesthetics completely devoid of formal arrangement, that may be incoherence in nature. This restricts the modern concept of Normally, Aesthetic mean the sense of beauty but there is a art to skills and products which are used or intended to particular kind of emotion is provoked by visual art in stimulate satisfactory aesthetic experience . All these may pictures, sculptures, buildings, pots, carvings, textiles, have other functions as utilitarian, religious and political graphics and so on .This in effect do not dispute the ends, which may be classed as “art” in so far as they aim at assumptions of others capable of feeling the emotion called beauty, visual interest or some other aesthetic values. the aesthetic .We have no other means of recognising a work Uzoagba (2005).In a broad sense, art is a human conception of art than feelings The objects that provoke aesthetic made manifest by the skilful use of medium. It signifies emotion varies with each individual. The aesthetic doing, making, fashioning or putting together all form of judgements are, matters of taste while everyone is proud to skill that enhance human development. Johnson,(2006) admit, there is no disputing. A good critic may be able to defines “art as the power of doing but also the doing itself make sense in a picture that had left me cold which had and even things done. ( Benin art, Ife art.) overlooked till at last, receiving the aesthetic emotion, One only recognises it as a work of art, of aesthetics nature be 2) The Sense And Definition Of Beauty based on personal experience, that may be subjective.For a Any general art theory must begins with this supposition, discussion of aesthetic, it need be agreed only if forms that man responds to the shape and surface wile the mass of arranged and combined according to certain unknown and things present to his senses has peculiar arrangement in the mysterious laws surrounding us in a particular way. The proportion of the shape which result in a pleasurable business of an artist is to combine and arrange form that can sensation, whilst the lack of such arrangements leads to move towards the significant direction. These movement indifference or even to positive discomfort and revulsion. combinations and arrangements I have called, for the sake of The sense of pleasurable relations is the sense of ugliness convenience and for a reason that will appear later, .William (2007). It is to create unawareness of proportions “significant form”. Bell (2001).To my own understanding in the physical aspect of life situations for instance as some when an ordinary man speaks of a beautiful woman people are colour blind; others may be blind to shape certainly he does not mean only that she moves her aesthetically, but when an artist calls a withered old hag ______beautiful he may sometimes feel what he means when he About-Department Of Architectural TechnologyFaculty Of Enviromental calls battered torso beautiful. The ordinary man, if he is also StudiesOsun State College Of Technology,Esa-Oke. a man of taste, will call the battered torso beautiful because, Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 63 in the matter of women, it is not to the aesthetic quality that life valuable. Where he is to become a liar and express the hag may possess; but to some other quality that he something different from what he feels, truth would no assigns the epithet. To appreciate a work of art we need to longer be in him.Art and Religion are, then two roads by bring with us nothing but a sense of form and colour, while which men escape from circumstances to ecstasy. The knowledge of three dimensional spaces, that bit of aesthetic and religious rapture are family alliance. Art and knowledge must be appreciated in many great works, since Religion are means to similar states of mind. And if we are many of the most moving forms ever created are in three licensed to lay aside the science of aesthetics and going dimensions ,a good work of visual art carries a person who behind our emotion and its object in the mind of the artist, is capable of appreciating it out of life into ecstasy: to use we may say that art is a manifestation of the religious sense. art as a means to the emotions of life and use telescope for Both art and religion are manifestations of man‟s religious reading the news.About music most people are willing to be sense, if by “man‟s religious sense” we mean his sense of humble as I am. If they cannot grasp musical form and win ultimate reality. What we may not say is, that art is the from it a pure aesthetic emotion, they confess what they expression of any particular religion, to confuse the religious understand imperfectly or not at all. They recognise quite spirit with the channels in which it has been made to flow. clearly that there is a difference between the feeling of the Art may have much to do with the universal emotion that musicians for pure music and that of the cheerful has found a corrupt and stuttering expression in a thousand concertgoer for what music suggests. The latter enjoys his different creed;which it has nothing to do with historical own emotion as he has every right to do, and recognises facts or meta physical fancies. To be sure, many descriptive their inferiority. Unfortunately, people are apt to be less paintings are manifestos and expositions of religious modest about their powers of appreciating visual art. dogmas. Certainly that most of those who visit galleries do feel very 5) Art And Culture much what I feel at concert. They have their moments of pure ecstasy; but the moments are short and unsure. The life of man is deeply expressed entirely in the arts. Art is the language of culture while culture is the way of life of a 4) Art And Religion people. This means that the arts cannot be separated from “The appreciation of art is certainly a means to ecstasy, and the technicalities of life and living.The effective the creation probably the expression of an ecstatic state of organisation of a society depends largely on the level of mind. Art is, in fact a necessity to and a product of the development of its languages of communication which spiritual life”. Bell, (2001).Art, therefore, has to do with the include spoken , written words, music and poetry and the spiritual lie, to which it gives and from which, I feel sure it visual plastic art.The significance of the art in general takes indirectly, art has something to do with practical life, culture of a nation has become evident in many aspects too; for those emotional experiences must be very faint and through the studying of social history and the differences contemptible that leave quite untouched our between past and present culture, we begin to realize how characters.Religious like art is concerned with the world of art has been a phase in all cultural development.Uzoagba emotional reality, and with material things only in so far as .(2005). We learn how the various types of arts have they are emotionally significant. For the mystic, as for the embedded in social, political and economic background. artist, the physical universe is a means to ecstasy.Religion, Ruskin in the book “Understanding Art”, “The art of any as I understand it, is an expression of the individual‟s sense country is the exponent of its social and political virtues”. of the emotional significance of the universe; one should not Also in the same book he said “subject to no error be surprised to find that art is an expression of the same exception, the art of a nation, so far as it exists, is an thing. Anyway, both seem to express emotions different exponent of its ethical state.We find it highly difficult or from the transcending emotions of life. Art and religion hard to dispute that the visual and dramatic arts comprised a belong to the same world. Both are bodies in which men try factor of tremendous importance in our total cultural to capture and keep alive their shyest and most ethereal heritage. We do not have better source for the conceptions. Rightly therefore, do we regard art and religion understanding of the past and present culture of our people as twin manifestation of religion.If it were said that art and than art.Therefore, it can be said today that art is a testimony religion were twin manifestations of something , for of our culture, a witness to its position, qualities and its convenience sake, may be called, “the religious spirit”, One limitation just as the arts of the past are to the Culture of the should make no serious complaint, but insist on the past. Art expresses the mentality of its own age and culture, distinction between “religion”, in the ordinary acceptation of for example, if religious bigotry and the desire for conquest the world, and “the religion spirit” being stated beyond all are active in a nation, one may be sure to find artists possibility of evil. Apart from this one should insist that if expressing these characteristics in their art works. Uzoagba we are to say that art is a manifestation of the religions (2005)He further stated in his book “Understanding art in spirit, we must say the same of every respectable religion general Education” that “If a leader rises to power, no matter that ever has existed or ever can exist.All artists are what kind of man he is, we find that some artists, poets and religions. To please the public the artist cannot give his other art composers, will among the people who will fawn second best. To do so would be to sacrifice which makes over his flattering pride with heroic status, epics and P a g e | 64 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science triumphal hymns. Also Nwoku (2006) stated that “Art is not religious rituals that are observed to mark some of the rare static like culture but art changes its forms with time. It is stages in his life-from children to puberty, old age and setting the clock back, to expect that the art form of Africa death.No component of the human body is ugly, it is the today, must resemble that of yesterday otherwise, the former proportions in which they developed and their equilibral will not reflect the Africa hue…” but it now appears that the relationship to each other that is seen through the aesthetic young African painter and sculptor distorts their works norms of a culture to create beauty or ugliness. deliberately so as to achieve African‟s.Apart from this, art is 1) Art And Techonology a revival to our culture, during FESTAC 77 many of our past cultures such as traditional ways of dressing from each No attempts is made to treat Art and Handcrafts as separate ethic group, the traditional mode of dancing, games section of the Curriculum. There is a tendency, even among entertainment and so on came back to life which enabled educationists. To confuse the values of art and mechanical some young people or new generations to know about their constructions.The art and technology should be treated as past.All these cultures are significant to the society and we difference media for the expression of the same aesthetic see that each type has certain reasons and justifications for activity, but not as alternative subject.When we talk of art in its existence. Art emphasizes, the traditional skills and terms of technology advancement, in our modern world, we technology based on cultures of each nation and community could see that Art as a subject could not be separated from alike.Through a better use of art, we can make our future technology in that, many industrial appliances that were generations greater than any in the past. Therefore we formerly crude in nature have been reformed and should try to appreciate traditional works of our people in modernised due to the great work of artists who do produce our own locality. A student who has received a broad these designs for implementations.For example, Pablo artistic education will have a cosmopolitan mind, not limited Piccaso, Rodin and others. Many examples can be cited, by the provincial restrictions of his native environment. He relevant mechanical appliance. In the early day of the world will appreciate the best elements in his tradition more in general and many vehicles both car and lorries were being intelligently at the same time, be able to understand those of designed and used but due to the aesthetic aspect of art in other nations in order part of the world. Uzoagba technology,in effect many of these vehicles have now been (2005).Prominent in the art and culture are the basics of life, changed, both in shape and in colours, even the sense of our cultural form of expressions evolves round art form and creativity been imparted by the artist to the technologist. its execution. Visual symbols or symbolic acts as is Apart from these, may mechanical equipment would have dramatised in the theatre allow ideas to be shared and firstly been designed by artists before a technologist could reformulated without the use of words to serve as shores of lay hand on it to further or produce the finished product.In meaning which is very important body of records in culture industrial society, there is no divorce between form and historically non-literate. “Jura Moore” (2002) function and the two activities can only be related to each other in the sphere of formal values. The technician who is

II. THE AESTHETICS OF AFRICAN ART AND CULTURE making a book case or an instrument will only reach those The physical beauty of culture is seen in their own peculiar values if what he is construction is determined by a sense of way which demonstrates their preferred perspective as well design.Technology as the branch of knowledge dealing with as the environment in which nature placed them. scientific and industrial methods and their practical use in Geographical zone dictates the manner of living and often industry can be technically modified and emphasized with mould the physical form which everything in the the development of art.In the prehistoric age (stone age) the surrounding takes. When the pattern is thus set, the rule is early man was technologically advanced in the sense that he acceptable and therefore beautiful and the exceptions run was with no technical or mechanical mentality, but he could the risk of being dismissed as ugly.The African societies are appreciate nature in hi little way. There was no light or not different, so their criteria for measuring beauty and matches. But he used his own imaginative sense and his ugliness are based on materials that are found or grown on creative sense to produce fire for himself by striking stones the African soil. By this, I mean that modern with rationale against each other. He also used his initiative to produce of their conception of beauty can only be justified in the part, or colours by getting animal blood and leave fluid to be truths of African and its culture.In many traditional African used as his colours. As man‟s technical skill advanced in aesthetic conception of beauty, the African conceives beauty tool making he was able to move from the hunting and in the context of situations so we have the beauty of the gathering stage to that of sedentary farming.All these are child as distinct from the beauty of the maiden, which has technology discovery which were done unconsciously by the different attributes from the beauty of the mother.Finally, early man who was also the great artist of the time. there is the beauty of old age which makes the African not Gradually, we develop technological in producing all the ashamed for being old reduced to its abstract form, qualities, equipment or artefacts that are now in circulation with the the African conceives beauty as a composition that is rarely aid of art In better industrial production, the sense must be natural. It is a form of phenomenon that could be arranged, trained to appreciate the quality in material, the visual cultivated and acquired through changes that occur in the proportion in measurement and the tactile relationship of natural process of life. This is exemplified by the various areas and masses. The desire to make beautiful things must Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 65 be as strong as the desire to make useful things.There must eyes, delicate charges in illumination and hue call for be an instructive realization that beauty and utility each in representation in painting.Newton first explained the its highest degree, cannot be conceived separately.I dispersion of light in 1966 , and the significance of his personally have the impression that art fosters very desirable discovery for painting was later fully appreciated when it tastes which must in the long run keep up the national level was realised that white light is made up of many colours in craftsmanship and incidentally assist in the improvement and that two colours may blend to form a third colour . A of many products of industry. work of art requires of its creator broad and scientific knowledge of element represented, combined with extra 2) Science And Art ordinary skilful techniques implied by an emotional urge to Science consists of knowledge which can be made into a create.Therefore, I can say by summing up that science is system and which depend on seeing and testing facts and the “knowing “ and art is the “doing”. Art “evolves” and stating of general natural laws. In a word, one can say science “involves” .It is thus seen that art cannot develop science is comprised of knowledge about Nature. It is that without science, neither can science advance its form of human activity which involves the contemplation investigations without the aid of art. While science deals and analysis of natural phenomena. Strictly speaking, with the principles by which ends are to be attained, art science does not aim to produce things but only to ascertain deals with ends themselves and with the attainment of them. the truths. It deals with facts, and all facts of nature fall Furthermore, if we wish to understand colour and to know within the scope of science. Science observes and records why it is better to choose some colours rather than for a events in the world and tries to explain them in a logical and particular use, we would do well to learn something of the orderly way how they happen.“Arts, on the other hand, deals nature and language of colour which mostly deals with with the production or attainment of ends, for example science and art. The study of colour may be approached ceramic (the art of pottery) came about because of the need from any one of these five angles, that of the physiologist, for pots and earthen wares” Uzoagba, (2005). The the chemist, the physicist, the psychologist or the artist. relationship between science and arts finds expression in the Each of these people has his own point of view which is fact that science enters the forces which influences art. The quite different from those of the others. In colour, the ever widening field of science has since continued to feed scientist studies the chemical properties of natural and the artist with more accurate knowledge of the nature of the artificial colouring matter used in the manufacturing of dyes objects that he represents and better materials and tools with and paints. And also the significance of colour is merely its which to execute his work. For example, ceramic calls for wavelengths and its intensities. While with the artist or science with its knowledge of the effects of the elements designer, what concerns him most is colour in vision and upon such materials. Having obtained this knowledge from colour in pigment. He mixes paints and dyes and finds that science, the ceramist acts upon it to produce the best work o mixture of coloured behaves differently from mixtures of pottery.Looking at things around us, there must be many coloured light; they also differ in the way the eye perceives questions which may likely come to someone‟s mind. For these mixtures. In knowing the practical aspect of colour example, have you ever wondered how an aeroplane is able mixing, it is more advisable to take a look at colour purely to fly in the air like a bird for may miles without falling to from the scientific point of view Moreover, we can show the ground? Or how often have you picked u[p something what branch of human actively belongs to science and art, and asked yourself, what is it made of or designed? (STAN we may be able to appreciate the relationship between them. Integrated Science Books 1 & 2), 1980. All these questions can only be answered by Scientists and Artist. It is the artists III. CONCLUSION who would understand its design and while the scientists Art is not a subject with specific limits, but rather it is an would find out thing about it. Both scientist and artist do aspect of mental development which is all embracing. Any make use of their environment that‟s their surroundings and attempt to define art cannot adequately embrace all that art they both appreciate the work of nature. Scientist can also can stand for. But many people say art is a broad word but it classify and group their information. In doing this, they will can simply be defined as a means of self-expression. It is choose some standard quality which is found among the imaginative, creative and aesthetic. The importance of all thing they group together classifying or grouping is very branches of art expression is the cultural, commercial and useful because, it helps Scientists to arrange things in order, industrial development of this age has increased the so that they can refer easily to things and remember them. desirability of extending and improving the teaching of art The scientists then make further searches in order to explain and other forms of knowledge in our secondary schools and their observations. They may carry out experiments, perhaps colleges in order to correct the existing untutored and using some tools and making measurement in order to test doubtful ways in which art has so far been treated in our any explanation already given by other people. In doing all community.Many people have mistakenly understood art to these, the scientific principles can also be applied to drawing mean the ability to draw and paint pictures and they are and painting and to all forms of art and technology. clearly distinct from other forms of knowledge such as Leonardo-da-Vinci and Michael Angelo themselves were science ,culture and technology .In other words scientific Scientist understood that as the subject recedes from the principles can also be applied to drawing and painting and to P a g e | 66 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science all forms of art and technology. The relationship between art 9) Robertson,Jean and Craig McDaniel;2005 Themes and science finds expression in the fact that science enters of Contemporary Art,Visual Art after the forces which influence art. And though studying social 1980,pp16,Oxford University Press. history and the differences between past and present 10) Einstein Albert ;The World as I see it cultures, we begin to realize how art has been a phase in all http:www.aip.org/history/Einstein/essay cultural development. And there is no better avenue than art 11) Painter Collin 2002 Contemporary Art and the in the understanding of the past and present culture of a Home,;Berg Publishers pp12 people.Art has been divided into some aspects based on visual arts and performing arts. Visual arts which are designed to show the sense of vision which includes both the fine and applied arts. While performing arts are those which are expressed in the form of drama, poetry, music, play-writing or dancing.Art is a self–expression and in view of its role in fostering unity of purpose in our society, should under no circumstances be separated from the rest of the curriculum. Art is a basic and very important part of our education and should not be treated with indifference .It is a pointer towards the realization for a brighter and more prosperous future.The manner in which art is taught in our schools and colleges has been found to be unscientific, poor and improperly organised. A new approach to the teaching of art must be made in order to develop a sound art philosophy so that students will appreciate the relationship of art to the whole structure of growth of our society. In writing a paper of this type, I therefore, suggest that art should be given a full length of meaning, function and value of knowledge which has been badly misunderstood and neglected.Recognition of the new attitude towards the meaning of art must be interpreted in a wider sense and that there should be no artificial separation between art, religion, technology, culture and science which should be regarded as part and parcel of one important branch of teaching. That!s it should be correlated with science, culture and technology.These steps are necessary when it is understood that art today is a testimony to our culture, a witness to its position, qualities and its limitations just as the arts of the past are to the culture of the past.

IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1) Clive Bell;(2001 ): Art ,Caprison Books, New-York, pp67-69 2) Journal of African Art; (2005) Vol XVI No.2,Lagos, November, pp45 3) Ler Semenovich Vygotsky; (2001) The Psychology of Art, MIT Press, London. Pp183-186 4) New Culture:2001 A review of Contemporary African Arts, Ibadan, 5) A New Culture Studio Publications, pp97. 6) Uzoagba I.N:2005) Understanding Art in General Education; O.A.E.P. Nigeria Ltd, Benin City, Edo State, pp65,67,70-74. 7) William Read: 2007 The Meaning of Art; University of London Press, Pp235. 8) Jerrold Levinson;2003;The Oxford Handbook ofAesthetics; Oxford University Press 2003 pp16 Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 67 A Study of Sanitation of Toilets in Anganwadi Centres Located In Rural Areas of Uttarakhand

State in India GJHSS-C Classification FOR 160702,120503,120505,170102 Dr Abhimanyu Kumar1, Satya Pal2

Abstract-This paper is based on the primary data collected seriourepercussions. A direct link exists between water, from the Anganwadi Workers situated in rural areas of the sanitation and health, and nutrition and human well-being. state of Uttarakhand in India. The study was conducted in six Consumption of contaminated drinking water, improper districts of Uttarakhand. All these Anganwadi Workers were disposal of human excreta, lack of personal and food-related randomly selected. The data were collected through an hygiene and improper disposal of solid and liquid waste interview schedule in an unbiased manner. The sample included 300 Anganwadi Centres situated in the rural areas of have been major causes of many diseases in India and it is six Districts of Kumoun Mandal (Commissionary) of estimated that around 30 million people suffer from water- Uttarakhand. related diseases. Children, particularly girls and women, are Keywords-Anganwadi centre, Anganwadi worker, the most affected. Therefore, India is burdened with sanitation, toilets sanitation related diseases as listed below. (Central Bureau of Health Intelligence, Ministry of Health and Family

I. INTRODUCTION Welfare 1998-99) he study is related to the sanitation of lavatories used in 1 About 30 million persons in rural areas suffer from T Anganwadi workers situated in the rural areas of sanitation-related diseases Uttarakhand. Therefore, before discussing the issue, it is 2 Five of the top killer diseases of children aged 1-4 years in desirable to present the definition of sanitation, Anganwadi, rural areas are related to water and sanitation. workers, rural areas and Uttarakhand 3. There is economic loss of rupees 12 billion annually due to loss of man-days on account of diseases

1) Sanitation 4 As far as Anganwadi Centres sanitation is concerned Sanitation is basically a hygienic disposal or recycling of UNICEF (Central Bureau of Health Intelligence, Ministry of waste. It also is considered as a practice that allows Health and Family Welfare 1998-99) in its assessment on protection of health with the help of hygienic measures. It is School Sanitation and Health Education (SSHE) has noted also commonly understood as a term that is used for that there are about 600,000 primary schools in rural India in treatment of waste in its original form2. "Sanitation” is which only one in every 10 schools has adequate toilets and understood to mean "the promotion of hygiene and urinals. According to the WHO report, 2000 children die prevention of disease by maintenance of sanitary every day due to lack of sanitation in India6 conditions".In the nineteenth century the term "sanitary" 2) Anganwadi Centres was understood to mean something “relating to health, or relating to or used in the disposal of domestic waterborne The children of today will be the adults of tomorrow. By waste" (Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, eleventh focusing on children today and by giving those tools and edition 2003pp84) 3.: The 1999 Protocol on Water and knowledge to change behavior, future generations can be Health to the 1992 Convention on the Protection and Use of stronger, healthier and more prosperous. Schools, being the Trans-boundary Watercourses and International Lakes ideal setting for promoting learning, stimulate positive defines sanitation as "the collection, transport, treatment, change among children and subsequently, in turn, the and disposal or reuse of human excreta or domestic water- community. Schools and in particular Anganwadi are waste, whether through collective systems or by installation, equally important places to address the health issues of the serving a single household or undertaking".This children provided that necessary infrastructure is available. understanding of the term includes not only the removal of Improved health and quality learning are not possible in waste from direct contact with human beings, but also its schools and Anganwadi as long as basic hygiene is lacking streatment and possible safe reuse4. It has been found that poor or sanitary facilities and water supply are missing or water and sanitation facilities have many other broken or not properly used. Lack of healthy environment is already resulting in high infant mortality and under five- ______About1- Dr. Abhimanyu Kumar, Asst.Prof.Sociology, Govt.P.G. College, mortality rate.There are approx. 6 lakh Anganwadi Centers Ranikhet\ in India and most of them are without toilet facilities. These About2- Satya Pal, Research Associate Dept. of Economics Pusa Campus, Anganwadi Centers reach out to 12.5 million children

New Delhi (ICDS, MOHRD). In addition, There are about 6.3 lakh P a g e | 68 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science rural schools both primary and upper primary with 8 crore Human excreta form an important cause of pollution and school going children (Education Survey, 1993-94, every society has a responsibility to ensure its safe removal. MOHRD-GOI). As per the NFHS-II, 1998, 75 percent of the The problems of improper excreta disposal can lead to: children in the age group of 6-14 are attending schools in rural areas. But it is also a fact that only 10-15 percent of Soil pollution schools have the sanitation facilities in the school premises. Water pollution Out of 6.3 lakh primary and upper primary rural schools, Contamination of foods only 44 percent have water supply facilities, 19 percent have Propagation of files urinals and 8 percent have lavatory facilities. Only 19 The diseases, which can occur due to environmental percent have separate urinals and 4 percent lavatory facility pollution and inadequate sanitation, are typhoid and Para- for girls. Such conditions result in high absenteeism and low typhoid fever, dysenteries, diahorreas, cholera, hookworm, enrolment. These issues are particularly important for girls. ascariasis, viral hepatitis and a host of other intestinal Studies show that not having access to proper, are and infections and parasitic infestations11.Of course, several private sanitation substantially increases absenteeism among national level surveys have been conducted on the status of girl learners, and contribute to their dropping out of schools Anganwadi centres sanitation, yet, few studies have been altogether. This is evident from high dropout rate in conducted on their use, cleanliness and technology used in particular girls, for example, only 42 percent of the girls the toilets in Anganwadi centres. Moreover, scant studies reach class VIII as reported by Indian Child, MOHRD- have been conducted in the field of sanitation in Anganwadi 2002.Rural Areas: Rural areas (referred to as "the centres. On these grounds, the present study has a special countryside") are large and isolated areas of a country, often significance for the policy makers, educationists and with low population density researchers to get details of the sanitation facilities available and their quality in various Anganwadi centres, in rural areas of the state. Objectives: The objectives of this study are follows: 1. To study the status of toilets in Anganwadi centres situated in rural areas of Uttarakhand state. 2. To study the type of infrastructure used in toilets of these Anganwadi centres. 3. To study the status of cleanliness of these toilets.

II. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY With a geographical area 53,485 sq. km spread across 13 districts Uttarakhand is unique in its topography and large rural population - 75% of total. The study was conducted in six districts of Uttarakhand. The Anganwadi workers were covered in the study. All these Anganwadi centres were randomly selected. The total numbers 300 of Anganwadi centres. The sample covered sufficient number of Anganwadi centres from each district of kumaun mandal (Commissionary) of Uttarakhand state. This paper is based on Simple and rapid comparisons of frequency percentages are suggested as an alternative to scoring and scaling methods in analyzing simple percentages of status of toilets where more mathematical sophisticated ones are now in use. The only apology is that for some data and purposes a quick and easy method seems more sensible than a time consuming and complex one. This is most obviously so when the data to be analyzed are subject to large biased errors or when assumptions underlying the more advance techniques are not even approximately met. Unfortunately, at present much sociological research has been conducted against such odds. A typical illustration is current study of status .Although the term “status‟‟ is a highly intangible Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 69 concept and is not subject to exact measurement. Therefore, simple percentage method is used in analyzing the status of toilets in Anganwadi centres located in the rural areas of Uttarakhan Table.1Number of Anganwadi centers included in the sample

Almora Pithoragarh Nainital Bageshwar Champawat U.S.Nagar Total 37 48 52 28 74 88 300

Table- 2 Percentage of toilet in Anganwadi centers

District With toilet Without toilet Total Anganwadi Almora 11(29.7) 26(70.3) 37 Pithoragarh 12(25.0) 36(75.0.) 48 Nainital 8(15.4) 44(84.6) 52 Bageshwar 4(14.3) 24(85.7) 28 Champawat 7(14.8) 40(85.1) 47 Udham Singh Nagar 28(31.8) 60(68.2) 88

Total 70(23.3) 230(76.6) 300 Note: figures in parenthesis shows percentages to the total

The above table shows that total 76.6 percent of Anganwadi toilet facility. Due to the above reasons the Anganwadi centers in six district of Uttarakhand are functioning without workers of the Anganwadi centers use their homes for any toilet facility, whereas 23.3percent of Anganwadi defecation or to defecate in filthy open places already filled centers in six district of Uttarakhand are functioning with up with night soil .The use of unsanitary field for defecation resulted in worm infection in Anganwadi workers. Table -3 Percentage of Anganwadi centres functioning in Government and Private Buildings toilets Toilet facility District Govt. Buildings Pvt. Buildings Total Almora 26(70.2) 11(29.7) 37 Nainital 40(83.3) 8(16.6) 48 Pithoragarh 35(67.3) 27(52.0) 52 B ageshwar 8(28.5) 20(71.4) 28 Champawat 30(63.8) 17(36.2) 47 U.Singh Nagar 65(73.8) 23(26.1) 88 Total 125(68.0) 96(32.0) 300 Note: figures in parenthesis shows percentages to total The above table shows the percentage of Anganwadi centers noted that 68 percent of government buildings and 32.00 functioning in government and private buildings. It has been percent of private buildings are having Anganwadi cente rs having toilets respectively

Table: 4 Percentage of toilets cleaned by Staff and sweepers in Anganwadi centres

District By Staff By Sweeper Not Cleaned Total Almora 8(57.14) 4(28.57) 2(14.28) 14 Nainital - 11(91.06) 1(8.04) 12 Pithoragarh 11(68.75) 3(18.75) 2(12.05) 16 Bageshwar 3(75.00) - 1(25.00) 4 Champawat 5(45.45) 3(27.27) 3(27.27) 11 U.Singh Nagar 5(45.05) 3(27.02) 3(27.27) 11 Total 32(47.05) 24(35.29) 12(17.64) 68 Note:figuresin parenthesis shows percentages to total P a g e | 70 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science

As far as cleanliness of toilets is concerned, as depicted in uncleaned toilets were found unrestricted and few of them table four 47.5percent of Anganwadi toilets are cleaned by have become totally non-functional. Moreover, the sanitary Anganwadi helpers(by staff) ,35.29percent by sweeper and materials such as phenyl, harpic, etc are rarely being used 17.64 percent of toilets are not cleaned at all. These for cleaning such toilets.

Table:-5Techniques used in the construction of toilets

Note: figures in parenthesis show percentage to total

Use of the appropriate and user-friendly technique in the 2. To highlight the disinterest shown by Village Panchayats construction of toilets motivates Anganwadi workers to use towards construction, operation, maintenance and sanitation of them and keep them clean for a large period. As far as toilets in Anganwadi centres located in rural areas inspite of grant available from the government. technology used in toilets of Anganwadi centres are concerned, 37.05 percent of them are with Septic tank and 3. The study also focuses on the behaviour of workers Anganwadi the rest are pit toilets of various categories depicted in table centers towards the use of toilets. -5. 4. Another findings of the study is that rural masses are uneducated, uninformative, non-communicative, unaware and III. DISCUSSION backward therefore they lack implementation of the sanitation The Causes of poor sanitation of toilets in Anganwadi programmes and follow up made by the government. centers are as follows:- 5. As opined by Anganwadi functionaries, Village Panchayats do 1.Lack of appropriate sanitary facilities. not take any interest in the functioning of the Anganwadis 2. Backwardness in workers regarding sanitary techniques. including the sanitation facilities. 3.Lack of literacy in workers regarding sanitation. 4.Lack in construction and maintenance of Anganwadi 6. This paper is general study of the status of sanitation of toilets used in Anganwadi centres located in the rural areas of centers in particular area. Uttarakhand .Therefore, no specified test is applied to know the 5.Lack of awareness in workers regarding sanitation level of significance. standards and the adverse health impact of unsanitary conditions. 7. This paper is confined only to the study of sanitation of toilets in 6.Lack of social mobilization regarding implementation of Anganwadi centres located in the rural areas of Uttarakhand. The urban area has been excluded because it is to do the study of both sanitation Programmes. areas on wide scale in short span of time simultaneously. 7.Lack of sanitation training starting with information, education, communication, implementation and follow-up 8. Anganwadi workers have not been given any orientation training services. on sanitation. 1) The main findings of the study: 2) Steps to be taken by the Government towards the sanitation of toilets of the Anganwadi centres in rural 1. To focus the negligence of duty of Village Education Committee areas: towards the construction, operation, maintenance and sanitation of toilets in Anganwadi centers located in rural areas. 1. A nation-wide campaign is necessary to make workers aware of the adverse effects of open air defecation which is Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 71 responsible for infections and a number of diseases. The constitutional amendment envisages that village panchayat people should be motivated not to be bare-footed while should look after the functioning, maintenance, operation going for open defecation as this will save them from and construction of toilets in these Anganwadi centres. parasitic diseases. This type of education will be necessary Further, while analyzing data of interview schedule it was until adequate toilet facilities are available in the villages. found that if village community is motivated towards the 2. The NGOs should be identified either by the State adoption of sanitation services, cross visits, interpersonal Government s or the District Administration. The selection communications and demonstration workshops, a great of NGOs should be based on their experience, expertise and impact would be observed on sanitation relating to the infrastructure. Anganwadi centres situated in these areas. The study has 3. The NGOs identified for implementation of the also depicted that efforts are being made toward this end. programme should be given proper training in various Despite tough terrains and weak economical condition of the aspects of the programme. A comprehensive programme of rural masses in the state, continuous efforts at the village, giving them training at various levels has been prepared block, district and state levels have shown some positive which forms part of the Project Report. results in the form of increased physical and financial 4. The entire range of training starting with information, progress and increased number of open defecation-free education, communication implementation and follow-up status villages. Keeping in view the current increase in should be given to the same NGO. It has been experienced demand for sanitation services,it is anticipated that the state that if the work is divided among various organizations, it will achieve full sanitation coverage in near future. becomes a case of divided responsibilities that hamper progress of the work. 5. Interest-free bank loans should be provided to all the V. REFERENCES Anganwadi centres situated in rural areas. 6. The implementation of the programme will require social 1) Quoted from the United Nations World Water mobilization on a large scale, which will include workers Development Report, UNESCO.2003 belonging to various groups. Politicians and policy makers 2) Quoted from Sinha.B.D.and Menon PSK, will have to be involved in a big way so that they can take Environmental Sanitation, Health and Panchayati interest in policy decisions in favour of sanitation Raj. Institute of Social Science. Concept Publishing programmes. The social mobilization would also include Company, New Delhi.2004 village elders, doctors, lawyers and schoolteachers. Print 3) Kumar, R (1988): Child Development of India media, radio and television will have to be fully involved in Health Welfare Management, Ashsih Publishing the implementation of the programmes. . House, New Delhi, vol, II, 7. The following recommendations of the Planning 4) Blackwell, Fritz (2004), India: A Global Studies Commission in the 10th Five Year Plan should be accepted Handbook, United States of America: ABC-CLIO, in implementation of the rural sanitation programme Inc., ISBN 1-57607-348-3 successfully. 5) Central Bureau of Health Intelligence, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare 1998-99 IV. CONCLUSION 6) R.K. Suri and Kalapana Rajaram (2008): The conclusions were arrived at on the basis of classification Infrastructure: S&T Education", Science and of raw data collected from Anganwadi centres situated in the Technology in India edited New Delhi: Spectrum, rural areas of six district of Uttarakhand. The collected data ISBN 81-7938-294-6. were related to the use of toilets, cleanliness of toilets and 7) India 2009: An Annual (53rd edition), New Delhi: techniques used in the construction of the toilets. It was Additional Director General (ADG), Publications found that 23.3% of Anganwadi centres are having toilets Division, Ministry of Information and and 76.06% of Anganwadi centres are without toilets. As Broadcasting, Government of India, ISBN 978-81- regards the functioning of the toilets 68.00%of Anganwadi 230-1557-6. centres are runned in the government buildings and 8) Prabhu, Joseph (2006): Educational Institutions and 32.00%of Anganwadi centres are runned in private Philosophies, Traditional and Modern, buildings. However, as regards the cleanliness of toilets in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2) edited by Stanley Anganwadi centres, they are cleaned both by staff and Wolpert, 23–28, Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684- sweepers. This is due to the lack of administrative facilities 31351 that sweepers do not exclusively clean them. This is a big 9) Setty, E.D. and Ross, E.L. (1987): A Case Study in lacuna on the part of the health department, and thus, has to Applied Education in Rural India, Community be very sincerely eliminated. The 11th schedule of 73rd P a g e | 72 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science

Development Journal, 22 (2): 120–129, Oxford University Press. 10) Sripati, V. and Thiruvengadam, A.K. (2004), "India ConstitutionalAmendment Making the Right to Education: A Fundamental Right",International Journal of Constitutional Law, 2 (1): 148–158, Oxford University Press. 11) Vrat, Prem (2006):"Indian Institutes of Technology", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2,) edited by Stanley Wolpert, 229-231, Thomson Gale:ISBN 0-684-31351 - Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 73 Perception of middle aged adults regarding emotional closeness with their siblings GJHSS-C Classification FOR Madhur Katoch,Shobha Nandw 1 70106,160702,160802,160807

Abstract- The present investigation was an exploratory attempt 1987).In India sibling relationship are given due importance to examine the emotional closeness od middle aged adults with since time immemorial. The young child learns about early their siblings. Gender differences regarding emotional hierarchy within the family, as he watches affectionate and closeness in sibling dyad compositions were computed using t- respectful relationships between seniors and juniors or males test. A representative sample of 120, married middle aged and females. Even among young siblings in a household adults (40-60yrs), belonging to Hindu nuclear families having at least one living biological sibling between the age difference there is a constant acknowledgement of age differences. of 1-4 years were selected from Udaipur city of Rajasthan state Therefore younger siblings never address an older sibling by of India. Adult-Sibling Relationship Scale (ASRS) was name, but rather by respectful terms for older brother and developed, standardized and used. The comfort, security, sister. However an older sibling may address the younger closeness and concern were assessed on the dimension of sibling by name. Respect is required between siblings of (ASRS) i.e emotional closeness. The results of the study opposite sex. Feeling of mutual respect is expected between revealed that higher percentage of females as compared to brothers and sisters and this intensifies after puberty. As males had a feeling of security by the presence of siblings in sibling enters adulthood their relationship are marked by their lives and they felt close to their sibling. Regarding the increased separation and decreased overall quality those are extent of concern, majority of subjects found their sibling to be least interested in their lives. In case of sibling dyads Sister- affected by events like marriage, increase in geographic sister dyad was found to have highest emotional closeness than proximity among siblings, birth of child etc. During middle other dyads. Whereas brother-brother dyad possess least adulthood, typically ages 40 to 60, a person becomes amount of emotional closeness. actively involved with his or her family of procreation and Keywords-adult sibling, emotional closeness, comfort, economic endeavours. Middle-aged adults also known as security, middle adulthood sandwich generation is squeezed or sandwiched between the needs of ill or frail parents and financially dependent I. INTRODUCTION children. It is also during this period that individual faces ndia is a country of diverse culture, religions, morals and midlife crises, which is potentially a stressful life period Is piritual values. In India relationships are the essence of precipitated by the review and revaluation of one‟s past and family. This holds true for any relation, it might be the to acknowledge that their lives are finite. Since these tasks relation between parent-child, husband-wife, grandparent- and the inner dialogue, call for threatening concepts, midlife grandchild, in-laws or sibling relationship. Siblings are the is often stressful. Due to these transitions or tasks kin vital members of kin in fostering an individual‟s networks are overshadowed in the middle years by development. Growing up with or without sibling is likely to immediate responsibilities. But sibling bond can become a mould an individual‟s life experiences in varying genre. One source of emotional support for these adults.Siblings can spends 40-50 years with one‟s parents, but life with siblings continue to relate as friends and confidants throughout mid can last 60-80 years (Bank & Kahn, 1997). Sibling adulthood when family of procreation and economic represents continuity in family history that is uncommon to activities command priority and when sibling interaction has most other family relationships. In some families it may become voluntary. The general tendency for middle-aged represent the only surviving dyadic relationship from the adults is to exchange help as situation requires, which family of origin. As the longest survivors of the original include help during illness, financial support or emotional family, siblings may become a valued repository of family support. Sibling acts as a support system to help deal with memories and partners in shared reminiscence (Gold, the fears and stress that accom pany caring for the parents or death of any family member. Finally the actual exchange of ______social support between middle aged siblings is likely to About- Department of Human Development and Family Studies , College of consist of psychological or emotional support, that include Home Science, MPUAT, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India *E-mail: feeling of security, comfort, companionship or giving advice [email protected] or encouragement. However siblings who are compatible or emotionally close are still less likely to share intimate P a g e | 74 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science personal life details or consult their siblings while making Therefore the present study was planned with the objective important family decisions. However siblings are typically to assess the emotional closeness of middle aged adults with viewed as potential sources of support, a type of “insurance their siblings with respect to their age and to examine policy” in later life (Hochschild, 1973) and as more active difference of closeness in various sibling dyadic providers of expressive than of instrumental supportGender compositions. is another key factor influencing the nature of adult sibling relations, though gender differences have been shown to I. METHODOLOGY decrease with age (Bedford, 1996). Emotional intimacy, Sample: The sample for the present investigation comprised often described as devotion and psychological closeness of 120 married middle aged adults belonging to the age tend to increase with brother-brother, to sister-sister range of 40-60 years, belonging to Hindu nuclear families of relationship, such that sister-sister relationship demonstrates Udaipur city of Rajasthan state of India. The subjects the greatest emotional closeness. Women act as kin keepers, selected had at least one living biological sibling and the age organizing family gatherings and sharing news with the difference of 1-4 years from sibling. if subjects had two or family members. In summary, sisters tend to exhibit greater more than two sibling within the age difference of 1-4 years amounts of warmth, affection and support for their siblings than random selection technique was opted to select the than do brothers.Fortunately for some siblings and index sibling with whom subject described his/her unfortunately for others, it is the nature of the childhood relationship with. The age range (40-60yrs) was further relationship that often predicts the nature of relationship in subdivided in two age cohorts. adulthood. If during childhood siblings had experienced 1) 40-50 years conflict with little emotional closeness or commonality, it is 2) 50-60 years likely that their adult relationship will be the continuation of A sample of 60 was randomly selected from each age cohort these interaction patterns. However, as individual age, their making a total sample of 120. From the first age cohort i.e. tendency to hold onto past jealousies or feelings of anger (40-50 years) 30 males and 30 females were selected. and resentment decreases often referred to as “mellowing Similarly from the remaining cohort i.e. (50-60 years) 30 out”, where siblings makes a conscious decisions in later life males and 30 females were selected. Further the presence of to put old hurts behind them and instead form on building different dyads that were naturally present in selected and maintaining a new relationship with their siblings.In sample of 120 was found. A detail regarding availability of India, cultural ideas and expectations demand that siblings dyads is given in Table 1. maintain solidarity throughout their lives and many rituals Sample selection: In order to select representative sample and festivals are observed like Rakshabandhan in northern from five zones, Collectorate office and UIT (Urban India and Nagapanchami in south India. It is celebrated on Improvement Trust) office of Udaipur city were contacted to the full moon of the month of Shraavana. The festival is obtain the list of colonies. From the list of colonies, three marked by tying of a rakhi or holy thread by the sister on the colonies were selected from each zone, thus total 15 wrist of her brother. The brother in return offers a gift to her colonies were selected randomly for the research sister and vows to look after her. Rakhi for many centuries investigation. Door-to door preliminary survey was encompassed the warmth shared between siblings but now it conducted on identified subjects to obtain the information goes way beyond it. Since childhood brothers and sisters are regarding age, gender, type of family, marital status, encouraged to participate in numerous rituals that emphasize religion, income group, number of siblings and age family ties and this continues as they enter adulthood. difference with the sibling/ siblings, by using self-structured Therefore these festivals account for more emotional proforma. The proforma were scrutinized and sample was closeness in siblings even during adulthood years.Rapid selected who fulfilled the delimitations of the study. Since industrialization and urbanization job scenario has also the available sample was excess so the final sample was changed dramatically. The Multinational companies with purposively selected so as to have equal representation of lucrative packages are mushrooming in the country, which both males and females from all the five zones. make people migrate from their native places to metro cities Tool used for data collection: Selected subjects were or even abroad, creating distance among siblings. Hence, contacted personally at their respective homes for data middle adulthood years are significant juncture where adults collection. Data were collected using self-structured Adult should reestablish their ties with their siblings and invest Sibling Relationship Scale (ASRS), which was prepared more in the nurturance of sibling relationship. A lack of after exhaustive consultation of theoretical and empirical contact may decrease face-to-face interaction, but other evidences on adult sibling relationship. The second forms of communications such as letters, e-mails, telephone dimension of ASRS is Emotional closeness. The tool calls or communication through third person can contribute comprised of 13 statements regarding Emotional closeness to the maintenance of the closeness siblings may share. among siblings. It included items related to comfort, Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 75 security, closeness and concern among siblings. The scale better afterwards was reported by very small percentage of was initially standardized by calculating reliability and respondents. It can be explained on the grounds of age of the validity of the scale. Reliability was calculated by split-half subjects, where they are not reckoned to react or vent out technique and using Spearman Brown Prophecy formula. their tensions to a situation either when they are annoyed or For Emotional closeness it was estimated to be (0.87). frustrated, because if it is done it can be considered as a Similarly content validity and intrinsic validity was childish act or behaviour. Therefore siblings do not act as an measured. Intrinsic validity score for Emotional closeness outlet for subject to release their worries.More than half was (93 %). percentage of males (40-50yrs) derives a feeling of security Scoring pattern: It was four point Likert scale having by having a sibling (Figure 2). Siblings are not fortunate options as Always, Most of the time, Sometimes and Hardly enough to have regular contact with each other but there is a ever. Weighted scores „3‟ „2‟ „1‟ „0‟ are given for positive special bond that ties them together. In fact they are likely to items and scoring is reversed for the negative items. Ranges have known their siblings three times as long as they may were made on the basis of raw scores and three levels of have known their spouse or friends. The potential of this emotional closeness were found i.e. High, Moderate and relationship contribute towards a feeling of security from Low. Scoring pattern is given in Table 2. having a sibling. According to Cicirelli (1995) relationship Data Analysis: The responses obtained were coded, with siblings could contribute to life satisfaction, higher tabulated and frequency percentages were calculated for morale, fewer depressive symptoms, psychological well- each item for the detailed assessment of comfort, security, being and a greater sense of emotional security during later closeness and concern among siblings. The difference in years of life. Cicirelli (1985) pointed out that siblings are overall emotional closeness in sibling dyad compositions used as “yardsticks” by which success and failure are was measured by using t-test. measured and they acts as “fixed deposits” and provide security of knowing someone is in the wings, ready to help II. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION in a crises. Frequency percentages were calculated for each item of Regarding receiving emotional support from sibling during emotional closeness and are represented in the form of bar crises less than half percentage of the subjects got the diagram based on raw scores obtained by males and females emotional support of their sibling when they ran into some of both the age cohorts. Figure 1 depicts the perception of kind of problem or trouble. Actual exchange of support males and females regarding extent of comfort with their between siblings during middle adulthood years is likely to sibling. It can be seen that less than half percentage of consist more of psychological or emotional support like subjects reported that they were cheered up by their sibling, giving of advice or encouragement or instrumental support. when they felt sad or unhappy It may account to the reason In another study Bedford (1996) postulated that siblings that people during middle adulthood years have other provide a sense of emotional support during various life liabilities or engagements, which makes them less conscious events like death of parent or sibling, loss of spouse and of their sibling‟s demands or problems. On the other hand illness or increased dependency needsThe extent of dispositions of married siblings can be taken into account by closeness as inferred is depicted in Figure 3. It can be seen their spouse or children, who fall in the inner circle of social that majority (40.00%) males 40-50yrs and (53.34%) males support and are in direct contact with them. Whereas (50-60yrs) were not found to be attached to their sibling. siblings, who fall in the outer circle of social support Wherein less than half percent of females were not found network in adulthood, are not that much aware of their attached to their sibling. Females were found to be more sibling‟s state of mind. The other reason might be the emotionally close to their sibling as compared to males. It is geographic proximity. Where larger distances lessens the because that female tends to exhibit more nurturing contact among siblings.Further the findings portray that less behaviour, empathy, compassion and emotional closeness. than half percentage of subjects felt better after discussing They spend more time throughout their lifetime in care problems with their sibling. In comparison to males, more giving, maintaining kin networks than do males and are percentage of females were observed to find comfort or socialized to be more dependent and emotional than males. solace from their sibling. It might be reasoned out that According to Cicirelli (1980) at psychological level, women women vent out their feelings more openly and even has a invest more in their relationships and experience more reassuring or comforting attitudes as compared to men. intense emotions in their ties than do men. It was reported According to Saxton (1996) women are more socialized to by Cicirelli (1996) that female siblings are emotionally close talk about feelings and opinions then men and they more to their siblings and often has more interest and motivation often use conversation to develop or maintain emotional ties to initiate and maintain family relationships. It can also be and show commitment to and involvement with others. generated from the Figure 3 that there is age related increase Regarding taking out one‟s worries on sibling and feeling in emotional closeness with their siblings in both males and P a g e | 76 Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 Global Journal of Human Social Science females. The findings are in line with socio-emotional females demonstrate more emotionally close relation to their selectivity theory where Carstensen (1992) delineated age sisters than their brothers.It could be ascribed to the fact that related decrease in social interaction and concomitant middle aged experience many transitions during this stage. increase in emotional closeness over the adult years with the Their children start leaving home for pursuing their careers close relationship network.Further it can be put forth from or start their families, which leads to “empty nest”. During the figure that very small percentage of subjects when felt this stage middle aged feel lonely, especially females, if they lonely want to meet their sibling. Similarly very small are non-employed. Even physical transitions like number of subjects reported that it would be hard for them „menopause‟ bring along with various physical, to get along without sibling. It can be ascribed to the fact psychological and emotional changes. Woman experience that even though there is a feeling of emotional closeness or isolation, loneliness and depression. During this period they support provided by brothers or sisters, but for seeking out seek out the help of others, who are going through the same comfort immediately when one is experiencing isolation or transitions. Therefore it is the sister who they feel more any crises, it is not strived from sibling at first instance, but emotionally close too. On the other hand females because of from spouse or children who act as a primary source of the feminine sex role prescribe compassionate and support and fall in the inner circle of social support network. expressive behaviour. Men on the other hand are encouraged Majority of subjects forgive their sibling for practically not to share intimate feelings. Powers and Buttens (1976) anything. It may be due to the reason that adults during this argued that social participation is more intense among stage of life do not like to keep small grudges and like to women than men, though men have larger friendship carry them on. The findings are compatible with Wilson et networks than women, but they have been characterized as al. (1994) whose results emphasized that married having more superficially and less emotionally close respondents gets emotional support from the spouse relationships. In a study of same gender and cross gender followed by children and then their siblings.It is evident pairs Akiyama et al. (1996) discussed alternative from the Figure 4 that majority of the males reported that perspectives that can be used to consider potential outcomes. their sibling is least concerned when they face any family Their principle of femaleness stated that the more women in crises. Whereas compared to males, less percent of female a relationship, the closer the pair would be. This implies that found their sibling least concerned when there is any family pairs of sisters would be closest and pairs of brothers would problem. Majority of subjects reported that their sibling be least close. Stocker et al. (1997) summarized that sisters express little interest in them and seems to be caught up in tend to exhibit greater amounts of warmth, affection and their lives. It can be accounted to the fact that middle aged support for their siblings than do brothers. In examination of have other dispositions regarding the establishment of gender influences on the quality of the siblingship, sister- children, caring for aging parents, job demands etc. which sister bond have highest quality of relationship.Further the keep them involved in their own lives, leaving less time to analysis of the results highlight that Brother were found to care for their siblings.Table 4.26 represents mean, S.D and t- be more emotionally close to their sisters than their brothers. value for gender wise difference between sibling dyads It could be due to the fact that brothers older in age assumed regarding emotional closeness during middle adulthood the expected pattern of dominance. If the sister was older, years. A highly significant difference was observed between the relationship was more equal, as the respect due her age sister-sister dyad and brother-brother dyad. Similarly, tended to balance the respect due his gender. Brothers statistically high significant difference was found between because of their expected responsibilities for sisters become sister-sister and brother-sister dyad. In case of sister-brother protective of them. Whereas strain could arise in a and brother-brother dyad no significant difference was relationship if the sister become jealous of the privileged noticed regarding emotional closeness. Whereas a high position assigned to the sons.Ross (1971) postulated that in significant difference was laid between sister-brother and many Indian families, the brothers feel closer to their sisters brother-sister dyad regarding emotional closeness. Mean than their brothers. They always do their best to see that scores of sister-sister dyad were found to be highest (23.35) their sisters are well married and are happy. as compared to other dyadic compositions, followed by III. SUMMARY brother-sister dyad (16.89). The analysis of results for difference in emotional closeness revealed that sister-sister In the daily round of activities that occupy the foreground in dyad was found to be emotionally very close as compared to adult lives, siblings generally play a minor role. If one shifts all the other dyads. Whereas brother-brother dyad has lowest one‟s perspective from a snapshot of daily life to a lifetime mean score value (10.91), i.e. Brother-Brother relationship perspective, however siblings play a more prominent role. is least emotionally close. A high significant difference The relationship that any two siblings share is a unique one. between sister-sister dyad with brother-brother and sister- It is one of the most interesting to study because it is sister with brother-sister dyad can lead to the conclusion that typically the longest relationship one will have beginning at Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 77 birth and lasting a lifetime, longer than husband-wife or taking a major turn and are following the similar pattern as it parent-child relationship. Siblings are those with whom one is in the west. most closely shares genetic, family, social class and IV. LITERATURE CITED historical backgrounds and to whom one is tied for a lifetime by a network of interlocking family relationships. 1) Akiyama, H., Elliott, K. and Antonucci, T. C. 1996. Sibling interaction becomes voluntary during Same sex and cross sex relationships. Journal of middle adulthood years. Cross sectional evidences suggest Gerontology: Social Sciences. 51: 374-382. that average adult has contact with sibling once or twice in a 2) Bank, D. P. and Kahn, M. D. 1997. The year during middle adulthood years (White and Reidman, sibling bond. Basic Books, New York, pp. 1992). Our results indicate that emotional closeness is 171-78. altered by various life events. These events happen not just 3) Bedford, V. H. 1996. Relationships between adult to individual, but to the entire family unit. Although, the siblings. In: The diversity of human relationships. weakening in emotional closeness results from marriage, Auhagan, A. and Von, M. S. (Eds.). Cambridge especially when one sibling disapproves of the other University Press, New York, pp. 120-140 sibling‟s choice of spouse which results in poor sibling-in- 4) Carstensen, L. 1992. Social and emotional patterns law relationship which leads to lessening of emotional in adulthood: Support for socioemotional closeness among siblings or of a general disruption in the selectivity theory. Psychology and Aging. 7: 331- family close sibling relationship. Another reason might be 338. that, as middle aged become involved in their own family or 5) Cicirelli, V. G. 1985. The role of siblings as family occupation, less time is left for their sibling. Even the caregivers. In: Social support networks and care of distance among siblings lessens the frequency of interaction the elderly. Saver, W. J. and Coward, R. T. (Eds.). and results to be a poor reason for the lack of closeness. On Springer, New York, pp. 93-107. the other hand obligatory contact motivations that are based 6) Cicirelli, V.G. 1980. Sibling relationships in on societal norms, where siblings are expected to meet in adulthood: A life span perspective. In: Aging various family events like marriage, child birth etc. feast and festivals like (Rakhi, Bhai Dooj, Diwali, Holi etc.) or during in the 1980‟s. Leonard W. P. (Eds.). American family crises like death of any family member etc. may Psychological Association, Washington D.C, increase the chance of renewing the relations among pp. 109-118. siblings.When sibling dyadic compositions were studied for 7) Cicirelli, V.G. 1995. Sibling relationship over the overall emotional closeness it was found that sister-sister life span. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 202-209. dyad were closest emotionally than other dyadic gender 8) Gold, D. 1987. Siblings in old age: Something compositions, whereas males reported higher closeness with special. Canadian Journal of Aging 6: 199- their sisters than their brothers and brother-brother dyad had 215. least emotional closeness. In India, brother gives more to his 9) Hochschild, A. R. 1973. The unexpected sister than he receives from her and feels rewarded to do so. community. University of California Press, He keeps up the relation after his sister got married and Berkeley, CA, pp. 67-70 leave her original home. This entails special responsibility 10) Powers, E. A. and Buttens, G. L. 1976. Sex towards her husband and particularly to her children and the differences in intimate friendship of old age. relationship is of major importance. The mother‟s brother is Journal of Marriage and the Family. 38: 739-747. an important figure in life cycle ceremonies from birth to 11) Reiss, P. J. 1962. The extended kinship marriage. The marriage of the sister‟s child usually calls system: Correlates and attitudes on frequency forth the brothers best efforts and they may then cooperate of interaction. Marriage and Family Living 24: willingly even if otherwise they are cool to each other. 333-339 However there are very few studies related to adult sibling relationships in India especially in contemporary Indian 12) Ross, H. G. and Miligram, J. I. 1982. society. India a country of manifold castes and religions, Important variables in adult sibling having various traditional festivals symbolic of brother- relationship: A qualitative study. In: Sibling sister divine relations. The origin of these festivals is mostly relationship: Their nature and significance attributed to various mythological incidents, and holds their across the life span. Lamb, M. E. and Sutton- importance till date. Nowadays with life becoming more and Smith, B. (Eds.). Lawrence Erlbaum more mechanical with career and money taking highest Associates, Hillsdale, New Jersey, pp. 225- priority, sibling relations especially in urban context are 249. 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13) Saxton, L. 1996. The individual marriage and the sibling relationship in adulthood. Journal of family. Wadsworth, Belmont, CA, pp. 46-49. Marriage and the Family.54: 197-208. 14) Stocker, C., Lanthier, R. and Furman, W. 1997. 16) Wilson, J. G., Calsyan, R. J. and Orlofsky, J. L. Sibling relationships in early adulthood. Journal of 1994. Impact of sibling relationships on social Family Psychology. 11: 210-221. support and morale in the elderly. Journal of 15) White, L. K. and Riedmann, A. 1992. When Gerentological Social Work. 22: 157-170 the brandy bunch gro ws up: Step/ half and full Global Journal of Human Social Science Vol. 10 Issue 6 (Ver 1.0) October 2010 P a g e | 79

Figure 2 Perception of middle aged (40-60yrs) males and females regarding the extent of security with their sibling

Figure 3 Perception of middle aged (40-60yrs) males and females regarding the extent of closeness with their sibling

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Figure 4 Perception of middle aged (40-60yrs) males and females regardingthe extent of concern with their sibling

V. LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Percentage distribution of sibling dyads

Sibling Dyads Males Females (60) (60) Male subjects with Brother i.e. (Brother-Brother dyad) 55.0% - Male subjects with Sister i.e. (Brother-Sister dyad) 45.0% - Female subjects with Sister i.e. (Sister-Sister dyad) - 51.6% Female subjects with Brother i.e. (Sister-Brother dyad) - 48.4%

Table 2 Interpretation regarding specific scores and levels of Contact

Dimension Scores Interpretations Emotional 39-27 High emotional closeness closeness 26-14 Moderate emotional closeness 13-0 Low emotional closeness

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Table 3 t-test for examining gender wise difference between sibling dyads regarding emotional closeness during middle adulthood years Dimensions Mean S.D Calculated t- value Female with Sister i.e. (Sister▀-Sister dyad) 23.35 6.99 8.84** Male with Brother i.e. (Brother▀-Brother dyad 10.91 3.96 Female with Sister i.e. (Sister▀-Sister dyad) 23.35 6.99 3.98** Male with Sister i.e. (Brother▀-Sister dyad) 16.89 5.05 Female with Brother i.e. (Sister▀-Brother dyad) 11.04 4.46 0.12NS Male with Brother i.e. (Brother▀-Brother dyad 10.91 3.96

Female with Brother i.e. (Sister▀-Brother dyad) 11.04 4.46 4.56** Male with Sister i.e. (Brother▀-Sister dyad) 16.89 5.05 Note: * represents significant values at 5%level of significance ** represents significant values at 1%level of significance ▀ represents the subjects

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Left Margin: 0.65 Right Margin: 0.65 Top Margin: 0.75 Bottom Margin: 0.75 Font type of all text should be Times New Roman. Paper Title should be of Font Size 24 with one Column section. Author Name in Font Size of 11 with one column as of Title. Abstract Font size of 9 Bold, “Abstract” word in Italic Bold. Main Text: Font size 10 with justified two columns section Two Column with Equal Column with of 3.38 and Gaping of .2 First Character must be two lines Drop capped. Paragraph before Spacing of 1 pt and After of 0 pt. Line Spacing of 1 pt Large Images must be in One Column Numbering of First Main Headings (Heading 1) must be in Roman Letters, Capital Letter, and Font Size of 10. Numbering of Second Main Headings (Heading 2) must be in Alphabets, Italic, and Font Size of 10.

You can use your own standard format also. Author Guidelines: 1. General, 2. Ethical Guidelines, 3. Submission of Manuscripts, 4. Manuscript’s Category, 5. Structure and Format of Manuscript, 6. After Acceptance.

1. GENERAL

Before submitting your research paper, one is advised to go through the details as mentioned in following heads. It will be beneficial, while peer reviewer justify your paper for publication.

Scope The Global Journals welcome the submission of original paper, review paper, survey article relevant to the all the streams of Philosophy and knowledge. The Global Journals is parental platform for Global Journal of Computer Science and Technology, Researches in Engineering, Medical Research, Science Frontier Research, Human Social Science, Management, and Business organization. The choice of specific field can be done otherwise as following in Abstracting and Indexing Page on this Website. As the all Global Journals are being abstracted and indexed (in process) by most of the reputed organizations. Topics of only narrow interest will not be accepted unless they have wider potential or consequences.

2. ETHICAL GUIDELINES

Authors should follow the ethical guidelines as mentioned below for publication of research paper and research activities.

Papers are accepted on strict understanding that the material in whole or in part has not been, nor is being, considered for publication elsewhere. If the paper once accepted by Global Journals and Editorial Board, will become the copyright of the Global Journals. Authorship: The authors and coauthors should have active contribution to conception design, analysis and interpretation of findings. They should critically review the contents and drafting of the paper. All should approve the final version of the paper before submission The Global Journals follows the definition of authorship set up by the Global Academy of Research and Development. According to the Global Academy of R&D authorship, criteria must be based on: 1) Substantial contributions to conception and acquisition of data, analysis and interpretation of the findings. 2) Drafting the paper and revising it critically regarding important academic content. 3) Final approval of the version of the paper to be published. All authors should have been credited according to their appropriate contribution in research activity and preparing paper. Contributors who do not match the criteria as authors may be mentioned under Acknowledgement. Acknowledgements: Contributors to the research other than authors credited should be mentioned under acknowledgement. The specifications of the source of funding for the research if appropriate can be included. Suppliers of resources may be mentioned along with address. Appeal of Decision: The Editorial Board’s decision on publication of the paper is final and cannot be appealed elsewhere. Permissions: It is the author's responsibility to have prior permission if all or parts of earlier published illustrations are used in this paper. Please mention proper reference and appropriate acknowledgements wherever expected. If all or parts of previously published illustrations are used, permission must be taken from the copyright holder concerned. It is the author's responsibility to take these in writing. Approval for reproduction/modification of any information (including figures and tables) published elsewhere must be obtained by the authors/copyright holders before submission of the manuscript. Contributors (Authors) are responsible for any copyright fee involved.

3. SUBMISSION OF MANUSCRIPTS

Manuscripts should be uploaded via this online submission page. The online submission is most efficient method for submission of papers, as it enables rapid distribution of manuscripts and consequently speeds up the review procedure. It also enables authors to know the status of their own manuscripts by emailing us. Complete instructions for submitting a paper is available below. Manuscript submission is a systematic procedure and little preparation is required beyond having all parts of your manuscript in a given format and a computer with an Internet connection and a Web browser. Full help and instructions are provided on-screen. As an author, you will be prompted for login and manuscript details as Field of Paper and then to upload your manuscript file(s) according to the instructions. To avoid postal delays, all transaction is preferred by e-mail. A finished manuscript submission is confirmed by e-mail immediately and your paper enters the editorial process with no postal delays. When a conclusion is made about the publication of your paper by our Editorial Board, revisions can be submitted online with the same procedure, with an occasion to view and respond to all comments. Complete support for both authors and co-author is provided.

4. MANUSCRIPT’S CATEGORY

Based on potential and nature, the manuscript can be categorized under the following heads: Original research paper: Such papers are reports of high-level significant original research work.

Review papers: These are concise, significant but helpful and decisive topics for young researchers. Research articles: These are handled with small investigation and applications Research letters: The letters are small and concise comments on previously published matters.

5. STRUCTURE AND FORMAT OF MANUSCRIPT

The recommended size of original research paper is less than seven thousand words, review papers fewer than seven thousands words also. Preparation of research paper or how to write research paper, are major hurdle, while writing manuscript. The research articles and research letters should be fewer than three thousand words, the structure original research paper; sometime review paper should be as follows:

Papers: These are reports of significant research (typically less than 7000 words equivalent, including tables, figures, references), and comprise:

(a)Title should be relevant and commensurate with the theme of the paper. (b) A brief Summary, “Abstract” (less than 150 words) containing the major results and conclusions.

(c) Up to ten keywords, that precisely identifies the paper's subject, purpose, and focus. (d) An Introduction, giving necessary background excluding subheadings; objectives must be clearly declared. (e) Resources and techniques with sufficient complete experimental details (wherever possible by reference) to permit repetition; sources of information must be given and numerical methods must be specified by reference, unless non-standard. (f) Results should be presented concisely, by well-designed tables and/or figures; the same data may not be used in both; suitable statistical data should be given. All data must be obtained with attention to numerical detail in the planning stage. As reproduced design has been recognized to be important to experiments for a considerable time, the Editor has decided that any paper that appears not to have adequate numerical treatments of the data will be returned un-refereed; (g) Discussion should cover the implications and consequences, not just recapitulating the results; conclusions should be summarizing. (h) Brief Acknowledgements. (i) References in the proper form.

Authors should very cautiously consider the preparation of papers to ensure that they communicate efficiently. Papers are much more likely to be accepted, if they are cautiously designed and laid out, contain few or no errors, are summarizing, and be conventional to the approach and instructions. They will in addition, be published with much less delays than those that require much technical and editorial correction.

The Editorial Board reserves the right to make literary corrections and to make suggestions to improve briefness.

It is vital, that authors take care in submitting a manuscript that is written in simple language and adheres to published guidelines.

Format

Language: The language of publication is UK English. Authors, for whom English is a second language, must have their manuscript efficiently edited by an English-speaking person before submission to make sure that, the English is of high excellence. It is preferable, that manuscripts should be professionally edited. Standard Usage, Abbreviations, and Units: Spelling and hyphenation should be conventional to The Concise Oxford English Dictionary. Statistics and measurements should at all times be given in figures, e.g. 16 min, except for when the number begins a sentence. When the number does not refer to a unit of measurement it should be spelt in full unless, it is 160 or greater. Abbreviations supposed to be used carefully. The abbreviated name or expression is supposed to be cited in full at first usage, followed by the conventional abbreviation in parentheses. Metric SI units are supposed to generally be used excluding where they conflict with current practice or are confusing. For illustration, 1.4 l rather than 1.4 × 10-3 m3, or 4 mm somewhat than 4 × 10-3 m. Chemical formula and solutions must identify the form used, e.g. anhydrous or hydrated, and the concentration must be in clearly defined units. Common species names should be followed by underlines at the first mention. For following use the generic name should be constricted to a single letter, if it is clear.

Structure

All manuscripts submitted to Global Journals, ought to include:

Title: The title page must carry an instructive title that reflects the content, a running title (less than 45 characters together with spaces), names of the authors and co-authors, and the place(s) wherever the work was carried out. The full postal address in addition with the e- mail address of related author must be given. Up to eleven keywords or very brief phrases have to be given to help data retrieval, mining and indexing.

Abstract, used in Original Papers and Reviews:

Optimizing Abstract for Search Engines

Many researchers searching for information online will use search engines such as Google, Yahoo or similar. By optimizing your paper for search engines, you will amplify the chance of someone finding it. This in turn will make it more likely to be viewed and/or cited in a further work. Global Journals have compiled these guidelines to facilitate you to maximize the web-friendliness of the most public part of your paper.

Keywords

A major linchpin in research work for the writing research paper is the keyword search, which one will employ to find both library and Internet resources.

One must be persistent and creative in using keywords. An effective keyword search requires a strategy and planning a list of possible keywords and phrases to try.

Search engines for most searches, use Boolean searching, which is somewhat different from Internet searches. The Boolean search uses "operators," words (and, or, not, and near) that enable you to expand or narrow your affords. Tips for research paper while preparing research paper are very helpful guideline of research paper.

Choice of key words is first tool of tips to write research paper. Research paper writing is an art.A few tips for deciding as strategically as possible about keyword search:

One should start brainstorming lists of possible keywords before even begin searching. Think about the most important concepts related to research work. Ask, "What words would a source have to include to be truly valuable in research paper?" Then consider synonyms for the important words. It may take the discovery of only one relevant paper to let steer in the right keyword direction because in most databases, the keywords under which a research paper is abstracted are listed with the paper. One should avoid outdated words.

Keywords are the key that opens a door to research work sources. Keyword searching is an art in which researcher's skills are bound to improve with experience and time.

Numerical Methods: Numerical methods used should be clear and, where appropriate, supported by references.

Acknowledgements: Please make these as concise as possible.

References

References follow the Harvard scheme of referencing. References in the text should cite the authors' names followed by the time of their publication, unless there are three or more authors when simply the first author's name is quoted followed by et al. unpublished work has to only be cited where necessary, and only in the text. Copies of references in press in other journals have to be supplied with submitted typescripts. It is necessary that all citations and references be carefully checked before submission, as mistakes or omissions will cause delays. References to information on the World Wide Web can be given, but only if the information is available without charge to readers on an official site. Wikipedia and Similar websites are not allowed where anyone can change the information. Authors will be asked to make available electronic copies of the cited information for inclusion on the Global Journals homepage at the judgment of the Editorial Board. The Editorial Board and Global Journals recommend that, citation of online-published papers and other material should be done via a DOI (digital object identifier). If an author cites anything, which does not have a DOI, they run the risk of the cited material not being noticeable. The Editorial Board and Global Journals recommend the use of a tool such as Reference Manager for reference management and formatting.

Tables, Figures and Figure Legends

Tables: Tables should be few in number, cautiously designed, uncrowned, and include only essential data. Each must have an Arabic number, e.g. Table 4, a self-explanatory caption and be on a separate sheet. Vertical lines should not be used. Figures: Figures are supposed to be submitted as separate files. Always take in a citation in the text for each figure using Arabic numbers, e.g. Fig. 4. Artwork must be submitted online in electronic form by e-mailing them.

Preparation of Electronic Figures for Publication

Even though low quality images are sufficient for review purposes, print publication requires high quality images to prevent the final product being blurred or fuzzy. Submit (or e-mail) EPS (line art) or TIFF (halftone/photographs) files only. MS PowerPoint and Word Graphics are unsuitable for printed pictures. Do not use pixel-oriented software. Scans (TIFF only) should have a resolution of at least 350

dpi (halftone) or 700 to 1100 dpi (line drawings) in relation to the imitation size. Please give the data for figures in black and white or submit a Color Work Agreement Form. EPS files must be saved with fonts embedded (and with a TIFF preview, if possible). For scanned images, the scanning resolution (at final image size) ought to be as follows to ensure good reproduction: line art: >650 dpi; halftones (including gel photographs) : >350 dpi; figures containing both halftone and line images: >650 dpi. Color Charges: It is the rule of the Global Journals for authors to pay the full cost for the reproduction of their color artwork. Hence, please note that, if there is color artwork in your manuscript when it is accepted for publication, we would require you to complete and return a color work agreement form before your paper can be published. Figure Legends: Self-explanatory legends of all figures should be incorporated separately under the heading 'Legends to Figures'. In the full-text online edition of the journal, figure legends may possibly be truncated in abbreviated links to the full screen version. Therefore, the first 100 characters of any legend should notify the reader, about the key aspects of the figure.

6. AFTER ACCEPTANCE

Upon approval of a paper for publication, the manuscript will be forwarded to the dean, who is responsible for the publication of the Global Journals.

6.1 Proof Corrections

The corresponding author will receive an e-mail alert containing a link to a website or will be attached. A working e-mail address must therefore be provided for the related author. Acrobat Reader will be required in order to read this file. This software can be downloaded (Free of charge) from the following website: www.adobe.com/products/acrobat/readstep2.html. This will facilitate the file to be opened, read on screen, and printed out in order for any corrections to be added. Further instructions will be sent with the proof. Proofs must be returned to the dean at [email protected] within three days of receipt. As changes to proofs are costly, we inquire that you only correct typesetting errors. All illustrations are retained by the publisher. Please note that the authors are responsible for all statements made in their work, including changes made by the copy editor.

6.2 Early View of Global Journals (Publication Prior to Print)

The Global Journals are enclosed by our publishing's Early View service. Early View articles are complete full-text articles sent in advance of their publication. Early View articles are absolute and final. They have been completely reviewed, revised and edited for publication, and the authors' final corrections have been incorporated. Because they are in final form, no changes can be made after sending them. The nature of Early View articles means that they do not yet have volume, issue or page numbers, so Early View articles cannot be cited in the conventional way.

6.3 Author Services

Online production tracking is available for your article through Author Services. Author Services enables authors to track their article - once it has been accepted - through the production process to publication online and in print. Authors can check the status of their articles online and choose to receive automated e-mails at key stages of production. The authors will receive an e-mail with a unique link that enables them to register and have their article automatically added to the system. Please ensure that a complete e-mail address is provided when submitting the manuscript.

6.4 Author Material Archive Policy

Please note that if not specifically requested, publisher will dispose off hardcopy & electronic information submitted, after the two months of publication. If you require the return of any information submitted, please inform the Editorial Board or dean as soon as possible.

6.5 Offprint and Extra Copies

A PDF offprint of the online-published article will be provided free of charge to the related author, and may be distributed according to the Publisher's terms and conditions. Additional paper offprint may be ordered by emailing us at: [email protected] .

Informal Tips for writing a Social Science Research Paper to increase readability and citation

Before start writing a good quality Social Science Research Paper, let us first understand what is Social Science Research Paper? So Social Science Research Paper is the paper which is written by professionals or scientists who are associated to Human Social Science or doing research study in this area. If you are novel to this field then you can consult about this field from your supervisor or guide.

Techniques for writing a good quality Social Science Research Paper:

1. Choosing the topic- In most cases, the topic is searched by the interest of author but it can be also suggested by the guides. You can have several topics and then you can judge that in which topic or subject you are finding yourself most comfortable. This can be done by asking several questions to yourself, like Will I be able to carry our search in this area? Will I find all necessary recourses to accomplish the search? Will I be able to find all information in this field area? If the answer of these types of questions will be "Yes" then you can choose that topic. In most of the cases, you may have to conduct the surveys and have to visit several places because this field is related to Social Science. Also, you may have to do a lot of work to find all rise and falls regarding the various data of that subject. Sometimes, detailed information plays a vital role, instead of short information.

2. Evaluators are human: First thing to remember that evaluators are also human being. They are not only meant for rejecting a paper. They are here to evaluate your paper. So, present your Best.

3. Think Like Evaluators: If you are in a confusion or getting demotivated that your paper will be accepted by evaluators or not, then think and try to evaluate your paper like an Evaluator. Try to understand that what an evaluator wants in your research paper and automatically you will have your answer.

4. Make blueprints of paper: The outline is the plan or framework that will help you to arrange your thoughts. It will make your paper logical. But remember that all points of your outline must be related to the topic you have chosen.

5. Ask your Guides: If you are having any difficulty in your research, then do not hesitate to share your difficulty to your guide (if you have any). They will surely help you out and resolve your doubts. If you can't clarify what exactly you require for your work then ask the supervisor to help you with the alternative. He might also provide you the list of essential readings.

6. Use of computer is recommended: At a first glance, this point looks obvious but it is first recommendation that to write a quality research paper of any area, first draft your paper in Microsoft Word. By using MS Word, you can easily catch your grammatical mistakes and spelling errors.

7. Use right software: Always use good quality software packages. If you are not capable to judge good software then you can lose quality of your paper unknowingly. There are various software programs available to help you, which you can get through Internet.

8. Use the Internet for help: An excellent start for your paper can be by using the Google. It is an excellent search engine, where you can have your doubts resolved. You may also read some answers for the frequent question how to write my research paper or find model research paper. From the internet library you can download books. If you have all required books make important reading selecting and analyzing the specified information. Then put together research paper sketch out.

9. Use and get big pictures: Always use encyclopedias, Wikipedia to get pictures so that you can go into the depth.

10. Bookmarks are useful: When you read any book or magazine, you generally use bookmarks, right! It is a good habit, which helps to not to lose your continuity. You should always use bookmarks while searching on Internet also, which will make your search easier.

11. Revise what you wrote: When you write anything, always read it, summarize it and then finalize it.

12. Make all efforts: Make all efforts to mention what you are going to write in your paper. That means always have a good start. Try to mention everything in introduction, that what is the need of a particular research paper. Polish your work by good skill of writing and always give an evaluator, what he wants.

13. Have backups: When you are going to do any important thing like making research paper, you should always have backup copies of it either in your computer or in paper. This will help you to not to lose any of your important.

14. Produce good diagrams of your own: Always try to include good charts or diagrams in your paper to improve quality. Using several and unnecessary diagrams will degrade the quality of your paper by creating "hotchpotch." So always, try to make and include those diagrams, which are made by your own to improve readability and understandability of your paper.

15. Use of direct quotes: When you do research relevant to literature, history or current affairs then use of quotes become essential but if study is relevant to science then use of quotes is not preferable.

16. Use proper verb tense: Use proper verb tenses in your paper. Use past tense, to present those events that happened. Use present tense to indicate events that are going on. Use future tense to indicate future happening events. Use of improper and wrong tenses will confuse the evaluator. Avoid the sentences that are incomplete.

17. Never use online paper: If you are getting any paper on Internet, then never use it as your research paper because it might be possible that evaluator has already seen it or maybe it is outdated version.

18. Pick a good study spot: To do your research studies always try to pick a spot, which is quiet. Every spot is not for studies. Spot that suits you choose it and proceed further.

19. Know what you know: Always try to know, what you know by making objectives. Else, you will be confused and cannot achieve your target.

20. Use good quality grammar: Always use a good quality grammar and use words that will throw positive impact on evaluator. Use of good quality grammar does not mean to use tough words, that for each word the evaluator has to go through dictionary. Do not start sentence with a conjunction. Do not fragment sentences. Eliminate one-word sentences. Ignore passive voice. Do not ever use a big word when a diminutive one would suffice. Verbs have to be in agreement with their subjects. Prepositions are not expressions to finish sentences with. It is incorrect to ever divide an infinitive. Avoid clichés like the disease. Also, always shun irritating alliteration. Use language that is simple and straight forward. put together a neat summary.

21. Arrangement of information: Each section of the main body should start with an opening sentence and there should be a changeover at the end of the section. Give only valid and powerful arguments to your topic. You may also maintain your arguments with records.

22. Never start in last minute: Always start at right time and give enough time to research work. Leaving everything to the last minute will degrade your paper and spoil your work.

23. Multitasking in research is not good: Doing several things at the same time proves bad habit in case of research activity. Research is an area, where everything has a particular time slot. Divide your research work in parts and do particular part in particular time slot.

24. Never copy others' work: Never copy others' work and give it your name because if evaluator has seen it anywhere you will be in trouble.

25. Take proper rest and food: No matter how many hours you spend for your research activity, if you are not taking care of your health then all your efforts will be in vain. For a quality research, study is must, and this can be done by taking proper rest and food.

26. Go for seminars: Attend seminars if the topic is relevant to your research area. Utilize all your resources.

27. Refresh your mind after intervals: Try to give rest to your mind by listening to soft music or by sleeping in intervals. This will also improve your memory.

28. Make colleagues: Always try to make colleagues. No matter how sharper or intelligent you are, if you make colleagues you can have several ideas, which will be helpful for your research.

29. Think technically: Always think technically. If anything happens, then search its reasons, its benefits, and demerits.

30. Think and then print: When you will go to print your paper, notice that tables are not be split, headings are not detached from their descriptions, and page sequence is maintained.

31. Adding unnecessary information: Do not add unnecessary information, like, I have used MS Excel to draw graph. Do not add irrelevant and inappropriate material. These all will create superfluous. Foreign terminology and phrases are not apropos. One should NEVER take a broad view. Analogy in script is like feathers on a snake. Not at all use a large word when a very small one would be sufficient. Use words properly, regardless of how others use them. Remove quotations. Puns are for kids, not grunt readers. Amplification is a billion times of inferior quality than sarcasm.

32. Never oversimplify everything: To add material in your research paper, never go for oversimplification. This will definitely irritate the evaluator. Be more or less specific. Also too, by no means, ever use rhythmic redundancies. Contractions aren't essential and shouldn't be there used. Comparisons are as terrible as clichés. Give up ampersands and abbreviations, and so on. Remove commas, that are, not

necessary. Parenthetical words however should be together with this in commas. Understatement is all the time the complete best way to put onward earth-shaking thoughts. Give a detailed literary review.

33. Report concluded results: Use concluded results. From raw data, filter the results and then conclude your studies based on measurements and observations taken. Significant figures and appropriate number of decimal places should be used. Parenthetical remarks are prohibitive. Proofread carefully at final stage. In the end give outline to your arguments. Spot out perspectives of further study of this subject. Justify your conclusion by at the bottom of them with sufficient justifications and examples.

34. After conclusion: Once you have concluded your research, the next most important step is to present your findings. Presentation is extremely important as it is the definite medium though which your research is going to be in print to the rest of the crowd. Care should be taken to categorize your thoughts well and present them in a logical and neat manner. A good quality research paper format is essential because it serves to highlight your research paper and bring to light all necessary aspects in your research.

Informal Guidelines of Research Paper Writing Key points to remember:

Submit all work in its final form. Write your paper in the form, which is presented in the guidelines using the template. Please note the criterion for grading the final paper by peer-reviewers.

Final Points:

A purpose of organizing a research paper is to let people to interpret your effort selectively. The journal requires the following sections, submitted in the order listed, each section to start on a new page.

The introduction will be compiled from reference matter and will reflect the design processes or outline of basis that direct you to make study. As you will carry out the process of study, the method and process section will be constructed as like that. The result segment will show related statistics in nearly sequential order and will direct the reviewers next to the similar intellectual paths throughout the data that you took to carry out your study. The discussion section will provide understanding of the data and projections as to the implication of the results. The use of good quality references all through the paper will give the effort trustworthiness by representing an alertness of prior workings.

Writing a research paper is not an easy job no matter how trouble-free the actual research or concept. Practice, excellent preparation, and controlled record keeping are the only means to make straightforward the progression.

General style:

Specific editorial column necessities for compliance of a manuscript will always take over from directions in these general guidelines.

To make a paper clear · Adhere to recommended page limits

Mistakes to evade

Insertion a title at the foot of a page with the subsequent text on the next page Separating a table/chart or figure - impound each figure/table to a single page Submitting a manuscript with pages out of sequence

In every sections of your document

· Use standard writing style including articles ("a", "the," etc.)

· Keep on paying attention on the research topic of the paper

· Use paragraphs to split each significant point (excluding for the abstract)

· Align the primary line of each section

· Present your points in sound order

· Use present tense to report well accepted

· Use past tense to describe specific results

· Shun familiar wording, don't address the reviewer directly, and don't use slang, slang language, or superlatives

· Shun use of extra pictures - include only those figures essential to presenting results

Title Page:

Choose a revealing title. It should be short. It should not have non-standard acronyms or abbreviations. It should not exceed two printed lines. It should include the name(s) and address (es) of all authors.

Abstract:

The summary should be two hundred words or less. It should briefly and clearly explain the key findings reported in the manuscript-- must have precise statistics. It should not have abnormal acronyms or abbreviations. It should be logical in itself. Shun citing references at this point.

An abstract is a brief distinct paragraph summary of finished work or work in development. In a minute or less a reviewer can be taught the foundation behind the study, common approach to the problem, relevant results, and significant conclusions or new questions.

Write your summary when your paper is completed because how can you write the summary of anything which is not yet written? Wealth of terminology is very essential in abstract. Yet, use comprehensive sentences and do not let go readability for briefness. You can maintain it succinct by phrasing sentences so that they provide more than lone rationale. The author can at this moment go straight to shortening the outcome. Sum up the study, with the subsequent elements in any summary. Try to maintain the initial two items to no more than one ruling each.

Reason of the study - theory, overall issue, purpose Fundamental goal To the point depiction of the research Consequences, including definite statistics - if the consequences are quantitative in nature, account quantitative data; results of any numerical analysis should be reported Significant conclusions or questions that track from the research(es)

Approach:

Single section, and succinct As a outline of job done, it is always written in past tense A conceptual should situate on its own, and not submit to any other part of the paper such as a form or table Center on shortening results - bound background information to a verdict or two, if completely necessary What you account in an conceptual must be regular with what you reported in the manuscript Exact spelling, clearness of sentences and phrases, and appropriate reporting of quantities (proper units, important statistics) are just as significant in an abstract as they are anywhere else

Introduction:

The Introduction should "introduce" the manuscript. The reviewer should be presented with sufficient background information to be capable to comprehend and calculate the purpose of your study without having to submit to other works. The basis for the study should be offered. Give most important references but shun difficult to make a comprehensive appraisal of the topic. In the introduction, describe the problem visibly. If the problem is not acknowledged in a logical, reasonable way, the reviewer will have no attention in your result. Speak in common terms about techniques used to explain the problem, if needed, but do not present any particulars about the protocols here. Following approach can create a valuable beginning:

Explain the value (significance) of the study

Shield the model - why did you employ this particular system or method? What is its compensation? You strength remark on its appropriateness from a abstract point of vision as well as point out sensible reasons for using it. Present a justification. Status your particular theory (es) or aim(s), and describe the logic that led you to choose them. Very for a short time explain the tentative propose and how it skilled the declared objectives.

Approach:

Use past tense except for when referring to recognized facts. After all, the manuscript will be submitted after the entire job is done. Sort out your thoughts; manufacture one key point with every section. If you make the four points listed above, you will need a least of four paragraphs. Present surroundings information only as desirable in order hold up a situation. The reviewer does not desire to read the whole thing you know about a topic. Shape the theory/purpose specifically - do not take a broad view. As always, give awareness to spelling, simplicity and correctness of sentences and phrases.

Procedures (Methods and Materials):

This part is supposed to be the easiest to carve if you have good skills. A sound written Procedures segment allows a capable scientist to replacement your results. Present precise information about your supplies. The suppliers and clarity of reagents can be helpful bits of information. Present methods in sequential order but linked methodologies can be grouped as a segment. Be concise when relating the protocols. Attempt for the least amount of information that would permit another capable scientist to spare your outcome but be cautious that vital information is integrated. The use of subheadings is suggested and ought to be synchronized with the results section. When a technique is used that has been well described in another object, mention the specific item describing a way but draw the basic principle while stating the situation. The purpose is to text all particular resources and broad procedures, so that another person may use some or all of the methods in one more study or referee the scientific value of your work. It is not to be a step by step report of the whole thing you did, nor is a methods section a set of orders.

Materials:

Explain materials individually only if the study is so complex that it saves liberty this way. Embrace particular materials, and any tools or provisions that are not frequently found in laboratories. Do not take in frequently found. If use of a definite type of tools. Materials may be reported in a part section or else they may be recognized along with your measures.

Methods:

Report the method (not particulars of each process that engaged the same methodology) Describe the method entirely To be succinct, present methods under headings dedicated to specific dealings or groups of measures Simplify - details how procedures were completed not how they were exclusively performed on a particular day. If well known procedures were used, account the procedure by name, possibly with reference, and that's all.

Approach:

It is embarrassed or not possible to use vigorous voice when documenting methods with no using first person, which would focus the reviewer's interest on the researcher rather than the job. As a result when script up the methods most authors use third person passive voice. Use standard style in this and in every other part of the paper - avoid familiar lists, and use full sentences.

What to keep away from

Resources and methods are not a set of information. Skip all descriptive information and surroundings - save it for the argument. Leave out information that is immaterial to a third party.

Results:

The principle of a results segment is to present and demonstrate your conclusion. Create this part a entirely objective details of the outcome, and save all understanding for the discussion.

The page length of this segment is set by the sum and types of data to be reported. Carry on to be to the point, by means of statistics and tables, if suitable, to present consequences most efficiently.

You must obviously differentiate material that would usually be incorporated in a study editorial from any unprocessed data or additional appendix matter that would not be available. In fact, such matter should not be submitted at all except requested by the instructor.

Content

Sum up your conclusion in text and demonstrate them, if suitable, with figures and tables. In manuscript, explain each of your consequences, point the reader to remarks that are most appropriate. Present a background, such as by describing the question that was addressed by creation an exacting study. Explain results of control experiments and comprise remarks that are not accessible in a prescribed figure or table, if appropriate. Examine your data, then prepare the analyzed (transformed) data in the form of a figure (graph), table, or in manuscript form.

What to stay away from

Do not discuss or infer your outcome, report surroundings information, or try to explain anything. Not at all take in raw data or intermediate calculations in a research manuscript. Do not present the similar data more than once. Manuscript should complement any figures or tables, not duplicate the identical information. Never confuse figures with tables - there is a difference.

Approach

As forever, use past tense when you submit to your results, and put the whole thing in a reasonable order. Put figures and tables, appropriately numbered, in order at the end of the report If you desire, you may place your figures and tables properly within the text of your results part.

Figures and tables

If you put figures and tables at the end of the details, make certain that they are visibly distinguished from any attach appendix materials, such as raw facts Despite of position, each figure must be numbered one after the other and complete with subtitle In spite of position, each table must be titled, numbered one after the other and complete with heading All figure and table must be adequately complete that it could situate on its own, divide from text

Discussion:

The Discussion is expected the trickiest segment to write and describe. A lot of papers submitted for journal are discarded based on problems with the Discussion. There is no head of state for how long a argument should be. Position your understanding of the outcome visibly to lead the reviewer through your conclusions, and then finish the paper with a summing up of the implication of the study. The purpose here is to offer an understanding of your results and hold up for all of your conclusions, using facts from your research and generally accepted information, if suitable. The implication of result should be visibly described. Infer your data in the conversation in suitable depth. This means that when you clarify an observable fact you must explain mechanisms that may account for the observation. If your results vary from your prospect, make clear why that may have happened. If your results agree, then explain the theory that the proof supported. It is never suitable to just state that the data approved with prospect, and let it drop at that.

Make a decision if each premise is supported, discarded, or if you cannot make a conclusion with assurance. Do not just dismiss a study or part of a study as "uncertain."

Research papers are not acknowledged if the work is imperfect. Draw what conclusions you can based upon the results that you have, and take care of the study as a finished work You may propose future guidelines, such as how the experiment might be personalized to accomplish a new idea. Give details all of your remarks as much as possible, focus on mechanisms. Make a decision if the tentative design sufficiently addressed the theory, and whether or not it was correctly restricted. Try to present substitute explanations if sensible alternatives be present. One research will not counter an overall question, so maintain the large picture in mind, where do you go next? The best studies unlock new avenues of study. What questions remain? Recommendations for detailed papers will offer supplementary suggestions.

Approach:

When you refer to information, differentiate data generated by your own studies from available information Submit to work done by specific persons (including you) in past tense. Submit to generally acknowledged facts and main beliefs in present tense.

Administration Rules Listed Before Submitting Your Research Paper to Global Journals Please carefully note down following rules and regulation before submitting your Research Paper to Global Journals:

Segment Draft and Final Research Paper: You have to strictly follow the template of research paper. If it is not done your paper may get rejected.

The major constraint is that you must independently make all content, tables, graphs, and facts that are offered in the paper. You must write each part of the paper wholly on your own. The Peer-reviewers need to identify your own perceptive of the concepts in your own terms. NEVER extract straight from any foundation, and never rephrase someone else's analysis. Do not give permission to anyone else to "PROOFREAD" your manuscript.

Written Material: You may discuss with your guides and key sources.

Do not copy or imitate anyone else paper. (Various Methods to avoid Plagiarism is applied by us on every paper, if found guilty, you will be blacklisted by all of our collaborated research groups, your institution will be informed for this and strict legal actions will be taken immediately.) To guard yourself and others from possible illegal use please do not permit anyone right to use to your paper and files.

Criterion for Grading a Research Paper (Compilation) by Global Journals Please note that following table is only a Grading of "Paper Compilation" and not on "Performed/Stated Research" whose grading solely depends on Individual Assigned Peer Reviewer and Editorial Board Member. These can be available only on request and after decision of Paper. This report will be the property of Global Journals.

Topics Grades

A-B C-D E-F

Clear and concise with Unclear summary and no No specific data with ambiguous appropriate content, Correct specific data, Incorrect form information Abstract format. 200 words or below Above 200 words Above 250 words

Containing all background Unclear and confusing data, Out of place depth and content, details with clear goal and appropriate format, grammar hazy format appropriate details, flow and spelling errors with specification, no grammar unorganized matter Introduction and spelling mistake, well organized sentence and paragraph, reference cited

Clear and to the point with Difficult to comprehend with Incorrect and unorganized well arranged paragraph, embarrassed text, too much structure with hazy meaning Methods and precision and accuracy of explanation but completed Procedures facts and figures, well organized subheads

Well organized, Clear and Complete and embarrassed Irregular format with wrong facts specific, Correct units with text, difficult to comprehend and figures precision, correct data, well Result structuring of paragraph, no grammar and spelling mistake

Well organized, meaningful Wordy, unclear conclusion, Conclusion is not cited, specification, sound spurious unorganized, difficult to conclusion, logical and comprehend concise explanation, highly Discussion structured paragraph reference cited

Complete and correct Beside the point, Incomplete Wrong format and structuring References format, well organized

Index

concession · 49 CONCLUSIÓN · 29 A conditions · 73 consisting · 5, 8, 44 Accumulation · 43 consolidar · 18, 19, 20, 21, 25, 29 acid · 12, 13, 14 constante · 32, 35 acknowledge · 2, 73 constituents · 13, 14 adoption · 60, 71 consumption · 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49 adult · 12, 15, 73, 74, 76, 77 Contemporary · 66 adulthood · 73, 75, 77, 78, 81 Continente · 19, 20 Aging · 77 convenience · 9, 62, 63 agreement · 4, 8, 73, 75 craftsmanship · 65 AIDS · 10, 11 crop · 10, 14, 51, 52, 53, 60 Alongside · 4 cumplimiento · 18, 21 altogether · 68 cyclamate · 12, 13, 14 Anganwadi · 8, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71 aritméticamente · 33 Ascorbic · 12 D Asimismo · 29, 33, 34, 40, 42 Assessment · 8, 11, 49 decrecientes · 33 availability · 44, 45, 46, 49, 74 deliberate · 49 desmontar · 19 determinan · 38 B Development · 70 directives · 6 banquets · 4 discovered · 8, 9, 53 Bureau · 67, 72 discrepancies · 48 Butterworth · 51, 60 Discrimination · 4 disposal · 11, 67, 68 distribution · 14, 32, 45, 49, 80, 70 C divergencia · 32 dogmas · 63 centre · 67 dominante · 32 chairperson · 3 dramatised · 64 Chand · 11 chlorofluorocarbons · 8 claves · 18 E closeness · 8, 73, 74, 75, 77, 79, 80, 81 coalitions · 3 ecdysteroids · 12 Colombia · 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, economic · 2, 3, 5, 32, 43, 46, 49, 51, 52, 53, 60, 63, 67, 73 38, 39, 40 emotional · 8, 63, 65, 73, 75, 77, 80, 81 comerciales · 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 27, 28, 30 emphasized · 44, 64, 76 comercio · 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, Entomology · 14, 15 33, 35 equal · 2, 3, 4, 6, 74, 76 communist · 3 equipment · 9, 10, 64 composition · 2, 4, 6, 13, 14, 64 established · 2, 3, 5, 45, 46, 47, 51 concentration · 8, 10, 13, 71 expressed · 2, 3, 44, 63, 66

Extract · 12 J

F Jambutu · 9 journalist’s · 6 Juknevičienė · 4 families · 73, 74, 76 family · 2, 4, 6, 7, 44, 48, 63, 73, 74, 75, 77, 78 Feminizmas · 7 K Finalmente · 18, 23, 24, 25, 26, 33, 42 Formulation · 8, 12 KWWC · 45 fragmentation · 51, 52, 53 fueron · 20, 21, 22, 23, 26 L G Latinoamericana · 19 Laura · 60 gathering · 64, 66 libre · 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 29, 30, 31 gender · 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 74, 76, 77, 81 Lithuanian · 8, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 Greek · 8, 62 Lytinė · 7 groups · 78, 80 growth · 8, 12, 13, 14, 32, 43, 44, 45, 66 guerrilla · 38 M

H Majority · 76 manifestation · 63 material · 70, 72, 75, 79 healthier · 67 maturing · 4 heterotrophs · 12 measurement · 60, 64, 65, 69, 71 HIV · 10, 11 mercado · 18, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34 human · 74 MERCOSUR · 18, 19, 20, 21, 27, 29, 30 metabolites · 13 I metalúrgica · 26 METHODOLOGY · 45, 52, 68, 74 metropolis · 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49 identified · 6, 45, 48, 53, 71, 74 Metropolis · 8, 44, 46 Ilorin · 8, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51 middle · 8, 6, 45, 73, 74, 75, 77, 79, 80, 81 implicaciones · 42 MOHRD · 67 implication · 76, 79 Muga · 12, 13, 14 importados · 27 inaccessibility · 8, 10 incertidumbre · 18, 27 N including · 70, 73, 76, 77, 80 income · 32, 45, 49, 74 names · 2, 4, 6, 7, 71, 72 incremento · 26, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42 negative · 2, 6, 14, 32, 75 indicating · 5, 12 Nigeria · 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 44, 45, 49, 51, 52, 60, 66 infection · 10, 69 nineteenth · 67 infrared · 8 Nutrients · 13 inherente · 35 instrumental · 74, 75 insufficient · 49 O intercambios · 20, 22, 24, 26, 30 Interpretation · 80 organization · 2, 3, 49, 60, 69 inversión · 27, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 39, 42 otorgando · 22, 23 ozone · 8, 9, 10, 11

P S países · 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, salarios · 34, 35, 36, 39, 42 34 Sampling · 11 Paraguay · 19, 21 sanitation · 45, 67, 68, 70, 71 parlament · 2 Scientist · 65 Parliamentary · 3 Search · 71, 72 participación · 22, 27, 28, 29, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, security · 73, 75, 79 42 sibling · 73, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81 participation · 2, 76 significant · 70, 76, 77 patriarchal · 2, 4 siguiente · 33, 34, 35, 36 pattern · 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 64, 75, 76, 77 skilful · 62, 65 Pediremos · 26 solution · 12, 13, 14, 45 percentage · 6, 10, 44, 45, 69, 70, 73, 75 spray · 10, 12, 13 persistent · 72 streatment · 67 Phagostimulant · 12, 13 studies · 75, 80 phagostimulatory · 13, 14, 15 suggested · 49, 68, 74, 78 phenomenon · 6, 8, 62, 64 sugieren · 33, 38, 41, 42 phrases · 71, 72, 75, 77, 78 supplies · 48, 78 Phytophagous · 12 Supreme · 2 political · 2, 3, 4, 6, 62, 63 surrounding · 4, 62, 64 Politicians · 71 sustainable · 49, 51, 52, 53, 60 Portable · 8, 44, 47 position · 79 practices · 51, 52, 53, 60 T precipitated · 73 presentado · 24, 25 terms · 73, 77, 80 pretenden · 36 Though · 9 Process · 8, 68 toilets · 67, 68, 69, 70, 71 production · 11, 14, 49, 51, 52, 53, 60, 64, 65, 73 tratados · 18, 21 professional · 66, 67 tremendous · 45, 63 proffered · 8, 11 programmes · 2, 10, 11, 70, 71 proline · 12, 13, 14 U pronounce · 6 ubiquen · 29 unaware · 10, 11, 62, 70 Q understand · 74 understood · 2, 5, 65, 67 questionnaires · 8, 9 urbanization · 44, 74

R V

Rainfall · 44, 49 variaciones · 34, 36, 38, 41, 42 ration · 48 Venezuela · 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 realizando · 25 vulnerability · 51 RECOMMENDATIONS · 11 refrigerators · 8, 9, 10, 11 regulated · 8 W regulation · 80 response · 12, 14 Walligford · 61 responsibility · 70 water · 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 60, 67 women · 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 63, 67, 75

women’s · 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 Z worker · 67

zona · 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 29, 30 Y zones · 46, 48, 49, 60, 74 yardsticks · 75