Early Muslim Travel Accounts of Britain

Home , Abdullah Quilliam, Adeel Akhtar, Adil Ray, Aga Khan III, Maya Sondhi, Mirza Abu Taleb Khan

Notes

Introduction

1. For more on Naser-ed-Din, see Khair et al. (2006: 245–60). I am grateful to Tabish Khair for alerting me to the Shah’s travelogue. 2. Surprisingly, Cohen’s later essay does not reference Said’s concept of travelling theory. 3. It is also difficult to contain these writers within a particular temporal period, since most of their key texts are set in the recent past rather than in the present. This issue will be tackled at length in a chapter on the turn to historical fiction in my next book, Muslim Representations of Britain, 1988–Present. 4. Among the 21 writers, only Tayeb Salih’s classic novel Season of Migration to the North (1966) has achieved the level of success necessary to activate the so- called massive translation machine. It was published as a Penguin Modern Classics edition in 2003 and according to Jamal Mahjoub has been translated into over 30 languages (2009: n. pag.). 5. All of the pre-twentieth century texts in Chapter 1, and Maimoona Sultan and the Aga Khan’s texts from Chapter 2, are now available to online readers, thanks to Project Gutenberg, Archive.org, and Openlibrary.org. 6. In the British context, ‘Asian’ denotes South Asian, unlike in the USA, where the word usually means East Asian. 7. It is advisable to imagine scare quotes around ‘England-returned’ throughout this work. 8. See James Procter’s idea of ‘devolved literature’ (2003: 3), Corinne Fowler and Lynne Pearce’s expansion of the term in Postcolonial Manchester (2013: 1, 5–6), and the University of Edinburgh’s seminar series Representing Muslims in Scotland and the North-East (Adam and Cherry, 2015: n. pag.).

1 Orientalism in Reverse: Early Muslim Travel Accounts of Britain

1. Kaiser Haq claims that of two remaining Persian manuscripts, one is in the British Museum and the other in the Khoda Buksh Library in Bankipur, Bihar (Haq, 2001: 13). However, according to Ahmaḍ Munzavı̄ , there are at least six extant manuscripts of Shigarf-nama-‘i Vilayat (1973: 4043–4). Muhammad Isa Waley, Curator of Persian and Turkish at the British Library, informed me by email in September 2014 that four of the Persian manuscripts are there. They were formerly in the British Museum but became part of the British Library collections in 1974. 2. I’tesamuddin, in Haq (2001: 16, 27). All references are to this edition of The Wonders of Vilayet and will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. 3. Rozina Visram calls attention to the fact that the slang term ‘Blighty’ for Britain is a corruption of bilayati or Vilayet (1986: 193).

223 224 Notes

4. It seems almost certain from the context that the palace is in London, so this is not a description of King George’s other famous home, the Brighton Royal Pavilion (see pp. 16–17, 111). Nor is this Buckingham Palace, since that did not become the monarch’s official residence until 1837. 5. I’tesamuddin, in Haq (2001: 71). For more on Persian-language writers’ expe- riences at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, see Green (2011). 6. Humayun Ansari lists just five offspring, Rosanna, Henry, Horatio, Frederick, and Arthur (2001: 58). From Michael Fisher’s work I have found references to three more children: Amelia, William, and Deen Junior (1996: 251, 262). 7. I will pick up on this discussion of the ultimate sacrifice made by many South Asian Muslims during the First World War in my next book. 8. For more on earlier networks and connections, see Susheila Nasta’s welcome recent edited collection, India in Britain (Nasta, 2012). 9. Highmore (2009: 185). See also Basu (1999: xxix–xxxii). 10. Abu Taleb (1814a: 171–2). All references are to this edition of Volume 1 of Abu Taleb’s Travels and will be cited parenthetically with ‘Vol. 1’ and the page number in the text. 11. Horsman’s fellow Persian scholar Mohamad Tavakoli-Targhi similarly claims I’tesamuddin (whom he calls Mirza I‘tisam al-Din) unproblem- atically as a Persian writer, not mentioning the latter’s residence in and attachment to India. Conversely, the South Asian experts also neglect the Persianate aspects of these writers. The main exception is Tabish Khair, who provides useful analysis of Indo–Persian as a language in work on Abu Taleb and I’tesamuddin (Khair, 2001; Khair et al., 2006: 318–19). 12. Abu Taleb (1810: 58). All references are to this edition of Volume 2 of Abu Taleb’s Travels and will be cited parenthetically with ‘Vol. 2’ and the page number in the text. The comparison between European and Eastern servants is a common one, and Asian travellers almost universally find the European ‘help’ to be superior (see, for example, Sultan, 1913: 101). 13. See Chapters 4 and 5 for more discussion of the postwar deprivation of migrants from Muslim backgrounds. 14. Abu Taleb (1814b: 165–6). All references are to this edition of Volume 3 of Abu Taleb’s Travels and will be cited parenthetically with ‘Vol. 3’ and the page number in the text. 15. In Sumita Mukherjee’s chapter ‘The Representation and Display of South Asians, 1870–1950’, she writes:

One of the most visible social groups of South Asians in Britain, particularly following the coronation of Queen Victoria as Empress of India in 1877, were Indian princes. As part of the spectacle and splendour of empire, Indian princes, and soldiers, were encouraged to be present at imperial ceremonies in Britain as well as in India. (2012: 208–9)

This is correct, but the emphasis on the post-Indian Rebellion period, British Empire, and the South Asian diaspora in the sourcebook to which she contributes understandably leads to neglect of the Muslim princes from Notes 225

other nationalities in earlier periods who had been equally visible in Britain. As Assaad Y. Khayat writes, ‘Many will remember the visit which the three members of the Royal Family of Persia made to England in the summer of the year 1836’ (in Meerza, 1971, Vol. 1: viii). 16. See Abul Hassan (1988); Morier (1948). 17. I would have liked to include an early Arab travel account of Britain in this chapter too, but it has proven difficult to find one that is available in English. Rasheed el-Enany’s comprehensive study Arab Representations of the Occident proved an invaluable source in unearthing Arabic texts. El-Enany drew my attention to Ali Mubarak’s Alam al-Din (1882), a book which mostly deals with Egypt and France, in the form of a conversation between an Egyptian and an Englishman (el-Enany, 2006: 25–7). It thus sheds light on Arab views but is not set in Britain. Muhammad Bayram al-Khanis al-Tunisi’s The Purest Consideration in the Location of Countries (1885) features the autho- rial persona visiting many countries including Britain. El-Enany describes it as a religiously-inflected text that is less accessible than Alam al-Din (2006: 30–3). Jurji Zaydan’s A Journey to Europe (1912) encompasses sojourns in France, Britain and Switzerland, but its author is a Christian (el-Enany, 2006: 37–9). In addition, none of these texts has been translated into English. This leaves us with only Ahmad Fāris al-Shidyāq who broadly (although not entirely) fits my criteria and whose work is available in translation. His Leg Over Leg defies easy categorization, but I discuss this genre-bending Arabic Tristram Shandy-esque marvel in the next chapter, on early Muslim fiction about Britain. 18. Meerza (1971, Vol. 2: 162). All references are to Volume 2, unless otherwise stated, and to this edition of the Meerza princes’ Journal of a Residence in England. References will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. 19. According to Najaf, the East India Company College tutors about 10,000 bud- ding colonial administrators in ‘the high sciences, both of the Mohammedan, and the Frank, and the Greek literature, and of all languages’ (139). 20. Mitchiner (2009: 2–6); Eskandari-Qajar (2011: 257, 259, fn. 21, 260, 260, fn. 25). Assaad Y. Kayat and the princes also dedicate Journal of a Residence in England to Ouseley (Meerza, 1971, Vol. 1: v). It is probably his elder brother William whom Abu Taleb describes meeting as ‘Sir W. Ouseley’ in the early nineteenth century, about whom he writes, ‘This gentleman being possessed of a great taste for Oriental literature has by uncommon perseverance acquired such a knowledge of Persian as to be able to translate freely from that language; and has published one or two books to facilitate the study of it’ (Vol. 1: 231). 21. Notions of cultural translation stem from the discipline of anthropology; the seminal text in this area is James Clifford and George E. Marcus’s collection Writing Culture (1986), particularly its introduction and the essay by Talal Asad. See also my own article on cultural translation, ethnography, and Amitav Ghosh’s In an Antique Land (Chambers, 2006). 22. Inexplicably, Najaf completely avoids mention of Wales in his discussions of the British state (see, for example, 126). 23. In accordance with Islamic teaching, Najaf has little respect for the celibacy of monks and nuns, seeing the practice as ‘restrain[ing] human progression’ (203; see also Shah, 1954: 26). 226 Notes

24. This book, A Voice from Lebanon, falls outside the scope of this study because it is by a Christian (Kayat, 1847). 25. A regular phrase in Journal of a Residence in England is ‘we lost our senses’ (9, 79, 102, 105, 109, 130, 174, 189). This happens so often that the true wonder is that anything was written at all!

2 ‘Truly a person progresses by travelling and interacting with different peoples’: Travelogues and Life Writing of the Twentieth Century

1. Atiya Fyzee, qtd. in Lambert-Hurley and Sharma (2010: 143–4). 2. For a nuanced example, see Majeed (2007). Mohammad Iqbal is known by the honorific ‘Allama’, which is how I refer to him from here on. 3. Lambert-Hurley and Sharma (2010: 4). Lambert-Hurley and Sharma are cur- rently working on an annotated translation of Nazli’s Sair-i-Yurop (forthcoming, 2016). Additionally, Sharma has already published a paper based on his own analysis of the text (Sharma, 2013). Atiya’s great-uncle Badr ud-Din Tyabji also published a book, Memoirs of an Egoist (1988). 4. Sultan (1914: 12–59). All references are to this edition of Atiya’s Journeys and will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. 5. Nawab Sultan Jahan Begum is known throughout Maimoona’s text as ‘Her Highness’, and in this chapter also as ‘the Begum’. 6. Fyzee, qtd. in Lambert-Hurley and Sharma (2010: 195). All references are to this edition of Atiya’s Journeys and will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. Although Fyzee’s comment shows us that there were more Indian women in Britain at the beginning of the twentieth century than is often assumed, she is of course exaggerating. According to Visram, there were only 100 Indian women students in the whole of Britain as late as 1934 (1986: 178). 7. It is perhaps no wonder that the database entry is perceptive; subsequent to my writing this, Siobhan Lambert-Hurley informed me by email that it was written by her. This accords with Making Britain’s general policy of getting experts in the field to contribute to the database, which accounts for its excellent quality. 8. Atiya also has a connection to the Begum, because the latter acted as her ‘sometimes patron’ (Lambert-Hurley and Sharma, 2010: 9). Her high-class credentials are confirmed by the fact that her sister Nazli had an unhappy marriage to a minor nawab, of Janjira (Lambert-Hurley and Sharma, 2010: 26). Like Akbar Mahomed before him, Atiya’s brother Ali Azhar was a respected medical doctor. A final interesting fact about this blue-blooded family is that Ali Azhar was also an elite tennis player who competed at Wimbledon (Lambert-Hurley and Sharma, 2010: 72). 9. In a footnote within an otherwise insightful chapter, Sumita Mukherjee asserts that Atiya ‘was actively discouraged from wearing the veil by her family’ (2012: 215, en. 17). However, while she was discouraged from secluding herself in purdah or covering her face, Atiya’s Journeys makes it clear that she did wear a veil, albeit an idiosyncratic version of the garment. 10. I am extremely grateful to Kami Kidwai and Bina Shah for this translation. Notes 227

11. In her book India Calling Cornelia Sorabji, a Christian convert from Zoroastrianism, wrote of London in modernist terms that resonate signifi- cantly with Qurratulain Hyder’s writing, discussed in Chapter 4 (see p. 151):

the feeling of standing at the core of the traffic, one morning at the Exchange, and knowing one’s self utterly insignificant and alone, yet alive and perfectly companioned. My first robin, my first fall of snow: the ache when snow melted and got dirty […] the exhilaration of London fogs: dream cities: the Towers of Westminster in a white mist: the lion in Trafalgar Square with whom I shared all my jokes and my anxieties. (qtd, in Ranasinha, et al. 2012: 187)

The Maharani of Cooch Behar was Sunity Devee (1864–1932), author of the first English-language memoir by a South Asian woman in Britain, The Autobiography of an Indian Princess (Devee, 1921). As Devee has Hindu ances- try although her family held extremely progressive Brahmo views, her book is beyond the remit of the present study. Sunity is described by Shrabano Basu as being ‘westernised’ and enjoying the British social scene yet ulti- mately possessed of a ‘shy and retiring’ temperament (1921: 57), so it is easy to see how she would get on with Atiya, who was a similarly culturally syncretic, outgoing introvert. The Maharani of Baroda was a women’s uplift campaigner (Lambert-Hurley and Sharma, 2010: 241). 12. Her trip to Madame Tussauds was also reported in the press (see New York Times, 1911), while a waxwork figure of one of the Begums of Bhopal stood at Madame Tussauds (Mukherjee, 2012: 219–20). 13. Sir William Lee-Warner had worked as an Indian administrator between 1869 and 1895, where he was involved in ensuring Britain remained the ultimate power behind the princely states’ throne. As such, he was probably well acquainted with the Begum. In another coincidence, when Atiya met him during her studies in 1906, he was surveilling Indian students in Britain (Lambert-Hurley and Sharma, 2010: 251; Tickell, 2012: 154). Since Indian students were seen as a problem community with potential for insurrec- tion, in 1907, the Lee-Warner Committee (which also included Atiya’s other interlocutor Theodore Morison and Curzon Wyllie) was formed. Its mission was ‘to evaluate the political climate amongst migrant students’ and compile witness statements from students at various UK higher education institu- tions (Tickell, 2012: 154). Interestingly, Madan Lal Dhingra, the violent nationalist from India House, originally had Lee-Warner as his assassination target, but when that proved too difficult, he successfully went for Curzon Wyllie instead (Tickell, 2012: 8). 14. For comparison, it is worth noting that Atiya’s sister Nazli too focuses on Asian/Muslim ‘downfall and decay’ in her travelogue. As she writes in her introduction to the book as a whole (the translation here is Sunil Sharma’s):

When I compare Europe and Asia I become less in my own eyes. Sadly Asia has become the way Europe was a thousand or twelve hundred years ago. For the people of this age it will be wishful thinking that Asia becomes equal to Europe, let alone surpass it. Yes, if Asians would provide for female education then in a hundred or two hundred years they would 228 Notes

catch up. I am so wistful when I see the decline and bad condition of the people of Islam after the deluge of progress and Noah’s flood-like spread of Muslims. Sadly we ourselves don’t know who our great Muslim writers were and what they wrote in which subject. One feels endless shame and envy in seeing the libraries of Paris and London. We might protest that we have no money. The comeback will be that we appropriated it for ourselves. (Lambert-Hurley and Sharma, 2016, forthcoming)

Warm thanks to Lambert-Hurley and Sharma for sharing this with me. 15. The Muslim doctrine of tawheed is briefly discussed on p. 39, above. 16. The occasional sense one gets from Atiya’s narrative that she may have suf- fered from mental health problems is corroborated by Lambert-Hurley and Sharma (2010: 90). 17. For more on Maimoona and Hamidullah’s marriage, see Lambert-Hurley (2007: 152). 18. Thank you to Sumita Mukherjee for pointing me to these political autobiographies. 19. Shah (1954: 52–70). All references are to this edition of World Enough and Time and will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. 20. Like I’tesamuddin, Abdul Karim was known as a munshi, or teacher, because he taught Queen Victoria Hindustani (Urdu) to quite a high level of profi- ciency (Basu, 2011: 123). 21. Moreover, Buksh was ailing at the time of this visit and died a year later, in 1899 (Basu, 2011: 227). 22. Rushdie, qtd. in Visram (1986: back cover; emphasis added). 23. For more on Aligarh Muslim University, see Minault and Lelyveld (1974). Its founder Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was another writer of a travelogue about time in Britain between 1869 and 1871, Musafi ran-i Landan, translated as A Voyage to Modernism (Hasan and Zaidi, 2011). Javed Majeed provides some analysis of this travel book in his Autobiography, Travel and Postnational Identity (2007: 78–80). Unfortunately, I found out about this book too late to include discussion of it, but I intend to write on it in the future. 24. Visram (1986: 100). See also Visram (1986: 83, 102, 134). 25. Ghose (1965: 125). Subsequent references are to this edition of Confessions of a Native-Alien, and will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. 26. Texts like C. L. Innes’s Black and Asian Writing in Britain (2008) or Sara Upstone’s British Asian Fiction: Twenty-First-Century Voices (2010) cannot be expected to include Ghose. The ambit of the former reaches as far as the early twentieth century, while the latter deals with the contemporary period. 27. In Muslim Narratives and the Discourse of English, Malak briefly situates Ghose within the Commonwealth literary studies which are implied to be part of a bygone era (2005: 12–13). Texts by Ahmed et al. (2012), Nash (2012), and Santesso (2013) make no mention of him at all 28. Examples of these include the Anglo-Argentinian Rosa Diamond with her memories of South America in The Satanic Verses (1988: 143–57); Rushdie’s analysis of the Nicaraguan revolution in 1987’s The Jaguar Smile, which was Notes 229

written concurrently with The Satanic Verses; and his ‘[s]napshots’ of Chile, Argentina, and Mexico in Joseph Anton (2012: 467–73). 29. The country’s name stayed as ‘Malaya’ on Independence and it only became known as ‘Malaysia’ after 16 September 1963, when Malaya joined together with Sarawak, North Borneo, and Singapore to form the Malaysian federation. 30. I am grateful to Sharmani Patricia Gabriel for alerting me to these two Malaysian texts, and for her important input on this section on Tunku. 31. See Watson (2000); Teeuw (1979); Schaefter (2011).

3 ‘I haf been to Cambridge!’: Muslim Fictional Representations of Britain, 1855–1944

1. Al-Shidyāq (2014b, Vol. 4: 221, 518, note 180). Unless otherwise stated, subsequent references are to Volume Four and this edition of Leg Over Leg, and they will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. See also al-Qur’ān, 76: 2; Ali, 1987: 514. 2. Maronite cuisine does make some use of pork products, compared with Lebanese Muslim cooks, who avoid pork entirely because of the religious prohibition against it. However, al-Shidyāq’s cocking a snook at French eat- ing habits here may also have to do with distancing himself from the strong French streak in Maronite culture. 3. Here I do not mean to position the Victorian era as a sexually repressed time. Research into Victorian erotica, pornography, and sexual experience more generally suggests that as well as al-Shidyāq escaping some of the constraints of his age, he is also a product of it. See Marcus (2008); Rosenman (2003); Sweet (2001: 207−21). 4. As mentioned earlier, this is almost certainly an autobiographical detail, as al-Shidyāq lost a young son, As‘ad, just as the Fāriy āq did his unnamed child (505). 5. For example, a few years earlier, in 1848, travelling around Calabria in southern Italy, Edward Lear and his companion John Proby were dining with some locals. In a very similar manner to al-Shidyāq’s Arabs, the Italians announced that ‘it is a known fact that no fruit does or can grow in England, only pota- toes, and nothing else whatever – this is well known’. Lear and Proby rallied in defence of England:

‘Ma daverro,’ said we, humbly; ‘davvero abbiamo de’frutti – e di piu, ne abbiamo certi frutti che loro non hanno affatto.’ Suppressed laughter and supercilious sneers, when this assertion was uttered, nettled our patriotic feelings. ‘O che mai frutti possono avere loro che non abbiamo noi? O quanto ci burlano! Nominateli dunque – questi frutti vostri favolosi!’ ‘Giacché volete sapere,’ said we; ‘abbiamo Currants – abbiamo Gooseberries – abbiamo Greengages.’ ‘E che cosa sono Gooseberries e Gringhegi?’ said the whole party, in a rage; ‘non ci sono queste cose – sono sogni.’ 230 Notes

So we ate our supper in quiet, convinced almost that we had been talk- ing lies; that gooseberries were unreal and fictitious; greengages a dream. (Lear, 1852: 102−3)

Lear’s own (abbreviated) translation of the exchange is as follows: But indeed we have fruit; and, what is more, we have some fruits that you have not got at all. Oh what fruit can you possibly have that we have not? Oh how you are laughing at us! Name your fruits then – these fabulous fruits! We have currants, gooseberries, and greengages. And what are gooseberries and greengages? There are no such things – this is nonsense. (Lear, 1852: 102) (I am indebted to my colleague and friend James Williams for this fine point.) 6. The Fāriy āq’s comments on natural justice do not amount to evidence of al-Shidyāq’s systematic belief in socialism, as Wikipedia claims (2013: n. pag.). This is indicated, for example, in his remark, ‘True, it cannot be denied that the existence of rich and poor in this world is as unavoidable as the existence of beauty and ugliness’ (179). Rebecca C. Johnson usefully summarizes al-Shidyāq’s political position in her foreword to Leg Over Leg Volume I:

It might not be possible to tease a coherent political doctrine from his work, but al-Shidyāq expressed in his writings values that today would be associated with liberalism. He repeatedly advocated a separation of religious and political life and a respect for ‘personal freedoms’ (so long as they are in the interest of society). Both in his travels and in his observations on life within the Ottoman Empire, he called attention to the need to improve working conditions for farmers and workers, approaching (but never wholly identifying with) some of the socialist ideas being debated in Europe during his sojourn there, chief among them the responsibility of the ruling classes toward the poor and the importance of equality under the law. His promotion of the value of equality, in fact, might be considered among his most radical, as he advocated for it not only among religious sects and social classes but also between genders. (2013: xxviii)

7. Murad points out that Pickthall’s mother was the daughter of Admiral Donat Henry O’Brien, ‘a hero of the same Napoleonic war which brought Sheikh Abdullah Quilliam’s grandfather fame as master of Victory at Trafalgar’. He goes on to advance the intriguing speculation that ‘[i]t may be no coincidence that Pickthall, Quilliam and, before them, Lord Byron, who all found their vocation as rebellious lovers of the East, were the grandsons of naval heroes’ (n.d.: n. pag.). 8. This date is given by Peter Clark (1986: 1−2), but it has not gone uncon- tested. Murad gives 29 November 1914 as the date on which Pickthall con- verted (n.d.: n. pag.). 9. The Khilafat Movement encompassed a group of Indians agitating in the immediate post-First World War period for the British government to restore to power the defeated Ottoman Empire and its Caliph. On a more Notes 231

fundamental level, it was also ‘a campaign to unite Indian Muslims politi- cally by means of religious and cultural symbols meaningful to all strata of the community’ (Minault, 1974: 459). 10. Pickthall’s work in these magazines is worthy of further elucidation. It was in the eclectic socialist journal The New Age that he published some of his most fervently Turkophile articles (Nash, 2005: 169−99). The New Age’s editor A. R. Orage also published the London-based Indian art expert from Ceylon, Ananda Coomaraswamy. Leeds-born Orage was interested in theosophy and mysticism (Orage, n.d.), and was therefore attracted to fellow Indophiles like Pickthall and Coomaraswamy. For a general overview of the modernist New Age magazine, see Ardis (2009). Islamic Review was the official magazine of the Shah Jehan Mosque at Woking, established by its Ahmedi leader Khwaja Kamal ud-Din in 1913 and temporarily edited by Pickthall in 1919 when ud-Din was on sick leave (Clark, 1986: 40). Whereas in his articles for The New Age Pickthall often acted as an apologist for Turkey and other parts of the non-West, his Islamic Review audience was mostly Muslim and non- European, so Pickthall’s role in those articles tended to be to explain Western misconceptions about Islam. 11. Pickthall (2013: 126). References are to this edition of All Fools and will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. 12. For more on Bhownaggree and his Parsi co-religionist, Dadabhai Naoroji, who gained a seat as a Liberal MP in the House of Commons even earlier, in 1892, see Codell (2009). 13. Pickthall (1986: 266). All references are to this edition of Saïd the Fisherman and will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. 14. The travel writer Wilfred Thesiger (1910–2003), like Abu Taleb and Pickthall’s Saïd, was known in the United Arab Emirates by the city from which he came: his given name there was Mubarak bin Lundun. 15. Somewhat contentiously, she also includes Robert Young in this pro- hybridity group of thinkers, whereas I view his book Colonial Desire (1995) in particular as a strident critique of the idea that hybridity provides ‘fertile condition[s] for the reconfiguring of identity’ (Santesso, 2013: 16). 16. ‘Islamophobia’ is a new, imperfect idiom still finding its place in mainstream discourse. First coined as the French ‘Islamophobe’ in the early twentieth century, the neologism didn’t make its way into English until 1985 when Rushdie’s friend, the distinguished Palestinian Christian writer Edward Said, presciently pointed out ‘the connection […] between Islamophobia and anti-Semitism’ (Said, 1985: 8−9). Chris Allen describes the ‘first decade of Islamophobia’ as truly beginning in the 1990s (2010: 3). In 1997 Britain’s Runnymede Trust published its trailblazing report Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All, which led to the term entering public policy for the first time. The report sought to explain the word’s meaning by tabulating eight ‘closed’ and ‘open’ views of Islam. For my money, though, the best definition comes from Nasar Meer and Tariq Modood, who describe Islamophobia as ‘anti- Muslim sentiment which simultaneously draws upon signs of race, culture and belonging in a way that is by no means reducible to hostility towards a religion alone’ (2010: 70). Meer and Modood dismantle the common argu- ment that religion, unlike skin colour, gender, and sexuality, consists of private beliefs that one chooses and can equally abandon, suggesting that 232 Notes

both religious and secularist beliefs actually tend to be rather fixed, context- specific, and inherited. It is not just ‘ideas’ that anti-Islam zealots are attack- ing, but people – and in the West these people often belong to vulnerable and impoverished minorities. 17. Pickthall (1911: 290). All references are to this edition of Pot Au Feu and will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. 18. The reductive animal simile and the charge that Ahmed’s mind is ‘easily foiled by externals’ reminds readers of Mrs Moore’s observations about a wasp from A Passage to India. Forster’s readers are invited to read the wasp as a symbol of the Indian mindset in general. The insect is resting on a peg in the Club having mistaken the peg for a tree-branch, which leads to the free indirect discourse reflection that ‘no Indian animal has any sense of an interior. Bats, rats, birds, insects will as soon nest inside a house as out; it is to them a normal growth of the eternal jungle, which alternatively produces houses trees, houses trees’ (Forster, 1970: 55). The fact that the Indian wasp cannot distinguish inside from outside suggests that it cannot separate public and private concerns in a civilized manner. Moreover, ‘no Indian animal’, which suggests the inclusion of Indian people, is able to make this distinction. Indian animals, such as ‘Bats, rats, birds, insects’ are also depicted in this passage as being entirely indifferent as to whether they are inside or outside, as is suggested by the repetition of ‘houses trees, houses trees’. This is explained with reference to the fact, according to the free indirect discourse, that both houses and trees are viewed by the wasp as part of the ‘eternal jungle’. The use of this phrase indicates the Orientalist view of India as a timeless, ancient civilization, and also suggests that whatever veneer of civilization Indian animals may assume, they cannot shake off the manners of the ‘jungle’. While Pickthall’s portrayal of Ahmed does not contain so many sedimented stereotypes of the Other, his portrayal of the Arab as a ‘drowsy kitten’ who cannot comprehend externals but has an instinct about them as either ‘good or bad’ is in a similar vein. 19. Edward Atiyah, a Christian Lebanese, underwent a similar experience which he recorded in his autobiography, An Arab Tells his Story (1946). He went to Victoria College, Alexandria, where he was encouraged to go on to Brasenose College, Oxford. He then went to the Sudan as a teacher at Gordon Memorial College (but also worked for the Intelligence Department). He experienced the same cold-shouldering as Ahmed encountered. I quote from about half- way through the memoir:

The British Tutors did not show any desire to know me. They nodded with a polite smile when we met in the corridors, and once during a football- match which we were all watching, one of them spoke to me a few words, asking me what College I had been at, but for four or five months that was all the human intercourse I had with them. Towards the end of the school year they did invite me to dinner once at their mess, but by that time it was clear to me that the kind of friendship I wanted and had hoped to find among them was out of the question. (1946: 137−8)

Atiyah also wrote novels, one of which, Black Vanguard (1952), is about the relationship between Sudanese and British during the condominium, Notes 233

or joint British and Egyptian rule between 1899 and 1955. As its author is Christian and the novel is not set in Britain, it falls outside the remit of the present study. I am grateful to Peter Clark for drawing my attention to Atiyah; for more on the latter’s writing, see Jondot (2009). 20. Pickthall (1922a: 49). All references are to this edition of As Others See Us and will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. 21. However, the novella was received as a controversial piece of work and has had much critical attention directed towards it for this reason. 22. Zaheer (2011: 113, 26). Subsequent references are to this edition of A Night in London and will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. 23. Yahya Hakki’s name is often transliterated as Yahya Haqqi, and his story ‘The Lamp of Umm Hashim’ is also known by the title ‘The Saint’s Lamp’. I am going by Denys Johnson-Davies’s usage (Hakki, 2004). 24. Hakki (2004: 48). Subsequent references are to this edition of ‘The Lamp of Umm Hashim’ and will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. 25. Tawfiq al-Hakim’s Bird of the East (1938) is a seminal text about the Arab– Muslim encounter with the West, but as it is set in France, it cannot be studied here.

4 ‘England-Returned’: British Muslim Fiction of the 1950s and 1960s

1. Hyder (1995: 22). See also pp. 14–15. 2. Hyder (1998: 229). Subsequent references are to this edition of River of Fire and will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. 3. ‘Gautam’ is Buddha and ‘Nilambar’ or blue sky recalls sky-blue Krishna, the god associated with lila (cosmic play) and the doctrine of the Bhagavad Gita. 4. I am beholden to Masood Ashraf Raja for this point. See also Steele (2008: 190). 5. As Elizabeth Jackson’s research shows, Shama Futehally’s elite Muslim characters in postcolonial India have very similar attitudes toward Islam (Futehally, 1951, 1993, 2002; Jackson, 2011, 2013). 6. This incident shows that English is also the condition and possibility for communication for much of postcolonial India, where a multilingual people are rendered increasingly monolingual and dependent on English to mediate their interactions with other Indias and Indians. South Indians, like the Malayalam-speaker, usually prefer to communicate with North Indians in ‘neutral’ English, because of northern Hindi’s linguistic hegemony over southern Dravidian languages. 7. Faiz (2006: 105). Daud Kamal and Khalid Hasan translate this line as ‘Torn nerves, glazed eyes, heart on fire’ (Faiz, 2006: 104). 8. I am grateful to Rachel Dwyer for alerting me to these fi lmi incidents, and to Aamer Hussein for erudite guidance with Urdu here and throughout the book. 9. The interest became global, with South American critics such as Else Ribeiro Pires Vieira showing that a Brazilian writer, Haroldo de Campos, had indepen- dently used this term ‘transcreation’ (Bassnett and Trivedi, 1999: 10, 95–113). 10. In the case of al-Shidyāq’s and Tayeb Salih’s mother tongue, Arabic, it is notoriously tricky to render the differences between literary and vernacular 234 Notes

Arabic without making specious, Eurocentric connections between spoken Arabic and regional dialects such as Cockney. Humphrey Davies eschews linguistic gimmicks in favour of a plain style of translation through which to showcase the fireworks display of Leg Over Leg, but he manages to preserve the text’s original, inventive use of rhyme by italicizing the appropriate words on the page. 11. Hyder (1995: 31). Subsequent references are to this version of ‘The Exiles’ and will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. 12. The Battle of the Camel was fought between the forces of Caliph Ali and the army and allies of Ayesha, the wife of Prophet Mohammed. 13. Hosain (2013: 28–71). Subsequent references are to this edition of ‘No New Lands, No New Seas’ in Distant Traveller and will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. 14. Abbas (1996: 69, 71). All references are to this edition of Hotel Moenjodaro and Other Stories and will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. 15. Salih (2003: 9). All references are to this edition of Season and will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. 16. For discussion of the postcolonial concept of ‘writing back’, see Ashcroft et al. (2002: 33). On Season’s relationship with Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, see Shaheen (1985); Krishnan (1996); Maalouf (2000); Hassan (2003: 89).

5 Myth of Return Fiction of the 1970s and 1980s: ‘A bit of this and a bit of that’

1. He briefly recounts this experience in Confessions of a Native-Alien (Ghose, 1965: 121). 2. Mehmood (1983: 62). Subsequent references are to this edition of Hand on the Sun and will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. 3. Hussein (1987: 129 and 130; 130 and 131). Subsequent references are to this edition of ‘The Journey Back’ and will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. 4. Mehmood misspells the name as ‘Ubham Singh’ (1983: 88). For more on Udham Singh and his role in the death of O’Dwyer, see Ahmed and Mukherjee (2012: xii, xvi, xviii, xx, xxiv, xxv, 19−32). 5. Soueif (1995: 24). Subsequent references are to this edition of Aisha and will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. 6. Although we are never told when or where the novel is set, this is the era of Idi Amin’s rule in Uganda (52) which spanned most of the 1970s, and it is said to be the hottest summer in living memory (217), which suggests the precise year is 1976. 7. It is only finally revealed where Daud is from in Chapter 17 (of 20), and even then it is the racist father of Daud’s friend Lloyd who announces he is from ‘Tanzania’, when Daud has nothing but hatred for the ‘socialist, one-party democrac[y]’ brought to power by the 1963 revolution which forced Zanibar together with Tanganyika to become Tanzania. A mention of the Princess Margaret Pier, named after Elizabeth II’s sister when she visited Zanzibar in 1956, shows that Daud is specifically from this island (Gurnah, 1988: 202, 132). 8. Gurnah (1988: 202). Subsequent references are to this edition of Pilgrims Way and will be cited parenthetically by page number in the text. Bibliography

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9/11 events and studies, 3–4, 114–15, Ali, Ahmed, 5, 110, 128 177, 219–20 Twilight in Delhi (1940), 4 Ali, Monica, 114 Abbas, Ghulam, 144, 172–5, 188, 195 Ali, Syed Ameer, 65, 69 ‘Hotel Moenjodaro’ (1996), 175 Ali Shah, Sirdar Ikbal, 5, 221 ‘Mukherjee’s London Diary’ The Prince Aga Khan (1933), 66, 69 (1996), 125, 175 Ali, Tariq, 193 ‘The Dutiful Wife’ (1996), 174 al-Shidyaq,̄ Ahmad Faris,̄ 7, 81, 109, ‘The Girl with the Golden Hair’ 141, 225n17, 229n2, 229n3, (1996), 125, 172–3 229n4, 230n6, 233n10 ‘The Overcoat’ (1996), 175 Leg Over Leg (1855), 8, 49, 97–106 ‘The White Man’s Burden’ (1996), 175 Amis, Martin, 4 Abbas, Khwaja Ahmed, 128 Anand, Mulk Raj, 7, 128–9, 144 Rice (1947), 5 Angaaray (short story collection, ‘Abd ul-Wahhab, Muhammad ibn, 39 1933), 128, 139, 142, 153 Aboulela, Leila, 13, 30, 114 Ansari, Humayin, 10, 16, 22, 34, 67 The Translator (2001), 10 Ansari, Sarah, 55, 64, 219 Abu-Haydar, Jareer, 179 anti-racism protest, 23, 192, 199–200 Abu Taleb, Khan, 10–12, 26, 29–30, anti-Semitism, 28, 231n16 41, 45, 47–8, 52, 58, 112, 221 Anwar, Muhammad, 16, 198 Travels (1803–5), 11, 24, 32–40, Arab Spring, 12, 165 62, 225n20 Arana, R. Victoria, 72 Abul Hassan, Khan, 40 Arnold, David, 51 acculturation, 47, 88, 117 Asad, Muhammad, 110 Adas, Michael, 44 Asad, Talal, 11 Adelard of Bath, 22 Ashraf, K. M., 123 Afghanistan, 53, 168 Aslam, Nadeem, 27, 30, 114, 146 Aga Khan III, Sir Sultan Muhammad Asthana, Sanjay, 150 Shah, 5, 7, 10, 221 Atiyah, Edward, 232n19 World Enough and Time (1954), 24, audience, 5, 11–12, 24, 30–1, 49, 52, 65–6, 68–9, 89 63–4, 98, 155, 210, 231n10 Ahmed, Asma, 17 autobiography, 3, 99–100 Ahmed, Feroze, 17–18 genre conventions, 52 Ahmed, Iqbal, 91 hybrid self, 51 Ahmed, Rafiuddin, 66 life writing, 2, 10, 13, 25, 50–1, 65, Ahmed, Rehana, 7, 48, 115, 142 88–9, 95–6 Ahmed, Z. A., 123 political autobiography, 52, 65, Ahmed Chowdhury, Monira, 17 68–9, 83–4, 86–90 Alam II, Shah, 25 self/society dichotomy, 51 Alamri, Sharifa, 6, 211 travelling autobiographies, 21–49, Alexander, James Edward, 25 50–92 al-Hakim, Tawfiq, 136, 183, 233n25 Awad, Louis, 4 Ali, Agha Shahid, 152 Aziz, Shahzad, 91

258 Index 259

Baber, Zaheer, 44 Chittagong Uprising (1930), 127 Bakhtin, Mikhail, 209 Clark, Peter, 107, 111, 115 Bangladesh, 17–18, 170 Clifford, James, 47, 225n21 Bannon, Colin, 32 Clive, Robert, 25, 28 Bassnett, Susan, 11, 62 Cloake, Mary Morris, 40 Basu, Shrabani, 7, 66–7, 169–70, Cohen, Margaret, 2, 8 227n11 colonial desire, 23, 125, 164, 182, 221 Bates, Laura, 61 colonialism, 12, 33, 44, 49, 53, 60, 85, Beckett, Samuel, 81 125–6, 130, 144, 150, 157, 169, Begum, Hajra, 122–3 177–9, 182, 184–8, 211 Bellow, Saul, 213 civilizing mission and double Benjamin, Walter, 11 standards, 2, 118–20 Bennett, Arnold, 55 Conrad, Joseph Bennett, Louise, 35, 144 Heart of Darkness (1899), 113, 183, Bhabha, Homi K., 2, 78, 114, 117, 187 185, 205 conversion to Islam, 24, 106–11 Birmingham, 15, 180, 192–4, ‘going native’ and ‘turning Turk’, 198–9, 212 39, 57, 108 Blackburn, Stuart, 51 Conway, Stephen, 182 Bloomsbury Group, 129 cooke, miriam, 9–10, 140 Boko Haram, 61 Coppola, Carlo, 123, 132 Bouldrey, Brian, 116 Cornwallis, Charles, 33 Bradford, 15, 192–4, 199, 212, cosmopolitanism, 11, 18, 47–8, 65, 218, 221 104, 150, 153–4, 159, 161–2, Brah, Avtar, 62 170, 188, 193, 202, 207 Brathwaite, Edward Kamau, 77, 80, 152 Crenshaw, Kimberlé Williams, 62 Breton, Raymond, 167 curry/curry houses, 17–18, 29, 31–2, Brighton massage baths, 16–17 67, 169–70, 200, 212 Brighton Royal Pavilion, 16–17, 111 British abolition of slavery, 46 Damrosch, David, 158, 166 British Empire, 60, 66, 127, 136 dastangoi (oral stories), 145, 149, 153, Brontë, Charlotte, 80 155, 162 Brouillette, Sarah, 71–3, 82, 189 Dauvergne, Catherine, 195 Browne, Edward Granville, 185 Davies, Humphrey, 99, 101, 233n10 Buddhism, 147, 156 decolonization, 22, 35, 85 Delhi, 147–8, 165, 188 Caine, Hall, 110, 142 Derrida, Jacques, 11, 202 Cairo, 59, 98, 110, 133, 135, 201–2, Desai, Anita, 152 206–8 Devi, Mahasweta, 11 Cannon, Garland, 36 Dhondy, Farrukh, 67 Canterbury, 15, 212, 215 Dickens, Charles, 105 Carroll, Lewis, 186 Diderot, Denis, 100 Carter, Clare, 61 Dixon, John, 11 Castle, Barbara, 177 Djebar, Assia, 14, 164 Çelebi, Evliya, 22 djinn (supernatural spirits), 42, 113, Césaire, Aimé, 186 138, 156 Chattopadhyaya, Harindranath, 161 Doughty, Charles Montagu, 186 Chaudhuri, Amit, 149, 209 Dryden, John, 3 Cheng, Anne, 213 Du Bois, W. E. B., 116 260 Index

East India Company, 24–5, 28, 33–4, Forster, E. M., 107, 117, 124, 171 41, 225n19 A Passage to India (1924), 118, Edward VII, King, 50, 55 125, 231n18 Edwards, Justin, 92 ‘Salute to the Orient!’ (1923), Egypt, 96, 110, 118–20, 133–4, 136–41, 112, 118 178, 201, 203–11, 225n17 ‘The Mosque’ (1920), 111 el-Enany, Rasheed, 4, 6, 13, 99, Fremantle, Anne, 107 102–3, 136, 138, 141, 183, Freud, Sigmund, 186, 213 221, 225n17 Fry, Roger, 55 El Sadawi, Nawal, 208, 210–11 Futehally, Zeenuth, 148, 233n5 Eliot, T. S., 81, 108, 145, 171 Fyzee, Atiya, 10–11, 50, 52–65, ‘Rhapsody on a Windy Night’ 68, 102, 153–4, 162, 226n8, (1917), 152 227n11, 227n13, 228n16 ‘The Dry Salvages’ (Four Quartets) ‘A Time of Education’ (1921), 52, (1941), 152 57–61, 90, 96, 115 The Waste Land (1922), 152, 189 Atiya’s Journeys (2010), 52–5, Elmarsafy, Ziad, 11, 23, 133 226n9 Enlightenment period, 23, 42, 44, 51, 133 Galsworthy, John, 55 Equiano, Olaudah, 10, 30 Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand, 51, Eskandari-Qajar, Manoutchehr, 40 96, 109, 127–8, 190, 206 Euben, Roxanne L., 170 Ganguly, Dhirendranath, 15 exile and diaspora, 12, 46, 50–1, 72–3, Gaskell, Elizabeth, 8, 105 101, 114, 144, 149, 153, 162, Gauguin, Paul, 108 171, 188, 220 Gaur, Jane, 72 alienation, 75, 78–9, 82, 112, Geaves, Ron, 110–11 114–15, 121, 162, 170, George III, King, 27, 33 212, 214–15 George IV, King, 29 colonial-returned people, 54 George V, King, 53–5, 58 dual loyalties, 90 George, Rosemary Marangoly, 146 ‘England-returned’ writers/ Ghali, Waguih, 4, 13 characters, 14–16, 18, 78, Beer in the Snooker Club (1964), 132, 134, 137, 140–1, 143–88, 95–6, 178, 203, 205 217, 221 ghazal poetry, 38–9 hostland and homeland, 3, 16, Ghose, Zulfikar, 10, 52, 97, 145, 206, 35, 114 221, 228n27 ‘myth of return’ writers/characters, A Different World (1978), 78 14–16, 18, 97–8, 189–217, Beckett’s Company: Selected Essays 221 (2008), 72 Confessions of a Native-Alien (1965), Faiz, Faiz Ahmed, 153, 157–9 7, 70–83, 89, 91, 202 Fanon, Frantz, 176, 186, 206, 214 Crump’s Terms (1975), 7, 81, Faulks, Sebastian, 4 189–90 Fay, Mary Ann, 51 Hamlet, Prufrock and Language feminism, 14, 61, 106, 164, 211 (1978), 79, 81, 190 First World War, 17, 97, 108–9, 119 The Beautiful Empire (1975), 78 Fisher, Michael H., 10, 25–6, The Loss of India (1964), 70, 74, 78 28–31, 41 The Native (1972), 78 Ford, Ford Madox, 185 ‘The Remove’ (1972), 190–1 Index 261

The Triple Mirror of the Self (1992), ‘No New Lands, No New Seas’ 71, 191 (pub. 2013), 5, 9, 32, 144, Ghosh, Amitav, 142 163–72, 191–2, 215 Gilham, Jamie, 107 Phoenix Fled (1953), 5, 163, 173–4 Gill, Jagvinder, 11, 26, 35 Sunlight on a Broken Column (1961), Godden, Rumer, 145 5, 145, 148, 163 Gohlman, Susan A., 135 Hossain, Rokeya Sakhawat, 64–5 Goldsmith, Oliver, 77 ‘Sultana’s Dream’ (1905), 4 The Citizen of the World (1820), 12 Huggan, Graham, 50 Green, Nile, 40 Hulme, Peter, 90 Gurnah, Abdulrazak, 12, 14, 220 Hurston, Zora Neale, 108 Pilgrims Way (1988), 8–9, 211–16, Hussain, Zahid, 32, 122 234n7 Hussein, Aamer, 10–11, 150–1, 163, 171 Another Gulmohar Tree (2009), 173 Habibullah, Abu Muhammad, 25 ‘Found in Translation’ (2012), 192 Habibullah, Shama, 154, 163 ‘That Little Bird’ (2008), 148, 159 Hakki, Yahya, 11, 125, 152, 178, Hussein, Abdullah, 201, 212 184, 221, 232n23 ‘The Journey Back’ (1981), 8, ‘The Lamp of Umm Hashim’ 192–5, 197–200, 221 (1944), 8–10, 14, 97, 132–41, Hussein, Tun Abdul Razak, 85 176, 183, 187, 197, 207 Hutchinson, George, 115–16 Hall, Stuart, 114 Huxley, Aldous, 54 Halliday, Fred, 16 hybridity, 8, 50–1, 114, 153–4, 182, Halqa-e arbab-e zauq (Circle of the 197, 217, 231n15 Men of Good Taste, literary Hyder, Qurratulain, 82, 123, 125, movement), 151, 153 131, 145–62 Hamid, Mohsin, 143 Aag ka darya (1959), 144, 147–8, Hanif, Mohammed, 143 150, 158 Haq, Kaiser, 25, 47, 223n1 River of Fire (1959), 9, 146–60, Harrison, Nicholas, 158–9 162–3, 188, 192, 221 Hasan, Mushirul, 123 Sita Betrayed (1999), 149 Hashmi, Bilal, 120, 131 ‘The Exiles’ (1995), 146, 159–62 Hassan, Waïl S., 146, 178, 183–4 Hastings, Warren, 33 Ibrahim, Anwar, 85 Hawthorn, Jeremy, 222 Ibrahim, Mirza Muhammad, 41 Hayworth, Rita, 70 India, 4–5, 24–37, 39, 41, 44–5, 47, 51, Hazlitt, William, 185–6 53–4, 56, 62–3, 69–70, 72, 74–5, Heber, Reginald, 11 78, 81, 90, 96–7, 108–10, 112, Highmore, Ben, 18 118, 121–30, 132, 141–5, 147–9, Hinduism, 147, 156 154–6, 158–60, 162–3, 168, Hitchcock, Peter, 6 173, 188, 190–1, 220, 224n11, Holland, Patrick, 50 231n18, 233n5, 233n6 Honeyford, Ray, 218–20 British Raj, 33, 54, 141, 157, 160, Hopkins, Gerard Manley, 78–9 169, 191 Horsman, Stuart, 32–3, 40, 42, Partition (1947), 23, 70, 74, 82, 45, 103 90, 129, 141, 143, 145–8, 150, Hosain, Attia, 6–7, 14, 82, 97, 125, 156–7, 159–64, 168–9, 173, 131, 143, 154, 160, 162–72, 188, 190, 221 188, 221 see also Bangladesh; Pakistan 262 Index

Innes, C. L., 10 Kalliney, Peter, 80, 82, 144–5, 176 Iqbal, Mohammad (Allama), 51, 55, Kanaganayakam, Chelva, 71–2, 63, 65 189–90 Iran/Persia, 12, 24–5, 32, 37, 40–6, Kaplan, Sarah, 213 53, 69, 91, 148, 220 Karachi, 53, 69, 71–2, 90, 143 Islam Karim, Abdul, 7, 24, 66–8, 217, 221, egalitarian nature of, 88 228n20 explanation and defence of, 30, Karmi, Ghada, 92, 96 34, 47 Kayat, Assaad Y., 4, 42–3, 225n20 ‘fundamentalist’ tendencies, 219 Khair, Tabish, 11, 30, 34, 47, 224n11 historical European encounter Khan, Aly, 70 with, 21–2, 182 Khan, Mahmud-uz Zafar, 131–2, 153 Ismailis, 52–3, 65–6, 69, 221 Khan, Mohammad Ayub, 87, 190–1 orthodox, 208 Friends, Not Masters: A Political pluralistic, 48, 220 Autobiography (1967), 65–6 portrayal as monolithic, 210–11 Khan, Shaharyar M., 64 Shia, 32, 38–9, 65, 69, 123, 148, Khan, Sir Syed Ahmed, 13, 69, 154, 156, 159, 221 228n23 Sufism, 5, 51, 165, 172, 221 Khan-Din, Ayub, 74 Sunni, 32, 39, 69, 123, 159, 172 Khanna, Ranjana, 186 tawheed (oneness of God), 39, 60 Khilafat Movement, 108–9, 230n9 Wahhabism, 39 Kincaid, Jamaica, 77 see also Muslims; Qur’an King, Bruce, 73–4, 79 Islamophobia, 6, 28, 48, 110, 115, Kippis, Andrew, 116 215, 219, 231n16 Kitchener, Herbert, 1st Earl Kitchener, I’tesamuddin, Mirza Sheikh, 10–11, 58, 113 29–30, 32–3, 36–8, 41, 46–8, Krupp (Germany), 1–2 52, 58, 62, 112, 155, 220, Kureishi, Hanif, 98 224n11 Gabriel’s Gift (2001), 7 The Wonders of Vilayat (Shigarf- Le Week-end (2013), 7 nama-‘i Vilayat, 1780s), 24–8, My Beautiful Laundrette (1985), 75 103, 105 My Ear at His Heart (2004), 130 ‘My Son the Fanatic’ (1997), Jack, Ian, 219 7, 197 Jackson, Stanley, 70 Soaking the Heat (1976), 191 Jahan, Rashid, 128, 153 The Black Album (1995), 7, 31–2, Jahan, Shah, 27, 41 122 Jang, Fath Nawaj, 65 The Buddha of Suburbia (1990), 7, 31 Jinnah, Mohammad Ali, 65, The Last Word (2014), 7 96, 190 Joannou, Maroula, 145 Lacan, Jacques, 13–14 Johnson, B. S., 77 Laharry, N. C., 15 Johnson, Linton Kwesi, 199 Lahore, 143, 146 Johnson, Rebecca C., 230n6 Lal, P., 158 Johnson, Samuel, 28 Lambert-Hurley, Siobhan, 52–3, Johnson-Davies, Denys, 176 55–6, 61, 63, 226n3, 226n7, Jones, William, 26, 36–7, 41, 109 228n16 Joyce, James, 101, 121, 145, 171 Larsen, Nella, 115–16 Index 263 lascars (seamen), 5, 8, 16, 23, 25, 27, Locke, Alain, 116 48, 96, 169, 198 London, 1–2, 5, 10, 15, 17, 27, 29–30, Laski, Harold, 185 33–4, 38–40, 44, 47, 52–5, 57–8, Lawrence, D. H., 107–8, 114 60–2, 68–9, 75, 77, 84–7, 90–1, Lawrence, Stephen, 218 96–8, 103–4, 107, 110–14, Lawrence, T. E., 109 119–25, 127, 129–31, 148, 150–1, League of Nations, 65, 120 153–5, 161–4, 166, 168–71, Lear, Edward, 229n5 173, 175, 180–1, 187–92, 198–9, Leask, Nigel, 11–12 201, 203–6, 226n11 Lebanon, 91, 100, 107–8 Lukács, Georg, 8–9 Lee-Warner, William, 60, 68, 227n13 Leitner, Gottlieb Wilhelm, 111 Macaulay, Thomas B., 36, 167 Lemke, Sieglinde, 108 Macey, Marie, 194 Lessing, Doris, 5 Macmillan, Harold, 177 Liang, Lee Kok, 89 MacNeice, Louis, 154, 160 Light, Alison, 54–5 MacPhee, Graham, 144–5 Lim, Shirley, 88 Madame Tussauds, 42, 59, 68, 227n12 literature/literary genres Maghreb, 6 aesthetic autonomy, 80–1 Mahomed, Frederick Akbar, 29–30 art for life vs. art for art, 123 Mahomed, Sake Dean, 5, 10, 14, 16, cultural exchange, 108, 153 28–32, 48, 169, 221 exoticization, 6, 150 Shampooing, Or, The Benefits fiction studies, 95–142, 143–88, Resulting from the Use of the 189–217 Indian Medicated Vapour Bath fluid boundaries, 49, 99–100 (1838), 38 hybrid techniques, 8 The Travels of Dean Mahomet (1794), informant narrative, 12 24, 28–30 internationalization, 73 Majeed, Javed, 65, 131, 228n23 magic realism, 73, 151 Makdisi, Saree, 36, 183–4 modernism, 8, 54–5, 80, 82, Making Britain project, 5, 7, 54, 90, 108, 129, 131, 144–5, 149, 142, 226n7 152–3, 171 Malak, Amin, 3–4, 10, 228n27 postmodernism, 144 Malaka, Tan, 89 progressive, 9 Malay Society of Great Britain, 86 realism, 8, 55, 131, 153 Malaysia, 52, 65, 83–5, 87–91, 214, sexual themes, 101–2, 124–7, 135–7 228n29 socialist realism, 130–1, 153 Mandaville, Peter G., 220 stream-of-consciousness, 8, 126, 189 Maniam, K. S., 89 transnational, 6 Mannoni, Octave, 186 travelling nature of, 2–3 Markandaya, Kamala, 114, 145, 171 universalizing strategies of fiction, 82 Marsh, Ngaio, 180 see also autobiography; exile and Masmoudi, Ikram, 134–5 diaspora; postcolonial studies Massad, Joseph, 201, 211 and literature; translation; Matar, Nabil, 10, 13, 22 travelogues and travel writing; material culture, 18, 163, 167 world literature; and individual ‘postcolonial everyday’, 61 authors McEwan, Ian, 4 Liverpool Muslim Institute, 110 McKay, Claude, 80 264 Index

McLoughlin, Seán, 192 child marriage, 64 Meerza, Najaf Koolee, 10, 12, 24, contribution to ‘making Britain’, 30 30, 137 de-otherizing of, 7 Journal of a Residence in England, everyday lived Islam, 61, 113 40–8, 58–9, 62 fatwas, 110 Meerza, Reeza Koolee, 24, 40, 44 identity politics, 165, 168, 218–20 Meerza, Taymoor, 24, 40, 46 immigrant communities, 16 Mehmood, Tariq, 6, 14, 191, 211–12, massage and bathing, 31 220–1 migrants as translated people, 98, Hand on the Sun (1983), 8, 192–6, 158, 166, 216 198–201 migration history, 21–4, 46–7, 114, Menon, Krishna, 7 142, 145, 176–8, 194–6 Menon, Visalakshi, 122–3 permissible food, 28, 59–60, 66, Mill, John Stuart, 81 215, 218, 229n2 Milton, John, 3 pilgrimage, 215–16 mimesis, 48 polygamy, 28, 99 Minault, Gail, 33, 35, 47, 230n9 practice of medicine, 29–31 Mohamad, Mahathir, 89 purdah, 53–7, 59, 64, 174, 226n9 Mohammad Shah Qajar, 40 radicalization, 12 Mohammed, prophet, 25, 39, 51, 59, students, 95–7, 120–31, 133–4, 141, 142 156–7, 159–61, 213–14 Mohani, Hasrat, 58 transcultural links, 53, 69, 84, Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de 148, 201 Secondat, 4 ulama (scholars), 51, 110 Persian Letters (1721), 12, 100 ummah (community), 106, 177 Moore, Lindsey, 164 veiled women, 6, 56–7, 164–5 Moore-Gilbert, Bart, 24, 50, 52, 88 view of Islam ‘from the inside’, Moradabadi, Jigar, 152 4, 118 Morey, Peter, 115 zar (exorcism), 208–9, 211 Morier, James, 4 see also Islamophobia; racism and The Adventures of Hajji Baba of prejudice Ispahan, 40, 116 Mubarak, Hosni, 207 Nagel, Caroline, 178, 205–6 Mufti, Amir, 186 Nagra, Daljit, 204 Mukherjee, Sumita, 7, 15, 48, 96–7, 155, Naipaul, V. S., 120, 135 159–61, 188, 224n15, 226n9 Nandi, Swaralipi, 147, 150–1 Munro, Alice, 202 Naqvi, Jawed, 153 Murad, Abdal Hakim, 111, 118, Naqvi, Saeed, 63 164–72, 230n7 Narain, Mona, 33–4 Murray, Gilbert, 186 Naser-ed-Din Shah Qajar, King of Muslim League, 65, 69, 109 Persia, 1–2, 13, 40, 45 Muslims Nash, Geoffrey, 4, 107, 110, 115 arranged marriage, 124, 131, Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 96 198, 203 Nasta, Susheila, 30, 72, 163, 221 biographical tradition, 51 nationalism, 6, 118–20, 127–9, 168 biradari (kinship networks), 16, 192, Nehru, Jawaharlal, 51, 78, 87, 96, 198, 200 169, 190 bodily prescriptions, 25 Ng, Andrew Hock Soon, 87 chain migration, 15–16, 197–8 Nightingale, Florence, 68–9 Index 265

Nkrumah, Kwame, 87 Procter, James, 61, 72, 223n8 Non-Aligned Movement, 12, 87, 169 Progressive Writers’ Association, 5, North, Michael, 108 9, 97, 110, 121, 123, 128–30, Nyman, Jopi, 213 153, 172, 221 psychoanalytic theory, 13–14, 213 O’Dwyer, Michael Francis, 7, 195 O’Malley, Kate, 127 Quilliam, Abdullah, 46, 106, 109–11, O’Quinn, Daniel, 40 142, 156, 230n7 Olivier, Laurence, 74 Quilliam Foundation, 106 Ondaatje, Michael, 142 Qur’an, 22–3, 98–9, 110, 122, 128, 137, Osborne, Cyril, 177 139, 156, 186, 196–7, 209, 211 Ouseley, Gore, 41, 225n20 racism and prejudice, 18, 33–4, 37, Pakistan, 16–17, 51, 53, 61, 65, 70, 48–9, 76, 80–2, 112–13, 117, 72, 74, 78, 81–2, 87, 96–7, 141, 121, 155, 157, 163, 182, 187–8, 143–4, 148, 154–5, 160–2, 169, 192–6, 211–13, 215, 218–20 173–5, 188, 194–5, 218 see also Islamophobia Pandey, Guyanendra, 172 Rahman, Tariq, 72 Perchard, Adam, 42 Raja, Masood Ashraf, 146–7, 149–50 Peter the Venerable, Abbot of Cluny, Ramey, Lauri, 72 22–3 Ranasinha, Ruvani, 4–5, 24, 72 Petersen, Kirsten Holst, 62 Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), 128 Picasso, Pablo, 108, 153 Ray, Adil, 122 Pickthall, Muhammad Marmaduke, 12, Renaissance period, 22–3, 157 106–32, 141, 156, 171, 184, 211, Richards, I. A., 186 220, 230n7, 230n10, 232n18 Riley, Denise, 61 All Fools (1900), 7, 107, 111–12, Rushdie, Salman, 15, 48, 110, 199, 117, 120 218–20, 231n16 As Others See Us (1922), 108, 116 ‘In Good Faith’ (1990), 217 ‘Between Ourselves’ (1922), 7, 107, Joseph Anton: A Memoir (2012), 213, 116–18, 120, 141 217, 228n28 ‘Karàkter’ (1911), 7, 107, 116–20 Midnight’s Children (1981), 51, 74, Saïd the Fisherman (1903), 4, 7, 9, 115, 148, 151 14, 107–8, 112–16, 138, 170, Shame (1983), 158, 166–7 192, 221 The Jaguar Smile: A Nicaraguan The Meaning of the Glorious Qur’an Journey (1987), 228n28 (1930), 106 The Satanic Verses (1988), 2–3, 13, Porter Smith, Byron, 3 32, 42, 67–8, 70, 73, 97, 142, postcolonial studies and literature, 211, 217, 220, 228n28 14, 50, 61, 71–3, 95, 97, 144–7, Rutherford, Anna, 62 162, 168–9, 184, 186–8, 202, 220, 233n6, 234n16 Sadat, Anwar, 207 archival turn, 3, 144 Said, Edward W., 2, 7, 48, 183, post-Impressionism, 55 185–6, 201, 215–16, 231n16 Pound, Ezra, 81 Salih, Tayeb, 82, 119, 141, 189, 222 Powell, Enoch, 163 Season of Migration to the North Prasad, Udayan, 193 (1966), 9, 14, 125, 135–6, Pratt, Mary Louise, 184 145–6, 167, 176–88 Pritchett, Frances W., 58 ‘The Wedding of Zein’ (1969), 211 266 Index

Sancho, Ignatius, 10, 67–8 Strachey, Lytton, 68–9 Sandhu, Sukhdev, 10, 21, 33, 35, 37 Suhrawardy, Shaista Akhtar Banu, 9, Sanskrit, 36–7 121 Santesso, Esra, 114–15, 231n15 Sultan, Shahbano Begum Maimoona, Sardar, Ziauddin, 91 10–11, 50, 90, Sastri, Lal Bahadur, 87 102, 137 Savarkar, Vinayak Damodar, 128 A Trip to Europe (1914), 52–6, 58–65, science and technology, 43–4 69 Scott, Paul, 124 syncretism, 147–8, 156, 227n11 Second World War, 23, 80, 84, 86, Syria, 91, 107, 112, 207 95, 127, 132, 142, 144, 146, Syrian Civil War, 12 159, 169, 174, 184–5 Selvadurai, Shyam, 202 Tarlo, Emma, 165 Selvon, Sam, 129 Tavakoli-Targhi, Mohamad, 26–7, 40, Shafak, Elif, 13 224n11 Shah, Idries, 5 Tehran, 41 Shakespeare, William, 3, 74 Teltscher, Kate, 11, 48 Hamlet, 81 Tharoor, Shashi, 170 Othello, 183 Tickell, Alex, 127 The Tempest, 186 Trabelsi, Hechmi, 204 Shamsie, Kamila, 142, 163 translation, 3, 6, 10–11, 32, 56, Shamsie, Muneeza, 65, 72 109–10, 157–9, 166–7, 233n10 Sharma, Sunil, 52–3, 55–6, 61, transcreation, 152, 158–9, 163, 63, 226n3 192 Sharpe, Jenny, 124 travelogues and travel writing, 1–3, 5, Sheppard, Mubin, 86 8, 11–13, 34–6, 45, 81–2, 155, Shibli Nomani, Maulana, 55, 63 227n14, 228n23 Shils, Edward, 96–7 audiences, 5, 11–12, 24, 30–1, 49, Siddiq, Muhammad, 133–4, 136, 63–4, 98, 155, 210, 231n10 140 cultural disorientation, 113–15 Silvestri, Michael, 127 cultural translation, 42, 225n21 Singh, Madhu, 121, 127, 129 discussion of servants, 33, 66–8, Singh, Udham, 7, 195 224n12 Snaith, Anna, 54 exoticism, 26, 31, 116, 150 Sorabji, Cornelia, 58, 226n11 gaze, the, 13–14, 35, 112, 150, 188 Soueif, Ahdaf, 13–14, 143 hospitality, 27, 33, 40–1, 56, 113, Aisha (1983), 6, 9, 91, 201–11 176–7 I Think of You (1996), 211 mutual incomprehension, 28, 49 In the Eye of the Sun (1992), 102, nostalgia and romanticization, 90 201–3 Orientalism in reverse, 35–6, 48–9, Mezzaterra (2004), 204–5 76 The Map of Love (1999), 4, 101 position of double colonization, 62 spa towns, 30 productive double vision, 114, 171 Spivak, Gayatri, 11, 104–5 ‘schizophrenic’ experience, 71, St James’s Palace, 27 78–9 Steel, David, 177 self-censorship, 63–4 Stein, Gertrude, 108 self-deprecation and irony, 61–2, 90 Sterne, Laurence, 100 self-othering, 108 Stewart, Charles, 32, 38, 43 stranger’s eye, 34 Index 267

students in Britain as theme, 52, William IV, King, 29, 41–2 120–31, 133–4, 141, 156–7, Wilson, Woodrow, 120 159–61, 213–14 Woking Mosque, 69, 110–11, 156 travelling autobiographies, 21–49, women 50–91 education, 156–7 travelling fiction, 95–142, 143–88, everyday lives, 61 189–217 gender and racial oppression, views of British women, 26–7, 34–5, 62–3 38, 46, 57–8, 75–6, 124–7, 181–3 misogyny, 156, 184, 211 views on women’s education, 60–1 normative gender roles, 144 vision, sight and blindness tropes, object of the male gaze, 14 137–40, 171, 183–4 Woods, Tim, 90 wonder and awe, 2, 26, 43–5, 66 Woolf, Virginia, 54, 145, 171 Trivedi, Harish, 11 ‘Character in Fiction’ (1924), 55 Tunku, Abdul Rahman Putra al-Haj, ‘Modern Fiction’ (1919), 152 10–12, 65, 83–91, 96–7, 189, 214 Mrs Dalloway (1925), 121, 151 Looking Back (1977), 52, 84–8, 90 Woolwich Armoury, 1–2, 46 Political Awakening (1986), 85 Woolwich Military Engineering Viewpoints (1978), 52, 83, 87–90 College, 80 Tutuola, Amos, 80 Wordsworth, Christopher, 201 Wordsworth, William, 77 United Malays National Organization world literature, 3, 6, 158–9 (UMNO), 85, 87 Wright, Denis, 41 Urry, John, 14

Van Vechten, Carl, 116 Yaqin, Amina, 115 Victoria, Queen, 7, 24, 40, 54, 66–8, Yassin-Kassab, Robin, 30, 98, 122 221, 224n15, 228n20 Young, Robert, 125–6, 169, 182, Visram, Rozina, 10, 23–4, 29–30, 231n15 34, 48, 66, 68, 124, 155, 217, Yousafzai, Malala, 61 223n3, 226n6 Viswanathan, Gauri, 157, 187 Zafar, Bahadur Shah, 58 von Tunzelmann, Alex, 53 Zaheer, Sajjad, 6–7, 9, 11, 120–32, 140–2, 145, 162–3, 171–2, 193, Walcott, Derek, 152 199, 214, 221 War on Terror, 12, 48, 165 A Night in London (1938), 5, 8, 97, Waugh, Evelyn, 54 120–31, 134, 142, 153, 162, Wells, H. G., 55, 107, 142 212 A Short History of the World (1922), Zanzibar, 12, 215–16 142 Zari, Bentura de, 22 Boon (1915), 107 Zweig, Stefan, 185