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Proceedings of the Regional Technical Consultation on Stock Enhancement for Threatened Species of International Concern, Iloilo City, Philippines, 13-15 July 2005 Primavera, Jurgenne H.; Quinitio, Emilia T. & Eguia, Maria Rowena Date published: 2006

To cite this document : Primavera, J. H., Quinitio, E. T., & Eguia, M. R. R. (Eds.). (2006). Proceedings of the Regional Technical Consultation on Stock Enhancement for Threatened Species of International Concern, Iloilo City, Philippines, 13-15 July 2005. Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines: Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center.

Keywords : Fish culture, Shellfish culture

To link to this document : http://hdl.handle.net/10862/2944

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Follow us on: Facebook | Twitter | Google Plus | Instagram Library & Data Banking Services Section | Training & Information Division Aquaculture Department | Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC) Tigbauan, Iloilo 5021 Philippines | Tel: (63-33) 330 7088, (63-33) 330 7000 loc 1340 | Fax: (63-33) 330 7088 Website: www.seafdec.org.ph | Email: [email protected] Copyright © 2011-2015 SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department. Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Proceedings of the Regional Technical Consultation on Stock Enhancement for Threatened Species of International Concern

Iloilo City, Philippines, 13-15 July 2005

J. H. Primavera, E. T. Quinitio and M. R. R. Eguia Editors Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center Aquaculture Department

Government of Japan Trust Fund

2006 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGIONAL TECHNICAL CONSULTATION ON STOCK ENHANCEMENT FOR THREATENED SPECIES OF INTERNATIONAL CONCERN Iloilo City, Philippines, 13-15 July 2005

All Rights Reserved No parts of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without the permission in writing from the publisher.

ISBN No. 978-971-8511-79-4

Published by: Aquaculture Department Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center Tigbauan 5021, Iloilo, Philippines Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST

Cover photo collage (clockwise, from upper left) Abalone (AC Fermin), Giant clam (SM Buen-Ursua), Giant catfish (Chiangrai Inland Fisheries Station, DOF, Thailand) and Seahorse (RBuendia) FOREWORD

The SEAFDEC Aquaculture Depart- requiring adequate social organization and ment officially organized its Stock Enhance- local governance. An added bonus from stock ment Program in the year 2000, but its roots enhancement is environmental protection to can be traced to AQD`s solid record in the provide healthy habitats, e.g., seagrass beds, seed production of various aquatic species, coral reefs, and mangrove swamps where and its 10-year Community-Based Coastal the released clams, shells, and crabs can Resource Management Project in Malalison survive and grow to marketable sizes. More- Island, Antique, central Philippines. The over, the Revised Philippine Fisheries Code Department`s achievements in maturation of 1998 requires local governments to set and breeding started with milkfish Chanos aside 15% of their territorial waters as pro- chanos and tiger prawn Penaeus monodon, tected areas, so stock enhancement can be but soon branched out to other species in- part of a technology package to implement cluding seabass, grouper, siganid, snapper, this pro-environment mandate. seahorses, abalone, top shell, mud crabs and other invertebrates suitable for restocking. Both the 1976 Kyoto Declaration on Aquaculture and the 2000 Bangkok Decla- Stock enhancement represents the inter- ration on Strategy for Aquaculture Devel- phase between culture and capture fisheries opment underscored the potential of stock – seedstock reared in hatcheries-nurseries are enhancement to increase fish supply from released in natural waters, to be managed and coastal and inland waters. Hence, AQD eventually harvested by coastal communities. started a new Stock Enhancement Project Unlike pond and pen/cage culture which require in 2005 with support from the Government high capital investment, the growout portion of Japan Trust Fund. In preparation for this of stock enhancement projects need very low project, the Regional Technical Consulta- financial outlay. Of prime importance is the tion on Stock Enhancement was convened effective protection of restocked juveniles in Iloilo City last year. It is therefore with (regulation of harvest sites, sizes, seasons) pride that I present the Proceedings of the by local communities and governments, Stock Enhancement Consultation.

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Joebert D. Toledo,Toledo, D. Agri. Chief

September 2006

i BACKGROUND

In April 2005, the Southeast Asian The SEAFDEC/AQD convened a Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC) Regional Technical Consultation on Stock initiated the five-year Program on Stock Enhancement from 13 to 15 July 2005 in Enhancement for Threatened Species of Iloilo City to identify suitable species in the International Concern under the Government region for stock enhancement, and to assess of Japan-Trust Fund. The main purpose of existing technologies for seed production, the Trust Fund is to ensure food security baseline surveys, release, and monitoring. and reduce poverty, as set during the 2001 Fifty-five participants from eight SEAFDEC ASEAN-SEAFDEC “Fish for the People” Member Countries and from institutions Millennium Conference. The SEAFDEC active in stock enhancement attended the Aquaculture Department (AQD) based in meeting (Appendix I). A total of 18 country Iloilo, Philippines is tasked to implement and review papers provided status reports and the aquaculture-based component of this scientific input for lively discussions during Program focused on stock enhancement, the concluding workshop. Future directions while the SEAFDEC Marine Fishery Resource for the Program as recommended by the Development and Management Department in Workshop are embodied in the Resolution Malaysia will cover marine turtles. and Plan of Action that follow.

RESOLUTION

1. Stock enhancement should be under- but broodstocks may also be restocked taken as part of an integrated manage- to restore the breeding population. ment strategy for sustainable use and conservation of aquatic resources. 6. As basis for evaluating the risks and benefits of stock enhancement, baseline surveys must 2. Stock enhancement should be consid- be conducted before any release of stocks, ered only if other interventions, such to obtain physico-chemical, biological, and as reduction of fishing pressure and socioeconomic information, especially the habitat protection or restoration, have characteristics of the receiving ecosystem proven inadequate. and the stakeholder communities. 3. Stock enhancement programs should use 7. Hatchery-produced juveniles used for

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST indigenous or native species to minimize stock enhancement should be carefully adverse effects on ecosystems and biodi- screened for genetic makeup and health versity. status to ensure that genetic diversity is 4. For species that are now used for stock conserved and only good quality juveniles enhancement programs in the Member are released. Countries, technological support should 8. Impacts of the stock enhancement activity be strengthened to ensure success. should be monitored and evaluated on 5. Seed production technology for a spe- a regular basis, using the same methods cies should be established before it can and covering the same area or ecosystem be considered for stock enhancement, as the baseline survey.

ii PLAN OF ACTION

SEAFDEC/AQD’s Program of Stock Regional concerns – common species and Enhancement for Threatened Species of problem areas identified by the Member International Concern shall consist of three Countries will be given priority plans of action: (1) research and development, Technology gaps identified by each mem- (2) technology verification, and (3) capability ber country building. Available resources of the Program Mandate from the SEAFDEC Council 1. Research and development will be conducted on species of international 2. Appropriate technologies for stock concern based on: enhancement will be verified:

List of species identified at the Regional Technologies developed by AQD Technical Consultation: Technologies developed by Member a) Freshwater species Countries Mekong giant catfish 3. The capability of the Member Countries Pangasianodon gigas for appropriate stock enhancement will Arowana be strengthened through training, study Scleropages formosus tours, publications, and dissemination Giant Pangasius Pangasius sanitwongsei of information regarding the following and Pangasius larnaudii technical areas: Small scale mud carp Planning and management of stock Cirrhinus microlepis enhancement including review of Mud carp or Chinese mud carp existing activities Cirrhinus molitorella Site and resources assessment b) Marine species Seed production (broodstock, Seahorses Hippocampus species hatchery, nursery) Giant clams Tridacna species Release strategies (including Donkey-ear abalone tagging and marking) Haliotis asinina Monitoring and evaluation of Sea cucumbers impacts Holothuria species Community-based management Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST

Iloilo City, Philippines 16 July 2005

iii Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST

Participants of the RTC on Stock Enhancement for Threatened Species 1st Row (fromfrom llefteft):): T Sugaya,Sugaya, EEDD GGomez,omez, JJHH PPrimavera,rimavera, RRRR PPlaton,laton, K Okuzawa,Okuzawa, WGWG Yap,Yap, SDSD SilvaSilva 2nd Row: ET Quinitio, TU Bagarinao, MIJ Nievales, MRR Eguia, N Istiqomah, ACJ Vincent, TT Nguyen, NA Lopez, K Myo Win 3rd Row: Y Theaparoonrat, Z Talib, K Ibrahim, S Jamon, S Vichitlekarn, T Ngoc Chien, K Kiso, BJ Gonzales, M Chaengkij, N Sukumasavin, H Choundara CONTENTS

Foreword i

Background ii

Resolution ii

Plan of Action iii

Photo of Participants iv

Review Papers

ASEAN-SEAFDEC Directives Related to Species of International Concern 1 Suriyan Vichitlekarn

Application of DNA-Based Markers in Stock Enhancement Programs 7 Maria Rowena R. Romana-Eguia

The SEAFDEC/AQD Experience in Stock Enhancement 17 Koichi Okuzawa, Junemie Lebata, Shelah M. A. Buen-Ursua and Emilia T. Quinitio

Biology and Status of Aquaculture for Giant Clams (Tridacnidae) in the Ryukyu Islands, Southern Japan 27 Kenji Iwai, Katsuhiro Kiso and Hirofumi Kubo

Coral Culture and Transplantation and Restocking of Giant Clams in the Philippines 39 Edgardo D. Gomez, Patrick C. Cabaitan and Kareen C. Vicentuan

Community-Based Stock Enhancement of Topshell in Honda Bay Palawan, Philippines 49 Benjamin J. Gonzales, Wendell M. Galon and Joel G. Becira

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Status and Prospects of Aquaculture of Threatened Echinoderms in the Philippines for Stock Enhancement and Restocking 61 Marie Frances J. Nievales, Marie Antoinette Juinio-Meñez and Helen Grace Bangi

An Uncertain Future for Seahorse Aquaculture in Conservation and Economic Contexts 71 Amanda C. J. Vincent and Heather J. Koldewey

Status of the Mekong Giant Catfish, Pangasianodon gigas Chevey,Chevey, 11930930 Stock Enhancement Program in Thailand 85 Naruepon Sukumasavin

v Country Papers

Organization and Development of Stock Enhancement in Japan 91 Takuma Sugaya

Fisheries, Aquaculture and Stock Enhancement in Lao PDR 103 Hanh Choudara

Fishery Stock Enhancement in Malaysia 109 Kamarruddin Ibrahim and Zaidnuddin Ilias

Stock Enhancement Activities in the Union of Myanmar 117 Kyaw Myo Win

Status of Threatened Species and Stock Enhancement Activities in the Philippine Fisheries 121 Nelson A. Lopez

Thailand's Concerns on Endangered Species and Stock Enhancement 131 Marnop Chaengkij

Endangered Fish Species and Seed Release Strategies in Vietnam 139 Thai Ngoc Chien, Nguyen Huu Khanh and Nguyen Xuan Truong

Appendix 1 145

List of Participants Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST

vi ASEAN-SEAFDEC Directives Related to Species of International Concern

Suriyan Vichitlekarn Secretariat, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC) Bangkok, Thailand

Background ngered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora or CITES, United Nations General Assembly, Over the years, policy makers and mana- eco-labelling and trade barriers rather than gers have been concerned about the manner FAO) have been promoted with the view of and extent of current utilization of aquatic managing utilization of aquatic resources. and fisheries resources. In Southeast Asia, These movements have brought grave con- overfishing coupled with conflicts among vari- cern to fisheries authorities at various levels ous users over the limited and degraded fish- as the initiatives/mechanisms are developed eries resources call for urgent action to rectify without considering the ongoing efforts of fisheries practices particularly through better fisheries competence authorities that are management of aquatic resource utilization working towards sustainable development toward the goal of sustainable development. and management of fisheries. In addition, Stock enhancement as a management tool concern has also been expressed regard- has become a regional challenge that requires ing the competence and scientific bases of greater attention. various fora and mechanisms that deal with the management of commercially important In 1995, the Code of Conduct for Respon- aquatic species. The recent outcome of the sible Fisheries (CCRF) was adopted to Thirteenth Conference of Parties (CoP13) provide norms and principles to guide the of CITES (Vichitlekarn and Gamucci 2005) responsible utilization of fisheries resources. could be a good example of the above con- In support of the CCRF implementation cern, which requires a closer investigation by member states, the Food and Agricul- of lessons learned in order to set future ture Organization (FAO) has developed directions for sustainable/responsible develop- supplemental International Plans of Action ment of fisheries. (IPOAs) and Strategies with the view of better addressing some priority issues such To support implementation of this global as fishing capacity, incidental catch of sea- CCRF, the Southeast Asian Fisheries Develop- Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST birds in longline fishing, sharks and illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing ment Center (SEAFDEC) initiated a South- (FAO 2005). east Asian regionalization process of the CCRF in 1998. The objective of the regionali- After a decade of implementation of the zation was to address principles and issues CCRF in 2005, some environmental groups of the CCRF taking into consideration increasingly claim that such implementation regional specificity and requirements which has achieved little progress and in many had been overlooked during the prepara- cases proved to be ineffective. They also tion of the CCRF. After a series of consul- claim that a substantial gap exists between tations at national and regional levels, the commitment by the States and their actions. regionalization process developed a set of Alternatively, other initiatives/mechanisms regional guidelines for responsible fisheries in (Convention on International Trade in Enda- Southeast Asia including important thematic 2 ASEAN-SEAFDEC Directives

issues of fisheries namely, fishing opera- enhancement, and so on. In addition, the RES tions, aquaculture, fisheries management, and POA also highlight the need to enhance post-harvest practices and trade. partnership among Member Countries in the region through formulation of common To follow up these efforts, the Associa- positions as well as to increase their partici- tion of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) pation and involvement in international fora and SEAFDEC organized a Conference on (FAO, CITES, etc.) to safeguard and promote Sustainable Fisheries for Food Security in ASEAN interests particularly on issues of the New Millennium: “Fish for the People” international concern. in 2001. With over 800 participants from Southeast Asia and around the world, the In line with the above general directives, Conference discussed important fisheries especially in relation to stock enhancement and aquaculture issues and identified actions of species under international concern, needed to achieve sustainable fisheries in senior fisheries officials of ASEAN and Southeast Asia. As major outcomes of the SEAFDEC have urged proactive approaches Conference, the Resolution (RES) and Plan in tackling the issues and gave the following of Action (POA) on Sustainable Fisheries directives: for Food Security for the ASEAN Region were developed under the framework and 1) To increase support to national initiatives principles of the CCRF, and adopted by the and to facilitate regional cooperation on ministers and their senior officials responsible stock enhancement including identifica- for fisheries in region, respectively. The tion of concerned species and their status, RES and POA are considered a regional interaction between concerned species policy framework and priority actions required and fishing, and integrated approach and to a) achieve sustainable development of community involvement in management fisheries and food security in countries of and conservation of aquatic resources; the region, and b) provide a regional frame- 2) To identify issues/species of interna- work for collaboration and partnership in tional concern and conduct review on fisheries. status of the issues/species as basis for formulation of fisheries policy as well as ASEAN-SEAFDEC Directives common positions among the Member related to Species Countries in international fora; of International Concern 3) To compile information on status and initiatives related to management and To achieve sustainable fisheries for food conservation of aquatic resources and to disseminate them in appropriate Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST security in the ASEAN region, the RES and POA urge the Member Countries to rectify international fora to enhance awareness their fisheries practices through improve- of the regional situation and seriousness ment of existing fisheries management of the issues; policy, framework and practices as well as 4) To promote appropriate inter-agency implementation of the CCRF, RES and coordination on the issues at national POA. Improvement of fisheries management and regional levels; and includes the gradual introduction of decen- 5) To promote involvement of national tralized rights-based fisheries and co-manage- fisheries agencies in national/regional/ ment systems, regulation/control of fishing international fora/mechanisms related to activities, protection/rehabilitation of impor- utilization and management of aquatic tant aquatic resource habitats, resource/stock resources. ASEAN-SEAFDEC Directives 3

Current regional programs supporting a regional activity. Moreover, years of species of international concern experience and expertise in stock enhancement of the Aquaculture Department In response to the above directives, (AQD) (for mollusks, seahorses, and other ASEAN and SEAFDEC jointly promoted threatened aquatic species) and the Marine a number of regional fisheries programs Fishery Resources Development and under the ASEAN-SEAFDEC Fisheries Management Department (MFRDMD) of Consultative Group (FCG) mechanism SEAFDEC (for sea turtles) can provide a established in 1999. The existing programs solid foundation for the implementation include: of the newly developed regional program on Research and Development of Stock Fish trade and environment Enhancement for Species of International Concern. The program is in fact a frame- The program addresses close linkages work for this Regional Technical Consulta- between responsible trade in fish and fishery tion (RTC) on Stock Enhancement for products and sustainable development of Species of International Concern. fisheries. Through its activities, the program conducts regular identification of trade- Issues to be Addressed related issues, which have potential negative impacts on the fisheries sector in the region. on Stock Enhancement Comprehensive reviews of the identified Despite the fact that stock enhancement issues and their status will form the basis has been in practice in both inland and for the formulation of fisheries policy and marine waters in the ASEAN region over the common positions and the identification of past number of years and the considerable strategies to address concerns among the progress and achievements made in this Member Countries. field, there are concerns on the goals and effectiveness of stock enhancement under Management of fisheries and utilization the broad framework of sustainable manage- of sharks in Southeast Asia ment of fisheries resources. The following The program was initiated to support are issues that need due consideration when Member Countries in the implementation identifying future development directions of the International Plan of Action on of stock enhancement in the region: Management and Conservation of Sharks What are the goals of stock enhancement (IPOA-Shark). The program includes a one- (religious/ceremonial, commercial, mana- year regional comprehensive study of shark Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST gement)? resources, utilization and trade. Results of the Do stock enhancement programs con- study have provided a basis for dissemination tribute to higher fishery production in of information on the current situation of the region? In what context? sharks in the region, and future formulation Do the costs of stock enhancement out- and implementation of the National Plan of weigh the gains? Are gains sustainable? Action on Sharks (NPOA-Shark) by Member Can the same level of “enhancement” Countries in line with the IPOA. gained from hatchery releases be achieved It should be noted that utilization and through stronger fishing regulations and management of sea cucumbers has been enforcement and/or habitat restoration? recently identified by the SEAFDEC Sec- What are the explicit indicators of success? retariat and will be soon formulated into How they are measured? 4 ASEAN-SEAFDEC Directives

What other fishery management strategies Support to the Member Countries need to be coupled with stock enhance- on species of international concern ment? in international fora What are the preconditions and responsible approaches and protocols of successful Compiling and disseminating informa- stock enhancement programs? tion on status of concerned species and What improvements need to be made in seriousness of the Member Countries existing approaches? particularly on stock enhancement; Identifying potential international fora Conclusion: The Way Forward! (including CoP14 in 2006) and assisting Member Countries in preparing their With the view to support the Member policy and common positions; and Countries in achieving sustainable develop- Coordinating with existing regional ment of fisheries in the ASEAN region, it is programs/initiatives including the ASEAN timely for SEAFDEC/AQD to organize this Expert Group on the Convention on Inter- RTC to address issues of stock enhance- national Trade in Endangered Species ment particularly for species of international of Wild Fauna and Flora (AEG-CITES) concern. The program on Research and with regard to these issues. Development of Stock Enhancement for Species of International Concern through Moreover, in promoting the above two this initial regional technical consultation directions, networking of regional experts could help monitor the status and progress of on stock enhancement may be considered. stock enhancement in the ASEAN region as Such networking not only facilitates improve- well as clarify issues, context and future direc- ment of national stock enhancement ini- tions for stock enhancement of species of tiatives but also helps to identify species international concern. The program should of international concern including their be viewed as an opportunity to address this potential impacts on the fisheries sector in important topic in two general directions. the region.

Support to national initiatives on References stock enhancement Foodood a andnd AgricultureAgriculture O Organization.rganization. 2 2005.005. Progress in the Implementation of the Strengthening existing stock enhance- Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries ment initiatives as effective manage- and Related International Plans of ment tools by mobilizing existing work Action. A meeting document COFI/ and expertise among the Member Coun- Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST 2005/2 for the 26th Session of the FAO tries and SEAFDEC AQD; Committee on Fisheries (COFI), 7-11 Developing a low-cost tool to illustrate March 2005, Rome, Italy. 15 p. positive impacts of stock enhancement on SEAFDEC. 2005a. Direction for Future Promo- overall management of resource utilization; tion of the Code of Conduct for Respon- Identifying key factors and considerations sible Fisheries (CCRF) in the ASEAN based on stock enhancement experience to Region. pp, 263-269. In: Report of the improve overall management of resource 28th Meeting of the Program Committee utilization; and of the Southeast Asian Fisheries Deve- Raising issues among policy-makers in lopment Center (SEAFDEC), Malaysia, appropriate fora to ensure support. 6-9 December 2004 ASEAN-SEAFDEC Directives 5

SEAFDEC. 2005b. Report of the ASEAN- of the Parties (CoP) to the Convention SEAFDEC Regional Technical Consul- on International Trade in Endangered tation on Fish Trade and Environment, Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). A Bangkok, Thailand, 1-3 February 2005. Reference Paper in: ASEAN-SEAFDEC 12 p. Regional Technical Consultation on Fish Vichitlekarn S. and Gamucci OD. 2005. Trade and Environment, Bangkok, Thailand, Summary of the Thirteenth Conference 1-3 February 2005 Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST 6 Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Application of DNA-Based Markers in Stock Enhancement Programs

Maria Rowena R. Romana-Eguia SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department Binangonan Freshwater Station Binangonan, 1940 Rizal Philippines

Introduction ting resource distribution patterns, behavior, migration and movement of stocks, dynamics Aquaculture and fisheries management of exploited aquatic populations and evolu- require tools for identifying individuals or tionary processes, all of which comprise base- groups of aquatic organisms for the purpose line information for any stock management, of monitoring performance (growth, survival enhancement and conservation program in and behavior) and stock structure. In aquacul- aquaculture and fisheries (Allendorf et al 1988, ture research, commercially important traits Mulvey et al 1998). of tagged individuals are assessed to generate supportive data for selective breeding, genetic Tags and Markers improvement and commercial-scale fish- farming. Fisheries management employs Before choosing an ideal marker or tag- identification systems for the evaluation of ging method, the program or research objec- stock abundance, population dynamics and tives should be clearly defined. The type of documentation of wild and hatchery-bred identification system should suit the purpose stocks. Stock structure analysis is useful in for which the tags are used. The species, size the planning and implementation of sound and number of organisms that will be tagged stock management and more importantly, or marked, should also be known as some tags in stock enhancement programs. Blankenship are size- and/or species-specific. Preliminary and Leber (1995) underscored the inclusion studies on the different types of identifica- of tagging/marking strategies for released tion techniques should be conducted to assess hatchery stocks in the guidelines for respon- their performance and reliability. Through sible marine stock enhancement. Identifying these preliminary trials, the preferred mode and keeping track of introduced stocks in of attachment, duration of handling and release habitats allows an assessment of effect of tagging on the identified organism Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST their adaptability in the wild (Allendorf et can be determined. Tagging/marking should al 1988) and the success of the reseeding be done within a short period to avoid adverse and/or restocking effort. effects on the tagged organism. Fouled tags and even the presence of some tagging/ Although often used interchangeably, the marking materials have been found to affect terms “tags” and “markers” differ by defini- the health, behavior and growth of the iden- tion. Tags are artificial or synthetic materials tified animal (Thorsteinsson 2002). Finally, that are attached to the aquatic organism to one should also take into account the cost allow individual or group identification while of tagging/marking. A cost-benefit analysis markers are traits or characters either applied should be conducted before finally deciding or inherent to the organism (Thorsteinsson on a tagging/marking method that is cost- 2002). Tags/markers are essential in evalua- efficient and reliable. 8 Application of DNA-Based Markers

Tag/marker types, advantages and the animal, as reviewed by Thorsteinsson limitations (2002). Long-term use can likewise expose the tag to fouling by macroalgae and attach- There are four types of tags/markers ment of other debris. Fouling makes the used in fisheries research and these are tag heavier, slowing down the movement – external tags, external markers, internal of the animal. High tag loss or shedding is tags and internal markers (Thorsteinsson also possible due to fouling thus making this 2002, AFS et al 2004). tagging method unreliable. Another limita- tion of external tags is that some may not be External tags applicable to small animals.

These are externally applied, visible External marks tags which carry an individual and/or batch code (AFS et al 2004). Sometimes external External markers are external charac- tags also carry instructions on how recap- ters or modifications that are found on or tured organisms should be reported. Many applied to the organisms for identification of the conventional tags are classified as purposes (AFS et al 2004). Some types of external tags. Examples are the ribbon, wire external marks have been used in studies or spaghetti tags, Petersen disk and plates. related to taxonomy and systematics. Exam- Dangling tags (flag tags or Carlin tags), hydro- ples of these are the meristic (e.g., number static tags (anchor tags, floy T-bar tags and of fin rays, spines, teeth) and morphometric arrow tags), internal anchor tags, strap tags characters (truss patterns, length measure- and jaw tags are also some examples of ments, scale shape, etc.). Some physical external tags. The internal anchor tag is a characters are modified and used as tag that is implanted in the body cavity of external marks. Fin-clipping, pinching and the animal but part of the tag hangs like a operculum punching are typical examples of floy tag that is visible from the outside as these external marks. Pigments, dyes, stains well. and brands (hot and/or cold branding) are also used as external marks. External tags are inexpensive and are therefore cost-effective. They are very detect- Like external tags, external marks are able and can be applied to a large number, inexpensive, easy to apply and useful in size and range of species. Apart from the identifying separate populations or groups. number code, external tags also carry relevant They can be applied to any species, size and reporting instructions. Many of these tags number of organisms. Unlike external tags, remain attached to the animal for a long period external marks have little, if any, effect on

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST of time, hence the possibility of providing a the tagged organism. External marks can large number of returns is high. External tags also have a long retention time depending are ideal for providing information on broad on the type of marker used. geographical and seasonal return distribution. Although external marks allow batch identification, the number of marking combi- Although the tags carry batch or indi- nations and codes may be limited. For marks vidual code and reporting instructions, no like fin clips, the clipped fins regenerate data between release and recapture of the later and could cause confusion in identifying restocked individual can be obtained from or discriminating marked organisms. Some the tags. Another disadvantage of the exter- external markers, especially paints or dyes, may nal tags is that their mere presence affects also deteriorate with time. Given the problems Application of DNA-Based Markers 9

associated with external marks, recapture/ marks characterize the organisms individu- return data from a broad geographical range ally or collectively. Chemical/thermal marks may prove to be difficult. on otoliths and other bony structures as well as biological markers (e.g., type of parasites Internal tags found on specific groups or individual aquatic These tags are injected or inserted organisms) are considered as internal mark- into the body cavity, muscle or cartilage of ers. Other examples of internal marks are aquatic organisms and are carried internally externally detectable elastomer marks that are for individual or group identification (AFS injected into the organism. With the recent et al 2004). Most of these tags require reading introduction of the polymerase chain reaction devices that will enable the detection of the (PCR) technology and advances in molecular implanted or inserted tags. Examples of these genetics, DNA-based genetic markers have been are coded wire tags (CWT), coded radio tags developed and used as internal markers. (CRT), coded acoustic tags (CAT), magnetic cavity tags, passive integrated transponder Except for genetic markers, most of the (PIT) tags, sonar transponding tags, trans- internal marks are inexpensive, simple and mitter tags, data storage tags (DST), and readily applicable to a wide range of animal visible implant tags (VIT). sizes. Some of the marks are visible for a long period and are repeatedly recognizable Internal tags allow individual identifi- without causing any damage to the organism. cation and may be applied to any size and Individual and group identification is species of aquatic organism. They have a possible with internal markers since one long retention time and have little effect on can use of a wide array of colors (especially the growth, survival and behavior of tagged for chemical marks) and marking positions. organisms. Likewise, repeated and non- destructive recoveries are possible. Using Although internal markers keep for a special fully automated equipment, a large longer period in the organism, the transpar- number of individuals may be tagged at a ency of the marks may change through time, single time. become less visible, and thus can be easily overlooked. In some cases, marker injection Compared to external tags and marks, tools are required and special devices are internal tags are costly. They require the use of necessary for marker detection. detecting devices apart from trained people who apply the tags. Recovery of tagged specimens, Conventional markers like physical tags retrieval and identification of the tags are are commonly applicable in a) estimating labor intensive. Since the tags are kept inside growth in farmed and natural populations Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST the organism for a long time, tag migration of aquatic organisms, b) evaluating survival, within the organism is possible. As for some migration and behavior of restocked organ- internal tags like VIT, the transparency of the isms, c) calculating recapture rates, d) com- tag may deteriorate through time. Moreover, paring tag reliability and performance, and d) internal tags do not carry sufficient informa- monitoring introductions, stock transfers and tion about the tagged organism. species conservation. These tagging/marking methods are efficient only when tagging Internal marks losses and recovery errors are minimized. If Internal marks are marks that are either tagging problems are not addressed, these intrinsically found in the organism or are methods might find limited use in popula- artificially produced (AFS et al 2004). These tion or stock structure analysis. 10 Application of DNA-Based Markers

Genetic Markers bases along the sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA is referred to as the DNA sequence. Traditional tags such as spaghetti and Sequences carry information for constructing floy tags have been used for decades in both proteins that provide the structural compo- fish culture and stock management. Several nents of cells, tissues and enzymes for types have evolved since then – from the very essential biochemical reactions. Hence by crude simple ribbon or wire tags to recent definition, the DNA sequence specifies the applications such as biochemical or genetic exact genetic instructions for creating a markers. Physical tags carry very limited particular organism each with its own unique information. More advanced markers such as set of traits. In developing DNA markers, genetic markers not only provide individual DNA sequence information is a prereq- or batch identification, but also describe the uisite. With the use of modern molecular genetic information of each marked indi- genetics equipment like the PCR or thermal vidual and in general, the genetic structure cycler, electrophoretic apparatus and DNA and integrity of the stocks being monitored sequencer, DNA profiling and genetic marker (Allendorf et al 1988, Ward and Grewe 1994, development have been made possible. Mulvey et al 1998, Sweijd et al 2000). Genetic markers can be classified into: Genetic markers are selectively neutral a) maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA markers. They are biochemical attributes (mtDNA) markers, and b) biparentally that remain as discrete character units or inherited nuclear DNA markers. MtDNA combinations of such units that are detectable sequence data and mtDNA-restriction frag- as protein or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) ment length polymorphism (mtDNA-RFLP) variants (Benzie 1994). Genetic markers are are classified as mtDNA markers while allo- indelible, present in all members of a popu- zymes, randomly amplified polymorphic lation at all ages, and can be used to deter- DNA (RAPD), amplified fragment length mine the source and relationships (parentage polymorphism (AFLP), and microsatellite and kinship) among aquatic organisms (Pella DNA (msDNA) markers are nuclear DNA and Milner 1987, O’Connell and Wright 1997). In this sense, genetic markers are markers. unique and are able to discriminate between Two of the commonly used markers individuals and groups when traditional are mtDNA-RFLP and msDNA. MtDNA morphological differences are unclear (Sweijd analysis is particularly useful for genetic et al 2000). marking as applied in gene conservation To fully understand what genetic mar- or the use of genetic information to mea-

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST kers are, we recall some basic concepts in sure and manage genetic diversity, and for genetics. Each cell in any organism contains molecular ecology (Moritz 1994). MsDNA chromosomes. Chromosomes are made up markers are markers that follow a Mende- of long DNA molecules that are complexed lian codominant inheritance pattern (e.g., the with protein. Each DNA molecule has many two alleles in a gene pair, each associated with a genes that are the basic physical and functional different phenotypic substance or expression, units of heredity. A gene is a specific sequence appear together in a heterozygote). MsDNA of nucleotide bases (adenine, guanine, markers are effective tools for the assessment cytosine and thymine). Alleles are biochemi- of genetic divergence and pedigree analysis cally different forms of the gene while a in the broodstock management of aquatic locus is the specific location of a gene on species (Taniguchi 2003). These two methods the chromosome. The order of nucleotide essentially follow similar protocols. Application of DNA-Based Markers 11

Genetic marker methods are non- Genetic markers – uses, advantages invasive unlike physical tagging/marking. and limitations Molecular marker analysis can be carried out on fresh, frozen or alcohol-preserved In stock enhancement programs, genetic tissue (e.g., scales, fin clips, pleopods) from markers are extremely useful in marking the aquatic organism. Small tissue samples stocks, studying the population structure (from at least 30 individuals per stock) are of threatened or endangered species (Ward collected and preserved. DNA extracted and Grewe 1994), measuring genetic dif- from each sample are PCR amplified using a ferences and changes within and between thermal cycler and later processed for either released hatchery-bred stocks and wild mtDNA or msDNA analysis. MtDNA-RFLP populations, determining the fate of reared marker analysis is a method where genomic animals after deliberate or inadvertent release DNA is cut with restriction enzymes and in the wild (Cross 2000), and identifying the the products are separated by size through presence of intraspecific hybrids (between agarose gel electrophoresis. The presence wild and hatchery stocks) in the release or absence of multiple restriction sequences habitat. They are also generally useful in around a given DNA region represent studies on fish populations especially in haplotypes (Silva and Russo 2000). These delineating the relative roles of microevolu- haplotypes are scored from fragments that tionary forces that shape population struc- are visualized as bands on stained agarose tures (Sweijd et al 2000). gels. Genetic marker variability data are Genetic markers are heritable, stable based on the scored haplotypes. and are non-invasive hence they do not affect Meanwhile, microsatellite DNA are short the growth, health and behavior of the stretches of DNA composed of tandemly organism. Unlike physical tags or markers repeated arrays of di-, tri- or tetranucleotides that should be applied prior to the release (Wright and Bentzen 1994). Changes in of tagged individuals in the wild, genetic each microsatellite locus are usually noted marker information can be obtained from as insertions or deletions during DNA the individual organism even after they replication or by recombination between have been released and recaptured. Genetic DNA molecules (Goldstein and Scholterrer markers therefore provide a means of 1999). These allele length polymorphisms tracking stocked animals without necessarily that result from changes in the number of handling them individually before release. repeats are quantified by sizing PCR-ampli- How is this done? In stock enhancement, fied copies of the DNA on a polyacrylamide the parental stocks that are used to breed gel (Stepien and Kocher 1997). MsDNA the released hatchery stocks are genetically Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST on the gel are blotted and hybridized onto documented using molecular markers. The nylon membranes. Genetic marker data hatchery-bred individuals are then released based on msDNA variation is obtained and allowed to grow in the natural habitat. from scoring banding patterns visible on After some time, samples from stocks nylon membranes that have been earlier in the natural habitat are collected and the stained through a chemoluminescent method. individuals are genetically marked and their MsDNA markers exhibit high levels of genetic genotypes compared with the parental stocks variability. These markers have the potential to trace the pedigree of both the wild and to isolate large numbers of gene loci and released hatchery stocks. This method is therefore provide a marker system that can referred to as parentage analysis or pedigree detect differences even among closely related tracing. populations (O’Connell and Wright 1997). 12 Application of DNA-Based Markers

Although use of genetic markers present is likely that the individuals in these popu- several advantages, there are also limitations lations are closely related to each other to the application of genetic markers. When and when mated through generations, the the level of detectable genetic variation probability of inbreeding becomes higher. within and between stocks is small and Inbreeding causes inbreeding depression negligible, genetic marker methods may not that may be expressed as poor fitness, be suitable. Furthermore, genetic marker apart from abnormalities and slow growth. analysis is quite costly and requires technical Low genetic variability may thus result in expertise. poor adaptability or reduced fitness (Moritz 1994). Hence hatchery-bred stocks with low DNA marker analysis data genetic diversity may not survive well in wild or natural habitats (Allendorf et al 1988). It DNA sequence information can be is in this regard that genetic diversity should determined from individual organisms using be conserved if only because genetic variability modern molecular genetic methods and contributes directly to fitness-related traits. equipment. Several parameters (e.g., allele Genetic diversity or variability can be evalu- frequency and levels of heterozygosity) that ated and monitored through genetic marker measure genetic variation can be inferred analysis. Hence this emphasizes the signifi- from DNA marker analysis. These indices cant role of genetic markers in conservation of genetic variability can be measured at and stock enhancement programs. the individual, stock and species levels. The inbreeding coefficient within a particular Genetic Concerns in Stock stock or population and through subsequent generations can be inferred from DNA Enhancement markers, particularly through microsatellite There are several genetics issues which marker analysis. Based on data generated must be fully understood and considered from genetic or DNA marker analysis, stock in any stock enhancement program. The structure analysis is possible, genetic diver- evolution of genetic differences between sity can be conserved and other genetic con- wild and hatchery stocks is a concern. cerns can be addressed if all these genetic Hatchery-bred stocks genetically differ variability indices are known. and sometimes fare poorly compared to wild stocks. Several studies have shown that Genetic Markers in Stock some hatchery stocks suffer loss of genetic Enhancement variation due to random genetic drift, domestication and inbreeding (Allendorf and Phelps The success of any stock enhance-

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST 1980, Cross and King 1983, Doyle 1983, Ståhl ment program lies heavily on the assump- 1983, Taniguchi et al 1983, Ferguson et al tion that released hatchery-bred stocks can 1991). adapt well and survive in the natural environment. Genetic diversity is an important Both domestication and inbreeding con- component of adaptation and evolutionary tribute to the continuous erosion of genetic success. A change in the genetic structure of variation within the hatchery stocks. How does a particular organism or group of organisms this occur? The inbreeding coefficient is is equivalent to a change in the fitness or inversely proportional to effective popula- the ability of the population to thrive in the tion size or F = 1/(2Ne) (Falconer 1981). The release habitat. Loss of genetic diversity higher the effective population size, the often occurs in small populations with few possibility of inbreeding would be lower. In founder stocks (such as hatchery stocks). It contrast to the actual population size (N) Application of DNA-Based Markers 13

Fig. 1. Recommended scheme for the sustainable management of wild/hatchery stocks used for reseeding.

which is the number of male and female that are expressed) present in the hatchery

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST breeding individuals that are set up as broodstock that are most suitable to hatchery condi- stock to produce the next generation, effec- tions will increase in frequency (Allendorf et tive population (Ne) is the total number of al 1988). The individuals possessing the so- males and females that actually mate and called “hatchery-adapted” traits will fail to contribute to the gene pool of subsequent survive or grow well in the natural habitat. generations. Fish breeding in the hatchery is normally based on few founder stocks. This This issue can be addressed by either a) alone already limits the number of effective increasing the effective population size in females and males that mate and contribute to the hatchery that produces the seedstock for the next generation so the situation hastens release in the wild (Taniguchi 2003) or by b) the loss of genetic diversity in hatchery-bred collecting wild broodstock for breeding in stocks. The genes (and therefore the traits the hatchery and releasing their young in 14 Application of DNA-Based Markers

the natural habitat. The second method is ment. If the aquaculture stocks can still be known as supportive breeding. used, selective breeding can be done while simultaneously adopting mating schemes that A third main concern is the genetic can minimize inbreeding. Well-adapted stocks “contamination” of the wild stocks in the may be chosen from the progeny and reared area where stock enhancement efforts are onwards for use as seedstock in stock enhance- being implemented. It is believed that if ment activities. hatchery-bred aquatic organisms have low genetic variability, when these stocks are References released in the wild, introgression between the highly variable wild stock and the geneti- Allendorf FW and Phelps SR. 1980. Loss of cally depauperate hatchery stocks would genetic variation in a hatchery stock of inevitably occur because of interbreeding. cutthroat trout. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. When gene introgression happens, there is 109: 537-543 concern that the frequency of nondaptive Allendorf FW, Ryman N and Utter FM. 1988. “hatchery” genes might increase (Allendorf Genetics and Fishery Management. Past, et al 1987). The occurrence of interbreeding Present and Future, pp. 1-19. In: Ryman can be checked by examining the genetic diver- N and Utter FM (eds) Population Genet- sity and structure of stocks found in the release ics and Fishery Management. University habitat through genetic markers. of Washington Press AFS (American Fisheries Society), AIFRB Recommendations (American Institute of Fishery Re- search Biologists) and ASIH (American Figure 1 shows the recommended scheme Society of Ichthyologists and Herpe- for the sustainable management of wild/ hatchery stocks used for re-seeding. In a stock tologists). 2004. Guidelines for use of enhancement program, both wild and hatchery fishes in research. American Fisheries stocks can be documented genetically through Society, Maryland, USA.Website: http:/ DNA markers. From this genetic database, /www.fisheries.orgwww.fisheries.org/html/Public_Affairs/ stocks that have high genetic variability can Sound_Science/Guidelines.html be chosen and utilized as the founder stocks. Benzie J. 1994. Stock enhancement in marine If enough individuals can be used as founder systems, pp. 437-444. In: Bellwood O, stocks, a high effective population size would Choat H and Saxena N (eds) Recent be desirable to use for breeding in the hatchery. Advances in Marine Science and Tech- Genetic changes are again monitored in the nology. PACON International and James hatchery-bred offspring. The progeny are Cook University of North Queensland Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST then reared onwards using efficient husbandry Blankenship HL and Leber KM. 1995. A techniques. These purportedly well-adapted responsible approach to marine stock stocks can be used for reseeding purposes. On enhancement. American Fisheries Society the other hand, if the size of the population Symposium 15: 167-178 is insufficient to provide a high Ne, the exist- Cross TF. 2000. Genetic implications of trans- ing hatchery stocks can be further improved location and stocking of fish species, with through selective breeding. These stocks are particular reference to Western Austra- continuously monitored for genetic changes lia. Aquacult. Res. 31: 83-94 using DNA marker analysis. Monitoring genetic Cross TF and King J. 1983. Genetic effects changes in stocks can help determine whether of hatchery rearing in Atlantic salmon. the aquaculture stocks can still be used in Aquaculture 33: 33-40 propagating seedstock for stock enhance- Application of DNA-Based Markers 15

Doyle RW. 1983. An approach to the Stepien CA and Kocher TD. 1997. Chapter quantitative analysis of domestication 1. Molecules and morphology in studies selection in aquaculture. Aquaculture 98: of fish evolution, pp. 1-9. In: Kocher 209-216 TD and Stepien CA (eds) Molecular Falconer DS. 1981. Introduction to Quan- Systematics of Fishes. Academic Press, titative Genetics. 2nd edition. Longman, San Diego, Calif., USA London, U.K. 340 p. Sweijd NA, Bowie RCK, Evans BS and Lopata Ferguson MM, Ihsen PI and Hynes JD. 1991. AL. 2000. Molecular genetics and the Are cultured stocks of brown trout (SalmoSalmo management and conservation of marine trutta) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus organisms. Hydrobiologia 420: 153-164 mykiss) genetically similar to their source Taniguchi N. 2003. Chapter 24. Brood- populations? Can. J. Fish Aquat. Sci. 48 stock management for stock enhance- (Suppl. 1): 118-123 ment programs of marine fish with Goldstein DB and Schloterrer (eds). 1999. assistance of DNA marker (a review), Microsatellites: Evolution and Applica- pp. 329-338. In: Leber KM, Kitada tions. Oxford University Press, Oxford. S, Blankenship HL and Svasand T 352 p. (eds) Stock Enhancement and Sea Moritz C. 1994. Applications of mitochon- Ranching - Developments, Pitfalls and drial DNA analysis in conservation: a Opportunities. 2nd edition. Blackwell critical review. Mol. Ecol. 3: 401-411 Science, Oxford Mulvey M, Liu HP and Kandl K. 1998. Ap- Taniguchi N, Sumantadinata K and Iyama plication of molecular genetic markers S. 1983. Genetic change in the first and to conservation of freshwater bivalves. second generations of hatchery stock of J. Shellfish Res. 17(5): 1395-1405 black seabream. Aquaculture 35: 309-320 O’Connell M and Wright JM. 1997. Micro- Thorsteinsson, V. 2002. Tagging Methods satellite DNA in fishes. Rev. Fish Bio. for Stock Assessment and Research in Fish. 7: 331-363 Fisheries. Report of Concerted Action Pella JJ and Milner GB. 1987. Use of genetic FAIR CT.96.1394 (CATAG). Reykjavik. marks in stock composition analysis, pp. Marine Research Institute Technical 247-276. In: Ryman N and Utter FM Report (79). 17 p. (eds) Population Genetics and Fishery Ward RD and Grewe PM. 1994. Appraisal Management. University of Washington of molecular genetic techniques in fisheries. Press, Seattle, Washington, USA Rev. Fish Bio. Fish 4: 300-325 Silva EP and Russo CAM. 2000. Techniques and statistical data analysis in mole-

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST cular population genetics. Hydrobiologia 420: 119-135 Ståhl G. 1983. Differences in the amount and distribution of genetic variation between natural populations and hatchery stocks of Atlantic salmon. Aquaculture 33: 23-32 16 Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST The SEAFDEC/AQD Experience in Stock Enhancement

Koichi Okuzawa, Junemie Lebata, Shelah M. A. Buen-Ursua and Emilia T. Quinitio Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines

Introduction Abalone

Populations of some aquatic animals such Research and development of abalone as sea turtles, humphead wrasse (Cheilinus at AQD started in 1994. Around 10,000- undulates), seahorses (Hippocampus spp.) 47,000 juveniles have been produced yearly sharks and rays, sea cucumbers (HolothuriaHolothuria since 1998. A diet-based bluish-green shell spp.), giant clams (particularly the true giant band was used to mark later batches, and clam Tridacna gigas) and abalone (HaliotisHaliotis spp.) exposure to predators and natural food which provide livelihood for local fisherfolk provided behavioral conditioning. Packing have become highly depleted or threatened and transport techniques have been refined due to destruction of habitat and/or overex- using polyethylene vinyl chloride (PVC) ploitation. Therefore we must seek sustain- pipes in styrofoam boxes. Releases in 2002- able management of natural stocks of these 2004 in the Sagay Marine Reserve (SMR), species. Stock enhancement is a well known Negros Occidental show recapture rates of method of replenishing depleted stocks. 4.2% after one mo, and up to 6.9% after 6 mo (Gallardo et al unpub. manuscript). The Aquaculture Department (AQD) of the Southeast Asian Fisheries Develop- Stock assessment and marking ment Center (SEAFDEC) started stock of release site enhancement activities in 2000 as part of the Coastal Fishery Management Project in Existing abalone stocks in the release site Malalison Is., Culasi, Antique, Philippines were assessed by counting abalones found (SEAFDEC/AQD 1998). This was the same along a 1-m band on both sides of a 25-m tran- year as the Bangkok Declaration and Strategy sect line (belt-transect method) and measur- for Aquaculture Development (NACA/FAO ing their sizes. Species composition and abun- 2000), which affirmed the potential of stock dance of seaweeds, crabs, mollusks and fishes enhancement to increase fish supply. Since particularly carnivorous species were deter- then, research on seed production, and mined using transects and quadrats (Gallardo

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST release and monitoring strategies has been et al unpub. manuscript). This assessment initiated on the abalone Haliotis asinina, sea- revealed that the intertidal Carbin Reef in SMR horses Hippocampus barbouri and H. kuda, is a natural abalone habitat suitable for release; mud crabs Scylla serrata, S. olivacea and it is exposed during the lowest tides. Points for S. tranquebarica, top shell Trochus niloticus, deployment of release modules were marked and window-pane oyster Placuna placenta. using PVC plates and numbered PVC pipes Closing the life cycle and mass production along a 25-m nylon rope. of juveniles have been attained for most of these species, but actual releases have Seed production been conducted only for abalone and mud crabs. In this review article, we describe the Juvenile abalone of 10-12 mm shell length present situation of stock enhancement of (SL) were fed a SEAFDEC/AQD–formu- abalone, mud crab and seahorse at AQD. lated diet for 2-3 weeks to produce a small 18 SEAFDEC/AQD Experience

bluish-green shell band which served as oxygen depletion and temperature increase permanent marker (Gallardo et al 2003). (Gallardo et al unpub. manuscript). They were subsequently fed the brown seaweed Gracilariopsis bailinae to produce the Release and monitoring natural brownish shell after formation of a In June 2002, a total of 1,800 diet-tagged bluish-green band 6 mm wide. The colored abalones of four sizes (SL 1.5, 2.5, 3.5-4 and band served as natural marker. 4.5-5 cm), at 450 abalones per size group Three to four days before release, abalones were released in the SMR Carbin Reef were trained to forage for food among natu- during neap tide. Upon arrival, the PVC rally growing seaweeds or an added supply pipes were sprinkled with seawater from of the seaweed G. bailinae, and to escape the release site to acclimate the abalones. predators by stocking them with the crab For protection from predators, the pipes Metopograpsus latifrons, fish Epinephelus containing all abalone sizes were placed coioides, and gastropod Pleuroploca trapezium, inside net bags with bottom holes to allow and with shelters (Schiel and Welden 1987, exit of abalones (McCormick et al 1994). Brown and Day 2002, Buen 2005) either Each release module ( comprising 5 pipes in flow-through outdoor tanks or in indoor per net bag) was tied to the corresponding tanks. number of PVC pipe along the nylon rope within the plot. The nets covering both ends Packing and transport of the pipe were removed to release the abalones. The net bags containing pipes Prior to transport, juveniles were tagged prevented predators from directly entering individually with numbered, color-coded (by the pipes thereby protecting the abalones. size group) Dymo tape glued to the shell for Monitoring was carried out immediately monitoring. Shell length, body weight and after module deployment and twice daily for 3 gonadal stage were recorded. Samples of days after release. The distance from release the epipodia of foot muscle were taken point to where the abalones were sighted was from each released abalone and preserved measured using a tape; dead abalones and for DNA analysis to determine if future empty shells were collected and recorded. juveniles in the release sites are their Based on higher survival of medium-sized offspring. After tagging and sampling, 20 abalones in the June 2002 release, 3-cm SL abalones per size group were placed in juveniles were used for releases in October the numbered release modules stocked 2002, April 2003 and March 2004 in different in flow-through tanks. The modules were sites of Carbin Reef with 2,500 pieces per made of 5.1 or 7.6 cm diameter x 15.2 cm release.

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST long PVC pipes covered on both ends with mesh net. The PVC pipes containing Exit from release modules, dispersal abalones were placed inside double-layered and survival after release plastic bags without seawater but provided with oxygen and placed in styrofoam boxes The released abalones were monitored with small packs of seawater ice to maintain from the release point without destroying low inside temperature. Abalone survival or turning over corals and rocks. In June within 8 h of transport was 100% as in the 2002, the abalones left the release modules June 2002, October 2002 and March 2004 within the first 2 h. Only 2.3% remained in batches. When transport time exceeded 8 h, the modules by the third day. Dispersal from mortalities occurred, e.g., the April 2003 batch the release point was within 1 m, except for had 3.5% mortality after 9 h, maybe due to some large abalones found 4 m from the SEAFDEC/AQD Experience 19

Table 1. Dispersal distance (means and earlier but did not disperse as widely as the ranges) of abalone Haliotis asinina medium and large ones (Table 2). released in Carbin Reef, Sagay Marine Reserve, Negros Occ., Philippines in June In the June 2002 batch, 27 pieces of 2002. whole and broken shells (1.5% of total released [27/1800=0.015]) were found Distance from release (Table 3). Whole shells probably came from point (cm) abalones that died from handling stress Size group and/or predation by carnivorous fishes and (shell length) Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 gastropods, whereas broken shells were Small 63.7 29.7 54.6 due to reef crabs which prey on abalone (2.5-3.0 cm) (23-143) (16-51) (16-120) (Tegner and Butler 1985). Crab predation can be recognized by the chipped margin Medium 61.2 64.0 92.7 of abalone shells (Shepherd and Breen (3.5-4.0 cm) (5-400) (5-400) (10-234) 1992). After one month, a total of 52 Large 72.6 40.0 131.9 empty shells were found of which 53.8% (4.5-5.0 cm) (25-400) (21-100) (8-400) were large (4.5-5.0 cm SL), perhaps because the bigger ones have greater exposure to predators being more visible release point (Table 1). In the October with a tendency to move farther away. 2002 batch, almost all of the abalones left The smaller abalones have higher survival the modules by day 3 but remained within 1 because they are more cryptic and do not m from the release point. In the April 2003 move far from the release point. This is and March 2004 batches, small abalones left confirmed by results of the October 2002

Table 2. Dispersal distance (means and ranges) of abalone Haliotis asinina released in Carbin Reef, Sagay Marine Reserve, Negros Occ., Philippines in April 2003 and March 2004.

Distance from release point (cm) April 2003* March 2004* Size group Mean Mean Range N % Range N % (shell length) (±SD) (±S.D) Very small 23.6 20-35 11 12.94 Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST (1.5-2.0 cm) (4.6) Small 42.8 29.9 0-13.5 18 21.18 10-55 8 18.18 ( 2.5-3.0 cm) (38.1) (18.2) Medium 92.0 83.6 5-300 36 42.35 0-500 12 27.27 (3.5-4.0 cm) (76.6) (131.5) Large 137.4 145.6 5-383 20 23.53 0-770 24 54.54 (4.5-5.0 cm) (105.1) (159.0) Total 85 44

*2,500 abalones per release 20 SEAFDEC/AQD Experience

Table 3. Post-release mortalities of abalone Haliotis asinina in Carbin Reef, Sagay Marine Reserve, Negros Occ., Philippines in June 2002, April 2003 and March 2004. June April March 2002* 2003** 2004* Size group Day Day Day (shell length) 1 2 3 Total 3 1 2 3 Total Extra small (1.5-2.0 cm) Whole shell 1 Broken shell 0 Small ( 2.5-3.0 cm) Whole shell 1 1 2 4 0 0 0 0 0 Broken shell 1 0 0 1 1 0 6 1 7 Medium (3.5-4.0 cm) Whole shell 2 2 2 6 6 0 0 2 2 Broken shell 2 0 1 3 0 0 1 5 6 Large (4.5-5.0 cm) Whole shell 2 2 4 8 14 0 0 5 5 Broken shell 3 0 2 5 0 0 2 2 4 Total 11 5 11 27 22 0 9 15 24

*Monitoring from Day 1 to Day 3 **Monitoring on Day 3 only

release using 3-cm SL juveniles and the 6.9% after 2 and 6 mo, respectively. These April 2003 and March 2004 (Table 3) releases figures are lower than the reported 16-21% using different sizes. recapture rate after 6 mo for Haliotis midae in South Africa (Sweijd et al 1998) but higher

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Recapture rates than the <1% recapture rate after 6 mo for H. rufescens in Northern California (Rogers- One month after release of the June 2002 Bennett and Pearse 1998). For the temperate batch, 77 juveniles (38 large, 25 medium, and H. discus hannai inin Japan,Japan, thethe recapturerecapture raterate isis 14 small) or 4.2% of total releases were seen 5-10% after 2-3 yr upon reaching marketable size within 5 m from the release point. The total (Masuda and Tsukamoto 1998). number could be higher with more intensive search, i.e., by turning over corals and rocks. Mud Crabs Subsequent monitoring of the June 2002 and October 2002 releases was limited to Mud crabs of the genus Scylla are highly 5 m from each side of the release point prized as food, and therefore subject to heavy to avoid destroying corals in the marine fishing pressure all over Asia and Australia. reserve. Recapture rates were 12.3% and One of the three principal strategies to replenish SEAFDEC/AQD Experience 21

Fig. 1. Release sites of tagged crabs for stock enhancement trials in the mangroves of Naisud and Bugtong Bato, Ibajay, Aklan, central Philippines.

depleted stocks and manage fishery yield left third walking leg or pereopod. Released is to increase recruitment through propa- crabs measured 30.0-79.9 mm CW, excluding gation and release, that is, through stock mature females. They were transported in enhancement (Blankenship and Leber 1995), native palm bags to the release site; travel time hence this study was conducted. was approximately one hour. First release was on 4 May 2004. Monitoring of tagged crabs Seed production started during the 18-21 June 2004 spring tide and every spring tide thereafter. Zoeae were reared in 1-ton and 10-ton tanks at 60-80/L and fed rotifers and Artemia Hatchery–produced S. serrata and S. tran- (Quinitio and Parado-Estepa 2003). Water quebarica were obtained from the Crustacean exchange was 30-50% depending on the Hatchery of SEAFDEC/AQD. Crabs were water quality. Megalopae were produced in 15-18 days and crab instar (C) in 21-23 days reared individually in perforated plastic con- after hatching. Megalopae or crab instar were tainers altogether placed in concrete tanks Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST further grown to ≥2 cm carapace width (CW) provided with filtered seawater. Juvenile crabs in 10-ton concrete tanks or in net cages installed were tagged for release at a minimum size in earthen brackishwater ponds. Crabs were fed of 30 mm CW. Crabs were measured, sorted fish and mollusks. The crabs were then released and grouped into size classes from 30.0 to directly in ponds for another 3-4 weeks or until 79.9 mm CW at 4.9 mm intervals and placed they reached the desired size of 3-6 cm CW for in containers; mature females were excluded. stock enhancement. Each crab was injected at the base of the third walking leg on the left side. Tagging was done Tagging and transport in the hatchery a day before release. Tagged crabs were placed in containers and trans- One day before release, crabs were tagged ported the following day to the release site, with a coded microwire tag at the base of the approximately 210 km from the hatchery. 22 SEAFDEC/AQD Experience

Table 4.Mud crabs Scylla olivacea, S. serrata chosen for this activity (Fig. 1). Release of and S. tranquebarica caught in Ibajay, crabs was done during the spring tide of each Akan, central Philippines in June 2004– month from May 2004 to April 2005, except April 2005. in October 2004. Three species of crabs were released – S. olivacea from the replanted No. crabs % crabs tagged mangroves of New Buswang, Kalibo Aklan; Month caught (cumulative rate) and S. serrata and S. tranquebarica from the Jun 2004 651 11.52 Crustacean Hatchery of SEAFDEC/AQD. Jul 2004 505 25.74 A total of 5,161 Scylla spp. have been Aug 2004 364 27.47 released, comprising 34.66% wild S. olivacea, Sep 2004 179 34.64 58.86% hatchery-reared S. serrata, and Oct 2004 252 21.83 6.47% hatchery-reared S. tranquebarica. Nov 2004 332 33.73 Of the 3,040 S. serrata, 60% were released Dec 2004 403 38.96 straight from the hatchery while 40% were Jan 2005 402 33.58 conditioned for at least one month prior to Feb 2005 599 32.89 stocking in nursery ponds of the Dumangas Mar 2005 576 47.92 Brackishwater Station of SEAFDEC/AQD. Apr 2005 427 59.25 Conditioning was done by stocking crabs in ponds allowing exposure to scavenging, Stock enhancement competition, predation and variations in environmental conditions. Stock enhancement trials were conducted in a natural mangrove stand in the villages Scylla spp. landings showed increasing of Bugtong Bato and Naisud in Ibajay, retrieval of tagged crabs from 11.5% in June Aklan province, Philippines. The study site is 2004 to 59.3 in April 2005 (Table 4). From home to 27 of the 34 species of mangroves June 2004 to April 2005, one third of total found in the Philippines (Agbayani et al catches were tagged crabs (1,552 of 4,690 total) 2000, Primavera et al 2004). Three release of which 52.1% were S. olivacea, 40.7% S. sites located at the end of each of the major serrata and 7.2% S. tranquebarica (Table 5). branches of the Naisud river system were Recapture rate of tagged crabs was highest for

Table 5.Mud crabs Scylla spp. released and recaptured in Ibajay, Aklan, central Philippines. No. of crabs tagged, No. (%) of tagged Recapture rate

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Species/source released (% of total) crabs recaptured (%)

Scylla olivacea/Wild 1,789 (34.66) 809 (52.12) 45.22

Scylla serrata/Hatchery 3,038 (58.86) 631 (40.66) 20.77

Scylla tranquebarica/Hatchery 334 (6.47) 112 (7.22) 33.53

Total 5,161 (100.00) 1,552 (100.00)

Tags have been read but not yet analyzed as to batch released. SEAFDEC/AQD Experience 23

S. olivacea (45.2%), followed by S. tranquebarica and S. tranquebarica (1.1 mm/d) and Walton (33.5%) and lowest for S. serrata (20.8%). Pre- et al (2006) for wild S. paramamosain (0.67 conditioned S. serrata had higher recapture mm/d). rates (mean=37.1%) compared to non-conditioned crabs (mean=10.2%). Conditioning Seahorses hatchery-reared crabs has been shown to improve survival in the wild. Hatchery-reared, Fisheries conditioned crabs had higher recovery and Seahorses are one of the most heavily growth rates compared to hatchery-reared, exploited groups in the Philippines. The non-conditioned ones, and even compar- seahorse fishery (primarily Hippocampus able to wild-released crabs in the case of comes) in northwestern Bohol has declined S. olivacea. Crabs conditioned in the pond had to 70% since 1985 (A. Vincent, unpub. data been exposed to competition, cannibalism, as cited by Perante et al 2002, Vincent and temperature and salinity fluctuations, and Koldeway, this volume). Other existing had experienced foraging for food. There is seahorse fishery grounds in Palawan, Panay evidence that performance and survival of and parts of Mindanao remain unassessed. hatchery-reared animals can be improved to the same level as their wild counterparts by Seahorses are caught using small nets conditioning steps in the hatchery prior to or collected as by-catch in trawls and seine release in natural habitats (Davis et al 2005). nets. They are traded in dried form for Conditioning has likewise proven to be traditional Chinese medicine, tonic food effective in increasing fitness of hatchery- and curiosities; and as live animals for the reared Homarus gammarus (Wickens 1986, ornamental fish industry (Lourie et al 1999). van der Meeren 2001) and Callinectes sapi- Seahorses are exported to North America, dus (Davis et al 2005). The results of this Europe and Japan (Vincent 1996). Due to study show the importance of conditioning increased fishing effort, fishers claim that in improving success and efficiency of stock seahorse catches have declined significantly enhancement by compensating for deficien- since 1985 (Vincent 1996). Many species of cies in hatchery-reared organisms. seahorses are listed as Vulnerable in the 2000 Red List of Threatened Species of the World Growth was also compared between Conservation Union (Hilton-Taylor 2000), species and between sources of juveniles to and all species of genus Hippocampus are identify suitable species for a given area and listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of suitable source of stock for future resource Wild Fauna and Flora in 2002. management and stock enhancement programs. Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Regardless of source, S. olivacea showed Resource management the fastest growth rate and S. serrata the slowest; S. tranquebarica had an interme- Established in 1996, Project Seahorse is diate rate. The observed growth rates of an integrated program of conservation and wild-released S. olivacea are comparable to management initiatives. It includes commu- those for the same species cultured in ponds nity-based conservation in fishing villages, (0.12-0.25 mm/d) (Fortes 1999). How- e.g., establishment of no-take marine sanc- ever, growth rates obtained for all species tuaries, fisheries modification and management, regardless of source were lower compared enforcement of legislation, education programs to the growth rates obtained by Triño et al and development of alternative livelihoods for (1999) for pond culture of mixed S. serrata seahorse fishers (Lourie et al 1999). 24 SEAFDEC/AQD Experience

Breeding and seed production ppt) to salinities ranging from freshwater to 85 ppt were able to survive at 15 ppt for The SEAFDEC/AQD initiated seahorse at least 18 days without affecting growth breeding and seed production studies in and survival (Hilomen-Garcia et al 2003). 1995. By 2000, the F3 and F2 generation had Mortality occurred within 4-24 h in sea- been attained for H. barbouri and H. kuda, horses abruptly transferred to freshwater, respectively. while survival of 5 ppt-reared seahorses decreased to about 65% in 18 days; and Mating pairs of H. kuda continually the upper limit of salinity tolerance was 50 reproduced throughout the year, but parturition frequency appeared to peak during ppt. The best stocking density for newly February to April when seawater temperature born H. kuda in tanks was noted to be ≥5 and photoperiod started to increase, and seahorse/L and one seahorse/L on day 20 decreased during low seawater temperature (SEAFDEC/AQD 1999). and short photoperiod in November to Nursery and grow-out January. H. kuda produced broods of up to 1,751 juveniles and a parturition interval To continue the existing hatchery proto- of 12 d (Hilomen-Garcia and Garcia 2004). cols for mass production of H. kuda for trade Survival rate of a brood could reach 99% in and possible stock enhancement, H. kuda 10 days, demonstrating a high potential for juveniles were reared in illuminated marine seed production. Mating pairs of H. kuda cages (Garcia and Hilomen-Garcia unpub. and H. barbouri offered either DHA Selco- manuscript). One group each of juvenile enriched Artemia adults, mysids, or their seahorses was fed Acetes in lighted and combination had comparable frequency unlighted marine cages while a third group of parturition and produced similar brood in lighted cages was not fed. After 10-12 size and stretched height of newly born weeks, mean body weight and stretch height juveniles. Likewise, survival rates on day 10 increased in all treatment groups, with were comparable (SEAFDEC/AQD 2000). juveniles fed Acetes in lighted cages showing Newly-born H. kuda offered a variety greater sizes than the two other treatment of food organisms preferred copepods groups. The results indicate that H. kuda (mostly Pseudodiaptomus annandalei and juveniles may be grown in lighted cages with Acartia tsuensis) to rotifers (BrachionusBrachionus Acetes to supplement the natural diet of zoo- rotundiformis)(Celino 2000). Size and amount plankton (attracted by light). of food ingested increased as seahorses grew. Increase in body weight was highest Conclusions (5% per day) and mortality rate lowest (9% Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST on day 10) in seahorses fed a combination The basic technology for seed produc- of copepods and rotifers. Seahorses fed tion of abalone, mud crab and seahorse rotifers alone had the slowest growth rate is already established at AQD. However, (0.3% per day) and highest mortality rate some techniques need further development. (60% on day 7). The results indicate that Survival rates of juveniles are low due to copepods are suitable food organisms for cannibalism and lack of suitable feeds for seahorse juveniles but availability of a diver- mud crab and seahorse, respectively. In sity of food organisms in the tank improves addition, more intensive studies on release survival and growth of H. kuda in captivity. strategies such as tagging and monitoring are needed. Social preparation of local Nine week-old hatchery-reared H. kuda communities that are the actual managers transferred from ambient seawater (32-33 in the release sites is also required. To SEAFDEC/AQD Experience 25

solve these problems, the SEAFDEC/AQD Gallardo WG, Bautista MN, Fermin AC is implementing the project on Stock and Marte CL. 2003. Shell marking Enhancement of Threatened Species funded by artificial feeding of the tropical by the Government of Japan. abalone, Haliotis asinina juveniles for sea ranching and stock enhancement. References Aquacult. Res. 34: 839-842 Gallardo WG, Garcia LMB, Hurtado AQ Agbayani RF, Baticados D, Garcia LMB, and Marte CL. 2004. Development of Hurtado AQ, Lebata JL, Marte CL, dela release strategies for stock enhance- Peña LC, Primavera JH and Primavera- ment of the tropical abalone Haliotis Tirol Y. 2000. An Assessment of the asinina: Optimum release size. Unpub. Coastal Resources of Ibajay and Tanga- manuscript lan, Aklan: Implications for Manage- Garcia LMB and Hilomen-Garcia GV. ment, 2nd ed. SEAFDEC Aquaculture Nursery and grow-out of the juvenile Department, Tigbauan, Iloilo seahorse Hippocampus kuda (Tolentei, Blankenship HL and Leber KM. 1995. A Syngnathidae) in illuminated sea cages. responsible approach to marine stock Unpub. manuscript enhancement. Am. Fish. Soc. Symp. 15: Hilomen-Garcia GV and Garcia LMB. 2004. 167-175 Saving a threatened fish: reproduc- Brown C and Day RL. 2002. The future of tion of the seahorse Hippocampus kuda stock enhancement: lessons for hatchery Bleeker 1852 (Teleost: Syngathidae) in practice from conservation biology. Fish the tropics. Unpub. manuscript and Fisheries 3: 79-94 Hilomen-Garcia GV, de los Reyes R and Buen SMA. 2005. Behavioral patterns of Garcia CMH. 2003. Tolerance of sea- hatchery-produced abalone Haliotis asinina horse Hippocampus kuda (Bleeker) for stock enhancement: predator avoid- juveniles to various salinities. J. Appl. ance and search for food and shelter. Ichthyol. 19: 94-98 Unpub. M.S. thesis, University of the Hilton-Taylor C. 2000. IUCN Red List Philippines in the Visayas. 77 p. of threatened species. IUCN, Gland, Celino FT. 2000. Food selection of Seahorse Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. 61 p. (HippocampusHippocampus kkudauda) juveniles in the labora- Lourie SA, Vincent ACJ and Hall HJ. 1999. tory. Undergraduate thesis research, Uni- Seahorses: an identification guide to the versity of the Philippines in the Visayas, world’s species and their conservation. Iloilo, Philippines. 49 p. Project Seahorse, London, U. K. 214 p. Davis JLD, Eckert-Mills MG, Young-Williams Masuda, R and Tsukamoto K. 1998. Stock

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST AC, Hines AH and Zohar Y. 2005. enhancement in Japan: review and perspec- Morphological conditioning of a hatchery- tive. Bull. Mar. Sci. 62 (2): 337-358 raised invertebrate, Callinectes sapidus, to McCormick TB, Herbinson K, Mill TS improve field survivorship after release. and Altick J. 1994. A review of abalone Aquaculture 243: 147-158 seeding, possible significance and a new Fortes RD. 1999. Preliminary results of the seeding device. Bull. Mar Sci. 55: 680-193 rearing of mud crab Scylla olivacea in NACA/FAO. 2000. Aquaculture Development brackishwater earthen ponds, pp. 72-75. Beyond 2000: the Bangkok Declaration In: Keenan CP, Blackshaw A (eds) Mud and Strategy, Conference on Aquaculture Crab Aquaculture and Biology. Australian in the Third Millennium, 20-25 February Centre for International Agriculture 2000, Bangkok. NACA, Bangkok and Research, Darwin, Australia FAO, Rome. 27 p. 26 SEAFDEC/AQD Experience

Perante NC, Pajaro MG, Meeuwig JJ and SEAFDEC/AQD. 2000. Highlights of AQD Vincent ACJ. 2002. Biology of a seahorse Activities. Southeast Asian Fisheries species Hippocampus comes in the central Development Center, Aquaculture De- Philippines. J. Fish Biol. 60: 821-837 partment, Iloilo, Philippines. 31 p. Primavera JH, Sadaba RB, Lebata MJHL Sweijd N, Snethlage Q, Harvey D and Cook and Altamirano JP. 2004. Handbook of P. 1998. Experimental abalone (Haliotis Mangroves in the Philippines – Panay. midae) seeding in South Africa. J. Shell- SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department, fish Res. 17: 897-904 Iloilo, Philippines. 106 p. Tegner MJ and Butler RA. 1985. The survival Quinitio ET and Parado-Estepa FD. 2003. and mortality of seeded and native red Biology and Hatchery of Mud Crabs abalones, Haliotis rufescens, on Palo Scylla spp. Southeast Asian Fisheries Verde Peninsula. Calif. Fish Game 71: Development Center, Aquaculture Depart- 150-163 ment, Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines. 42 p. Triño AT, Millamena OM. and Keenan C. Rogers-Bennett L and Pearse JS. 1998. 1999. Commercial evaluation of mono- Experimental seeding of hatchery-reared sex pond culture of the mud crab Scylla juvenile red abalone in Northern Cali- species at three stocking densities in the fornia. J. Shellfish Res. 17: 877-880 Philippines. Aquaculture 174: 109-118 van der Meeren GI. 2001. Effects of experience Schiel DR and Welden BC. 1987. Respons- with shelter in hatchery-reared juvenile es to predators of cultured and wild red European lobsters Homarus gammarus. abalone, Haliotis rufescens, in laboratory Mar. Freshwat. Res. 52: 1487-1493 experiments. Aquaculture 60: 173-188 Vincent ACJ. 1996. The international trade Shepherd SA and Breen PA. 1992. Mortality in in seahorses. TRAFFIC International, abalone: its estimation, variability and Cambridge, United Kingdom. 163 p. causes, pp. 276-304. In: Shepherd SA, Vincent ACJ and Koldewey HJ. 2006. An Tegner MJ and Guzman del Proo SA uncertain future for seahorse aqua- (eds) Abalone of the World: Biology, culture in conservation and economic Fisheries and Culture: Proceedings of contexts, this volume the First International Symposium on Walton ME, Le Vay L, Truong LM and Ut Abalone. Fishing New Books, Oxford, VN. 2006. Significance of mangrove- England mudflat boundaries as nursery grounds SEAFDEC/AQD. 1998. The Malalison Story. for the mud crab Scylla paramamosain. SEAFDEC Asian Aquaculture 20: 11-29 Mar. Bio. 149:1199-1207 SEAFDEC/AQD. 1999. Highlights of AQD Wickens JF. 1986. Stimulation of crusher claw Activities. Southeast Asian Fisheries development in cultured lobsters, Homarus

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Development Center, Aquaculture Depart- gammarus. Aquacult. Fish. Mngt. 17: ment, Iloilo, Philippines. 31 p. 267-273 Biology and Status of Aquaculture for Giant Clams (Tridacnidae) in the Ryukyu Islands, Southern Japan

Kenji Iwai1, Katsuhiro Kiso2 and Hirofumi Kubo1 1Yaeyama Branch, Okinawa Prefectural Fisheries Experimental Station Okinawa, Japan 2Ishigaki TropicalTropical Station, Seikai National FFisheriesisheries RResearchesearch Institute Fisheries Research Agency, Japan

Introduction catches of Tridacna crocea in Okinawa have decreased drastically during the last 30 The Ryukyu Islands consist of many years and currently are less than one tenth islands located between Kyushu in mainland of previous catches (Fig. 2). Fishing can Japan and Taiwan. The islands in the south- easily deplete stocks of giant clams because western area of the Ryukyu Islands belong the clams inhabit shallow waters and take at to the Okinawa Prefecture (Fig. 1). The least three years to attain sexual maturity. Ryukyu Islands are strongly affected by the Kuroshio Current and are renowned for Techniques for the mass seed production their coral reefs with high diversity of tropi- and aquaculture of three species (T. crocea, cal and subtropical species. T. squamosa, and T. derasa) were established in Okinawa. Four hundred thousand seeds Giant clams traditionally have been of giant clams of 8 mm shell length (SL) are utilized as fisheries resources for a long time supplied to fishermen for use in aquaculture in this area. According to fisheries statistics, or stock enhancement every year. Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST

Fig. 1. Map showing location of the Ryukyu Islands in southern Japan. 28 Giant Clams in Ryukyu Islands, Japan

Fig. 2. Annual catches (tons) of Tridacna crocea in Okinawa, Japan.

This paper will review the (1) biology of Giant clam species in the Ryukyu giant clams, (2) present status of aquaculture Islands and morphological of giant clams in Okinawa, and (3) other characters studies on giant clams in southern Japan. In the Ryukyu Islands, six species of Biology of Giant Clams giant clams have been recorded including five extant species, T. crocea, T. squamosa, Classification of giant clams T. derasa, T. maxima, H. hippopus (Fig. 3) and T. gigas, although the latter species has Classification of giant clams is shown as rarely been found in this area recently. follows: Phylum: Mollusca Murakoshi (1988) described the morpho- Class: Bivalvia logical characters of the five extant species Order: Veneroidea as follows: Superfamily: Cardioidea Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Family: Tridacnidae (Giant clams) T. crocea is the smallest of the five Genera: Tridacna and Hippopus species and grows to 15 cm SL. There are short scutes on the radial ribs and Giant clams are distributed on coral reefs unequal anterior and posterior sides of the and areas adjacent to reefs in the Western shell margin. This species shows marked Pacific and Indian Ocean. Nine species of variations in mantle colors. It has the best giant clams belonging to two genera in the taste among the five species and it is the family Tridacnidae are currently known to most important species of giant clam as a science (Knop 1996). Three species (T. tevoroa, fisheries resource in the Ryukyu area. T. rosewateri, and Hippopus porcellanus) have been discovered in the 1980s and 1990s, but T. squamosa reaches about 40 cm SL. the areas where they are distributed are limited. The anterior and posterior sides of the Giant Clams in Ryukyu Islands, Japan 29

Fig. 3. The extant species of giant clams in the RyukyuRyukyu Islands, Japan.

lower shell margin are almost equal and The byssus disappears as the clam grows large regular scutes exist on the radial ribs. to a large size.

T. derasa is the largest of the five T. maxima reaches 30-35 cm SL. Shell species and grows to 50-60 cm SL. The morphology of this species is similar to T. crocea. anterior and posterior parts of the lower However, it is possible to distinguish between shell margin are unequal. There are no the two species by the size of the adductor scutes and the shell surface is smooth. muscle impression. Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST

Fig. 4. Schematic illustration of major habitats of giant clams (Tridacna crocea, T. squamosa, T. derasa, T. maxima, Hippopus hippopus) in the Ryukyu Islands, Japan. 30 Giant Clams in Ryukyu Islands, Japan

Fig. 5. Schematic illustration of the relationship between giant clams and zooxanthellae. H. hippopus grows to 30-40 cm SL. The symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae. valves are diamond-shaped in adults and are Zooxanthellae (SymbiodiniumSymbiodinium spp., Dinophyta) quite different from those of other species. are 7-10 µm in diameter. The clam utilizes Their byssus orifices are nearly closed. the photosynthetic products formed by the algae and consumes any excess algae in the Habitats of giant clams in the Ryukyu mantle tissue directly (Fig. 5). Because the Islands symbiotic alga is not transmitted through their Habitats of giant clams in the Ryukyu eggs, the symbiotic relationship is established Islands are illustrated in Fig. 4. T. crocea bore during larval development. Giant clams die if into limestone substrates near the shore, the symbiotic relationship with the zooxan- on reef flats or dead parts of massive coral thellae is not established. colonies, and most of the valves are hidden Metamorphism occurs in the young stage in the hollows. T. squamosa are found among so the symbiotic algae can obtain sunlight branches of coral colonies in lagoons. T. derasa inhabit lagoons but this species is very rare efficiently (Knop 1996). The larvae of giant clams do not differ markedly from other

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST in the Ryukyu Islands as this area is the northern limit of its distribution. T. maxima bivalves before metamorphosis. The shells are bury part of their shells in substrates at the connected on their upper side by a ligament. outer reef edges where waves are rough and The respiratory siphons stick out from one currents are strong. H. hippopus are generally side of the shell. The gills are located in the found on sand or algal beds in lagoons. central part of the larva. The larvae have two adductor muscles – anterior and posterior. Biological characteristics After metamorphosis, the ligamentous joints move to the lower side and thus open upwards. Giant clams show the following biological The two siphons become separate and increase characteristics during their life cycle. in length. The gills move to the upper side. The The most distinctive character of giant posterior adductor muscle moves to the center clams compared with other mollusks is the and the other one shrinks. Giant Clams in Ryukyu Islands, Japan 31

develop as the clams grow. T. squamosa up to 15 cm SL are all males with testes, while ovaries are found in shells over 17 cm SL (Leonid 1991). Life cycle

The life cycle of giant clams is reported by Murakoshi (1988), Lucas (1988), Knop (1996), and Heslinga et al (1990).

As reported by Murakoshi (1988), the life cycle of T. crocea is shown in Fig. 7. Twenty hours after fertilization, eggs of T. crocea develop to D-shaped larvae of 0.14 mm SL. After a week of planktonic life, the larvae become pediveligers (0.19 mm SL) with both velum and foot, and gradually become benthic. After one more week, the velum Fig. 6. Photomicrographs of histo- gradually degenerates and the pediveligers logical sections of gonads in T. develop into larval clams of 0.20-0.24 mm crocea (adapted from Murakoshi SL which begin to acquire symbiotic algae. 1988): 1) Male-phase, 5 cm SL - The zooxanthellae which are ingested testes are observed; 2) Hermaph- from seawater by the pediveligers move rodite condition, 8 cm SL - ova out through the wall of the gut, and the and testes are observed. algae multiply. A row of algae reaching the ventral margin can be recognized as the Giant clams are protandric hermaphrodites establishment of symbiosis between larval (Wada 1952). T. crocea up to 5 cm SL are all clam and algae (Fig. 8). males with testes. In clams over 5.5 cm SL, the testes are filled with sperm and ovaries Larval clams (0.25-0.50 mm SL) have are scattered among them (Fig. 6), the latter conspicuous umbones and clear growth Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST

Fig. 7. Schematic illustration of the life cycle of TridacnaTridacna croceacrocea (from Murakoshi 1988). 32 Giant Clams in Ryukyu Islands, Japan

used to stimulate spawning in T. squamosa and T. derasa. A light shielding net is used to cover the tank until spawning induction is performed on a sunny day.

In Okinawa, the spawning season falls in March-August for T. squamosa, March– May for T. derasa, and April-September for T. crocea. It is possible to check gonad development in T. crocea through the byssus orifice on the underside of the shell in order to select mature individuals.

Spawning usually releases sperm first, Fig. 8. Photomicrograph of larval clam of followed by eggs. The eggs are very small, Tridacna crocea (0.2 mm SL) when the about 90 µm in diameter. The range in symbiotic relationship is first established. number of spawned eggs is 5-20 million for T. crocea, and 10-100 million for T. squamosa and T. derasa. When the clams begin to spawn, lines on the shell. As the hinge area of the they are immediately moved to another tank shell becomes large at 0.60-1.00 mm SL, (500-l polycarbonate container) to avoid the remarkably long siphons develop. The radial effects of polyspermy. Spawning continues ribs develop strongly and scutes appear on intermittently for 20-40 min. About 300 ml the shells as they grow thicker and become water with sperm is poured into the tank to opaque. The mantle lobe is extended and fertilize the eggs. Fertilized eggs are stocked the orifice of the byssus opens. The juvenile in the tank at a density of 6 eggs/ml. Strong clams attach to substrates more firmly by aeration is necessary so the eggs do not settle the byssus. The shape of valves gradually on the tank bottom. changes from almost triangular at 2-3 mm SL juveniles to the adult shape in 6-7 mm Seed production SL juveniles. In about 3 years, they grow to 5.5 cm SL and start to reproduce. Seed production procedures are outlined in Fig. 9. The day after fertilization, D-shaped Status of Giant Clam Aquaculture larvae are transferred to another tank at a in Okinawa density of 0.3 larvae/ml. The indoor tanks are 10 tons (2 × 5 × 1 m) and 5 tons (1.2 × 4.0 × Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Induction of spawning and egg 1.0 m) in capacity. Moderate aeration is main- collection tained to ensure water circulation in the tank (Fig. 10). It is necessary to provide zooxan- The water temperature around Ishigaki thellae for the larvae, because the algae are Island shows seasonal variation ranging not incorporated in the eggs of giant clams. from 20 to 30oC (Fig. 9). Mature clams Some of the ingested algae are digested in the appear from March to August and are gut of larval clams. The algae are provided to brought from the sea to laboratory tanks the larvae from Day-3 (3 days after hatching) where spawning is induced by artificial at a density of 30-100 cells/ml. stimuli. One of the most effective methods is pouring gonad tissue dilution into the tank. There are two methods of obtaining Rapid changes of sunlight intensity are also zooxanthellae for use in larval culture. One Giant Clams in Ryukyu Islands, Japan 33 Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Fig. 9. Procedure for seed production of giant clams at Yaeyama Branch, Okinawa Prefectural Fisheries Experimental Station, Japan. Station, Experimental Fisheries Prefectural Okinawa Branch, Yaeyama at clams giant of production seed for Procedure 9. Fig. 34 Giant Clams in Ryukyu Islands, Japan

Fig.Fig. 110.0. DesignDesign ooff thethe 10-ton10-ton (2(2 × 5 × 1 m)m) andand 5-ton5-ton tankstanks (1.2(1.2 × 4.04.0 × 1.01.0 m)m) showing water current direction to prevent dead spots in the tank.

is to take tissue directly from the mantle of they should be re-introduced. One half of live clams, mash it and separate the algae the culture water is replaced at 2-3-day inter- from tissue debris. Another method is to vals. Many larvae settle and metamorphose use cultivated algae maintained in artificial from Day-7 and it is necessary to reduce medium without aeration under white fluo- aeration. Larval clams establish symbiotic rescent light (about 60 µmol/m2/s) with a 12: relationship with algae between Day-10 and 12-h light-dark cycle at 28oC. Day-20. It is possible to rear with no feeding once the symbiotic relationship is established. After the zooxanthellae are provided, Many larvae die during this period. Average larvae should be observed every day. If no survival rate is 5% from D-shaped larvae to algae are visible in the gut of larval clams, larvae with symbiotic relationship. Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST

Fig. 11. Vertical section of the tank showing drainage of water from tank to prevent dead spots the bottom. The tank size is similar to that of Fig. 10. Giant Clams in Ryukyu Islands, Japan 35

Fig. 12. Design of sweeping dead shells by pouring water in tank.

Flowthrough seawater (100-200% daily) herbivorous gastropods (BatillariaBatillaria spp.) are is used as culture water and is kept at a reared with the clams. Small trochus (Trochus shallow level (20-50 cm depth) after the niloticus) are used as cleaning guests after establishment of symbiosis. Aeration is not the clams reach 3 mm SL because they are used, to minimize the growth of weed in easier to rear than Batillaria spp. The feces the tank. The bottom of the tank is drained of trochoids should be swept away routinely. using a large pipe sleeve with water inlets Juveniles should be moved to a new tank at cut in its bottom then set over the drainage least every four weeks and the density main- pipe (Fig. 11). tained at a suitable level. This way, it takes about six months to a year for larval clams Growth of the larvae becomes stable to grow to a size that can be used for aqua- with multiplication of the zooxanthellae in culture (i.e., 8 mm SL). Average survival their mantle. Because the shells of larval rate is 0.3% from larvae to the utility size of clams are translucent, it is necessary to keep 8 mm SL in Okinawa. light intensity in the tank below 500 µmol/ m2/s by light shielding. The larvae grow to Aquaculture juveniles of 1 mm SL 2-3 months after fertilization. The light shielding should be gradu- Trochus crocea is generally cultured ally removed before the clams grow bigger by planting the seeds in pits prepared than 1 mm SL. Suitable clam density at this by drilling in limestone substrates. The 2 following three points are important for

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST stage is 10,000 ind/m . good aquaculture: a) site selection areas If dead shells are found in large num- with a cover of sand or seaweed are not bers at this period, they should be removed suitable; b) vertical boring into the sub- to avoid mass mortality. Dead shells can be strate to minimize the ability of seeds to swept by pouring seawater slowly over the move away from the pits; and c) protec- bottom of the tank. After Day-50, live clams tion from predators by covering planted attach to the tank by means of their byssus sites with nets to effectively protect clams (Fig. 13). against fishes or crabs, the major cause of mortality. Juvenile clams bigger than 1 mm SL can be reared in direct sunlight in outdoor tanks. Trochus squamosa and T. derasa are To clean weeds in the nursery tank, small cultured in cages fixed on the sea bottom. 36 Giant Clams in Ryukyu Islands, Japan

The following points are important for The market sizes in Okinawa are approxi- good culture: a) selection of suitable site in mately 10-15 cm SL for T. squamosa and shallow sea (2-5 m depth) and fixing the T. derasa, and 5-8 cm SL for T. crocea. cage securely to prevent turning over during Growth of the three species is shown in typhoons (Fig. 13-1); b) planting of bottom Fig. 14. At least two years are required to structure (e.g., coarse plastic mesh: Tamaki grow giant clams to market size. It is easy 2000) to prevent seed aggregation or clump- to rear giant clams because culture man- ing together that causes low survival; and c) agement does not require too much time maintenance of suitable culture conditions by as it needs only monthly or occasional cleaning the cage to secure sunlight and water monitoring. Survival rate is 40-50 % from supply (Fig. 13-2). The density of seeds in the utility seed size (8 mm SL) to market size. cage should be maintained at 1000 ind/m2 for The utility size is based on the results of 8 mm SL, and 300 ind/m2 for 10 cm SL. field tests (Tamaki 2000). Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST

Fig. 13. Cage culture of giant clams in Okinawa, Japan: 1) set cages underwater, and 2) cleaning a cage. Giant Clams in Ryukyu Islands, Japan 37 Shell length (cm) Shell

Age Fig. 14. Growth of three species of giant clams under culture conditions in Ishigaki Island, southern Japan.

Today, there is high demand in Okinawa harvest of certain organisms is prohibited for giant clams. Both the soft parts and the throughout the year; 2) seed production shells are utilized – the mantle and adduc- of T. maxima because the species is easy to tor muscles are mainly eaten raw while the rear in the winter season; and 3) artificial shells are used for ornaments. spawning for seed production in the winter season for seed distribution in summer when Other Studies on Giant Clams in they are in high demand by fishermen. Southern Japan The following two studies are planned at Heterozygosity of allozyme loci and the Ishigaki Tropical Station, Seikai National usefulness as artificial seeds of giant clams Fisheries Research Institute, Fisheries Research have been studied by Kobayashi (2003). Agency, Japan: 1) population genetic structure The proportion of soft part weight (SW) of clams in the islands in southern Japan to per whole body weight (BW) giant clam avoid genetic disturbance; and 2) factors in was positively correlated with the number the establishment of symbiotic relationship of heterozygotic loci. More heterozygous

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST for efficient seed production of giant clams. individuals also achieved a higher proportion of SW/BW (%). For seed produc- The fishery regulation for stock manage- tion, it is therefore necessary to prepare a ment of giant clams in Okinawa bans large number of mature clams to allow the harvesting of all species from June to August. production of heterozygous progenies. Harvesting of T. crocea under 8 cm SL, T. squamosa under 20 cm SL, T. derasa under In the Yaeyama Branch of the Okinawa 30 cm SL, and H. hippopus under 15 cm SL Prefectural Fisheries Experimental Station, is prohibited throughout the year. However, the following three studies are ongoing: 1) there is minimal enforcement of the rules practical effectiveness of resource manage- by fishermen and locals. For sustainable ment for giant clams verified in a marine utilization of giant clam resources, it is very protected area (MPA) in Okinawa where important that the value of management 38 Giant Clams in Ryukyu Islands, Japan

and maintenance of fishing grounds is un- in subtropical mollusks), pp. 249-253. In: derstood and recognized by fishermen and Suisanseibutsu-ikushuno kohritsuka- locals. kisogijutsuno kaihatsu (Suisanseibutsu- Acknowledgments ikushu): National Research Institute of Aquaculture, Fisheries Research Agency, We thank the late Dr. Masayoshi Murakoshi Japan, Nansei-cho, Japan for making available part of an oral presen- Leonid VD. 1991. Sexual structure of a tation to the Japanese Coral Reef Society Tridacna squamosa population: relative (co-authored with K. Iwai), Ms. Yukako advantages of sequential and simulta- Asaka for assistance in the arrangement neous hermaphroditism. Malacol. Soc. of figures, and Midori Shobo Co. Ltd. for London 58: 21-27 permission to cite the figures in this paper. Lucas JS. 1988. Giant Clams–Description, Distribution and Life History, pp. 21- References 32. In: Copland JW and Lucas JS (eds) Giant Clams in Asia and Pacific. Austra- Heslinga G, Watson T and Isamu T. 1990. lian Centre for International Agricultural The Giant Clam Life Cycle, pp. 11- Research Monograph No. 9, Canberra 13. In: Giant Clam Farming: Pacific Murakoshi M. 1991. Boring Clam, pp. 257- Fisheries Development Foundation 272. In: Shokita S (ed) Aquaculture in (NMFS/NOAA), Honolulu, Hawaii Tropical Areas: Midori Shobo, Tokyo Knop D. 1996. Reproduction, pp. 45-53. Tamaki S. 2000. Hirenasijakotigai no yousy- In: Giant Clams (A Comprehensive okusiken, pp. 181-183. In: Annual Guide to the Identification and Care Report of Okinawa Prefectural Fisher- of Tridacnid Clams): Dähne Verlag, ies Experimental Station: Kinjo Insatu, Ettlingen Okinawa, Japan Kobayashi M. 2003. Anettaisei-kairuino Wada SK. 1952. Protandric functional her- yuyohkeishitsuno tansaku oyobi hyohka maphroditism in the Tridacnid clams. (Commercially important characteristics Oceanogr. Mag. Tokyo 4: 23-30 Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Coral Culture and Transplantation and Restocking of Giant Clams in the Philippines

Edgardo D. Gomez, Patrick C. Cabaitan and Kareen C. Vicentuan The Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines

Introduction German Ministry of Environment facili- tated by the Tropical Ecology Program of the Philippine reefs are among the richest German Technical Cooperation (Heeger and and most diverse in the world with more Sotto 2000). The objectives of the coral farm than 400 species of scleractinian corals iden- were to serve as a nursery for coral fragments, tified (Veron 1995). In the 1970s, Philippine maintain biodiversity, and generate income for reefs started to be degraded and continued fisherfolk by marketing the farm-grown coral to decline mostly as a result of increasing fragments for rehabilitation and ecotourism. demands placed on them by humans, and The Caw-oy coral farm was two hectares in their misuse. Only about 5% of Philippine size with about 275 coral nursery units built by reefs have excellent cover (Gomez et al members of the Caw-oy Fisherfolk’s Organi- 1994, Wilkinson 2004). zation, containing about 22,000 coral fragments. Unfortunately, legal and sociological The alarming degradation of coral reefs constraints put an end to this effort. in many parts of the world has resulted in growing attention to coral reef rehabilita- Recently, the Pew Project (2001 to 2005) of tion using transplanted corals and other the senior author entitled “Coral reef habitat invertebrates (Edwards and Clark 1998, and productivity enhancement through coral Rinkevich 2005). The idea of planting corals transplantation and giant clam restocking” and restoring reefs goes back at least 30 was implemented with the aim to improve the years. Initial activities in the Philippines were biodiversity and productivity of stressed coral accomplished through the collaborative efforts reef habitats in 10 selected demonstration between the then UP Marine Sciences Center sites in the Philippines. These were meant and Silliman University (Alcala et al 1982). to serve as models for other communities. It was also around this time that other coun- Transplantation of corals and reseeding of giant tries, like the United States of America in clams were the approaches. Nubbins or small Hawaii (Maragos 1974) and Australia in fragments from nearby large coral colonies and Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST the Great Barrier Reef (Harriot and Fisk abundant solitary forms were transplanted to 1988) started their rehabilitation efforts. So the target sites. Care was exercised to avoid the Philippines is among the countries that or reduce any negative impacts on the natural pioneered in reef rehabilitation work. source communities. Only cultured giant clams were used, specifically the threatened Another local coral transplantation effort Tridacna gigas at sizes that would ensure their was the Coral Farm Project (CFP) in Caw-oy, chances of survival in the wild (approximately Cebu (1997 to 2000). It was initiated and 20-30 cm shell length). Following deployment, supervised by the Marine Biology Section of monitoring activities were undertaken, focusing the University of San Carlos in Cebu City and on macro-invertebrates and fish, as well as funded by the Commission on Higher Educa- the assessment of the survival and growth tion – Center of Development Fund and the of experimental animals. Liaison work was 40 Coral Culture and Transplantation, Philippines

Fig. 1. Acropora spp. transplants cemented on dead table Acropora at Masinloc, Zambales (Dec. 2002 transplants).

done with local communities to raise their Approaches to Transplanting environmental awareness and to ensure their Corals cooperation. This manuscript draws principally from results of the Pew Project. Direct transplantation on natural substrates At present, two other restoration projects supported by the European Union and Cementing on dead reefal substrate Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST the Global Environment Facility Coral Reef Targeted Research Project are being imple- Cementing was the major method used mented at the Bolinao Marine Laboratory in the Pew Project. This technique allows of the University of the Philippines–Marine immediate firm attachment of corals on the Science Institute (UP-MSI) in Pangasinan. natural substrate (Fig. 1). In collecting corals, These projects are testing the efficiency of natural broken fragments were picked up floating and standing coral nurseries in grow- first before nubbins or small fragments were ing coral nubbins in addition to transplanting taken from locally occurring abundant, fragments or branches of corals to restore large coral colonies. Care was exercised degraded coral reefs. to avoid or reduce any negative impacts on the natural communities by limiting harvest to only about 10% of the donor colony. Coral Culture and Transplantation, Philippines 41

Months after the fragmentation, the source tion underwater. Prior to application to the colonies were showing signs of recovery substrate, a small hole is torn off one corner with new polyps forming and broken parts of the bag just large enough to squeeze out the growing back (Fig. 2). To further check for cement (like toothpaste). Depressions on collateral damage, the reproductive status bare, hard substrates with no living organisms of source colonies should also be monitored is selected. (Epstein et al 2001). When a mound of cement is in place, For cement preparation, a 1:3 ratio of the coral branch or fragment can then be cement to sand is usually mixed on shore. embedded in the cement mound, and the Then the final mixing with fresh water is cement molded gently around the coral conveniently done on the boat while on site. base to form a good bond. The actual size After adding enough fresh water to make of the cement mound depends on the size a thick cement paste, the mixture is then of the coral fragment with larger fragments requiring bigger mounds for firmer attach- placed inside plastic bags. Each plastic bag ment, especially when using branching frag- should be tightly tied, leaving no air inside ments. and minimizing the entrance of seawater that may alter the semisolid property of the In transplanting corals, fragments should mixed cement during the actual transplanta- be positioned upright towards the sunlight, so Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST

Fig. 2. Source coral colony at Alabat, Quezon showing recovery after fragmentation. 42 Coral Culture and Transplantation, Philippines

that they will grow naturally. It may be useful in the Hundred Islands National Park in to brace the coral base by embedding some Pangasinan province had been colonized by rocks or small pieces of rubble around the corals. The clams also offer a natural substrate base. The cement base of the planted coral for other invertebrates, in addition to corals will become stable in about one hour after and marine plants which subsequently attract being placed underwater and will fully harden grazers. Clams provide relief and structure, within 1-2 days. where fish and other invertebrates can take refuge and plants can grow. The most The highest survival of coral transplants important reason for the use of clams in reef of about 84% was achieved in the site of rehabilitation is to reestablish their breeding Alcoy, Cebu, while the Camotes Is., Cebu populations in strategic sites and eventually site 1 obtained the lowest survival of 8% allow natural recruitment of juveniles to the (Fig. 3). Mortality of coral fragments could reefs. be attributed to various causes such as predation by the crown-of-thorns starfish Transplantation on artificial Acanthaster planci, burying of corals by sand, substrates and dislodgment of transplants after a typhoon. Tying to terracotta tiles and marble chips Tying to dead standing corals If suitable natural surfaces are limited, Coral transplants may be tied directly to coral transplantation may be done on dead standing corals with the use of insu- artificial substrates. One approach used in lated copper wire (solid, #22). Dead corals the project “Rehabilitation of the Hundred should be large enough to support the coral Islands National Park” was tying of coral fragment. This method reduces the distur- fragments to marble chip rejects with the bance brought about by sedimentation. use of insulated copper wire. The marble chips were then fastened onto the natural Relocation of solitary corals and substrate with concrete nails for permanent of sub-colonies of staghorn thickets attachment. In the Coral Farm Project, corals were tied to terracotta tiles for Some reefs have areas where large mono- restocking purposes (Heeger and Sotto specific thickets of corals are growing and 2000). Mortality among corals fastened to clusters of solitary corals (fungiids) are tiles often resulted from detachment or over- found. Relocation of some of these corals turning. on degraded reefs will minimize the spatial competition in the source areas. Thick Attachment to introduced boulders

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST branches of staghorn corals may be transplanted on sand where they are sometimes Coral fragments may be transplanted found naturally. On the other hand, the to introduced boulders in areas such as mushroom corals should preferably be relo- extensive sand patches where hard substrate cated on hard substrates. is limited. This approach was employed in Infanta, Quezon where some patch reefs Use of giant clams are buried by sand from river run-off. Deployed boulders can stabilize the substrate Using large tridacnid clams in the reef and can also provide substrate for other rehabilitation activities is a novel approach. fauna (Fox et al 2005). In Infanta, coral This idea was derived from the observa- transplants were arranged around each tion that some of the giant clams restocked boulder using nylon nets to hold them in Coral Culture and Transplantation, Philippines 43 Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST

Fig. 3. Representative sites of the Pew Project showing highest (Alcoy: 84%) and lowest (Camotes 1: 8%) survival of coral transplants obtained. (Legend: coral = plots with coral transplants only; corcl = plots with corals and clams). 44 Coral Culture and Transplantation, Philippines

place until they could attach to the boulders. coral nursery units where they were left Alternate means of attachment such as under- to regenerate and attach to the substrate. water epoxy might also be tried. The use of After three to four weeks, fragments were boulders can add relief and structure to the observed to have securely attached to the reef where marine organisms can attach or substrate. Monitoring and cleaning of sedi- take shelter. ment and algae from the coral nursery units were done regularly to obtain a higher survival Meshed grids for substrate stabilization rate of the transplants.

Another technique in substrate stabili- Another coral faming initiative at present zation is the use of meshed grids. Stabilizing is in Silaki Island, Bolinao, Pangasinan. Coral the substrate is a prerequisite to actual coral nubbins with a maximum size of 2 cm diameter recruitment because unstable substrates can or height were used. Nubbins were attached decrease the survival of both transplants and onto plastic meshed nets or plastic tubing, natural recruits. One collaborator in the Pew depending on the lifeforms, using cyano- Project (L. Raymundo) used meshed plastic acrylate adhesive. The method employed grids with cemented rock piles to stabilize is similar to that described by Shafir et al rubble substrates. Preliminary results showed (2006). The plastic meshed nets and plastic that the mesh remained fixed during stormy tubing with corals are then secured to the weather, though rock piles required addi- floating or standing coral nursery platforms. tional cementing. Coral transplants showed These field-reared coral nubbins will be 91% survival after one month. After 3 used to rehabilitate damaged reefs in the mo, obvious growth, natural attachment future. The nursery method also has great to the base and fusion between adjacent corals were observed. Coral recruits (1-2 cm potential for the culture of corals for the diameter) also appeared on rock piles 4 mo aquarium trade. In addition to the use of after placement. nubbins, future nurseries may also use coral planulae produced by spawning induction Coral farming or collected from the wild (Heyward et al 2002). The inherent pressure on the source colonies during collection and the need Restocking of Giant Clams for mass production of coral fragments for restoration create a need for coral farming. Giant clams (Family Tridacnidae) are The first significant coral farming effort in essential components of the coral reef the Philippines was the Coral Farm Project ecosystem and contribute to reef produc-

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST in Caw-oy, Cebu as earlier mentioned. Frag- tion. They are primary producers because ments were carefully chosen and cut from the of the presence of their algal symbionts, donor colonies using pliers (for branching supporting various marine organisms by types) or hammer and chisel (for encrusting serving as nursery grounds of numerous and massive types). The donor site was near invertebrates and fishes when present in the farm allowing the close monitoring of large numbers. Their calcified shells are the health and impact on donor colonies good substrata for sedentary organisms thus after fragment collection and minimizing contributing to reef diversity. Tridacnids stress on the coral fragments caused by are exploited for their meat and shells to long transport. The collected fragments various degrees in the Indo-Pacific region, were tied firmly to terracotta tiles with their distribution range. In the Philippines, galvanized iron wire, then transported to giant clam meat is utilized as food and is Coral Culture and Transplantation, Philippines 45 Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST

Fig. 4. Location map of the Pew Project demonstration sites for coral transplants, the Hundred Islands National Park, and sites of giant clam culture. 46 Coral Culture and Transplantation, Philippines

being sold in local markets. Overexploita- Between 1989 and 1994, the UP–MSI tion has resulted in the scarcity of most of the was able to collect adequate numbers of indigenous species. H. hippopus, T. squamosa, T. maxima and T. crocea for experiments on spawning. Of The remaining giant clam populations the rare species, three cohorts of T. derasa are threatened by commercial exploitation, seed were imported from Palau between poaching, illegal fishing practices that de- 1984 and 1985; and seven cohorts of cul- grade their habitats, bleaching, disease, and tured T. gigas were imported from the pollution (Mingoa-Licuanan and Gomez Solomon Islands (as pediveligers) and from 2002). Due to intense use of giant clams, Australia (as juveniles) and between 1987 harvesting natural clam stocks is no longer and 1995. sustainable. As a result, there is a need to culture these bivalves to supply clam seeds The UP–MSI has been able to culture for restocking purposes and to provide alter- the six species mentioned above. Lack of native source of clams for the demands of H. porcellanus broodstock did not allow commercial trade. It is important that the UP–MSI to culture this species successfully, remaining wild stocks should be allowed to though the technology is available. recover, either naturally or by restocking of When funding from ACIAR terminated cultured seed stocks. in 1992, MSI continued work on the culture Conservation efforts to restore giant of giant clams with support from the Inter- clam populations are being practiced in the national Development Research Centre Philippines by the UP-MSI. In the 1980s, (IDRC) of Canada. Its objectives were to mass the WorldFish Center (then ICLARM, the produce juveniles for restocking purposes International Center for Living Aquatic and to create livelihood programs through Resources Management) and the Austra- giant clam farming. With the success of giant lian Centre for International Agricultural clam rearing, UP-MSI started to restock in Research (ACIAR) organized a regional various parts of the country focusing on the collaborative research program whose key largest tridacnid, T. gigas. objectives were to establish tridacnid brood- In 2001, the program received significant stocks and develop mariculture technology. support through the Pew Marine Conserva- The ensuing six-year program involved Aus- tion Fellowship for the senior author. The tralia, several South Pacific island nations, project “Coral Reef Habitat and Productivity and the Philippines with the UP–MSI as one Enhancement” aimed to improve the biodiver- of two participating academic institutions in sity and productivity of degraded coral reef

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST the country. A publication from this program habitats in ten selected demonstration sites (Copland and Lucas 1988) provides an over- in the Philippines through coral transplanta- view of giant clam biology and culture. tion and giant clam reseeding, particularly the threatened T. gigas. A total of 1,125 sub-adult Obtaining broodstock was not easy clams were deployed in 11 demonstration because the three largest species, Tridacna sites (one site added to the 10 sites originally gigas, T. derasa and Hippopus porcellanus, proposed) and about 10,145 juvenile clams were uncommon. The small burrowing were transported to other sites for rearing species, T. maxima and T. crocea were still (Table 1 and Fig. 4). abundant while T. squamosa and H. hippopus, could be found in good numbers only in An earlier clam restocking project in the certain localities (Juinio et al 1989). Hundred Islands National Park funded and Coral Culture and Transplantation, Philippines 47

Table 1. Tridacna gigas and Hippopus hippopus clams distributed through the Pew Project, 2002-2004.

Demonstration sites Other sites Quantity Quantity (sub-adult clams) (juvenile clams) Northern Philippines Anda, Pangasinan 225 Masinloc, Zambales 225 Infanta, Quezon 75 Alabat, Quezon 75 Central Philippines Alcoy, Cebu 75 Tigbauan, Iloilo 500 Camotes, Cebu 150 Danjugan, Negros Occ. 500 Calape, Bohol 75 Dumaguete, Negros Or. 5000 Lawaan, Eastern Olango, Cebu 1250 Samar 75 Lawaan, Eastern Samar 2350 Southern Philippines Sinacaban, Misamis Occ. Samal Island, Davao 150 (sub-adults) 25 Samal Island, Davao 520 Total (all T. gigas) 1125 Total (all T. gigas + 40 H. hippopus) 10145 Approx. survival of Approx. survival of sub-adults 92% juveniles 15%

supported the Philippine Tourism Authority It is noteworthy that other countries, had for its main objective the establishment notably Indonesia, trade both wild collected of giant clam ocean nurseries as demon- and cultured corals, while other countries stration sites for clam conservation. At the such as the Solomon Islands and the Marshall end of that project in 2002, about 10,000 Islands trade cultured clams in the interna- giant clams of various sizes had been tional market. This simply means that the deployed in different sites in the park. See Philippines is missing an opportunity to Gomez and Licuanan (in press) for a full help coastal inhabitants develop an alterna- account of this effort. tive livelihood, unless the laws and regulations are modified. There is no valid reason

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Constraints for countries not to engage in appropriate coral and giant clam culture and trade. In the Philippines, it is unfortunate that present government policies do not allow There is a need to improve the techniques commercial production of corals and the export briefly described here. A few manuals already of both corals and giant clams for the aquarium exist for coral restoration (e.g., Omori and trade, even if they are cultured. This results Fujiwara 2004) which outline some of the from a misunderstanding of CITES regulations. culture approaches. Fortunately, there are Both scleractinian corals and giant clams are two ongoing initiatives on coral restora- listed in Appendix II of the Convention, which tion that are being funded by the Global means that their international trade should be Environment Facility and the European managed, but not prohibited. Union. In a few years, the state of the art in 48 Coral Culture and Transplantation, Philippines

coral culture and transplantation should be Harriott VJ and Fisk, DA. 1988. Coral trans- significantly improved. For giant clams, the plantation as a reef management option. culture techniques have been in existence Proc. Sixth Intl. Coral Reef Sym. 2: for the past two decades. 375-379 Heeger T and Sotto F (eds). 2000. Coral Acknowledgements Farming: A tool for reef rehabilitation and community ecotourism. German We wish to thank SEAFDEC/AQD for the Ministry of Environment (BMU)/German invitation to the senior author to participate Technical Cooperation and the Tropical in the workshop on stock enhancement. Ecology Program (GTZ-TOB), Frankfurt. Much of this work is derived from the 94 p. project, “Coral reef habitat and productivity Heyward AJ, Smith LD, Rees M and Field enhancement through coral transplanta- SN. 2002. Enhancement of coral recruit- tion and giant clam restocking”, of the senior ment by in situ mass culture of coral larvae. author, a Pew Fellow in Marine Conservation. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 230: 113-118 This paper is UP–MSI Contribution No. 348. Juinio MAR, Meñez LAB, Villanoy CL and References Gomez ED. 1989. Status of giant clam resources in the Philippines. J. Mollusc. Alcala AC, Gomez ED and Alcala LC. 1982. Studies 55: 431-440 Survival and growth of coral transplants Maragos JE. 1974. Coral transplantation: in Central Philippines. Kalikasan, Philipp. a method to create, preserve, and manage J. Biol. 11(1): 136-147 coral reefs. University of Hawaii Sea Grant Copland JW and Lucas JS. 1988. Giant clams Program, AR-74-03, Honolulu. 29 p. in Asia and the Pacific. ACIAR Mono- Mingoa-Licuanan S and Gomez ED. 2002. graph No. 9, Canberra. 274 p. Giant clam conservation in Southeast Edwards AJ and Clark S. 1998. Coral trans- Asia. Tropic. Coasts 9(2): 24-31 plantation: a useful management tool Omori M and Fujiwara S. 2004. Manual for or misguided meddling? Mar. Poll. Bull. restoration and remediation of coral reefs. 37: 8-12 Nature Conservation Bureau, Ministry of Epstein N, Bak RPM and Rinkevich B. 2001. the Environment, Japan. 84 p. Strategies for gardening denuded coral Rinkevich B. 2005. Conservation of coral reef areas: the applicability of using reefs through active restoration measures: different types of coral material for reef recent approaches and last decade restoration. Restor. Ecol. 4:432-442 progress. Environ. Sci. Tech. 39: 4333- Fox HE, Mous PJ, Pet JS, Muljadi AH 4342

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST and Caldwell RL. 2005. Experimental Shafir S, Rijn JV and Rinkevich B. 2006. assessment of coral reef rehabilitation Steps in the construction of underwater following blast fishing. Conserv. Biol. coral nursery, an essential component in 19(1): 98-107 reef restoration acts. Mar. Biol. 149: 679- Gomez ED and Mingoa-Licuanan SS. 2006. 687 Achievements and lessons learned in re- Veron JEN. 1995. Corals in space and stocking giant clams in the Philippines. time: biogeography and evolution of Fish. Res. 80: 46-52 the Scleractinia. UNSW Press, Sydney. Gomez ED, Aliño PM, Yap HT and Licuanan 321 p. WY. 1994. A review of the status of the Wilkinson C. 2004. Status of coral reefs of Philippine reefs. Mar. Poll. Bull. 29 (1- the world: 2004. Australian Institute of 3): 62-68 Marine Science, Townsville. 557 p. Community-Based Stock Enhancement of Topshell in Honda Bay, Palawan, Philippines

1, 2Benjamin J. Gonzales, 2Wendell M. Galon, and 2Joel G. Becira 1Fisheries Resource Management Project, Department of Agriculture Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Quezon Avenue Quezon City, Philippines 2Western Philippines University-Puerto Princesa Campus Puerto Princesa City, Philippines

Introduction depleted resources and their sustainable use. On the other hand, the socio-economic Many coral reefs are located nearshore, objectives are: a) to alleviate poverty in hence they are readily accessible to exploi- coastal communities through added income tation by coastal dwellers. This makes reef and, b) to encourage responsible use of resources vulnerable to over collecting, espe- coastal resources through active participa- cially shells which are either slow moving tion of coastal communities in decision- or sessile. Depleted populations of valu- making, planning, and implementation. able shells are difficult to restore because their growth rate is slow (Nash 1985) and In the above context, both objectives the larvae have relatively short planktonic could be attained through restocking or stock life that limits the range of their distribution enhancement (Gonzales 2002a; Bell and (Heslinga 1981). Depletion of coral reef and Garces 2004) using community based-CRM associated resources due to unregulated or approaches, where populations of severely poorly regulated harvesting is of increasing overexploited resources are restored through concern not only in the Philippines, but also active participation of local governments and in the Indo-West Pacific. communities. Hence Community-Based Stock In Palawan, Philippines, observed reduction Enhancement (CBSE) was introduced as a of trochus shell resource in various areas CRM strategy. The community-based topshell was due to unregulated harvest mainly by stock enhancement in Barangay Binduyan was compressor (hookah) divers and free diving assisted by the Fisheries Resource Management fishers from other provinces. The latter Project (FRMP) of the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources of the Department of Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST migrate to Honda Bay for greater livelihood prospects (Gonzales 2004), increasing the Agriculture (DA-BFAR). population of coastal communities along the Bay. According to fishers in Honda Bay, their The objectives of this paper are to: 1) de- shellfish resources were bountiful until traders scribe the processes in a community-managed and divers from other parts of the country stock enhancement project; 2) document came to Palawan in the 1970s, depleting top- monitoring and evaluation of the project; shell Trochus niloticus and other species. and 3) give recommendations to improve future community-managed stock enhance- One of the objectives of Coastal Resource ment project. Management (CRM) is the regeneration of 50 Topshell in Palawan, Philippines

Fig. 1. Map of the Philippines (inset) and Honda Bay showing location of study site, fish sanctuary in Bgy. Binduyan, Palawan City, Puerto Princesa.

Topshell The World Conservation Union (IUCN) has placed T. niloticus on its list of commercially Native to countries of the Western Pacific, threatened invertebrates. In the Philippines, the topshell has been introduced to many this species was classified under highly regu- locations throughout the Pacific Islands lated shells under Fisheries Adm. Order 157 (Smith 1987). This shell is collected and and Fish Game Adm. Order 11, but is now exported for button making, jewelry, and other categorized by Fisheries Adm. Ordinance decorative items (Mcgowan 1970) while the 208 (May 2001) as a threatened species whose meat is processed by salting or smoking, catch or collection is prohibited.

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST thereby providing an important source of income for rural fishing communities. The selection of species of the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources-Fisheries In recent years, the market value of Resource Management Project (BFAR- trochus shell has increased markedly, hence FRMP) was based on information that the level of exploitation has also increased topshell resources are depleted in Sabang in many Pacific Island countries. It is feared Reef, Palawan because many fishermen that present levels of harvesting will not be collect topshells for livelihood. Moreover, sustainable with serious resource depletion a survey revealed that the fish sanctuary if management regimes are not instituted. in Sabang Reef is a natural habitat for top- Depletion of trochus shell due to unregulated shells, and lastly, there is a topshell hatch- harvest has been observed in various areas in ery in the locality. The selection of topshell the Philippines (Gonzales 2005). also followed the species selection criteria Topshell in Palawan, Philippines 51

developed by BFAR-FRMP (Gonzales 2005). These criteria are biodiversity, technology, socioeconomics, and research. Materials and Methods

The project site is located in Bgy. Binduyan and Sabang Reef in Honda Bay, Palawan in western Philippines (Fig. 1). Data on the stock enhancement effort were Fig. 2. Measuring basal diameter obtained from management plans, minutes of topshell. of barangay (village) meetings, city ordinances and barangay resolutions, assessment and data was done. The responses of the members survey reports, BFAR-FRMP reports, inter- of the community were described through views and personal observations. percentage. The impact assessment survey was done Results and Discussion from July to October 2004. The assessment was conducted pre- and post- interven- Chronological events tion in both impact and control areas for biophysical changes in time and location The chronology of events in the estab- (Osenberg and Schmitt 1996). lishment of the fish sanctuary, and community preparations for the stock enhancement project Two methods were used to determine are listed in Table 1 starting with social and abundance, distribution, and sizes of top- technical preparations in 1999 up to project shells inside and outside the fish sanctuary evaluation in 2004. – the permanent quadrat and belt transect The passing of the ordinance for the (English et al. 1997) with slight modifica- sanctuary declaration took time due to tions (Galon et al. in press). Two 5 x 200 m belt the modification of the shape and area of transects were used in deep water stations the sanctuary. Additionally, changes in the both inside and outside the fish sanctuary, political leadership affected activities in the while one 20 x 200 m quadrat was used in field. intertidal stations of both inside and outside the fish sanctuary. Surveys were conducted The Barangay Council passed a resolu- using SCUBA in the deep-water station, and tion to implement stock enhancement only by walking inside the quadrat of the intertidal after the training was conducted. When

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST stations (Figs. 2 and 3). community members recognized the value and importance of topshell stock enhance- The sociological survey was based on ment, the project should have strengthened interviews of 70 respondents (of a total 77 its community information and education fishermen in Binduyan) to evaluate the impact efforts. of the restocking initiative using indicators such as change in size of gleaning area, length Surveys of potential release reefs and of time spent gleaning, abundance and size microhabitat sites were conducted prior to of gleaned shells, and awareness and attitudes actual experimental releases of juvenile top- toward restocking and protection. shells (Table 1) (Gonzales 2002b). Presenta- tion of such results to the community helped Results of the interview were pooled explain the condition of their resources and together and a descriptive analysis of the the benefits of stock enhancement. 52 Topshell in Palawan, Philippines

Fig. 3. Location of quadrats in intertidal and belt transects in deepwater stations for topshell density assessment in protected (Sabang Reef) and unprotected (Bitawran Reef) areas. TTI-1 represents Traverse Transect Inside no. 1; TT1-2, Traverse Transect Inside no. 2; TTO-1, Traverse Transect Outside no.1; TTO-2, Traverse Transect Outside no. 2; LQ1, Low water Quadrat no. 1; LQ2, Low water Quadrat no. 2.

Juvenile topshells donated by the Iris glued plastic. However, the local hatchery Marine Development Corp. (operator of cannot afford to produce this tag because it topshell hatchery) were released in the requires 24 h running water, and the hatchery Sabang Reef Fish Sanctuary during the has electrical power only during the day. launching and end–of–stock enhancement trainings. Community members and part- Groundwork to sustainability

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST ners were enjoined to participate in the The Participatory Coastal Resource releases not only to learn skills but also to encourage commitment to the project. Assessment (PCRA), which requires the active participation of stakeholders in infor- Two markers were tested on released mation gathering and analysis prior to plan- juvenile topshells. Plastic markers glued to ning and management, was used. The Sanc- the shell (using marine epoxy) lasted not tuary Management Board (SMB) of Bgy. more than three months. Some shells were Binduyan was empowered through training, recovered without tags but with remains of onsite practicum, and close assistance in the epoxy glue. The diet tag formulated by the development and implementation of SEAFDEC/AQD (see Okuzawa et al, this the Fish Sanctuary Management Plan and volume) proved more reliable than the Stock Enhancement Management Plan. Topshell in Palawan, Philippines 53

Table 1. Main chronological events in the establishment of fish sanctuary and implementation of community-managed stock enhancement in Bgy. Binduyan, Palawan City, Puerto Princesa.

Event Date Remarks REA for site selection 6 Sept. 1999 BFAR divers Public hearing 11 Oct. 1999 City Agriculture Office Training on Establishment and 23-25 Aug. Project Consultants and City Management of Fish Sanctuary 2000 Government Signing of City Fisheries Ordinance City Council passed 11 Feb. 2002 No. 192 Ordinance Morning session -Fish Development of IRR for fish 23 May 2002 sanctuary and topshell sanctuary management workshop Workshop on Agreements on the Afternoon session - Fish Implementation and Management of 23 May 2002 sanctuary and topshell Topshell Stock Enhancement management workshop Election of SMB officers, May to July Haribon-Palawan, BFAR- presentation of site baseline 2002 FRMP, City Government, Iris assessment results to the community Marine Dev. Corp. Survey of release sites in fish 20-22 May SMB, Barangay Council, sanctuary and setting up of marker 2002 FRMP, Haribon-Palawan, CAO buoys Ceremonial release of juvenile SMB, BFAR-FRMP, Iris 24 July 2002 topshells Marine Dev. Corp BFAR-RO-IVB, FRMP, CAO, Induction of SMB Officers 26 July2002 Iris Marine Dev. Corp. Launching of fish sanctuary and 27 July 2002 BFAR-RO-IVB, FRMP, CAO topshell stock enhancement projects Training on Sanctuary and Trochus 18-20 Feb. SEAFDEC/AQD researchers, Shell Management, practicum on 2003 BFAR-FRMP topshell release and monitoring Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Binduyan Barangay Council Resolution passed by Barangay approval of Topshell Stock 1 Aug. 2003 Council Enhancement Project July-Sept. FRMP, Western Philippines Assessment of CBSE impacts 2004 Univ., CAO, Haribon-Palawan

REA - Resource Ecological Assessment; BFAR - Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources; FRMP - Fisheries Resource Management Project; RO - IVB - Regional Office No. 4B, CAO - City Agriculture Office; IRR - Implementing Rules and Regulations; SMB - Sanctuary Management Board; SEAFDEC/ AQD - Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department; CBSE - Community - Based Stock Enhancement 54 Topshell in Palawan, Philippines

Establishing partnerships, identifying and tribal members will be hired by the counterparts, and sharing were applied in Iris Marine Development Corporation to every activity to instill in the community extract and process topshell meat. the sense of responsibility, accountability, ownership, and sustainable operation of It was also proposed that a) barangay the CBSE. After completion of the project, tax of PhP2/kg will be collected from the the community partners (City Government, topshell gatherers. PhP1 will go to the academe, private sector, and NGO) are barangay and the remaining PhP1 will be expected to continue stock enhancement used for the operations and maintenance of activities. the CBSE project. The suggested selling price of topshell will be less 10% of the prevailing The Sanctuary Management Board made price when sold to Iris Marine Development the Stock Enhancement Project Agreements Corp. during the Workshop on Implementation and Management of Topshell Trochus niloticus Community-based stock enhancement Restocking in Sabang Reef Fish Sanctuary, impact assessment Bgy. Binduyan, Puerto Princesa City, 23 May 2002. Biophysical

In the workshop, it was agreed that the In the intertidal area, results indicate that collection of re-stocked shells will be 4-5 years the abundance and sizes of topshell (Table 2) in later (2006) and only shells with diameter of the protected area (4.58 cm) are significantly 7.6 cm and above shall be collected outside bigger (t=2.03, p=0.05, n=39) than those in the unprotected area (2.95 cm). the core zone. Shell collection shall be for six months In the deepwater stations, no topshells per year only, from July to December. The were observed in the unprotected area area will be closed for harvest from January whereas in the protected area, topshells had to June. Collectors will be divided into six a density of 190.0 ind/ha and mean basal groups and will be allowed to gather shells diameter of 10.63 cm. In the intertidal area, in certain areas to be identified by SMB. the density was 70.0 ind/ha and 27.5 ind/ha The volume of harvest will also be deter- in the protected and unprotected areas, mined by SMB. respectively.

Gleaning of topshells is prohibited even Data from the Iris Marine Development outside the release area (FAO 208), unless Corp. showed that topshells in deepwater stations had a mean basal diameter of 4.98

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST clearance and proper permits are obtained. Collectors must register with the SMB, and cm (range: 4.6-7.4 cm) in 2002 and 9.59 cm the Secretary shall facilitate registration. (range 8.30-11.20 cm) in 2003 (Table 3).

Harvest of re-stocked shells is exclusive Analysis of variance revealed that the to Binduyan residents, especially fisherfolk mean basal diameter of topshells was while the Iris Marine Development Corpo- significantly greater in 2003 and 2004 than ration will buy the harvested topshell. in 2002.

In terms of benefits and beneficiaries, The density of topshells in the protected the stakeholders agreed that an area would intertidal area of the sanctuary increased be reserved for the youth sector (15 years significantly from 40 ind/ha in May 2002 and below). On the other hand, women to 70 ind/ha in September 2004 (Table 3), Topshell in Palawan, Philippines 55

Table 2. Size and abundance of topshells in protected/unprotected, and intertidal/deep water stations (values in parentheses are ranges).

Intertidal (0-2 m) Deepwater (4-21 m) Size and abundance Protected Unprotected Protected Unprotected Mean basal 4.58 ± 1.43 2.95 ± 1.24 10.63 ± 0.57 none diameter ± SD (cm) (2.00-6.70) (1.00-4.90) (6.50-16.50) Density (ind/ha) 70.00 27.50 190.00 0.00

an increase of 75%. The size of topshell said they gleaned more topshells after the (mean basal diameter) however did not restocking effort, 9% were gleaning less change. topshells, and 17% observed no change. Majority (61%) of respondents believed the Sizes of topshell in the deep water station size of topshells increased, 19% reported no were significantly higher after restocking was change, and 20% did not respond. implemented. Mean basal diameter increased from 4.98 cm in September 2002 to 9.59 cm Almost all (96%) of the respondents in 2003 and 10.63 cm in 2004. knew that topshells were being released in the protected area; only 3% were not aware Sociological of the initiative. Of those who knew about the initiative, only 89% were aware of the A survey administered by interview prohibition in gathering topshells, 7% were (n=70 respondents) evaluated the socio- not aware, and 4% had no response. Almost logical impact of restocking in the protected all (94%) of the respondents were in favor area. Majority (71%) of the respondents of the prohibition. Because some gleaners believed that their gleaning area remained claim they cannot distinguish juvenile top- the same size while 19% said they had a shells from other similar shells, identification wider area. However, 9% of the respon- should also be included in the training. dents believed that restocking and protection encroached on their gleaning area. Coral reef sanctuaries for Trochus shells The length of time spent for gleaning decreased for 37% of the respondents, Using the community–based approach increased for 31%, but remained the same to stock enhancement, Meñez et al (1998) for the remaining 31%. About the changes recommended limited exclusive use of an Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST in abundance of topshells, majority (70%) area for grow-out culture or stock enhance-

Table 3. Population density and sizes of topshell from 2002 (before stocking) to 2004 (after restocking) (data from Iris Marine Development Corp.).

Intertidal Station (0-2 m) Deep Station (4–21 m) Basal diameter (cm) Year Density (ind/ha) Mean ± S.D. Minimum Maximum 2002 40 4.98 ± 0.54 4.60 7.40 2003 no available data 9.59 ± 0.58 8.30 11.20 2004 70 10.63 ± 0.57 6.50 16.50 56 Topshell in Palawan, Philippines

ment of the sea urchin Tripneustes gratilla. This restoring topshell populations inside the approach has been encouraged by Heslinga protected area, it has to be evaluated in et al (1984) and applied in this study. The terms of economic returns. Economic evalu- data in this study validate the perceptions ation was not included in the present study of the community that restocking combined because of insufficient data. Additionally, with protection generally improves liveli- Fisheries Administrative Order 208 (prohi- hood because they are now gleaning more biting topshell collection) allows free trading and bigger topshells. of topshell, making economic analysis difficult. Since the project is in its introductory phase, The community-based approach has future refinements will improve restoration of led to the establishment of a fish sanctuary resources and economic benefits. Data collec- with legal framework for law enforcement, tion should continue as the project progresses and has motivated the community to create and processes shall be fine-tuned. other law enforcement schemes to protect the sanctuary. Nevertheless, gleaning of Conclusions juvenile topshells continued and SMB has The Fish Sanctuary and the CBSE Project apprehended five violators. have addressed the following issues and Impact assessment concerns at different degrees as expressed by the Binduyan community during the Topshell density of 190 ind/ha in the 1999 Planning Workshop: 1) lack of alterna- protected area in Honda Bay is compa- tive livelihood, 2) illegal fishing and weak rable to other areas in the Pacific Region law enforcement, 3) destruction of coastal – the maximum population of topshell in habitats, and 4) intrusion of commercial a barrier reef in Chuuk State, Micronesia fishing boats in municipal waters. The was only 37 ind/ha (Gawel 1997). Mean project has improved topshell resources density of mature topshells was 80 ind/ha and livelihoods by increasing topshell in Okinawa, Japan (Isa et al 1997); and numbers and sizes, and also community 45 ind/ha in Papua New Guinea (DFMR awareness and attitudes towards restocking 1997). Mean density of topshell was 556 and protection. These results imply that ind/ha in the inter-island channels and 962 the community-based stock enhancement ind/ha on reef flats in the Marshall Islands approach is a potential tool for coastal (Kilma and Kobaia 1997). resource management. However, continued harvesting of topshell despite the apparent The absence of mature topshells in the deeper waters of the unprotected area, benefits and prohibitions suggests that partners and environmentally–conscious commu- Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST even in the survey area just outside of the sanctuary, reflects the extent of harvesting nity members should continue information and of the resource. Despite awareness among education activities, while maintaining law 94% of the fishermen/respondents about enforcement. regulations prohibiting topshell gathering, results indicate that harvesting continues This paper is the first to document the unabated. The present study also confirms processes used in a community-managed previous findings of Becira et al (in press) stock enhancement project. Nevertheless, in the same site that topshells were conspi- some constraints have to be resolved for the cuously absent outside the protected area. improvement of CBSE technology. It may be advantageous to learn from the lessons Although the community-based stock of more advanced community-based coastal enhancement approach has contributed to resource management projects implemented Topshell in Palawan, Philippines 57

in other parts of the Philippines (Northern 4. Management Luzon, Visayas) and around the world. a. Use adaptive management that deals with current problems and issues through Recommendations to improve futureuture re-planning process, done regularly community-based stock enhancement b. Use integrated management approach projects that facilitates sharing of responsibilities and accountabilities among These recommendations are based on the various agencies: government, com- stock enhancement experiences in Palawan munity, private sector, etc. and other BFAR Regional Offices apart from c. Set up a management body Region 4B, and from the results of three d. Financial, scientific, and technical support national FRMP workshops on marine stock from management and partners, especially enhancement in the Philippines (2003-2005). in the early stages of the project 1. Species selection e. Management plan for the project and a. Define selection criteria, including native species species 5. Monitoring and evaluation b. Consult stakeholders and experts a. Mark or tag individuals for release c. Consider socioeconomic and biological b. Conduct stock assessment prior to aspects of species release (baseline information) d. Consider available technology for captive c. Monitor changes in density and size spawning and rearing relative to baseline information e. Consider available technology for trans- d. Evaluate increase in total catch of the port, release, and monitoring species through time f. Know the conservation status of the species 6. Legal and policy framework 2. Selecting release sites a. Consider local, national, international a. Adequate food and shelter, free from laws and policies regarding introduction heavy siltation, pollution, destructive of species to local waters. methods of fishing, etc. b. Area large enough to accommodate Acknowledgment released seeds c. Available habitat protection (preferably This study would not have been completed MPAs with multiple zones), fish sanc- without the field assistance of our partners tuaries, core zone or No Touch zone of in the following agencies and organiza- MPA with effective law enforcement tions: City Agriculture Office of Puerto Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Princesa, Western Philippines University 3. Release of organisms (WPU)-Puerto Princesa Campus, Haribon– a. Participation of stakeholders Palawan, Barangay Chairman and Council b. Release of hatchery-bred individuals of Binduyan, Management Board of Sabang or individuals from the wild in No Take Reef Fish Sanctuary, Iris Marine Develop- zone of MPAs ment Corp., DA-BFAR Regional Fisheries c. Plan the release activity, e. g., size and Training Center Palawan, BFAR RO IVB, density of release individuals, timing and Samahan ng Maliliit na Mangingisda and site of release sa Binduyan. The DA-BFAR Fisheries d. Surface and bottom markers at release Resource Management Project (FRMP) sites and WPU jointly funded this study. 58 Topshell in Palawan, Philippines

References Galon WM, Gonzales BJ and Becira JG (in press). Impact Assessment of Topshell Becira JG, Gonzales BJ and Galon WM (in Trochus niloticus Stock Enhancement in press). Protected versus unprotected area Honda Bay, Palawan with reference to fishes, corals, macro- Gawel M. 1997. Status of trochus exploita- invertebrates, and CPUE in Honda Bay, tion in Chuuk State, Federated State Palawan. 36th FIFMS Annual Conven- of Micronesia. Integrated Coastal Fisheries tion. Western Philippines University- Management Project Technical Docu- Puerto Princesa Campus. Puerto Princesa ment 13. South Pacific Commission, City, Palawan, Philippines Noumea, New Caledonia Bell J and Garces L. 2004. The potential Gonzales BJ. 2002a. Trochus restocking as role of restocking and stock enhance- enhancement intervention. Sagip Dagat. ment in the management of marine Quarterly Bulletin of the Fisheries invertebrate fisheries in the Philippines, Resource Management Project. 2nd Quar- pp. 264-251. In: Turbulent seas: The status ter, 2002: 11-13 of Philippine marine fisheries. Coastal Gonzales BJ. 2002b. A Report on the Survey Resource Management Project, Cebu City, of Release Area and Assessment of Philippines Trochus Shells (Sabang Reef, Bgy. DA-BFAR-FSP. Undated. Fisheries Adminis- Binduyan, Honda Bay, Puerto Princesa trative Orders (A Compilation). Depart- City). DA-BFAR Fisheries Resource ment of Agriculture-Bureau of Fisheries Management Project. Quezon Ave., and Aquatic Resources–Fisheries Sector Quezon City (unpublished) Program–Presidential Committee on Anti- Gonzales BJ. 2004. Fisheries Management Illegal Fishing and Marine Conservation. in Honda Bay, pp. 305-311. In: Turbulent 190 p. seas: The status of Philippine marine Department of Fisheries and Marine Resources fisheries. Coastal Resource Management (DFMR). 1997. Country Statement. Inte- Project, Cebu City, Philippines grated Coastal Fisheries Management Gonzales BJ. 2005. A guide to species Project Technical Document 13. South selection and principles of marine stock Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Cale- enhancement in the Philippines. DA-BFAR donia Fisheries Resource Management Project, English S, Wilkinson C and Baker V. 1997. Quezon Ave., Quezon City, Philippines. Survey Manual for Tropical Marine 27 p. Resources, 2nd edition. AIMS, Townsville. Gluckman J and Lindholm R. 1982. A 390 p. study of the commercial shell industry

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST FAO 208. 2001. Fisheries Administrative Or- in Papua New Guinea since World War dinance 208. Conservation of rare, threat- Two with particular reference to village ened, and endangered fishery species. Depart- production of trochus (Trochus niloticus) ment of Agriculture-BFAR, Philippines and green shell (Turbo marmoratus). Sci. Isa J, Kubo H and Murakoshi M. 1997. The New Guinea 9 (1): 1-10 trochus resource exploitation in Okina- Heslinga GA. 1981. Larval development, wa-Japan. Integrated Coastal Fisheries settlement and metamorphosis of the Management Project Technical Docu- tropical gastropod Trochus niloticus. ment 13. South Pacific Commission, Malacologia 20: 349-357 Noumea, New Caledonia Topshell in Palawan, Philippines 59

Heslinga GA, Orak O and Ngiramengior Resources and Development, Saipan, M. 1984. Coral reefs sanctuaries for Mariana Islands 96950 Trochus shells. Mar. Fish. Rev. 46(4): Nash WJ. 1985. Aspects of the biology of 73-80 Trochus niloticus and its fishery in the Juinio-Meñez MA, Macawaris NND and Great Barrier Reef region. Queensland Bangi HGP. 1998. Community-based Department of Primary Industries and the sea urchin (Tripneustes gratilla) grow- Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Autho- out culture as a resource management rity. Townsville, Queensland, Australia tool, pp. 393-399 In: Jamieson GS and (unpublished report) Campbell A (eds) Proceedings of the Osenberg GW and Schmitt RJ. 1996 North Pacific Symposium on Invertebrate Detecting ecological impacts caused Stock Assessment and Management. by human activities, pp. 3-15. In: Schmitt Can. Spec. Publ. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 125 RJ and Osenberg CW (eds) Detecting Kilma N and Kobaia H. 1997. Country State- ecological impacts, concepts and appli- ment – Marshall Islands. Integrated cations in coastal habitats. Academic Coastal Fisheries Management Project Press, California, USA Technical Document 13. South Pacific Smith BD. 1987. Growth rate, distribution Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia and abundance of introduced topshell Mcgowan JA. 1970. Trochus and You. Ma- Trochus niloticus Linnaeus on Guam, Mar- rine Resources Division, Department of iana Islands. Bull. Mar. Sci. 41(2): 466-474 Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST 60 Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Status and Prospects of Aquaculture of Threatened Echinoderms in the Philippines for Stock Enhancement and Restocking

Marie Frances J. Nievales1, Marie Antoinette Juinio-Meñez2 and Helen Grace Bangi2 1 Division of Biological Sciences College of Arts and Sciences University of the Philippines in the Visayas (UPV), Miagao, Iloilo, Philippines 2 Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines (UP-MSI) Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines

Echinoderm Values to predominance of well protected sessile organisms particularly those with calcareous Two echinoderm groups have significant skeletons (Wood 1999). Detritus-feeding sea fisheries in the Philippines: sea cucumbers cucumbers are important bioturbating agents and sea urchins. For sea urchins, the gonad that rework and aerate sediments as well or roe is the valuable product while the dried as recycle minerals and nutrients. Their body wall of sea cucumbers called trepang or presence and biological activity have been beche de mer isis soughtsought inin thethe worldworld market.market. demonstrated to improve sediment quality by Unlike sea urchins which are traditionally decreasing organic matter deposition and consumed throughout the Philippines, sea inhibiting harmful algal bloom (Michio et cucumbers are not as popular except in al 2003). The various life stages also form Chinese specialty restaurants. However, there important food web components both in the are anecdotal accounts of small holothurian plankton and benthos of the sea. species eaten fresh in central and southern Philippines. Trepang is preferentially exported Echinoderms are either specifically to Asian markets, primarily Hongkong. targeted by gleaners and divers, or form part of the multispecies invertebrate fishery Like the sea urchins, trepang from sea in many coastal areas in the Philippines. cucumbers can fetch high prices in the world The existence of a local sea urchin market market depending on species and size. The in northern Philippines (e.g., Pangasinan, sandfish Holothuria scabra sells at US$45- La Union) benefits many coastal families 50/kg (Anon. 2002) and is a major species that depend on this fishery for subsistence. targetted by fishers/gleaners. Reportedly with In Bolinao, Pangasinan, over 40 families Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST tonic properties that range from aphrodisiac are reportedly dependent on this fishery. to cure for osteoarthritis, trepang is called Major sea urchin species collected include the sea ginseng, a cure all for ailments (Chen Tripneustes gratilla, Diadema spp. and Salmacis 2004). spp. In the case of holothurian fishery, with The economic value of the ecological roles over a century of fishery history for holothu- of commercially important echinoderms still rians, at least 25 species mostly belonging to remains to be priced. But the herbivorous sea the families Holothuriidae and Stichopodidae urchins promote higher ecosystem primary are commercially important (Schoppe 2000). productivity in coral reefs and seagrass beds, While there may be local consumption of and facilitate energy flow to higher trophic both fresh and dried products, the latter are levels. Their intense herbivory can lead largely exported. 62 Culture of Threatened Philippine Echinoderms Income (million PhP)

Year Fig. 1. Annual income from sea urchin fishery in Bolinao, Pangasinan: 1987-1992.

Echinoderm fishery is dependent on Menez 2004), or accounts of local depletion wild stock. The high demand far exceeding of sea cucumber populations in many areas supply, good global market prices and their are not at all surprising. The erratic values biology (e.g., slow mobility, shallow water of trepang production in the Philippines benthic habitat) render them vulnerable to amidst an overall decreasing mean volume overexploitation. So tales of local fishery in the last decade (Akamine 2003, Gamboa collapse, e.g., that of T. gratilla in Bolinao, et al 2004) further show how fragile and Pangasinan in the early 1990s (Juinio- unsustainable the fishery has become. ) 2 -2- 0 m 0 1 / d n i y ( t i s n Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST e n D a e MeanM Density (ind/100 m

Month and Year

Fig. 2. Mean density of natural Tripneustes gratilla populations in Bolinao, Pangasinan: 1987-1994. Culture of Threatened Philippine Echinoderms 63

Fig. 3. Production of beche de mer from the Philippines and West Central Pacific: 1992-2001 (from Conand 2004).

The contribution of echinoderm products last decade (Fig. 3). About US$6 million to the Philippine economy is substantial. (~PhP300 million at US$1= PhP50) was Reported income from sea urchin fishery generated in 2000 from beche de mer tradingtrading in Bolinao, Pangasinan alone at the peak of (Akamine 2003). its fishery in 1989 was estimated at nearly PhP20 million but declined to PhP5 million The relative contribution of echinoderm in 3 years as natural populations collapsed products to the income and socio-economic (Figs. 1 and 2). well-being of fisherfolk who collect these invertebrates is undocumented. However, it National sea urchin fishery production has been noted that middlemen, especially estimated at 1,100 mt fresh weight in 1992 local buyers who sell trepang in Manila and declined to only about 380 mt in 1998. At Manila-based traders-exporters monopolize current prices of PhP80-150/kg, the 1998 the profits (F. Nievales, unpublished data). production should have a value of PhP3-5.7 million generated in Bolinao, Panagasinan Products from both echinoderm groups alone. The collapse of sea urchin fisheries remain in short supply in the country and Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST due to overexploitation (e.g., the Bolinao so trading, limited only by declining natural case) has resulted in the loss of millions stock, continues to be lucrative. of pesos representing the livelihood of numerous coastal families. Initiatives in Echinoderm Culture In the case of sea cucumber fishery, the Philippines was the second largest producer Initiatives to develop the culture tech- in the early 1990s (Conand 2004). However, nology for important echinoderms arose from beche de mer production and the country’s the need to develop alternative management market share relative to the Pacific West schemes to sustain their fishery and to Central total production showed general increase the number of cultivable species declining trend from 30% to 5% within the for mariculture. 64 Culture of Threatened Philippine Echinoderms

The need for echinoderm culture and Efforts to refine culture protocols for stock resource management to sustain a thriving improvement and seed stock production fishery was probably sounded off as early as have been funded by foreign sources, e.g., the 1980s (e.g. Roa-Trinidad 1987). Studies the Coastal Resource Management (CRM) on reproductive biology and attempts to Project supported by the Netherlands Embassy culture echinoderms gained momentum in 2002. only in the mid-1990s for sea urchin and 2001 for sea cucumber. Earlier studies on Choice of echinoderm species reproduction and culture focused on the for culture sea urchin T. gratilla (Tuason and Gomez 1978, Formacion 1985, Dabandan 1987) A number of attributes make the two and sea cucumber H. scabra (Ong Che and species (T. gratilla and H. scabra) important Gomez 1985, Seraspe et al 1985), Bohadschia candidates for stock enhancement, restocking, marmorata and Actinopyga echinites (Seraspe sea ranching and mariculture in the Philip- et al 1985, Seraspe et al 1987, Nievales and pines. Firstly, these are threatened species Rocio 1989, Seraspe et al 1994). with high market value, large and under- supplied demand in the world market, and Serious attempts to develop echinoderm a fishery dependent solely on wild stocks. hatchery and grow–out culture in the Philippines Indeed, both species continue to face unsus- were undertaken at the outdoor hatchery tainable fishery problems that often result facility and marine laboratory of the University in local depletion (e.g., 1992 collapse of of the Philippines Marine Science Institute sea urchin populations in Bolinao). Second, (UP-MSI) in Bolinao, Pangasinan. Culture these species are amenable to culture (e.g., began in the mid-1990s for the sea urchin with continuous breeding pattern), rela- T. gratilla, and in 2001 for the sea cucumber tively well studied, and with existing tech- H. scabra. To date, UP-MSI remains at nology in and outside the Philippines that the forefront of echinoderm culture and can be adapted to local conditions. Thirdly, extends financial support and resources to local grow–out protocols are environment- interested scientists and students. friendly with no high–protein formulated inputs that other aquaculture species need. Pilot scale hatchery production of juveniles Because it is extractive aquaculture, raising for stock enhancement and mariculture was sea cucumbers in deteriorating habitats could implemented for T. gratilla and H. scabra with improve sediment quality. The prospective financial support mostly from the national return on investment for grow-out culture government (e.g., Department of Agriculture). of these two species is promising. Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST

Table 1. Duration of different life stages of echinoderms based on culture.

Phase Tripneustes gratilla Holuthuria scabra Planktonic 42-52 days 12-21 days Duration to visible 1 mo (1 cm 1 mo (1 mm juveniles test diameter) length) Duration to size at 1 mo (3 cm 1-2 mo (4-8 g) release/grow out test diameter) Culture of Threatened Philippine Echinoderms 65

Table 2. Growth in size (body weight in g) and survival of juvenile Tripneustes gratilla in field cages with different conditioning histories after varying periods (in days).

Conditioning Survival after history after 10 d after 19 d after 30 d after 60 d 60 d (%) Without sand 4.15 6.55 6.38 6.77 83 With sand 6.28 7.58 7.64 7.28 100

Status of local culture technology Holothuria scabra

Tripneustes gratilla and H. scabra are Cost-effective hatchery and growout both dioecious (i.e., with separate sexes), culture technology for H. scabra is continu- continuously breeding and spawn their ally refined and developed at the UP-MSI gametes in the water where fertilization Bolinao hatchery facility. Methods for larval takes place. Development is indirect and rearing, settlement and juvenile rearing of hatched embryos pass through a dispersive H. scabra developed in India (James et al larval stage (echinopluteus for T. gratilla 1994), Solomon Islands (Battaglene 1999a, and auricularia for H. scabra) and later Battaglene et al 1999, Battaglene et al 2002, metamorphose and settle. The life cycle is Pitt, 2001) and Vietnam (Pitt and Duy 2003) thus complex involving benthic and plank- are adopted and modified. tonic phases. Table 1 shows the duration of Larval survival can be high (60% to over different life stages under hatchery condi- 90%) prior to settlement. Best results for tions of these two species prior to grow-out post-metamorphic survival until juveniles — hatchery and land-based nursery periods start to be visible (~1 mm length) is 33% require 3-4 mo before seeds are available (mean ~10%) in small-scale rearing vessels for grow out culture. (3 L jars). However, remaining inter-batch variability in juvenile survival needs to be Tripneustes gratilla resolved.

Local culture technology for T. gratilla is From visible size, juveniles reared in settle- well established with high survival during larval ment tanks/jars are transferred to nursery tanks. period at presettlement (87-96.5 %). Survival These are periodically graded according to to early juveniles (>1.0 cm test diameter) is size until they reach over 10 mm length when 13-30.5%. Thus, annual production of 80,000 they can be transferred to tanks with sand. Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST seeds for reseeding or grow-out is now attain- Preliminary studies suggest that juveniles able at the UP-MSI Bolinao outdoor facility. grown in tanks with sandy substrate exhibit better growth in the hatchery (Fig. 4) and Pilot grow-out culture in cages by fishers when transferred to sea cages (Table 2) than is promising. Growth rate to marketable those without sand. Survival in cages was also size of sea urchins in sea cages is high higher for juveniles with prior sand condi- with minimal mortality. Gonad quality and tioning in the hatchery than those without. yield which are important traits for the export market are good. A manual for sea Studies continue on reducing the land- urchin grow-out culture is already available based nursery period as a strategy to cut (Juinio-Menez et al 2001). costs in rearing sea cucumber juveniles. With 66 Culture of Threatened Philippine Echinoderms

Fig. 4. Body weight (g) of juvenile Holothuria scabra in aquaria with and without sandy substrate.

programmed induced spawning and larval Over 50,000 H. scabra juveniles have production, a target of 10,000 juveniles for been produced since 2001. A few thousands reseeding and grow-out is feasible at the have been reseeded in a marine sanctuary in UP-MSI Bolinao outdoor facility. the Lingayen Gulf. In 2005, experimental grow-out of hatchery juveniles was initiated in Ongoing field studies continue to show three partner municipalities of the Dutch- that juvenile survival is not compromised if funded CRM project. Preliminary results they are first transferred at >1 g sizes to show that while growth rate of juveniles in predator-proof cages in the field for growing pens is high, choice of site is a critical factor to sizes suitable for transfer to bigger pens in survival. or for release in the wild. Future Directions Stock Enhancement Activities Hatchery technology and grow-out culture Reseeding of T. gratilla concentrated for T. gratilla are well worked out, but post- in Bolinao, Pangasinan and other munici- metamorphic survival can be improved through

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST palities in Lingayen Gulf has been more or more effective metamorphic cues. There is less continuous since the mid-1990s. Commu- also need to focus on product development by nity-based grow-out of hatchery juveniles has aiming for high value sea urchin products. been sustained in some sites, providing supple- mentary livelihood to local people. In the last Local protocols in sea cucumber culture 2-3 years alone, more than 10,000 juveniles need more fine tuning to improve post-meta- were given to various people’s organization morphic survival (through effective meta- (PO) partners through the UP-MSI CRM morphic and settlement cues and preventive project funded by the Netherlands Embassy. measures against diseases of early juveniles), Several thousands have also been reseeded and to determine optimum size and strategy in sanctuaries including the Hundred Islands for field deployment of hatchery produced Marine National Park in Pangasinan. juveniles. Culture of Threatened Philippine Echinoderms 67

Grow-out culture, reseeding of juveniles ened echinoderm resources. Setting sustain- and broodstock maintenance in sea cages able catch levels and monitoring impacts within protected areas are viable resource of stock enhancement require benchmark management tools for repopulating depleted ecological information. The same is required sea urchin populations and providing supple- in deciding whether stock enhancement or mental livelihood to fishers. The presence of restocking activities are necessary options. In natural recruits and existence of a small most cases, basic stock inventory of fishery scale fishery indicate stock recovery in resources is conducted only after serious Bolinao a few years after these interven- depletion has taken place. Moreover, there tions were introduced (Juinio-Menez 2002 are practically no fishery management regula- in Juinio-Menez 2004). Ongoing populations for invertebrates in the country. Capital tion monitoring of T. gratilla in Bolinao investment for, and maintenance of, an echino- sites shows improved densities of 10-65/100 m2 derm hatchery facility can be sizeable and the compared to zero density when the fishery problems of growing and releasing hatchery collapsed 10 years back. juveniles remain.

There are plans for a national research The Philippine Constitution and fishery program on holothurians to include an laws safeguard the overexploitation of marine inventory of economically important sea resources, including these invertebrate groups. cucumbers in the country and to establish However, a basic understanding of the biology seed centers for future stock enhancement and life history of fishery resources and impor- and mariculture activities. Partnership with tant ecological concepts (e.g., connectivity, the private sector in echinoderm research viable population size, Allee effect on repro- and development will help scale up seed- duction, trophic dynamics) is very limited stock production and optimize the eco- at the grassroots. These concepts have to nomic potentials for small and industrial be continuously inculcated in national scale culture. Along this line, development and local government officials and key of multi-species invertebrate hatcheries will stakeholders responsible for implementing expand options for sustainable mariculture the national Fisheries Code. The country and benefit a broad spectrum of fishers, needs sustained advocacy and incentives for aquaculturists, traders, food processors, and responsible and ecologically sound fishery entrepreneurs. (i.e., both capture and culture) practices. Aside from effort regulation, appropriate Nevertheless, restocking and stock enhance- management interventions such as the ment and even sea ranching/farming of echi- establishment of marine protected zones or noderm juveniles from hatcheries should Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST sanctuaries should remain an important part not be viewed as a single panacea for seriously of an integrated fishery resource management threatened populations. Indeed, reproductive scheme. reserves from hatchery produced juveniles, together with reseeding, helped the recovery References of natural stocks of T. gratilla as recent studies show. However, some aspects of intensive culture Akamine J. 2003. Trepang exploitation in the such as reduction in genetic diversity and diseases Philippines: Updated information. SPC must be carefully considered when promoting Beche de mer Info. Bull. 17: 17-21 culture-based fishery. Anonymous 2002. Beche de mer prices on the Asian markets (May to September A holistic and integrated approach is 2002) SPC Beche de mer Info.Info. BBull.ull. 117:7: 4400 important in fishery management of threat- 68 Culture of Threatened Philippine Echinoderms

Battaglene SC. 1999. Culture of sea cucum- scabra. Central Marine Fisheries Research bers for the purposes of stock restora- Institute Special Publication No. 57. Indian tion and enhancement, pp. 11-25. In: Council of Agricultural Research, India Baine M (ed) The Conservation of Sea Juinio-Menez MA. 2004. Invertebrate stock Cucumbers in Malaysia: Their Taxonomy, enhancement, pp. 241-245. In: In Tur- Ecology and Trade, Kuala Lumpur bulent Seas: The Status of Philippine Battaglene SC, Seymour JE, Ramofafia C Marine Fisheries. DA-BFAR (Depart- and Lane I. 2002. Spawning and induc- ment of Agriculture-Bureau of Fisher- tion of three tropical sea cucumbers, ies and Aquatic Resources) Coastal Holothuria scabra, H. fuscogilva and Resource Management Project, Cebu Actinopyga mauritiana. Aquaculture 207: City, Philippines 29-47 Juinio-Menez MA, Malay MCD and Bangi Battaglene SC, Seymour JE and Ramofafia HGP. 2001. Sea-urchin Grow-out Cul- C. 1999. Survival and growth of cultured ture: Coastal Resources Management juvenile sea cucumbers, Holothuria scabra. Tools. Marine Environment Resources Aquaculture 178: 293-322 Foundation, Inc. The Marine Science Chen, J. 2004. Present status and prospects Institute-University of the Philippines, of sea cucumber industry in China, pp. Diliman, Quezon City. 34 p. 26-38. In: Lovatelli, A, Conand C, Purcell Michio K, Kengo K, Yasunori K, Hitoshi M, S, Uthicke S, Hamel J-F and Mercier A. Takayuki Y, Hideaki Y and Hiroshi S. (eds) Advances in Sea Cucumber Aqua- 2003. Effects of deposit feeder Stichopus culture and Management. UN–FAO, Rome japonicus on algal bloom and organic Conand C. 2004. Present status of world matter contents of bottom sediments sea cucumber resources and utilisation: of the enclosed sea. Mar. Poll. Bull. 47: an international overview, pp. 13-23. 118-125 In: Lovatelli, A, Conand C, Purcell S, Nievales MFJ and Rocio RO. 1989. (Final Uthicke S, Hamel J-F and Mercier A. Report) Reproductive biology and culture (eds) Advances in Sea Cucumber Aquacul- of edible sea Cucumbers Year 2. 30 p. ture and Management. UN–FAO, Rome Pitt R. 2001. Review of sandfish breeding Dabandan MV. 1987. Final Report. Biology and rearing methods. SPC Beche-de-Mer and culture of the sea urchin, Tripneustes Info. Bull. 14: 14-21 gratilla at Taklong Island, Guimaras. 45 p. Pitt R and Duy NDQ. 2003. To produce 100 Formacion MJ. 1985. (Final Report). Repro- tonnes of sandfish. SPC Beche de mer ductive Biology of the Sea Urchin T. gratilla Infor. Bull. 18 :15-17 Linnaeus at Taklong Island and Vicinity, Schoppe S. 2000. Sea cucumber fishery in

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Nueva Valencia Guimaras Subprovince. the Philippines. SPC Beche de mer IInfor.nfor. 22 p. Bull. 13:10-12 Gamboa R, Gomez AL and Nievales MF. Seraspe EB, Cordero MCRA, Hechanova 2004. The status of sea cucumber fishery MM Tayo MEM and de Asis MTY. (Final and mariculture in the Philippines, pp. Report) 1985. Reproductive Biology of 69-78. In: Lovatelli, A, Conand C, Purcell S, the Sea Cucumber. 44 p. Uthicke S, Hamel J-F and Mercier A (eds) Seraspe EB, Nievales MF, de Asis MTY Advances in Sea Cucumber Aquaculture and Chavez ML 1987. (Final Report) and Management. UN-FAO, Rome Reproductive biology and culture of James DB, Gandhi AD, Palaniswamy N and edible sea cucumbers at Taklong Is Nueva Rodrigo JX. 1994. Hatchery techniques Valencia, Guimaras Subprovince 24 p. and culture of sea cucumber Holothuria Culture of Threatened Philippine Echinoderms 69

Seraspe EB, Chavez ML, Nievales MF Tuason A and Gomez ED. 1978. The repro- and Doreza MCR. 1994. The reproduc- ductive biology of Tripneustes gratilla tive cycle of the holothuriid sea cucumber Linnaeus (Echinoidea: Echinodermata) (Holothuroidea, Aspidochirotida) Bohadschia with some notes on Diadema setosum marmorata var. mmarmorata,armorata, pp. 21-26. In: Leake. In: Proc. Intl. Symp. Mar. Biogeo. Proc. 4th LIPI-JSPS Joint Seminar on Evol. Southern Hemisphere, Auckland, Marine Science, Jakarta, Indonesia NQ 2: 707-715 Trinidad-Roa MJ. 1987. Beche de mer Fishery Wood R. 1999. Reef Evolution. Oxford Univer- in the Philippines. NAGA ICLARM Q. sity Press, Australia. 414 p. 10: 15-17 Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST 70 Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST An Uncertain Future for Seahorse Aquaculture in Conservation and Economic Contexts

Amanda C. J. Vincent 1 and Heather J. Koldewey 2 1 Project Seahorse, Fisheries Centre, The University of British Columbia 2202 Main Mall, Vancouver, V6T 1Z4, Canada 2 Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, NW1 4RY, United Kingdom

Introduction some numeric depletion is a reality in active fisheries, while insisting that such changes Once fisheries are overexploited, conser- must be understood (www.redlist.org/info/ vation and fisheries communities have a categories_criteria2001.html). It is important shared goal and a common commitment to to note that most listings are completed on adjust extraction to sustainable levels. To a global basis and may not reflect regional persist with overfishing is both biologically or national situations, each of which requires irresponsible and disrespectful of the long- separate assessment. term needs of dependent communities. Measures must, therefore, be put in place Any restrictions by CITES (itself an agree- that will adjust fishing to meet regional or ment among 169 signatory nations) will be national intergenerational responsibilities implemented at the national level, according to marine life and people alike. Ventures to local conditions. A species may be placed such as aquaculture and marine protected on Appendix I, which essentially bans inter- areas may help to move levels of extrac- national trade. Far more commonly, however, tion towards sustainability, but there are no CITES places species on Appendix II, a list substitutes for integrated management and denoting anxiety about the potential threats reductions or alterations in effort. caused by unmanaged trade, and requiring regulation of exports. It is important to note Fisheries managers may not realize the that each individual CITES signatory nation potential of the conservation agencies to help determines how best to manage its exports so with such adjustments of exploitation. The as to ensure they meet the CITES require- IUCN (World Conservation Union) Red List ments. These, simply, are that exports must (www.redlist.org) and CITES (Convention in not be detrimental to wild populations and International Trade of Endangered Species that exports must be legally obtained (and that of Wild Fauna and Flora, www.cites.org)

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST live animals must be properly transported). Appendix listings are two among many conser- Such requirements should provide welcome vation tools available to every country in its assistance to fisheries managers faced with pursuit of sustainable fisheries. They are, overexploitation or illegal fishing. Moreover, however, so misunderstood that both tools CITES can sometimes add particular value are commonly miscast as the enemy of ex- to international fisheries management in at ploitation. In fact, the IUCN Red List serves least three situations: (1) where other regional as an important warning mechanism that a or international plans are weak, unimplemented species (or sometimes a population) may be in or absent; (2) where species are of such limited trouble. It has no legal power or restrictions, commercial value that they will not be of unless local jurisdictions choose to confer interest to other conventions or agreements; such authority. Moreover, current listing or (3) where CITES includes fishing nations approaches have been recast to recognize that 72 Future of Seahorse Aquaculture

not associated with another convention that commercial importance to be listed on both seeks to regulate extraction of species they the IUCN Red List and CITES Appendix exploit. II. Overfishing and non-selective fishing are two agents in their depletion, so management Given that each national government is clearly needed. We here outline what is chooses how to respond to both IUCN Red known about these fishes and their trade, Listings and CITES, domestic assessments before considering the potential role the of species of concern are terribly important culture and release could play in rebuilding to any conservation process. For any given wild populations. country, the species of concern may or may not be those judged in need of support at Trade and Conservation Status a global level. A species considered to be globally healthy may be of conservation con- Seahorses are found primarily in tem- cern domestically, but equally a species of perate seagrasses and tropical coral reefs, global conservation concern may be healthy but also occur in mangroves and estuaries. domestically. Countries are thus faced with At least 27 species occur in the IndoPacific, the challenge of determining where best with new species still being proposed (Lourie to direct their own energies, with national et al 2004, http://seahorse.fisheries.ubc.ca/ assessments of decline and degradation. IDguide.html); adults of the different species Moreover, they are charged with identifying range in maximum adult height from 2 to 28 mm. relevant management measures. A recent review summarized extant knowl- Culturing and releases are often mooted edge on seahorse biology and ecology (Foster as conservation responses that should also and Vincent 2004). They are generally found enhance production. Yet any such initia- at low population densities, with occasionally tives can encounter or provoke enormous more dense patches; such distributions may ecological, economic, and social problems. represent a combination of natural rarity and It is very rare for aquaculture or releases to considerable depletion. These fish live about resolve conservation problems, even partly. 1-5 years. Their diet of live prey apparently It is almost impossible for them to do so changes as they grow, but such relationships unless the pressures that led to depletions are poorly understood, especially when have been relieved. Thereafter, it is always compared to their reproductive biology. vital to understand the species and its status, Relative to their maximum size, seahorses identify a clear management goal and objec- first mature at much the size we would tives, plan and execute the initiatives with expect from relationships in other teleosts. great care, and measure the outcomes and All seahorse species are thought to be mono-

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST impacts of the venture. Moreover, it is impor- gamous within a reproductive cycle, but some tant to comply with guidance and regulations may be polygamous across cycles. Females from such bodies as the Convention on Bio- transfer eggs directly to the male’s brood logical Diversity (CBD: www.biodiv.org) and pouch, where they are fertilized, making it the IUCN Reintroduction Specialist Group difficult to assess clutch size. At the end of (RSG: www.iucnsscrsg.org). Failures in these their pregnancy, however, males release c. 5- respects can lead to intemperate action that is 2000 young, depending on species and adult often considerably worse than no action at all. size. Newborn young are born at about 2-20 mm in height, at a size that is not directly Seahorses (family Syngnathidae, genus related to adult size. Seahorses often main- Hippocampus) have set precedents globally. tain small home ranges, and generally swim They were among the first marine fishes of slowly. Future of Seahorse Aquaculture 73

It appears that seahorse populations are than 45 metric tonnes (mt) of dried seahorses commonly vulnerable to overexploitation, in 1995 (Vincent 1996), with much expansion whether direct or indirect (Foster and Vin- thereafter. Seahorses in trade weigh a mean cent 2004): low population densities mean of perhaps 2.9 g, with great variation by country, that seahorses may have trouble finding a region, species, and individual, hence the 1995 mate; possible low rates of natural mortality volume in Asia may have represented c. 15.5 mean that heavy fishing will place new pres- million individuals. sures on the population; monogamy in most species means that a surviving partner may Direct exploitation, incidental catch in stop reproducing, at least temporarily; male non-selective fishing gear, and habitat loss and brooding means that survival of the young degradation (much of it fisheries-associated) in the pouch depends on the survival of the have put considerable pressure on seahorse male; a small brood size limits the potential populations in many regions. Fishers and reproductive rate of the pair (although other informants reported substantial numeric this may be offset by frequent spawning declines in seahorse catches and trade, with- and enhanced juvenile survival through out commensurate decreases in effort (e.g., parental care); and low mobility and small Giles et al 2005, Baum and Vincent 2005). home range sizes mean that seahorses may Estimated population declines of between be slow to recolonize overexploited areas 15 and 50% over five-year periods have (although this may be offset by planktonic been common, with marked declines in size dispersal of juveniles). Their social and of landed adult seahorses (Vincent 1996). spatial structure is such that those seahorses All known species of seahorses appear on returned to the water after being caught the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in non-selective gear may still be damaged as Endangered, Vulnerable or Data Defi- through physical injury, habitat disturbance, cient (www.redlist.org). disruption of pair bonds, and displacement CITES regulates the international trade from home ranges. in seahorses, as an important component of Extensive trade surveys have revealed collaborative efforts to achieve sustainable that a great many countries are trading a great use of these fishes. All seahorses were listed many seahorses, with grave consequences in Appendix II in 2002 (www.cites.orgwww.cites.org), with (Vincent 1996, McPherson and Vincent 2004, the regulations taking effect in May 2004. Sea- Giles et al 2005, Baum and Vincent 2005, horses are among the first marine fish species Martin-Smith and Vincent 2006). Traditional of commercial importance to be listed on the medicine (TM) – and particularly traditional Convention, and represent a particularly large Chinese medicine (TCM) and jamu from In- wildlife trade issue, by volume of animals Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST donesia – accounts for the largest consumption exported each year. The CITES Animal Com- of seahorses, and they are also fished in sub- mittee recommended that Parties seeking guid- stantial numbers for the aquarium and curios- ance in implementing the Appendix II listing for ity trades. Published reports have documented seahorses consider adopting a 10 cm minimum large and growing exploitation of seahorses, size limit, as one means of moving towards sus- pipehorses, and pipefishes. At least 32 coun- tainable trade (Foster and Vincent 2005). Other tries had traded syngnathids by 1995 (Vincent measures will also be necessary for a success- 1996), but this had increased to nearly 80 ful seahorse conservation strategy. countries by 2001, with much of the expansion in Africa and Latin America (McPherson and CITES recognizes the potential role of Vincent 2004, Baum and Vincent 2005). Trade aquaculture in arriving at sustainable trade. in Asia alone was inferred to amount to more All cultured animals can be traded under 74 Future of Seahorse Aquaculture

Appendix II. The first generation (F1) will most culture operations were located in be treated as wild, with a requirement that China, recent ventures are frequently found exports be guaranteed not to damage wild in Australia or New Zealand. The potential

populations. Subsequent generations (F2 to culture seahorses in closed systems means and above) from operations certified by they could potentially be cultivated in many the national government are exempt from countries, but compliance with the precepts such controls, as long as their paperwork is in of the CBD means that any culturing should order. What, then, is the potential for viable occur in range countries using systems that seahorse aquaculture and for benefits from minimise negative environmental impacts subsequent releases of cultured seahorses? and maximise local socioeconomic benefits. Aquaculture Status A few recent ventures for seahorse aquaculture have been commercially successful Seahorses have been cultured since the and are working as effective businesses but 1970s, particularly in China, but breeding most are either in the pilot stage or have failed and rearing seahorses has been problematic because of commercial or technical problems. (Xu 1985, Vincent and Clifton-Hadley 1989, The low number of operations in each coun- Dao and Hoang 1991, P ham and Dao 1991, try and a lack of knowledge transfer among Fenner 1998, Hargrove 1998, Truong 1998, operations mean that the same mistakes are Chaladkid and Hruangoon undated, Hormchong often repeated. Many operations close sim- et al undated). The published literature from ply because they relied on overly optimistic mainland China conveyed the impres sion that business models, with heavy dependence on seahorse culturing was well understood (e.g., subsidies that are only available in the pilot Aquaculture Institute of Shanghai 1982, Wu phase and with inadequate market research. and Gu 1983, Shandong Marine Col lege Others are still battling technical challenges 1985, Publicity and Education Committee – including provision of the correct diet and 1990). However, for many years problems vulnerability to disease – and difficulties with vulnerability to disease and providing with commercial suitability. No standard- the correct diet meant that these facilities ized method for culturing seahorses has were experimental rather than commercially yet emerged, and systems vary according to viable. The restructuring of China’s economy in location and intended market. the 1980s led to widespread closure of seahorse farms, just at a time when China’s demand for Seahorses are currently being cultured seahorses accelerated (Vincent 1996). to supply TM and tonic products (e.g., seahorse wine), live aquarium fishes, and curios Global interest in aquaculture of sea- and souvenirs. The scale of seahorse culture Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST horses and other syngnathids (pipefishes, facilities ranges from small aquariums to pipehorses and seadragons) has increased large pond systems and from research- dramatically over the past decade, largely based to commercial operations. coincident with awareness of the seahorse trades and their associated conservation 1) No culture operation that targets the issues. Research and development into sea- TM market appears to have achieved com- horse culture has been carried out by over mercial viability. Even the largest seahorse 40 ventures in at least 20 countries, includ- farm in China is still at the developmental ing the following: Australia, Brazil, China, stage and has not reached full commercial Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Mexico, New production. Moreover, this operation is pro- Zealand, Philippines, South Africa, Viet- moting the development of new domestic nam, and the USA. Although historically markets for its products, with a particular Future of Seahorse Aquaculture 75

focus on its own brands of seahorse wine, selecting by species. Given that most marine capsules, and concentrate for TCM. Should aquaria are tropical, the market for tempe- the operation fail, such newly generated de- rate species will always be more limited than mand could add to pressures on wild popu- that for tropical species. lations. The last five to ten years have seen 2) At least five companies now supply advances in the culture of seahorses, with cultured seahorses to the aquarium trade, the closure of life cycles over a number relying on low volumes and high values: two of generations for several species (Wilson in Australia, one in Ireland, one in Sri Lan- and Vincent 1998, Payne and Rippingale ka, and one in the USA (Hawaii). The level 2000, Woods 2000a, b, Bull 2002, Job et al of production varies enormously among 2002) but many technical challenges remain companies, with some of these still at the around behavior, disease, and nutrition. The development stage. The few quoted prices significant social and spatial structure shown on websites are US$75-370 per individual or by seahorses is unusual for cultured fish pair, with some companies selling seahorses and needs to be considered in the facility as part of a ‘kit’, along with their food. Cul- design and species’ management. As well, tured seahorses that eat frozen food are seahorses are vulnerable to diseases, to the more adaptable to a home aquarium envi- extent that this is one of the constraints for ronment than wild-caught seahorses. The commercially viable aquaculture. Laboratory ratio of wild-caught to cultured seahorses in and aquaculture observations have docu- the live aquarium trade is unknown. mented health problems related to bacteria (H. kuda: Alcaide et al 2001, Greenwell 2002), 3) Seahorse culture facilities are diversi- cestodes (H.H. aabdominalisbdominalis: Lovett 1969), micro fying. One company in Australia now sells sporidians (H. ererectusectus: Blasiola 1979, Vincent seahorses that have died during the culture and Clifton-Hadley 1989), fungi (H. erectuserectus: process as jewellery and marine art, with Blazer and Wolke 1979), ciliates (H. ererectusectus: prices of approximately US$50-100. Another Cheung et al 1980, H. trimaculatus: Meng also serves as a tourist attraction, reporting and Yu 1985), trematodes (H. trimaculatus: nearly 17,000 visitors in 2004. Shen 1982), and marine leeches (H. kuda : DeSilva and Fernando 1965). Both tropical and temperate seahorses are being cultured. The tropical species Feeding and nutrition, especially for include H. barbouri, H. erectus, H. fisheri, juveniles during the first few weeks after H. fuscus, H. histrix, H. ingens, H. kuda, release from the pouch, appear to be a major H. mohneki, H. reidi, and H. trimaculatus. challenge in seahorse cultures, primarily Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Temperate species include H. abdominalis, because these fish are obligate predators. H. breviceps, H. capensis, H. whitei, and The relatively large size of seahorse juveniles H. zosterae. Most have been located in (compared to other marine fish) should Australia and New Zealand, with a focus on make them easier to rear but their onto- H. abdominalis, but some ventures are also genetic changes in diet make it necessary starting to culture the temperate European to prepare a chain of live food. In general, species, H. guttulatus and H. hippocampus. newly released juveniles are fed 2-7 times Attempts to culture H. abdominalis for the a day with some combination of (a) newly TM market failed because of a lack of market hatched Artemia, (b) 24-48 h enriched and research and other challenges. The TM decapsulated Artemia nauplii, (c) rotifers market has very specific requirements with (e.g., Brachionus plicatilis), (d) haparcticoid respect to shape and spininess rather than copepods (e.g., Euterpina acutifrons), and/or 76 Future of Seahorse Aquaculture

(e) mysid larvae (e.g., Mysidopsis bahia). ment for seahorses (Job et al 2002). Some Adding a small amount of chopped frozen culture facilities offer proprietary diets for Mysis shrimp to nursery tanks immediately seahorses when they sell the animals. after birth may promote feeding and improve survivorship in the fry (Koldewey 2005). In the context of international trade, The gradual transfer from one live food facilities face a further challenge in finding organism to another is achieved by overlap- a way to distinguish F2 cultured animals

ping different feeds at the different weaning from wild-caught or F1 seahorses. CITES stages. At 7 days, juvenile seahorses are able Authorities require proof that the animals

to take copepods (Wilson and Vincent 1998) are cultured (from at least F2 generation) and juveniles of 3-8 weeks can be trained to before they can waive export controls. take frozen mysids, with the transition from Paper trails can sometimes serve to confirm live to frozen food sources usually taking that seahorses are from cultured rather than about a month (Koldewey 2005). wild sources, but physical distinctions are also needed. One operation in Sri Lanka Sourcing live food for seahorses could proves the captive provenance of its sea- potentially cause local prey depletion or horses by culturing only an exotic seahorse other negative environmental impacts, unless species not found in Sri Lanka (H. rreidieidi) but care is taken. Depending on the location and this approach can carry a serious risk of type of culture facility, adult seahorses are fed escape or release, with consequent threats live foods, a combination of live and frozen to native fauna, and is often banned under foods, or entirely on frozen foods. Adults national legislation (as well as running are commonly fed 2-4 times daily with live contrary to the CBD). In general, however, Artemia shrimp, Mysis shrimp, grass shrimp, research is needed to supplement current Gammarus copepods, , poecilid fry, and technical approaches for marking and tag- caprellid amphipods, or with frozen mysids ging sea-horses (Morgan and Martin-Smith (e.g., Euphausia pacifica) and adult Artemia. 2004, Woods and Martin-Smith 2004). A frozen food diet is the best choice where For culturing facilities, in particular, such live foods are only seasonally available or techniques will need to be cheap, easy to where the seahorses are destined for the apply and to recognize, and free of traits live aquarium trade, as hobbyists may have that might compromise sale or use. Good only limited access to live food. marking and tagging methods are also indis- Both juveniles and adults benefit from pensable for release programs, in order to enriched food, especially if several enrich- monitor the released animals and establish ment products are combined. The many pos- the impact, successful or otherwise, of such Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST sibilities for enrichment include phytoplank- stocking practices. ton (e.g., Nannochloropsis aculata, Isochrysis galbana, Tetraselmis chuii, T. suecica), essen- Export of live seahorses also poses some tial vitamins, commercial products of (Ω3) challenges. CITES meets the worldwide highly unsaturated fatty acids such as Selco, transport standards defined in the IATA Live Culture HUFA, Roti-Rich, astaxanthene Animal Regulations, governing transport by biological pigment Natu-Rose, AlgaMac commercial airlines. In consultation with 2000, amino acid or liquid multi-vitamins, CITES and the Marine Aquarium Council MicroMac 70, Aminoplex, Cyclop-eze, or (www.aquariumcouncil.org), specific guide- Beta Meal. Low cost supplements may also lines have been developed for the transport be locally available as an effective enrich- of seahorses (Koldewey 2005). Future of Seahorse Aquaculture 77

Impact of Aquaculture 4) Cultured syngnathids will be acceptable in the trade at economically viable prices. Seahorse aquaculture could theoretically serve as a rewarding commercial enterprise If the culture operation is to avoid add- and as a tool in the conservation of wild ing to conservation concern, it must assess populations, but the real conservation potential damage to the marine environ- benefits of culturing seahorses are still ment and implement mitigation programs very unclear. Any aquaculture activity that before seahorse culturing is initiated. Any removes animals from the sea, either as activity that further degrades the marine broodstock or for fish food, and discharges environment is unlikely to be in the inter- effluent into the sea will have an impact est of wild seahorse populations. Seahorse on the marine environment. Aquaculture aquaculture ventures need to demonstrate has had numerous well-documented det- the following: rimental effects on the environment over the past few decades (e.g., Chua et al 1989, Source populations are sufficiently well- Páez-Osuna 2001, Grosholz 2002, Utter understood that broodstock can be removed and Epifanio 2002). A reputable company without damaging them; will seek certification for its aquaculture a) The culturing operation will only operations, through its national govern- remove the minimum number of wild animals ment (where such regulations exist) and/or required to maintain the long-term genetic through impending standards from the Marine health of its captive-bred broodstock; Aquarium Council (in the case of live trade). b) Any long-term capture of wild food for the syngnathids does not negatively In order to preclude waste of seahorse affect the local marine ecosystem; animals used as broodstock and risk to the a) Effluent discharged from the facility marine environment, syngnathid culturing will not be detrimental to the local marine must first be economically viable. This environment; will only happen when sufficiently large b) The risk of escape of captive-bred numbers of young can be reared through syngnathids into the marine ecosystem, where to market size in a cost-effective manner. they could cause disease and behavioural and Moreover, the acceptability and price of genetic problems, is minimised. cultured syngnathids in the appropriate marketplace need to be ascertained before- No comprehensive environmental impact hand. Given the economic uncertainties in assessments have yet been undertaken syngnathid culturing, small-scale studies prior to the establishment of a seahorse using minimal numbers of animals should aquaculture venture. A few culture opera- Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST be carried out prior to the initiation of any tions have, however, adopted a responsible large-scale culturing efforts, in order to en- approach to seahorse farming, by regulating sure the following: water discharges, sale of exotic species, and broodstock collection. 1) The reproductive biology of the particular species has been thoroughly investigated; Seahorse aquaculture ventures need to 2) Reliable breeding and culturing techniques recognise the special responsibilities inherent have been developed; in working with threatened species. Culturing 3) The operation can repeatedly rear a suf- will only be of conservation benefit if it ficiently high percentage of young to reduces pressures of exploitation on wild market size at viable cost; populations. A great deal depends on how 78 Future of Seahorse Aquaculture

the dynamics of trade affect the fishing environmentally destructive activities such communities in source countries that would as coral mining and mangrove clearance. otherwise catch seahorses. Conventional While contributions to seahorse conserva- business strategies such as price competition may take many forms, the equitable tion and the development of new markets sharing of benefits with source communities need to be tempered by a clear understanding is important in any conservation-oriented of the local and global impacts of such stra- aquaculture venture. tegies on wild seahorse populations. Current Status of Seahorse At its best, aquaculture can potentially “Stock Enhancement” simultaneously decrease demand for wild- caught fish and provide sustainable income. The release of captive-bred or captive- At its worst, it either (a) fosters new demand held animals is often viewed as a useful for the species, including wild seahorses, method of bolstering threatened wild popu- (b) leads to drops in price, forcing fishers lations. The prospect of captive breeding to catch more wild seahorses in order to for release into the wild is also sometimes meet their basic needs, and/or (c) displaces used as justification for holding animals in fishers onto other vulnerable resources, captive populations, a means of disposing of with consequent economic change without unwanted or surplus stock, or a public rela- conservation gain. Aquaculture is likely to tions gesture to attract support for an en- be of greatest conservation value where it terprise. All such releases must be viewed facilitates new alternative livelihoods for with caution and, sometimes, cynicism. No seahorse fishers, thereby directly reducing release should be attempted without guar- pressure on wild seahorse populations. In anteed long-term financial, political, and the case of seahorses, however, technical local support. complications mean that centralised facilities may be needed to hold broodstock and Any release of captive seahorses needs culture juvenile seahorses through the chal- to be managed carefully, as it has the poten- lenging early weeks before they might be tial to severely damage wild syngnathid dispersed to fishers for grow out. populations and marine ecosystems. Many syngnathid populations are declining rela- Any culturing of seahorse species in tively rapidly and there may well be specific non-source countries should actively seek cases in the future where releases may have to ensure that fishing communities within to be considered. However, the IUCN RSG the source countries benefit equitably from guidelines note that formal releases are these endeavours. Indeed, a key require- lengthy, complex, and expensive processes Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST ment of the CBD is the fair and equitable that require preparatory and follow-up sharing of benefits derived from the exploi- activities. An ill-planned or casual release of tation of genetic (biological) resources seahorses could have disastrous impacts on between countries that commercialize these the wild population through, for example, resources (generally developed countries) the introduction of disease. Thorough and the source countries (generally devel- preparatory activities must be conducted oping countries). Unless fishing commu- before any release is initiated and a long- nities derive equitable benefit from their term monitoring program must be put into biological resources (e.g., seahorses), there place. Moreover, the factors leading to the will be no reason for them to protect and original decline in the wild population would manage these resources in a sustainable also need to be addressed, and management manner. The result may be an increase in plans set in place to avoid a similar extirpa- Future of Seahorse Aquaculture 79

tion of the introduced population. Casual disease transmission, (2) genetic threats, and releases are strongly discouraged. (3) community disruptions.

At present, there are no formal stock 1. Disease transmission enhancement programs for seahorses. There are, however, anecdotal reports of The release of captive animals must seahorse releases (juveniles and/or adults), be managed carefully to diminish the risk purportedly as a conservation action to of disease transmission to wild popula- supplement local populations. An appar- tions. While disease undoubtedly occurs ently universal lack of monitoring makes it in wild populations, it is unlikely to reach impossible to assess the positive, negative the proportions and severity seen in many or neutral effects of such releases. More culturing facilities where animals are often recently, though, a proposed remediation maintained at unnaturally high densities in project has sought technical advice from the artificial conditions. All animals in captivity, IUCN RSG, an approach that is strongly unlike those in the wild, may survive for recommended. Hopefully, any work that long periods of time because of the absence proceeds will include rigorous assessment of predators and use of medications. Most of its costs and benefits. worryingly, disease treatments have the potential to hide the effects of a disease- The four main types of releases need causing organism without necessarily eradi- to be differentiated because they differ cating it. Thorough screening procedures in the severity of their impacts (RSG: are, therefore, essential in any program that www.iucnsscrsg.org): transfers captive seahorses into the wild.

Translocation would be the transfer of The risk of disease transmission is increased wild syngnathids from one site to another when non-native seahorses are introduced where conditions may be different. Translo- into an area. Introduced seahorses may bring cated syngnathids may be held in captivity with them new disease organisms against for variable periods of time before being which local species may have little or no released into the new site. natural resistance. The potential for disease Supplementation would be the release transmission from captive to wild popula- of captive syngnathids into an area where a tions has also been highlighted, in the salmon wild population still exists. and prawn aquaculture industries in North Re-introduction would be the release of America, Asia, Europe, and elsewhere (e.g., captive syngnathids into an area where the Krueger and May 1991, Landesman 1994, local population has been extirpated (gone Roberts and Pearson 2005). Where these Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST extinct locally). impacts have occurred, the effects on wild Introduction would be the release of populations have been severe. non-native (exotic) syngnathids into an area where there has never been a population of 2. Genetic threats that species. The genetic diversity of wild popula- Most seahorse releases in the past have tions could be threatened when captive-bred been informal attempts at translocation or animals are released into the wild. Cap- supplementation, with all the attendant tive-bred animals are usually obtained from risks for recipient wild populations. Three a very limited number of parent animals main conservation issues may arise from (founders). Their genetic diversity may, either planned or accidental releases: (1) therefore, be quite low in comparison to 80 Future of Seahorse Aquaculture

levels in the wild. If large numbers of these the viability of the wild population. animals are released into an area, there Risk of disruption to marine communi- is a very real risk that they could swamp ties is perhaps most pronounced when exotic the genetic diversity of the recipient wild species are introduced into an area. Such population, thus lowering its overall genetic introductions may disrupt the structure and diversity in the long term. function of the local ecosystem, and lead to the extirpation (localized extinction) or extinc- A loss of variability is problematic as tion of native species. In most cases, the genetic diversity acts as a safeguard against randomly occurring events such as disease introduced species dies shortly after being epidemics and environmental changes that released because of incompatibility with the may otherwise destroy entire local popula- new environment. tions. Without this diversity, populations In numerous well-known cases, an intro- are far more vulnerable to such events. duced species thrives in new waters (Arthing- Risks are exacerbated if the released sea- ton 1991, Kaufman 1992, Townsend 1996, horses are from a captive population that Mariusz and Krzysztof 2005). The intro- differs genetically from the wild population as this may also lead to fundamental duction of an exotic seahorse species into alterations in the genetic structure of the the marine environment, therefore, could wild population. potentially lead to the establishment of a viable population that may compete with The artificial conditions associated with local species for food and habitat. Such a culturing may result in captive-bred fishes development could have severe detrimental having different genetic traits from those in impacts on the local species and community. the wild. Thus, the released fishes may be Numerous examples of problems associated genetically less adapted to conditions in the with the introduction of exotics into aquatic natural habitat (Cooke et al 2001, Ireland et systems exist all over the world, particularly al 2002). In the simplest case, the released in freshwater. Australia, for example, has a animals die soon after release, with relatively list of noxious introduced fishes, such as the few conservation consequences. If, however, ubiquitous tilapia, goldfish, and carp, which these animals survive to breed with wild are to be destroyed when caught. conspecifics, unsuitable genetic traits may be passed on to future generations. This could Conclusion eventually lead to a reduction in the long- term viability of the wild population, as has Seahorse aquaculture has received wide- occurred, for example, in trout (Leary et al spread attention because of concerns over 1993, Garcia-Marin et al 1998) Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST declines in wild seahorse populations, and recognition of their high economic value 3. Community disruptions and marketability. Many seahorses are The release of captive seahorses into threatened species (www.redlist.org) and areas where wild populations of the same all are now listed under CITES Appendix species are present brings risks; a sudden II (www.cites.org). Seahorses are among influx of new individuals into a small area the largest wildlife trade issues by volume could result in changes in the social struc- under CITES management. Conservation ture of the wild population as a result of action is clearly needed, both to revive wild increased competition for food, shelter, and populations and to permit continued exploi- mates. Such alterations in social and commu- tation. Such actions will need to include nity structure may have negative effects on reductions in fishing effort, but could also Future of Seahorse Aquaculture 81

involve aquaculture, were it implemented around the world and is often mistakenly in an economically sensible and ecologically viewed as a valuable contribution to the sensitive manner. conservation of wild seahorses. However, releases can potentially severely harm wild Seahorse aquaculture globally is still populations of seahorses and will seldom at the early stages of development. Most be an appropriate management action. companies operating for more than five Instead, conservation of wild populations years appear to have focused on providing primarily requires alleviation of pressures low volume, high value seahorses for the that caused the declines and their associated live aquarium trade. While techniques for concerns. Any conservation action requires culture have improved dramatically over the that goals, objectives, methods, indicators, last 5-10 years, very few facilities are cur- and targets be clearly defined. On the rare rently operating on a commercially viable occasion when planning justifies a release, scale, largely because of continued techni- it is essential that a comprehensive moni- cal and financial challenges associated with toring and assessment programme also be rearing seahorses. implemented to understand the impacts of such action. Conservation benefits of seahorse aquaculture have often been highly questionable, Facilities that are engaged in breeding despite many claims as to their aims and and rearing seahorses are in a strong posi- achievements. Before commercial seahorse tion to contribute to research needed for culturing can become useful for seahorse conservation action. From a technical aspect, conservation, it will need to achieve eco- much more information on seahorse diets and nomic viability, neutralise environmental diseases is needed, with appropriate public impacts, and enhance conservation value. documentation and dissemination of findings. Meeting only the former two conditions Aquaculture facilities and CITES Authorities will result in commercial enterprises that do alike also require marking techniques that little to assist global efforts to protect wild enable the easy identification of cultured sea- seahorses. In contrast, ventures that also horses in trade. Furthermore, considerable address the global conservation impacts of research is needed on life history parameters their activities could potentially have signifi- that could advance seahorse conservation and cant conservation benefits. In particular, management, including (a) fisheries depen- seahorse aquaculture operations need to do dent and fisheries-independent abundance the following: estimates, (b) age- or stage-based natural and fishing mortalities, (c) growth rates and Avoid promoting (directly or indirectly) age at first maturity, and (d) intrinsic rates of Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST new or increased trade in wild seahorses increase and age- or size-specific reproductive Address their impact on subsistence output. Such information would contribute fishers, and thus wild seahorses and other greatly to conservation in the wild, which marine life must, after all, be our first priority with any Respect international conventions such species of concern. as the CBD. Acknowledgements It will always be better to increase the viability of wild populations than to bring This is a contribution from Project Sea- animals into captivity for rearing and subse- horse. We thank the SEAFDEC Aquacul- quent release. Release of captive seahorses ture Department and participants at this into the wild is an increasingly common activity SEAFDEC Regional Technical Consultation 82 Future of Seahorse Aquaculture

for their kind interest and support. We are Chaladkid S and Hruangoon N. undated. also grateful to Candace Picco for her help Comparative studies on different types of in finalizing this manuscript. Preparation feed and salinities which affect the growth of this paper was supported by the John G. of young seahorse (Hippocampus kuda) in Shedd Aquarium (Chicago, USA) through the laboratory [in Thai, English abstract]. its partnership for marine conservation Burapha University Institute of Marine with Project Seahorse, by Guylian Choco- Science, Chonburi, Thailand lates Belgium, and by the Forestry Bureau, Cheung PJ, Nigrelli RF and Ruggieri GD. COA, Taiwan. Early associated research on 1980. Studies on the morphology of seahorse aquaculture was partly assisted by Uronema marinum Dujardin (Ciliatea: Columbus Zoo (USA), the International Uronematidae) with a description of Development Research Centre (Canada) the histopathology of the infection in and the Community Fund (UK). marine fishes. J. Fish Dis. 3: 295-303 Chua TE, Paw JN and Guarin FY. 1989. References Environmental impact of aquaculture Alcaide E, Gil-Sanz C, Sanjuán E, Esteve D, and the effects of pollution on coastal Amaro C and Silveira L. 2001. Vibrio har- aquaculture development in Southeast veyi causes disease in seahorse, Hippocam- Asia. Mar. Poll. Bull. 20 (7): 335-343 pus sp. J. Fish Dis. 24 (5): 311-313 Cooke SJT, Kassler W and Philipp DP. 2001. Aquaculture Institute of Shanghai. 1982. Cul- Physiological performance of large- ture of seahorses [in Chinese], pp. 474- mouth bass related to local adaptation 495. In: Fish Biology and its Mariculture. and interstock hybridization: implica- Agriculture Publication Press. Beijing, tions for conservation and management. China J. Fish Bio. 59 (suppl A): 248-268 Arthington AH. 1991. Ecological and ge- Dao XL and Hoang P. 1991. The survey netic impacts of introduced and trans- results of Hippocampus in the coastal located freshwater fishes in Australia. waters of central provinces and rearing Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 48 (suppl. 1): H. kuda in cement containers [in Viet- 33-43 namese]. Tuyen Tap Nghien Cuu Bien Baum JK and Vincent ACJ. 2005. Magni- 3: 235-245 tude and inferred impacts of the sea- Fenner B. 1998. Pipes, horses, and dragons: horse trade in Latin America. Env. Cons. A real challenge. Tropical Fish Hobby- First published online doi: 10.1017/ ist May: 16-29 So376892905002481 Foster SJ and Vincent ACJ. 2004. Life his- Blasiola GCJ. 1979. Glugea heraldi nov. sp. tory and ecology of seahorses: implica- Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST (Microsporida, Glugeidae) from the tions for conservation and management. seahorse Hippocampus erectus Perry. J. J. Fish Bio. 64 (6): 1-61 Fish Dis. 2 (6): 493-500 García-Marín JL, Sanz N and Pla C. 1998. Blazer S and Wolke RE. 1979. An Exophia- Proportions of native and introduced la-like fungus as the cause of a systemic brown trout in adjacent fished and un- mycosis of marine fish. J. Fish Dis. 2 (2): fished Spanish rivers. Cons. Biol. 12 145-152 (2): 313-319 Bull C (ed). 2002. Seahorse husbandry in public Giles BG, Truong SK, Do HH and Vincent aquaria: 2002 Manual, with chapters ACJ. 2005. The catch and trade of sea- contributed by members of the Syngnathid horses in Vietnam. Biodiv. Cons. First discussion group. John G. Shedd Aquarium. published on line DOI: 10.1007/s10531- Chicago, Illinois, April-December 2001 005-2432-6 Future of Seahorse Aquaculture 83

Greenwell M. 2002. Health and well being– tification of Seahorses. CITES Technical “the buzz about fuzz”. Labyrinth, April: Manual. ISBN 0 9534693 0 1 8-9 Lovett JM. 1969. An introduction to the Grosholz E. 2002. Ecological and evolution- biology of the seahorse H. abdominalis. ary consequences of coastal invasions. Unpub. B.Sc. Honors thesis, University Trends Ecol. Evol. 17 (1): 22-27 of Tasmania Hargrove M. 1998. Knights of the sea. Trop- Mariusz RS and Krzysztof ES. 2005. Spread ical Fish Hobbyist, May: 30-40 of alien (non-indigenous) fish species Hormchong T, Komwech V and Kovitvadhi S. Neogobius melanostomus in the Gulf of undated. Rearing of seahorse, Hippocampus Gdansk (south Baltic). Biol. Invasions 7 kuda (Bleeker) in laboratory [in Thai, (2): 157-164 English abstract]. Institute of Marine Martin-Smith KM and Vincent ACJ. 2006. Science, Srinakharinwirot University, Exploitation and trade of Australian Bangsaen Chonburi, Thailand seahorses, pipehorses, sea dragons and Ireland SC, Beamesderfer RCP, Paragamian pipefishes (family Syngnathidae). Oryx VL, Wakkinen VD and Siple JT. 2002. 40: 1-11 Success of hatchery-reared juvenile white McPherson JM and Vincent ACJ. 2004. sturgeon (AcipenserAcipenser transmontanustransmontanus) fol- Assessing East African trade in sea- lowing release in the Kootenai River, horse species as a basis for conserva- Idaho, USA. J. Appl. Ichthyol. 18 (4-6): tion under international controls. Aquat. 642-650 Cons. 14 (5): 521-538 Job SD, Do HH, Meeuwig JJ and Hall HJ. Meng Q and Yu K. 1985. A new species 2002. Culturing the oceanic seahorse, of Ciliata, Licnophora hippocampi sp. Hippocampus kuda. Aquaculture 214: nov., from the seahorse Hippocampus 333-341 trimaculatus Léach, with considerations Kaufman L. 1992. Catastrophic change in of its control in the host. Acta Zool. Sin. species-rich freshwater ecosystems: The 31 (1): 65-69 lessons of Lake Victoria. Bioscience 42 Morgan S and Martin-Smith K. 2004. Selected (11): 846-858 techniques for tagging seahorses. Project Koldewey H. 2005. Seahorse husbandry in Seahorse Technical Report Series (6). public aquariums: 2005 Manual, with Available at: http://seahorse.fisheries.ubc chapters contributed by members of the .ca/pdfs/tech/Tagging_Seahorses.pdf Syngnathid discussion group. Zoologi- Páez-Osuna F. 2001. The environmental impact cal Society of London, London, UK of shrimp aquaculture: Causes, effects, and Krueger CC and May B. 1991. Ecological and mitigating alternatives. Env. Mngmnt 28

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST genetic effects of salmonid introductions (1): 131-140 in North America. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Payne MF and Rippingale RJ. 2000. Rearing Sci. 48 (suppl. 1): 66-77 West Australian seahorse, Hippocampus Landesman L. 1994. Negative impacts of subelongatus, juveniles on copepod nau- coastal aquaculture development. World plii and enriched Artemia. Aquaculture Aquaculture 25 (2): 12-17 188 (3-4): 353-361 Leary RF, Allendorf FW and Forbes SH. Pham TM and Dao XL. 1991. Mot so ket 1993. Conservation genetics of Bull Trout qua nghien cuu ve benh va cach dieu in the Columbia and Klamath River tri O ca ngua nuoi (Hippocampus kuda) drainages. Cons. Biol. 7 (4): 856-865 [Disease and its control in Hippocampus Lourie SA, Foster SJ, Cooper EWT and culture: in Vietnamese]. Tap Chi Sinh Vincent ACJ. 2004. A Guide to the Iden- Hoc 10: 54-56 84 Future of Seahorse Aquaculture

Publicity and Education Committee, CAAS. Vincent ACJ. 1996. The International Trade (1990). China’s Aquaculture Society [in in Seahorses. TRAFFIC International. Chinese], pp. 123-143. In: Valuable Species Cambridge, UK Mariculture Techniques. Science Publicity Vincent ACJ and Clifton-Hadley RS. 1989. Press. Beijing, China Parasitic infection of the seahorse (Hippo-Hippo- Roberts RJ and Pearson MD. 2005. Infectious campus erectus) - a case report. J. Wildl. pancreatic necrosis in Atlantic salmon, Dis. 25 (3): 404-406 Salmo salar L.L. J.J. FishFish DDis.is. 2288 ((7):7): 338383 Wilson MJ and Vincent ACJ. 1998. Prelimi- Shandong Marine College. 1985. Chapter nary success in closing the life cycle of 4: Seahorse culture [in Chinese], pp. 491- exploited seahorse species, Hippocampus 507. In: Mariculture Manual. Shandong spp., in captivity. Aquarium Sci. Cons. 2 Science and Technology Press. Shanghai, (4): 179-196 China Woods CMC. 2000a. Improving initial sur- Shen J. 1982. Two new digenetic trema- vival in cultured seahorses, Hippocampus todes from the sea horse - Hippocampus abdominalis Leeson, 1827 (Teleostei: trimaculatus. Oceanol. Limnol. Sin. 13 Syngnathidae). Aquaculture 190 (3-4): (3): 285-288 377-388 de Silva PHDH and Fernando CH. 1965. Woods C. 2000b. Seahorse project. Aqua- Three marine leeches (Piscicolidae, culture update (27): 3-4 Hirudinea) from the Malay Peninsula. Woods CMC and Martin-Smith K-M. 2004. Spolia Zeylanica 30: 227-231 Visible implant fluorescent elastomer Townsend CR. 1996. Invasion biology and tagging of the big-bellied seahorse, Hip- ecological impacts of brown trout Salmo pocampus abdominalis. Fish. Res. 66 trutta in New Zealand. Biol. Cons. 78 (2-3): 363-371 (1): 13-22 Wu H and Gu G. 1983. Culture of seahorse Truong SK. 1998. Prospects for community- (Hippocampus spp), pp. 226-229. In: based seahorse aquaculture in Vietnam, Shanghai Fisheries College, Shanghai pp. 465-474. In: Morton B (ed) The Xu G. 1985. Fish mariculture studies in Marine Biology of the South China Sea China. NAGA, ICLARM Q. News. 8 III. Hong Kong University Press. Hong (4): 5-6 Kong Utter F and Epifanio J. 2002. Marine aquaculture: Genetic potentialities and pitfalls. Rev. Fish Biol. Fish. 12 (1): 59-77 Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Status of the Mekong Giant Catfish, Pangasianodon gigas Chevey, 1930 Stock Enhancement Program in Thailand

Naruepon Sukumasavin Inland Fisheries Research and Development Bureau Department of Fisheries, Praholyothin Road, Jatuchak, Bangkok, Thailand

Introduction Rarity and size

The Mekong giant catfish (PangasianodonPangasianodon The Mekong giant catfish has been listed gigas Chevey, 1930) is one of the largest on CITES Appendix I since 1975 and classi- freshwater fish in the world, measuring up fied as “Endangered” on the IUCN Red List to 3 m in length and weighing in excess of in 1996. It has been classified as “Critically 300 kg. It is endemic to the Mekong River Endangered” on the IUCN Red List since Basin area. It is found in Tonle Sap Lake, 2003 after the fish disappeared from Chiang Tonle Sap River, and the Mekong River. It Khong in 2001-2003. is not known to occur in the upper 2,000 km It can be assumed that the Mekong of the Mekong River. The current extent of giant catfish is threatened due to human occurrence is estimated at around 4,150 km. activities, such as overfishing or alterations Historical reports indicate that the species to the environment (increasing disruption was abundant in the early 1900s with 40-50 fish of migration corridors, from construction caught yearly in Nong Khai Province, north- of dams and weirs means fragmentation of east Thailand. However, since that time the existing habitats etc.). Furthermore, it may number of fish caught has declined. In 1967, be rare because it is evolving or is a relic fishermen captured 11 P. gigas in the area species of an old group. (Pookaswan 1969) and by 1970, this fish Its large body size may also be a reason for was caught only as by-catch of beach seine its rarity. Data from FAO FishBase showed fisheries (Pholprasith and Tavarutmaneegul that the proportion of threatened fishes 1997). From 1980 to the present, it has been increases substantially for maximum sizes found in Chiang Khong District, Chiangrai exceeding 100 cm length, and that most fish

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Province, Northern Thailand. The number species that grow to this size are threatened. of fish caught in Chiang Khong is shown in In general, large bodied fish tend to be Fig. 1. The catch has declined from 69 fish more susceptible to fishing, partly because in 1990 to just 7 fish in 1997. In 1999, 20 fish of their relative mobility, which increases were captured in Chiang Khong, but no fish the likelihood of encountering fishing gears. were caught in the area during 2001-2003 Further, the preference of most fishers for which may be due to the blasting of rapids large, valuable fish, and the fishery itself in Chiang Saen District, north of Chiang appears as a likely cause of the decline of Khong. Since 1999, the giant catfish has P. gigas. The situation for the Mekong giant also been reported in the Tonle Sap River, catfish is further aggravated because fishers Cambodia. target them in the spawning grounds. 86 Mekong Giant Catfish in Thailand

Fig. 1. Number of giant catfish Pangasianodon gigas caught in Chiang Khong District, Chiang Rai Province, Thailand, from 1983 to present. Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST

Fig. 2. Number of Mekong giant catfish fingerlings produced from wild sourced and captive broodstock from 1983 to 2005. Since the 2005 spawning season of the captive broodstock has just started, the number of fingerlings reported reflects the partial total production for 2005. Mekong Giant Catfish in Thailand 87

Natural food mature gonads in Chiang Khong. Present fishing activities in Chiang Khlong cannot be After the yolk sac has been absorbed, stopped since it is “the way of life” of people giant catfish hatchlings are fed zooplankton as it generates income. The Thai DOF then (Moina sp.) for two weeks. The fry are canni- uses a short period of 2-3 days before the fish balistic (Pholprasith 1983). When the fish are killed, to induce the fish to spawn. are one year old, they become herbivorous (Pookaswan 1969). Adults feed on filamen- The first successful artificial breeding tous algae, but probably also ingest insect of wild spawners caught in the Mekong larvae and periphyton. The lack of dentition River was reported in 1983. Since then, on the jaws and vomer area has led fishery successful breeding has been achieved biologists to believe that the fish feeds on every year, except in 1986 and 1998 (Fig. 2). algae growing on submerged rocky substrates Initially, the hypophysation technique was (Pholprasith 1983). used. Since 1992, gonadotropin hormone- releasing hormone analogue and dopamine Natural spawning season and antagonist have been used successfully in spawning grounds induced spawning (Leelapatra et al 2000).

The natural spawning season of the The offspring of the wild-caught paren- Mekong giant catfish is from late April to tal stock which were reared continuously in mid-May but the location of the spawning captivity for about 17 years were success- grounds is poorly known. One well-known fully bred for the first time in 2000. Since spawning site is in the mainstream of the 2004, broodstock that were reared in closed Mekong River northward from Chiang recirculating cement tank systems have Khong in northern Thailand (Pholprasith been induced to spawn successfully. It can and Tavarutmaneegul 1997) where mature now be concluded that the life cycle of the fish have been caught annually during the captive P. gigas stock has been completed by spawning season. Thongsaga and Pholprasith the Thai DOF. (1991) reported that local fishermen observed mating behavior of P. gigas in the Mekong River Cryopreservation of sperm about 30 km upstream of Chiang Khong.

Age and size at first maturity Using cryopreservation, spermatozoa of male Mekong giant catfish were success- There is no report on the age at first fully preserved in liquid nitrogen, retaining maturity in nature. The spawners that its fertilizing capacity for up to 3-4 months, and a fertilization rate of around 65% (controls

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST were caught in Chiang Khong in 1984- 1990 were estimated to be 6-12 years old 73%). After 18 months, the fertilization rate with body weight of 150-250 kg (Pholprasith was 67.7±7.1% while controls were 79.0± 1.4% and Tavarutmaneegul 1997). Mature females (Pholprasith 1992). are larger than the males. Captive spawners were 14-18 years old with a body weight of Stock Enhancement 40-60 kg. The Thai DOF has started the stock Breeding Program enhancement program of P. gigas since 1983. The objective of the stock enhance- The Thai Department of Fisheries (DOF) ment program is mainly to conserve, retain launched a breeding program for wild Mekong or replenish stocks of P. gigas which are giant catfish in 1980 after obtaining fish with endangered. Furthermore, stock enhance- 88 Mekong Giant Catfish in Thailand

ment of P. gigas aims to maintain fisheries coded ultrasonic transmitter tags and moni- productivity of a water body (especially in the toring tags by means of ultrasonic receivers) reservoir) at the highest possible level. seem to be very promising. However, long- term monitoring using this technique is very At present, the stocking strategy is not costly and requires cooperation from the based on any scientific principle. The stocking riparian countries along the Mekong River. size is from 3 to 20 inches in total length. In the Mekong River, only offspring from Production from reservoirs wild broodstock were stocked. In the years when more than one pair of broodstock were Recently, the Thai DOF has started to induced to spawn, fingerlings from all brood- monitor catches of P. gigas in reservoirs. The stock were mixed and released. However, if results from a study in 2004 showed that only one pair of broodstock were spawned, only 2% (1,500 of 64,000) of stocked fish the offspring were mixed with those produced were recaptured in 10 reservoirs throughout in the previous years to ensure that the genetic the country. The total weight of fish was diversity of the wild fish would not decrease. 64.2 tonnes with a value of 4.79 million Baht Also, fingerlings stocked into the Mekong (0.12 million USD) (Fig. 4). River have been limited to the lowest possible number until the population structure has Population Genetics Studies been determined. At present, around 60,000 fingerlings have been stocked in the Mekong Reduced genetic variation causes a decrease River. The stocking sites were not confined in the ability of a population to adapt to and only to its spawning ground in Chiang Khong, withstand normal environmental challenges. but every province along the Mekong River Therefore, for a population to avoid extinc- was included (Fig. 3). tion in the longer term, it is essential that appropriate and sufficient genetic variation In inland water bodies like reservoirs, be maintained. This becomes an issue particu- fingerlings will be tagged before stocking larly when breeding fish for release into the to identify their origin. Stocking will be wild. Since 2000, genetics of P. gigas has been conducted only in large water bodies with studied to determine the genetic structure of established conservation programs. The the wild fish and develop a broodstock manage- stocking density is one fish per 30 rai (5 ha). ment plan for both restocking programs and Catches are monitored annually. From 1984 aquaculture. Microsatellite DNA (msDNA) to 2004, more than 100,000 Mekong giant and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) markers catfish fingerlings have been released into have been developed. Genetic variability of reservoirs throughout Thailand. wild and captive stocks was estimated using Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST both markers. Stock inventory for hatchery Tagging fish is being conducted to develop a brood- Various types of tagging techniques have stock management plan and reconstruct the been applied to the Mekong giant catfish in genotype of the wild stock using the genetic order to study its behavior and migration route. structure of the founder populations in the Fin clipping, hot branding and Spaghetti tags hatchery. are found to be useful only for short-term studies since these marks or tags change or Conclusion are removed accidentally as the fish grows fast. Preliminary studies using ultrasonic There has been very little evaluation of biotelemetry technique (by implanting with the recapture data and no demonstration Mekong Giant Catfish in Thailand 89

Fig. 3. Number of Mekong giant catfish fingerlings released into the Mekong River at Chiangrai, Nongkhai, Nakornphanom, Mukdaharn and Ubolratchathani, 1985-2004. Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST

Fig. 4. Number of Mekong giant catfish fingerlings released into reservoirs throughout Thailand, 1984-2004. 90 Mekong Giant Catfish in Thailand

of the economic viability of stock enhance- Mattson N, Buakhamvongsa K, Sukuma- ment of Mekong giant catfish in inland water savin N, Nguyen T and Ouk V. 2002. bodies. Inspite of these, stock enhancement Management and Preservation of Mekong of the Mekong giant catfish in inland water Giant Fish Species. MRC Technical Paper bodies seems to be very successful. However, for No. 2. 16 p. conservation purposes, more genetic studies Mongkonpunya K, Chairak T, Pupipat T are needed to support a suitable restocking and Tiersch TR. 1995. Cryopreservation program that will not affect natural stocks of of Mekong Giant Catfish Sperm. Asian P. gigas in the Mekong River. Furthermore, it Fish. Sci. 8: 211-221 is suggested that any management aimed at Pholprasith S. 1983. Induced spawning of the improving the situation of threatened species Mekong giant catfish. Thailand Fish. Gaz. or reintroduction of extinct species must start 36(4): 347-360 by the identification of the possible reasons Pholprasith S. 1992. Biology and economical for rarity (Mattson et al 2002). If these prove studies on the Mekong giant catfish to be unsuccessful, efforts aimed at improving Pangasianodon gigas (Chevey,(Chevey, 1930).1930). Depart-Depart- or re-establishing populations are likely to ment of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand. 27 p. fail as well. Notably, this implies that stocking Pookaswan T. 1969. Pangasianodon gigas aimed at re-inforcement/supplementation or Chevey. Inland Fisheries Division, Depart- re-introduction of a threatened or extinct ment of Fisheries, Thailand 7: 12 p. species should only be considered after the Pholprasith S and Tavarutmaneegul P. 1997. factors that cause rarity have been identified Biology and culture of Mekong giant and resolved. catfish Pangasianodon gigas (Chevey 1930). Extension Paper No. 31. National Inland References Fisheries Institute, Bangkok. 79 p. Thongsaga S and Pholprasith S. 1991. Some Leelapatra W, Srisakultiew P and Sukumasavin aspects on the biology of the Mekong giant N. 2000. Biology and breeding of indi- catfish Pangasianodon gigas (Chevey) genous Mekong fish species in Thailand. pp. 499-511. In : Proceedings of the 29th Management of reservoir fisheries in Kasetsart University Annual Conference the Mekong Basin II. MRC. Compo- (Fisheries), Kasetsart University, Bangkok, nent Report No. 2: 83-86 Thailand Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Organization and Development of Stock Enhancement in Japan

Takuma Sugaya National Stock Enhancement Center, Fisheries Research Agency Oita, Japan

Introduction 80 species. Stock enhancement is undertaken by both the national government and local In the 1960s, the Japanese economy was governments together with conservation of starting to industrialize. The rapid increase fishing ground and regulation of fish catches in business investment in new factories and for resource management (Resource Asso- equipment stimulated a yearly economic ciation 1983a, Imamura 1999, Fishery Agency growth rate of approximately 12% (METI 2000, JASFA 2003a). This article reports the 1970). However, these developments have present status of stock enhancement in Japan from disrupted coastal landscapes through land the organizational and technical viewpoints. reclamation and industrial effluents (Fishery Agency 1980a). Furthermore, overfishing Organizations has accelerated with increased consumer spending and demand for fish protein. Conse- At present, there are 16 national and 177 quently, coastal fish resources such as red local hatcheries operated by national and local sea bream (PagrusPagrus major), kuruma prawn governments in Japan. The national hatcheries (MarsupenaeusMarsupenaeus japonicusjaponicus) and swimming crab aim to develop stock enhancement tech- (PortunusPortunus trituberculatustrituberculatus) have been depleted niques, and mainly target migratory species and income of coastal fisherfolk has decreased which are chosen based on their resource (Fishery Agency 1980b). Under such condi- levels and local government requests (Fushimi tions, the Japanese government initiated 2001, JASFA 2003a). Local hatcheries carry out the Stock Enhancement Program in 1963 the stock enhancement programs for local (Fishery Agency 1980c, Imamura 1999). species using techniques developed by the national hatcheries (Imamura 1999). In some The program initially targetted red sea cases, national hatcheries and neighboring bream and kuruma prawn in the Seto Inland local hatcheries cooperate to evaluate the Sea in southern Japan which covers almost effectiveness of stock enhancement (Fishery 3,000 islands (Imamura 1999). Because the Agency 2002). Similarly, stock enhancement Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST fundamental concept of stock enhancement of sedentary species has also been promoted programs was to compensate juvenile loss by the local hatcheries in response to requests caused by high larval mortality in the ocean, from regional fisherfolk (Agatsuma 2005, development of mass juvenile production Toba 2005, Maru and Kosaka 2005, Sasaki techniques was emphasized (Fishery Agency 1980a, Matsuoka 1989). Therefore, the release 2005). Consequently, such stock enhancement of juveniles became a typical form of stock programs have covered 36 fish species, 15 enhancement in Japan. crustacean species, and 20 mollusk species with annual releases of 80 million fish, 300 million The current number of target species for crustaceans, and 14 billion mollusks (Tables stock enhancement has increased to almost 1 and 2). 92 Stock Enhancement in Japan

Table 1. Fish and crustaceans targeted in the stock enhancement programs of Japan. Family Scientific name Common name Fish Branchiostegidae Branchiostegus japonicus Japanese tilefish Carangidae Pseudocaranx dentex Striped jack Seriola quinqueradiata Yellowtail Clupeidae Clupea pallasii Pacific herring Gadidae Gadus macrocephalus Pacific cod Haemulidae Parapristipoma trilineatum Chicken grunt Lethrinidae Lethrinus nebulosus Spangled emperor Paralichthyidae Paralichthys olivaceus Japanese flounder Lateolabrax japonicus Japanese seaperch Platycephalidae Platycephalus indicus Bartail flathead Pleuronectidae Pleuronectes herzensteini Littlemouth flounder Pleuronectes schrenki Cresthead flounder Pleuronectes yokohamae Marbled flounder Tanakius kitaharae Willowy flounder Verasper moseri Barfin flounder Verasper variegatus Spotted halibut Sciaenidae Nibea japonica Japanese meagre Scombridae Scomberomorus niphonius Japanese Spanish mackerel Thunnus orientalis Pacific bluefin tuna Scorpaenidae Sebastes inermis Black rockfish Sebastes oblongus Oblong rockfish Sebastes pachycephalus Spotbelly rockfish Sebastes schlegeli Korean rockfish Sebastes thompsoni Goldeye rockfish Sebastes vulpes Fox jacopever Sebastiscus marmoratus Japanese stingfish Serranidae Epinephelus akaara Hong Kong grouper Epinephelus bruneus Longtooth grouper Epinephelus septemfasciatus Convict grouper Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Plectropomus leopardus Leopard coral grouper Sparidae Acanthopagrus australis Surf bream Acanthopagrus schlegeli Black porgy Pagrus major Red seabream Synanceiidae Inimicus japonicus Devil stinger Tetraodontidae Takifugu rubripes Ocellate puffer Trichodontidae Arctoscopus japonicus Sailfin sandfish Crustaceans Penaeidae Penaeus japonicus Kuruma prawn Penaeus semisulcatus Green tiger prawn Penaeus chinensis Fleshy prawn Metapenaeus ensis Greasyback shrimp Stock Enhancement in Japan 93

Table 1 (continued from p. 92)

Family Scientific name Common name Pandalidae Pandalus kessleri Hokkai shrimp Pandalus hypsinotus Humpback shrimp Palinuridae Panulirus japonicus Japanese spiny lobster Lithodidae Paralithodes brevipes Spiny king crab Majidae Chionoecetes opilio Snow crab Cheiragonidae Erimacrus isenbeckii Hair crab Portunidae Scylla paramamosain Mud crab Scylla serrata Mangrove crab Portunus trituberculatus Swimming crab Portunus pelagicus Flower crab Grapsidae Eriocheir japonicus Mitten crab

From Fishery Agency et al (1993-2003)

Fish and crustaceans prawn (Morikawa et al 2003). In addition, the swimming crab (P.P. trituberculatustrituberculatus) and Among 36 fish species, the major ones greasyback prawn (M. ensis) have been are the Japanese flounder (P.P. olivaceus) released by national and local hatcheries in and red sea bream (P.P. major) with annual the Seto Inland Sea and the Sea of Ariake releases of about 25 and 20 million seed- (Fishery Agency et al 1993-2003). lings, respectively (Fig. 1). Stock enhancement programs for these two species are Mollusks and other species mainly promoted by local hatcheries and have attained commercial success in limited Only local hatcheries promote the areas (Imai 1996, Fujita et al 1993). Besides, stock enhancement of mollusks. Among the stock enhancement effectiveness of 20 mollusk species, the numbers of indivi- those species has been jointly evaluated by duals released annually are huge for scallop the local hatcheries with the financial aid of (PatinopectenPatinopecten yessoensis) and Japanese little- the Japanese government (Imai 1996, Fishery neck clam (Ruditapes philippinarum) - 3 and Agency 2002). Recently, such joint evalua- 10 billion, respectively (Fig. 3). The scallops Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST tion has been applied to the Pacific herring are released only in the coast of Hokkaido (C. pallasii), ocellate puffer (T. rubripes), and and in Mutsu Bay by local hatcheries, and Japanese Spanish mackerel (S. niphonius) the littlenecks mainly in Tokyo and Ise Bays (Fishery Agency 2002). by fisherfolk unions (Resource Association 1983b, 1983c, Maru and Kosaka 2005, Toba Among 15 crustacean species, the greatest 2005). These stock enhancement programs focus is on the kuruma prawn (M.M. j japonicusaponicus). have been successful in each stocking region Over 200 million individuals are released (Maru and Kosaka 2005, Toba 2005). The annually mainly in southern Japan (Fig. littlenecks are sometimes released for recrea- 2). In particular, local institutions around tional shellfish gathering of visitors (Toba the Sea of Ariake have undertaken initia- 2005). Besides, six of the 20 mollusk species tives for the stock enhancement of the are abalones which have high market value 94 Stock Enhancement in Japan

Table 2. Shellfi sh, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, and cephalopod targeted in the stock enhancement programs of Japan.

Family Scientific name Common name Shellfish Haliotidae Haliotis aquatilis Japanese abalone Haliotis diversicolor Variously colored abalone Haliotis discus discus Disk abalone Haliotis discus hannai Ezo abalone Haliotis madaka Giant abalone Haliotis gigantea Gmelin Disk abalone Trochidae Tectus niloticus Commercial trochus Turbinidae Turbo cornutus Horned turban Turbo marmoratus Great green turban Buccinidae Neptunea polycostata Ezo neptune Balylonia japonica Ivory shell Fusinus perplexus Perplexed spindle shell Arcidae Scapharca broughtonii Ark shell Pectinidae Patinopecten yessoensis Yezo scallop Tridacnidae Tridacna crocea Crocea clam Veneridae Meretrix lamarckii Hard clam Ruditapes philippinarum Japanese littleneck Mactridae Pseudocardium sachalinense Sakhalin surf clam Tresus keenae Trough shell Solecrutidae Sinonovacula constricta Razor clam Sea urchins Arbacia Tripneustes gratilla Collector urchin Pseudocentrotus depressus Red seaurchin Echinoidea Anthocidaris crassispina Hard-spined sea urchin Strongylocentrotidae Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus Elegant sea urchin Strongylocentrotus intermedius Intermediate sea urchin Strongylocentrotus nudus Naked sea urchin Sea cucumber Holothuroidea Stichopus joponicus Japanese common sea cucumber Cephalopod Octopodidae Octopus vulgaris Common octopus Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST From Fishery Agency et al (1993-2003)

in Japan (Table 2). They are released by local Technical Process hatcheries in all coastal areas of Japan due to strong requests from regional fisherfolk The technical aspects of stock enhance- (Sasaki 2005). Sea urchins and sea cucumbers ment can be classified into several phases, are important target species of regional stock namely; spawning, seed production, tagging, enhancement programs with approximately 80 release, and survey. Among these, seed produc- million seedlings released annually by 50 local tion and survey of effectiveness of stock hatcheries (Fishery Agency et al 1993-2003). enhancement techniques have developed Stock Enhancement in Japan 95

Fig. 1. Annual numbers of released individuals of Japanese flounder and red sea bream in Japan (data from Fishery Agency et al 1993-2003).

remarkably in the past two decades. More- equipment. Generally, 10,000 to 20,000 eggs over, disease prevention and conservation of per mt are placed in the tank for mass seed genetic resources in seedling populations production (K. Teruya, personal commu- have become recent issues. nication). Water flow in a tank is controlled by means of aeration to distribute eggs and Spawning, seed production and larvae uniformly (K. Teruya, personal commu- release nication).

Wild fish and crustaceans from the The first larval diets consist of rotifers management area of a stock enhancement and brine shrimp; the more advanced stages program are used as broodstock (Mushiake are fed artificial diet (Fushimi 2001, JASFA et al 2003, Yano 2005). Most wild fish need to 2003b). The nutritional value of rotifers and be reared for several months or years before they brine shrimp is usually enhanced by feed- are induced to spawn by hormonal treatment, ing highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFAs) control of water temperature, and/or control including docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST of photoperiod (Hirose 1991, Mushiake et (Fushimi 2001). Besides, three different- al 2003). Artificial fertilization is performed sized rotifer species - Brachionus plicatilis, according to the need of each stock enhance- B. rotundiformis, and Brachionus sp. - are used ment program (Mushiake et al 2003). Among according to the mouth size of larvae (Hino et crustaceans, mature females that have mated al 2000). Conditions in the rearing tanks are are obtained from the wild to supply fertilized checked daily including water temperature, eggs (Yano 2005, Hamasaki 2005). Spawning pH, dissolved oxygen, food intake of the seed of females is synchronized by regulating water and swimming activity of rotifer. Rotifer supply temperature (Yano 2005, Hamasaki 2005). is considered to be crucial for the success of mass seed production. Mass seed production is usually performed in 50– to 350– mt concrete tanks with air Seeds which have grown large enough and water supply systems and water heating for release are transported by boat or truck 96 Stock Enhancement in Japan

Fig. 2. Annual numbers of released individuals of kuruma prawn in Japan (data from Fishery Agency et al 1993-2003).

to a release point. The seed are sometimes Cost effectiveness of stock enhancement acclimatized to the natural environment in is estimated based on the price and the num- net cages settled in the ocean for several days ber of marked seedling sold in fish markets or months prior to release (Tanida et al 2003, (Kitada 2001). The daily number of recap- JASFA 2003b). In striped jack (PseudocaranxPseudocaranx tured seedlings is checked for several years in dentex), continuous feeding of artificial diets all the fish markets which sell fishery products after release is useful for such acclimatization from the stocking area (Kitada 2001, Okouchi by regulating their dispersal from the release 2003). Information on fishing grounds and area to the ocean (Kuwada et al 2004). fishing gears are also collected to standardize fishing effort among the markets (Kitada Tagging and survey 2001, Okouchi 2003). Such information can sometimes contribute to the improvement Various tags have been used in stock of stock enhancement technology. enhancement programs. External tags, such as fin or caudal appendage cuttings, branding Disease prevention iron, dart tag, and disc and ribbon type tags, are While mass seed production has been Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST commonly used to examine the distribution of successful in many species, infectious diseases released fish and prawns (Achiha 2004, Tanida have often caused mass mortality of larvae et al 2003, Fujimoto et al 2001, Takeno et al (Muroga 1995). In particular, viral diseases, 2001). The effectiveness of stock enhancement such as Viral Nervous Necrosis (VNN) in is usually evaluated by the fin or caudal striped jack and some other fishes, White appendage cuttings and the branding iron Spot Disease (WSD) in kuruma prawn, and because these tags are relatively stable and easy viral ascites in yellowtail have caused major to use. Similarly, Alizarin complexone (ALC) is damage to the stock enhancement programs of used by many cooperative stock enhancement the host species (Munday 2002, Satoh et al 1999, programs as an internal tag to distinguish the Sorimachi and Hara 1985). Many bacterial source of the released fish seed (Takemori et diseases such as vibriosis, pasteurellosis, al 2005, Sasaki et al 2002, Okouchi 2003). gliding bacterial infection, and bacterial enteritis Stock Enhancement in Japan 97

Fig. 3. Annual numbers of released individuals of scallop and Japanese littleneck clam in Japan (data from Fishery Agency et al 1993- 2003).

with Vibrio sp. are additional obstacles in mass now being applied to epidemiological analysis seed production (Muroga 1995). Sterilization in the hatchery (Sugaya et al 2005). by ozone or ultraviolet rays of the seawater used for production has become popular Prevention of disease transmission from in recently established hatcheries to keep out hatchery fish to wild fish is very important disease agents from the ocean. At the same for responsible stock enhancement. There- time, there is growing awareness that sanitary fore, hatcheries check for the presence of supervision, e.g., strict assignment of tools and disease agents and viruses in seedlings before workers to a given tank, is important to prevent their release. and control diseases in the hatchery. Genetic variability However, seawater sterilization has not In many target species for stock enhance- always been effective for viral diseases because Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST ment program, the seedlings have usually they can be transmitted by the broodstock. For low genetic variability and altered genetic example, VNN and WSD are known to occur composition relative to the wild popula- in larvae and juveniles via vertical transmission tion due to limited numbers of broodstock. (Munday 2002; Satoh et al 1999). Therefore, Such phenomenon has led the concern that recent seedling production has selected brood- released seedlings might decrease the genetic stock based on diagnosis by polymerase chain variability of the wild populations and disturb reaction (PCR) techniques (Nishizawa 1994, the locally adopted gene pools (FAO 1993, Satoh 2001, Mori 1998). PCR diagnosis checks Campton 1995). for the presence of viral nucleic acids in ovar- ian eggs or the thelycum (Mori 1998). More- From this points of view, most hatcheries over, such molecular biological techniques are gather from the stocking area 50-200 98 Stock Enhancement in Japan

wild individuals for broodstock of Japanese will supply valuable information about stock flounder (P.P. olivaceus ) and red sea bream enhancement effectiveness. Furthermore, (P.P. majormajor) to reflect the regional genetic the information might contribute to more composition and variability (T. Nishioka, effective combination of stock enhancement, personal communications). These brood- conservation of fishing ground and regulation stock are partially replaced every 3-5 years of fish catches for proper resource manage- (Mushiake et al 2003). Furthermore, recent ment. development of highly polymorphic DNA markers, such as microsatellites DNA and Acknowledgement mitochondrial DNA markers are about to I express my gratitude to Mr. M. Oka, bring a new strategy for the genetic management T. Nishioka, K. Teruya, Dr. K. Mori, Mr. K. of the broodstock. The selective breeding Maruyama and Mr. K. Nogami at National according to the minimal-kinship criterion, Center for Stock Enhancement for helpful which can be evaluated by pedigree analysis advice and providing the information about based on DNA markers, has been reported the stock enhancement program in Japan. to be effective for the genetic conservation even in small number of broodstocks References (Sekino et al 2003, Taniguchi 2004, Ortega- Villaizán Romo et al 2006). Achiha H. 2004. Distribution and migration of hatchery-reared ocellate puffer Future Directions Takifugu rubripes released in Ise and Mikawa Bays. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi The stock enhancement program activi- 70: 304-312 ties that started in the Seto Inland Sea have Agatsuma Y. 2005. Sea urchins, pp. 339-366. been expanded in the last four decades to In: Mori K (ed) Shellfish, Crustacea, cover the rest of Japan. Mass seed produc- Sea Urchins and Sea Algae. The mari- tion techniques have been established in culture system Series 3, Koseisyakoseikaku, almost 80 species and have contributed Tokyo (in Japanese) to the expansion of the stocking program. Campton DE. 1995. Genetic effects of In several species such as scallop, kuruma hatchery fish on wild populations of prawn and red sea bream, stock enhance- pacific salmon and steelhead: What do we really know? Amer. Fish. Soc. Sym. ment has been successful economically in 15: 337-353 some areas. In contrast, the effectiveness of FAO. 1993. Expert consultation on utiliza- stock enhancement has not been evaluated tion and conservation of aquatic genetic for many other target species because of the resources. FAO Fisheries Report 491: 1-58

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST complexity of the fishery and fluctuations in Fishery Agency. 1980a. The systematic pro- the natural populations of the species. cess of stock enhancement, pp. 103-174. In: Fishery Agency (ed) Coastal Age. Current stock enhancement in Japan Chikyusya, Tokyo (in Japanese) has recently improved with the develop- Fishery Agency. 1980b. The present states of ment of the fish market survey method to the coastal fishery, pp. 1-20. In: Fishery estimate effectiveness of stock enhance- Agency (ed) Coastal Age. Chikyusya, ment. Joint studies have been organized Tokyo (in Japanese) among local and national hatcheries for Fishery Agency. 1980c. The present states the precise estimation of stock effectiveness of advancement method of the coastal using the marker survey method. Although fishery, pp. 49-73. In: Fishery Agency there are still difficulties in this method due (ed) Coastal Age. Chikyusya, Tokyo (in to the complexity of the fishery, these studies Japanese) Stock Enhancement in Japan 99

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(PenaeusPenaeus japonicus) in the eastern Seto Toba M. 2005. Japanese littleneck, pp. 287- Inland Sea. Saibai Giken 31: 25-30 (in 298. In: Mori K (ed) Shellfish, Crustacea, Japanese) Sea Urchins and Sea Algae. The maricul- Taniguchi N. 2004. Broodstock management ture system Series 3, Koseisyakoseikaku, for stock enhancement programs of marine Tokyo (in Japanese) fish with assistance of DNA marker (a Yano I. 2005. Kuruma prawn, pp. 299-328. review), pp. 329-330. In: Leber KM, In: Mori K (ed) Shellfish, Crustacea, Kitada S, Blankenship HL and Svasand Sea Urchins and Sea Algae. The mari- T (eds) Stock Enhancement and Sea culture system Series 3, Koseisyakoseikaku, Ranching. Blackwell, Oxford Tokyo (in Japanese) Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST 102 Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Fisheries, Aquaculture and Stock Enhancement in Lao PDR

Hanh Choudara Department of Livestock and Fisheries Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Lao PDR

Introduction dietary protein of Lao people comes from living aquatic resources which are important Fisheries development in Lao PDR is for food security of the nation. confined to inland fisheries development and sustainable freshwater aquaculture including Endangered Species culture-enhanced capture fisheries and fishery- in Fisheries enhanced aquaculture. Given the potential of water, wetland and aquatic resources and According to Article 18 of the Regulation the magnitude of decline in fish catches from of the National Conservation Forest, Aquatic the Mekong River and its tributaries, the Animal and Wildlife (Reference No. 0524/ Government of Lao PDR has given priority MAF.2001, 7 June 2001), endangered aquatic to fisheries development with strong concern animals and wildlife in Lao PDR are classified for sustainable aquaculture. The overall into two categories: policy framework is therefore geared toward the sustainable use, appropriate management 1) Protected species – rare aquatic animals and protection of natural resources: forest, and terrestrial wildlife with high conservation land and water resource including aquatic value, importance and usefulness to society biodiversity. The national goal for fisheries (Table 1). Fishing and hunting of protected development during the last decade was species are prohibited for all seasons. focused on how to increase fish production from aquaculture while maintaining capture 2) Controlled species – rare aquatic animals fisheries, recognizing that about 50% of the and wildlife whose populations are threatened

Table 1. List of protected freshwater species. Lao name English name Scientific name

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Pa kha Irrawaddy dolphin Orcaella brevirostris Pa phalay Sting ray Dasyatis laosensis Pa kouang Croaker Boesemania microlepis Pa beuk Giant catfish Pangasianodon gigas Pa leum Pangasius sanitwongsei Pa seua Tiger perch Datnioides pulcher Pa laifaitfa Electric eel Anguilla marmorata Pa meo Setipinna melanochir Pa eun khao Thicklip barb Probarbus labeamajor Pa bou Gobies Oxyeleotris marmorata Pa kheung Hemibagrus wykoides 104 Stock Enhancement in Lao PDR

Table 2. List of controlled freshwater species. Lao name English name Scientific name

Pa souay Pangasius Pangasius krempfi Pa fa ong Freshwater turtle Amyda spp. Pa khoun Wallago marmorata Pa deng Tor spp. Pa nang deng Hemisilurus Pa phone Cirrhinus microlepis Pa makway Luciosoma spp. Pa keng Cirrhinus molitorella

with extinction. People can use these species 3) No dolphin management committee for home consumption but not for large scale 4) Use of gill nets (all mesh sizes) harvesting or trade. Fishing and hunting are 5) Overfishing and increase in number of not allowed during the breeding season. fishers (especially large scale commercial fisheries) There is insufficient information regarding 6) Use of explosives the current status of the protected and controlled 7) Shallowing of deep pools due to sedi- aquatic species in Lao PDR. Many are most mentation and habitat change likely in critical status, while others may require a 8) Water pollution from oil and mining review of their conservation status. Based on Tables 1 and 2, only three species are included 9) Noise problems created by fast boats in the CITES list: Orcaella brevirostris (Pa kha), 10) Natural death and disease Pangasianodon gigas (Pa beuk) and Probarbus labeamajor (Pa(Pa euneun khao).khao). Status of Seed Production Technology Why endangered? of Freshwater Species

With the country’s vast water resources, Aquaculture development in Lao PDR a large number of indigenous species is has been a tradition with lessons learned from present within the different ecosystems. The neighboring China, Vietnam and Thailand. The Mekong River and its tributaries have been seed farms were built in many provincial capitals heavily fished resulting in the decline and especially in Vientiane, Savannakhet, Pakse, endangered status of many species espe- Sayeboury, Louang Prabang, Houaphanh, cially the Mekong River Irrawaddy dolphin

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Xiengkhouang and Oudomxay. As of 2001, at the Cambodia-Lao PDR transboundary there were 30 existing hatcheries (17 govern- pool. The Government of Lao is a CITES ment-managed and 13 privately run farms), member and retains internationally important and 9 are under construction. This will be the populations of many declining and otherwise threatened species. basic infrastructure for expansion of aquaculture in the near future. The causes for declining species are as follows: Broodstock development and management 1) Illegal fishing (electro-fishing and no seasonal fishing) The basic element of profitable fish pro- 2) Harassment from tourist, fishing and duction is sufficient and good quality breeding passenger boats in the dolphin areas material including brood fish, eggs, larvae, Stock Enhancement in Lao PDR 105

fry and fingerlings for supply to the farmers. management. Fisheries management func- The important parts of broodstock manage- tions have been decentralized and local ment are: authorities have been assigned to ensure the conservation of natural resources and 1) Procurement, development, rearing and development of fish farming. Local authori- maintaining of broodstock ties are responsible for promoting public 2) Provision of optimal living conditions awareness on the adverse impacts of illegal for broodstock and young and destructive fishing gears, sustainable 3) Selection and basic genetic improvement exploitation, use of indigenous fish and non- of broodstock carnivorous species, and the careful use of 4) Preparation of spawners for reproduction exotic species in aquaculture. 5) Development of breeding program and providing good quality seeds to the Fisheries management measures have been farmers enforced by local authorities and communities themselves with many prejudices, conflicts Broodstock management as a substan- and problems. It was due to unverified tial component of fish farming depends on scientific information responding to the hatchery managers, technicians and fish farm- causes of the problems at the grassroots level. ers who maintain, select, and produce the For this reason, the Prime Ministerial Decree broodfish. Hatchery managers should take 118 (5 October 1989) concerning the man- care of all the responsibility of breeding work. agement and conservation of terrestrial and Environmental conditions during rearing also aquatic animals, as well as regulation of fish- strongly determine the spawning potential of ing and hunting activities, was declared and broodfish, feeding management and handling enforced. methods. At present, regulatory policies for aqua- Nursery systems culture and fisheries have not been formulated. There is a need to establish appropriate The recommended stocking rate for one- laws in aquatic resource management, devel- week old fish fry commonly cultured in the opment and research in the country. country are 400-500/m2 in earthen ponds (more then 60 cm water depth) and 250/m2 inin Stock Enhancement cement tanks (more than 50 cm water depth). Fish fry are stocked at these densities for up With the increase in economic develop- to one month or until they reach a size of 2-3 ment and growth in both domestic and cm, after which densities are reduced since regional trade, the demand for fish has like- competition for food and space will increase wise increased. It is believed that increased Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST quickly, and growth and survival of the fry production from capture fisheries may not could decline. Once the fry reach 2-3 cm, be possible, so it has to come from aqua- intensive nursing in net cages is an option if culture or enhancement of fisheries. Viable flowing water and aeration are available. fish farming systems and management practices have been promoted, with more focus Legislation on rural aquaculture, e.g., fish seed production and nursery, small-scale fish culture in The Lao PDR government has given pond, rice-cum-fish farming, enhancement emphasis to fisheries and aquatic resources of communal water bodies, integrated fish- management, while other related laws covering livestock farming, extensive to semi-exten- forestry, land, water, and environment have sive cage culture of fish, and environmentally also been formulated in support of fisheries sustainable commercial fish farming. 106 Stock Enhancement in Lao PDR

National restocking/stock minimizing impacts, and preserving aquatic enhancement program biodiversity. Different forms of aquaculture must be promoted, especially of species Fisheries and aquatic resources in Lao which are preferred by local folk and which PDR are also of immense importance in comprise most of the total fish produc- restocking, if we consider more than one tion in the country. Government programs million hectares of water resources from the should be geared towards the promotion of Mekong River and its tributaries, swamps, low-input technologies such as rainfed rice- rainfed ricefields, flood plains, reservoirs cum-fish and integrated small fish culture, (natural and man-made), and other wet- which are well within the reach of marginal- lands. Capture fisheries resources have been ized fish farmers in the rural areas. declining. For sustainable use of aquatic resources, the Forestry Law (Reference No. Capture fisheries 01-96 dated 10 November 1996, Article 46) declared 13 July of each year as the day for Appropriate strategies for fisheries manage- releasing fish and protecting aquatic animals ment should be based on the Code of Conduct and wild life. The current stocking rates in for Responsible Fisheries (FAO 1995), Conven- natural water resources are generally low tion on Biological Diversity (particularly its due to a shortage of seedstock. However, implications for fisheries management), and about 34.5 million fish were stocked in lakes Convention on Migratory Species. and reservoirs throughout the country last 1-13 July 2004. The species were mostly tilapia, In the context of Lao PDR and the Lower Cirrhinus microlepis (Pa phone), Brobarbus Mekong Basin, there is still a need for greater jullieni and Hypophthalmicthys nobilis (Big- understanding of the physical and socio- head carp). economic settings of present endowments in aquatic resources. Riverine ecology, taxo- The development program of aquacul- nomy, fish life cycle, fish habitats and breeding ture in Lao PDR is focused on the following grounds, aquatic plants and animals, and activities: wetland values need to be indentified and reassessed. 1.Rehabilitation of fish hatcheries and expansion of fish seed production and For best management practices, some distribution key factors should be considered such as: 2.Development of small-scale breeding facilities at local level 1. Centralization of fisheries management functions to empower local communi-

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST 3.Development of rural aquaculture 4.Improvement of fish feed ties to participate in co-management functions using local knowledge and effec- Strategies tive traditional management systems 2. Implementation of policies that prohibit Fisheries and aquatic resources research illegal and destructive fishing gears and and development should concentrate on re- practices, by building awareness on adverse source assessment and also community stud- impacts, enforcement of regulation and ies, aquaculture and extension. Therefore, encouragement of alternative means of short and long-term research and develop- livelihood ment priorities for the fisheries sub-sector 3. Introduction of rights-based fisheries in should focus on the sound management of some important reservoirs and fishing declining harvests from rivers and reservoirs, grounds Stock Enhancement in Lao PDR 107

4. Promotion of the importance of fresh- build awareness of their adverse impacts, water fisheries for local food security, develop and promote responsible and rehabilitation and restoration of habitats selective fishing gears and practices, for migratory fish, restocking of indigenous enforce regulations and encourage al- fish species, and promotion of culture-based ternative means of livelihood freshwater fisheries, where appropriate 3) Investigate the potential of under-uti- 5. Use of national statistical systems by lized fisheries resources and promote focusing on clear objectives and results their exploitation in a precautionary directly related to fishery management manner based on the best available sci- decision-making and planning processes entific information under rights-based fisheries regimes Aquaculture 4) Coordinate and decentralize collection and use of fisheries-related statistical For the development of aquaculture in data among national fisheries and other Lao PDR, the basic principle adhered to authorities, including those respon- is poverty alleviation covering aspects of sible for food, trade, vessel registration, social equity, gender equity, environmental aquaculture and rural development sustainability, economic viability and good 5) Develop national statistical mechanisms governance. Among the key elements identi- for the exchange of statistical data and fied during the February 2000 Conference on related information Aquaculture in the Third Millennium is The 6) Ensure production of high quality seeds, Bangkok Declaration and Strategy. At this develop domesticated broodstock and stage of aquaculture development, Lao PDR promote responsible collection and use should incorporate the following elements of wild broodstock and seeds in the government’s development strategies: 7) Reduce the risks of negative environ- 1) Invest in aquaculture development ment impact, loss of biodiversity and 2) Integrate aquaculture into rural develop- diseases ment 8) Build human resource capabilities for 3) Manage aquaculture health environment-friendly aquaculture 4) Apply genetic methods in aquaculture Government agencies and NGOs 5) Improve nutrition in aquaculture involved 6) Improve food fish quality and safety 7) Promote market development and trade For fisheries development and manage- 8) Strengthen institutional support ment and sustainable aquaculture, the Ministry 9) Strong regional and inter-regional of Agriculture and Forestry, and Department Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST cooperation of Livestock and Fisheries cooperates with the Forestry Department, Irrigation Department, Monitoring National Agriculture Research Institute and Monitoring of fisheries and aquaculture Science and Technology and Environment management include the following: Agency. Over the last decade (1990-2000), numerous activities have been conducted 1) Establish and implement comprehen- with the valuable assistance and coopera- sive policies for innovation in fisheries tion of many donor countries, international management organizations and NGOs namely the Mekong 2) Develop measures to prevent unauthor- River Commission, Fisheries and Agriculture ized fishing and eliminate the use of Organization-United Nations Development illegal and destructive fishing gears, Programme, Danish International Develop- 108 Stock Enhancement in Lao PDR

ment Agency, International Development nity, election of representatives from fisher Research Centre of Canada, Japan Internation- groups, planning the activities to address al Cooperation Agency, Swedish International the identified problems, implementation Development Agency, and Australian Center of activities, monitoring and evaluation of for International Agricultural Research. activities, and reviewing current plans and establishing new plans. More than 30 activities have been carried out for sound fisheries management and Conclusion interventions in collaboration with other sectors, and private firms through bilateral, An expanding human population and multilateral and regional assistance. These poverty make the conservation of endan- include inventories, assessment, biophysical gered species in Lao PDR difficult because studies of resources, surveys, socio-economic poor people in rural areas still suffer from studies, community awareness, post-impound- inadequate nutrition. The importance of ment management, etc. indigenous fish species in Lao PDR and the Co-management of fisheries value of food and income generated from capture fisheries have not been emphasized The process of establishing fisheries and made aware to the public. It is in this co-management in Lao PDR includes the regard that people must be informed of following: field survey, data collection, their social responsibility to maintain and meetings and discussion with farmers to conserve fish biodiversity if only to protect find out problems, organizing the commu- this valuable food source. Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Fishery Stock Enhancement in Malaysia

Kamarruddin Ibrahim and Zaidnuddin Ilias Turtle and Marine Ecosystem Centre Rantau Abang, 23000 Dungun, Terengganu Malaysia

Introduction management initiatives including the restocking and stock enhancement program in the Stock enhancement is a management country. Its scope covers only aquaculture- tool which alleviates problems that endan- based species, which is in line with the ger natural resources. Endangered aquatic Program on Stock Enhancement for Species resources are broad issues that involve not of International Concern being implemented only individual species but also the habitat by the Southeast Asian Fisheries Develop- and environment where they live and inter- ment Center/Aquaculture Department in the act. Although measures are being undertaken Philippines. to help specific cases, the universal problem of threatened aquatic species cannot be Endangered species solved until humans protect their natural environments (Kurpis 2002). Species may Freshwater vertebrates become endangered due to overexploitation, habitat alteration and destruction, and At present, three indigenous species of overpopulation by alien species and other freshwater fishes are protected by law in some factors. Natural changes normally occur at a States in Malaysia (Table 1). Thus far, no slow rate giving most organisms ample time invertebrates have been listed for protection. to evolve and adapt to changes. However, Brackishwater and marine invertebrates and drastic changes due to natural disasters, e.g., earthquakes or tsunamis, may halt adaptation vertebrates and cause most individuals to die, or even To date, Malaysia protects 26 species of lead to species extinction. vertebrates including one fish, five reptiles Species extinction is a global issue that and 20 marine mammals. In addition, four requires all nations to practice sustainable species of marine mollusks (invertebrates), management. This paper aims to examine all of which belong to the genus Tridacna, the status of endangered fisheries species are included in the protection list. Several in Malaysia, and highlight some resource other species that are heavily exploited but Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST have yet to be listed under the Malaysian Table 1. List of endangered freshwater fish. marine protected species include sea cucumbers (in particular, Stichopus spp.) Scientific English Local name name name and seahorses (Hippocampus spp.) (Table 2). These species deserve urgent protection. Scleropages Golden Kelisa formosus arowana Volume of yearly catch for the Tor tambroides Malaysian Kelah last 10 years Mahsheer Freshwater vertebrates Probarbus Jullien’s Temoleh jullieni golden- Although the two species of freshwater price barb fish (Tor tambroides and Probarbus jullieni) 110 Fishery Stock Enhancement in Malaysia

Table 2. List of endangered brackishwater and marine invertebrates and vertebrates.

Group Scientific name English name Local name

Mollusks Tridacna gigas Giant giant clam Kima gergasi Tridacna maxima Large giant clam Kima besar Tridacna crocea Crocus giant clam Kima Tridacna squamosa Scaly/Fluted clam Kima sisik Fish Hippocampus spp. Sea horses Kuda laut Invertebrates Stichopus spp. Sea cucumbers Gamat

are protected in a number of states, these particularly in the Borneo part of Malaysia. fishes are still exploited for local consumption. Catch data is hardly available. The seahorses The golden arowanas (ScleropagesScleropages formosus),formosus), (Hippocampus spp.) and sea cucumbers sought after as exotic fishes are found in (StichopusStichopus spp.) have been sought-after species both domestic and international markets. for medicines for decades. Seahorses are They are legally caught from rivers but mainly exported, whereas Stichopus spp. their export is prohibited except the second are locally used. Compared to other fishery

filial generation (F2) juveniles produced from products, the volume of catches for these artificial breeding. Unfortunately, annual catch two groups of fishes is rather small and limited statistics of all three species are not available. to a few selected areas hence, the data is However, the estimated landings of all fresh- hardly documented. water fishes, both from public water bodies and inland fisheries are presented in Table 3. Fisheries Biology

Brackishwater and marine invertebrates Habitat, life cycle and feeding habits and vertebrates Freshwater species The collection of giant clams for consumption is prohibited in islands that have been The sought-after ornamental species of declared as marine parks. However, scattered arowanas are native to most undisturbed illegal collection persists in some areas rivers in Malaysia. S. formosus is found to

Table 3. Estimated landings (mt) of freshwater fishes from both public water bodies/inland

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST fisheries in Malaysia (excluding Sarawak State), 1994-2003. Landings (mt/yr) Species 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 All freshwater fish species (Javanese carp, common carp, 2,064 3,939 3,683 3,949 4,344 3,453 3,549 3,446 n/a 3,828 catfishes, black and red tilapias, etc.) Fishery Stock Enhancement in Malaysia 111

Table 4. Statistics of seed production of freshwater species and releases into public water bodies in Malaysia (excluding Sarawak State) for 1997-2003 (x 103 mt).

Production (103 mt/year) Species 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 All species (Javanese carp, Common carp, Giant freshwater 6,891 5,160 2,697 4.502 2,353 Not 5,408 prawns, River catfish and Red available tilapias, etc.)

breed naturally in Krian River and Tasik arowana juveniles by local aquaculturists Merah Lake in Taiping, Perak. The life was successful in the past ten years. How- cycle and other biological information of ever, seed production technology for Kelah arowanas are well known and the breeding and Temoleh species is still in its infancy. It of this species is successful. On the other is worth noting that there are established hand, Kelah (Tor tambroides) and Temoleh seed production technologies for Javanese (ProbarbusProbarbus jjullieniullieni) are poorly studied (Ahmad- carps, common carps, giant freshwater Ashar 1992). prawns, Red tilapia, River catfish and a few Brackishwater and marine species other freshwater fishes. Some 2,000–7,000 fry of these species are released annually into A number of ecological and biological water bodies for conservation (Table 4). studies on giant clams and sea cucumbers have been attempted by researchers from Brackishwater and marine species the Malaysian Department of Fisheries and In Malaysia, seed production technology local universities. Unlike giant clams and for brackishwater and marine vertebrate sea cucumbers, seahorses have received little and invertebrate species, like the giant clams, attention from the scientific community. sea cucumbers and seahorses, is still lacking. Why endangered? Therefore, data on seed production and releases for these species are not available. The Malaysian classification of endangered species follows the International Union for Aquatic Resource Management the Conservation of Nature categories and the Convention on International Trade in Fisheries laws and regulation Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST listings. However, there are species that Enforcement at different levels need special attention as their populations A number of laws and regulations are have drastically declined. For example, the used to protect and manage aquatic fishery State of Perak has formulated laws to protect all resources in Malaysia. A partial list of such three freshwater species listed in Table 1. legislation specifically addressing the issue Status of seed production technology of endangered resources follows:

Freshwater species Fisheries Act 1985 (Act 317) Fisheries (Prohibition of Method of Fishing) The technology for seed production of Regulations 1980 arowanas (S. formosus) is readily available Fisheries (e.g., Prohibition of Import of Fish) Regulations 1990 in Malaysia. The production of F2 and F3 112 Fishery Stock Enhancement in Malaysia

Table 5. Existing sanctuaries and protected areas in Malaysia.

Sanctuary name State in Malaysia Species protected Kelah (Tor tambroides) Pahang (in National Park) Freshwater fish/Kelah Sanctuary Sungai Nenggiri Kelantan (in National Park) Freshwater fish/Kelah Sanctuary Tasek Bukit Merah Perak Kelah, Arowana & other Sanctuary freshwater fish Marine parks Kedah, Pahang, Johor, Coral reef ecosystems Terengganu, Sabah and including giant clams, Sarawak sea cucumbers, seahorses Fisheries prohibited Sarawak (P. Talang-Talang), Mollusks, corals, fishes areas Melaka (P. Besar), Negeri Sembilan (Tg. Tuan) No trawl zone (5 nm) Entire country All coastal species State parks All states All terrestrial and aquatic organisms National parks Pahang, Terengganu All terrestrial and Kelantan, Sarawak, aquatic organisms Sabah

Fisheries (Prohibited Areas) (Rantau aquatic areas beyond 3 nm. In addition, Abang) Regulations 1991 there are cases that involve both Federal Establishment of Marine Parks Malaysia and State levels, especially pertaining to Order 1994 fishery activities in 3 nm overlapping areas. Fisheries (Prohibited Areas) Regulations Rights are given to some local communities 1994 to fish in protected areas using simple and Fisheries (Control of Endangered Species traditional gears. For example, local island of Fish) Regulations 1999 inhabitants are allowed to fish in the vicinity State Fisheries (Riverine) Rules Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST of Marine Parks, for their daily consump- Legislation and enforcement work at tion using handlines. both Federal and State levels. In Peninsular Malaysia, the Department of Fisheries imple- Habitat protection and rehabilitation ments such laws for both levels. In Sarawak Sanctuaries and protected areas and Sabah, the enforcement is supplemented by some State laws and regulations. Establishing sanctuaries and protected areas is one of the best tools in managing Territorial use rights (TURFs) aquatic resources. There are a number of Anything that is found on land and water sanctuaries and protected areas designated areas up to three nautical miles (nm) is covered by the Federal and State governments by State law whereas Federal law applies to (Table 5). Fishery Stock Enhancement in Malaysia 113

Artificial reefs and mangrove replanting vertebrates have been included in the release programs. The most common species selected To mitigate factors causing resource over- for restocking are given in Table 6. exploitation and habitat loss and degradation, the government has long undertaken resource The current problems regarding heavily enhancement activities such as restocking and depleted aquatic resources have prompted artificial reef programs. the government to look into this matter seriously. Stock enhancement will become a) Artificial reefs another important tool that will dominate fisheries management in this country in the Traditional artificial reefs of bamboo and years to come. coconut leaves started as early as the fishing industry in Malaysia. The Department of National Restocking/Stock Fisheries first launched tire-made artificial reefs in 1975 in areas near Pulau Telor, Kedah Enhancement Program (Zainuddin and Abdul-Razak 2000, Latun Species stocked and Wong 1988, Omar et al 1991). Since then more than 40 sites of tire reefs have been Freshwater species installed around Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak. This was followed by the use of other Table 6 shows the species used for materials and designs such as sunken boats restocking in natural water bodies in Malaysia, and concrete. Artificial reefs have proven to of which the five most common species are be effective and useful in Malaysia hence their the Javanese carp, Common carp, Giant development continues to be an important freshwater prawn, Red tilapia and River undertaking (Abdul-Razak and Ismail 1992, catfish. The Red tilapia tops the list with a Wagiman et al 1994). Various materials and record of two million juveniles released in designs may be attempted in the future, taking 2003. The Department of Fisheries plans to into consideration successes reported by some step up work on release programs for Kelah authors (Baine and Heaps 1992, Collins et and Temoleh, after some success in artificial al 1992, Eggleston et al 1992, Jensen et al breeding (Ahmad-Ashar 1992). 1994(a), Jensen et al 1994(b), Snapier 1994). Brackishwater and marine species b) Mangrove replanting Restocking and enhancement for sea There are about 560,000 ha of mangrove turtles and painted terrapin have been an forests in Malaysia. The Kerian and Kuala on-going program for decades. No stock Sepetang mangrove reserves in Perak are enhancement has been attempted for brackish- Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST good examples of properly managed mangroves water and marine species because of the lack where sustainable use and scheduled replanting of breeding technology to date. Research are practiced. The recent tsunami incident is being carried out to develop and establish that seriously hit neighbouring countries has breeding technologies for sea cucumbers, to prompted Malaysia to give special attention to be followed by giant clams and seahorses. mangrove replanting starting 2007 until 2010. Marking and tagging Stock enhancement/artificial restocking Marking and tagging of fish have limited application in Malaysia. Passive Integrated Efforts to restock freshwater fishes and Transponder (PIT) tags have been used in

prawns were attempted as early as the 1980s. the country to mark mature females and F2 Approximately 30 species of these aquatic arowana juveniles for export purposes. 114 Fishery Stock Enhancement in Malaysia

Table 6. Culture-based fisheries and aquaranching in Malaysia.

Culture-based Fisheries Aquaranching Freshwater Freshwater Fish in used mining pools – various Tilapia (Oreochromis spp.) species Catfish (Clarias spp., Pangasius spp.) Freshwater lakes (man-made) – various Freshwater prawn (MacrobrachiumMacrobrachium species rosenbergii) Freshwater fish in net-cages – various Chinese major carps (bighead, grass species and common) Culture of red claw (Cherax Indian carps (rohu, catla) quadricarinatus) in ponds Javanese carps Local cyprinids Brackishwater Brackishwater Penaeid or marine prawn culture in Cockles trapping ponds Mussels Mussel culture (raft and pole Grouper methods Oysters Oyster culture (raft method) Mud crabs Marine finfish culture in net-cages Pen culture in lagoons

Marine Marine Cockles using on-bottom culture Cockle (Anadara granosa) Mussel (Perna viridis) using raft and Penaeid prawn (Penaeus monodon) poles Seabass (Lates calcarifer) Oyster (Crassostrea spp.) using raft Grouper (Epinephelus spp.) Snapper (Lutjanus spp.) Mussel (Perna viridis) Oyster (Crassostrea spp.) Seaweed (Eucheuma, Gracilaria)

Release strategies to study the income and turtle related tourism and the impact of artificial reefs on the economy Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Direct release of marine turtle and terrapin of traditional fishers are underway. hatchlings has been practiced as this method simulates Mother Nature. For fishes, releases Monitoring have been attempted to restore stocks in original habitats. Information on when, where Monitoring the progress of stock enhance- and how best to release the juveniles should ment activities is undertaken by the Depart- be determined through research. ment of Fisheries for selected freshwater species. Impact on catches Government agencies, NGOs involved Appropriate studies have not been carried out to determine the impact of stock enhance- Federal and State agencies involved in ment on the environment. Preliminary efforts implementing restocking program collaborate Fishery Stock Enhancement in Malaysia 115

with local universities insofar as research juvenile Caribbean spiny lobster Panu- activities are concerned. The involvement of lirus argus: Spatial, habitat, and lobster non-governmental organizations is concen- size effects. Fish. Bull. 90: 691-702 trated on the conservation of freshwater Jensen AC, Collins KJ, Free EK and Bannister species at two localities, namely, the Sungai RCA. 1994(a). Lobster (Homarus gam- Nenggiri Sanctuary in Gua Musang, Kelantan marus) movement on an artificial reef: and the Tasek Bukit Merah Sanctuary in Taiping, potential use of artificial reefs for stock Perak. enhancement. Crustaceana 67 (2): 198-211 Jensen AC, Collins KJ, Lockwood APM, Co-management by local communities Mallinson JJ and Turnpenny AH. 1994(b). One good example of the community- Colonisation and fishery potential of a based resource management for freshwater coal waste artificial reef in the United species is the so-called tagal (closed) system Kingdom. Bull. Mar. Sci. 55 (2): 1242- in Sabah. Local communities that live near 1252. the rivers are given traditional rights to Latun AR and Wong FH. 1988. Ecological manage and exploit resources from selected monitoring of the concrete reef at Pulau rivers. The selected rivers (total of 174, to Payar, Kedah – A preliminary report, date) are closed for one or two years. The pp. 208-215. In: Proceedings of the communities look after the rivers and they First Fisheries Seminar, Department of are allowed to fish only on selected days in Fisheries Malaysia a year. Those who illegally fish and pollute Kurpis L. 2002. www.endangeredspecie.com/ the rivers can be fined. causes_of_endangerment.htm). Malaysian State Fisheries (Riverine) Rules References Omar RMNR, Kean CE, Wagiman S, Hassan AMN and Hussein M. 1991. The Abdul-Razak L and Ismail I. 1992. An analysis of design and construction of artificial reefs the efficacy of three artificial reef designs using PVC pipes in Malaysia. 5th Inter- at Pulau Lembu, Kedah. Proceedings national Conference on Aquatic Habitat of Fisheries Seminar, Department of Enhancement, Long Beach, California, Fisheries Malaysia USA, 3-7 Nov. 1991 Ahmad-Ashhar O. 1992. Induced spawning of Snapier E. 1994. What are the characteris- Ikan Temoleh, Probarbus jullieni ((Sauvage)Sauvage) tics of a good artificial reef for lobsters? using Human Chorionic Gonadotropin Crustaceana 67(2): 173-185 and Heteroplastic Crude Piscine Extract, Wagiman S, Omar RMNR, Che-Omar MH and pp. 243-244. In: Proceedings of the National Rosdi MN. 1994. Tukun Tiruan Malaysia,

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST IRPA Seminar, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 9-11 Jan. 1992 Jabatan Perikanan Malaysia: 132 p. Baine M and Heaps L. 1992. An introduc- Zainuddin I and Abdul-Razak L. 2000. Fish tion to artificial reef technology. Paper standing stock observation at the artificial presented at the British Conference on reefs of Pulau Payar, Kedah, pp. 89-97. Artificial Reefs and Restocking, Orkney In: Shariff M, Yusoff FM, Gopinath N, Island, 12 September 1992 Ibrahim HM and Nik Mustapha RA Collins KJ, Jensen AC and Lockwood APM. (eds) Towards Sustainable Management 1992. Stability of coal waste artificial reef. of the Straits of Malacca. Malacca Straits Chem. Ecol. 6: 79-93 Research and Development Centre Eggleston DB, Lipcius RN and Miller DL. (MASDEC), Universiti Putra Malaysia, 1992. Artificial shelters and survival of Serdang Malaysia 116 Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Stock Enhancement Activities in the Union of Myanmar

Kyaw Myo Win

Department of Fisheries, Sinmin Road Ahlone Township, Yangon, Union of Myanmar

Introduction Exploitation of endangered species is strictly prohibited hence, there are no The geography of the Union of Myanmar recorded catches for these species. favors the existence of almost 700 species of marine and freshwater fauna. The resources Status of seed production technologies are diverse and consist of indigenous, economically important commercial species, as well Seed production in Myanmar is focused as ornamental species. on freshwater fish – carps (breeding by hypo physation method), tilapia, and catfish. Seeds The fertile continental shelves, dense of freshwater fish are produced in millions for distribution to grow-out farms and for mangroves and coral beds along the coastal stock enhancement. stretch are prime spawning and feeding grounds for a wide variety of species. Increasing demand Aquatic Resources Management for finfish, crustaceans and mollusks for food as well as for ornamental purposes has resulted in Fisheries laws the over -exploitation of resources. Fisheries resources in Myanmar are Endangered Species important for livelihood and food security. Export earnings from the fisheries sector In Myanmar, two freshwater fish species, rank third after agriculture and forestry Asian arowana Scleropages formosus and giant products. These resources are categorized catfish Pangasianodon gigas, and two marine into inland fisheries, coastal and marine fish species, whale shark Rhincodon typus and fisheries, and aquaculture. seahorse Hippocampus kuda are currently listed in the Convention on International The Department of Fisheries (DOF) Trade of Endangered Species of Fauna and has enacted the following laws for fisheries Flora (CITES) appendices. management: 1. Freshwater Fisheries Law (1991) Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Myanmar Wild Life Law 2. Myanmar Marine Fisheries Law (1990), The following species are found in the amended in 1993 list of protected species under the Myanmar 3. Law relating to the fishing rights of foreign Wild Life Law: fishing vessels (1989), amended in 1993 4. Aquaculture Law (1989) Tubenose stickleback Indostomous paradoxus Freshwater Fisheries Law Carp Osteobrama vigorsii The Law stipulates the following: Butter catfish Silonia silondia Upside-down catfish Mystus a) Further development of the fisheries leucophasis b) Prevention of the extinction of fish 118 Stock Enhancement in Myanmar

c) Prevention of the destruction of fresh- disturbance to fishes and other marine water fish habitats organisms. d) Payment of duties and fees to the State e) Management of fisheries in accordance The Law also mentions the duties and with the Law. powers of fisheries inspectors.

Regarding the prohibitions in fisheries, Enforcement at different levels the Law states that: The DOF is the only competent authority a) No one shall be allowed to do the following for fisheries in the country. The DOF in collabo- in any freshwater bodies of water: ration with CITES and other organizations Catching fish using explosives and like the World Conservation Union (IUCN) toxic substances and WCS constantly evaluates the status of Catching fish using prohibited imple- existence and survival of aquatic resources ments and methods in nature. Catching fish of prohibited size b) No one shall construct, install or maintain Myanmar has undertaken efforts to protect obstructive dams, banks, or wire fences in rare fauna and flora, within the context of freshwater fisheries without permission food security issues and sustainable livelihood from the DOF. of the people managing the aquatic resources. c) No one shall be allowed to do the following The DOF has conducted aquatic resource within the boundary of creeks important management by regulating the collection to fisheries: according to species, season, fishing grounds, Cutting undergrowth or setting fire and implements. In this regard, fisheries in fish habitats officers at the provincial, district and town- Disrupting the flow of water ship levels are the key force in monitoring and d) No one shall be allowed to cause distur- exercising management in collaboration with bance to fish and other aquatic organisms, local authorities and related departments. or cause pollution in waterways in leased or reserved fisheries areas, and contiguous For commercial purposes, one can obtain creeks. the right to utilize fishery resources, in the country by procuring a license. However, fishing Moreover, the legislation also describes for household consumption is exempted from penalties for violations. such license.

Myanmar Marine Fisheries Law Habitat protection

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST The Law includes prohibitions on the In collaboration with the Forestry, Agri- following: culture and the Irrigation Departments, the DOF actively participates in the protection a) No person shall engage in inshore and off- of habitat, spawning and feeding grounds of shore fishery activities without a license. aquatic animals. b) No person shall keep explosives and toxic substances on board fishing vessels for There are wildlife sanctuaries and pro- use in fishing. tected areas in Myanmar managed by the c) No person shall dispose of living aquatic Forestry Department. The same Depart- organisms or any material into marine ment also undertakes mangrove protection waters that would cause pollution or and replanting. Stock Enhancement in Myanmar 119

Table 1. Number of fish seed stocked into Impact on catches the natural waters of Myanmar from 1990 to 2005. Among the species listed in the CITES, the Asian Arowana has commercial value No. of fish seed stocked as ornamental fish. Arowana are found Year ( x 103) in the stream at Tanintharyi Division. The 1990-1991 3.25 giant catfish P. gigas inhabit the upper 1991-1992 6.00 Ayeyarwaddy River and its tributaries in 1992-1993 3.80 the north. However, these species are not 1993-1994 7.25 exploited for commercial purpose. 1994-1995 64.70 The whale shark is not a popular food 1995-1996 124.46 fish and it is not a target species by the local 1996-1997 50.00 fishers. The anchovy surrounding nets in 1997-1998 33.00 the Rakhine coastal areas often acciden- 1998-1999 65.37 tally caught sharks but usually released 1999-2000 56.98 back into the sea. Since early 2000, the 2000-2001 85.80 increasing price of shark meat due to export 2001-2002 92.80 demand has been attracting local fishers to 2002-2003 134.30 target this animal. In this regard, the DOF 2003-2004 218.60 enhances activities in educating the fishers 2004-2005 236.50 to safeguard endangered species and takes actions in accordance to Fisheries Laws to those who violate. Stock Enhancement Programs H. kuda and other seahorse species The State’s vision is to assist the national are found in all coastal areas in Myanmar. economy by promoting livelihood programs Recently, people in coastal areas became for rural people through the development interested in seahorse because it commands an of the fisheries sector. To achieve such goal, attractive price. Seahorse is used by the Chinese one of the major activities is to undertake as traditional medicine. These animals are a stock enhancement program which has caught using the anchovy surrounding nets. been implemented since 1983. The DOF subsidizes the annual seeding of freshwater Among the species protected under the fish and prawns into natural waters. Myanmar Wildlife Law are tubenose I. paradoxus and upside-down catfish M. lucophasis Species stocked

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST which are valued as freshwater ornamental fish. I. paradoxus is found in Indaw Gyi Species used in seeding include common Lake at Kachin State in northern Myanmar. carp, tilapia, rohu, catla, and featherbacks The upside down catfish inhabits rivers fish, freshwater prawn Macrobrachium and and streams in lower and upper Myanmar. tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon. Activities The sustainability of this species in natural include annual stocking of seeds in the habitat has been threatened since the demand Ayeyarwaddy River and its tributaries, for export is increasing. In this regard, the lakes, reservoirs, dams and other bodies DOF has controlled its export. of water. The annual seeding program has recorded millions of fish seed stocked from The carp O. virgosii and butter catfish 1990 to the present (Table 1). S. silondia are popular food fish. S. silondia is 120 Stock Enhancement in Myanmar

one of the expensive food fish in Myanmar. Co-management by local communities They thrive in rivers and large streams of upper Myanmar. Since the late 1990s, the Attempts have been made to increase catch has gradually declined and scarcely awareness in fisheries co-management to sustain seen in local markets. This may be due to resources through responsible fisheries and overexploitation or destruction of their aquaculture practices. The activities are habitat. Currently, the DOF has undertaken implemented with transparency. The stock enhancement and conservation activities efforts to conserve these species through are participatory with support and co-manage- Myanmar Wild Life Law. ment from stakeholders. Monitoring References Stock enhancement activities, protection and conservation are mainly monitored by the Fisheries Statistics 2003-2004. 2005. Depart- fisheries inspectors in collaboration with local ment of Fisheries, Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, Yangon, Myanmar management authorities, the Forestry Depart- List of Animals and Fishes Protected Under ment and the police force. the Myanmar Wildlife Law. 1994. Depart- ment of Forestry Notification No. 583/ The DOF is the only competent author- 94, Ministry of Forestry ity to monitor and conduct fisheries related Reports of the Mandalay Division Fisheries activities. The Myanmar Fisheries Federa- Office, Department of Fisheries, Ministry tion is the most competent NGO in fisheries of Livestock and Fisheries 2003 and supporting the activities of the DOF. 2004 Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Status of Threatened Species and Stock Enhancement Activities in the Philippine Fisheries

Nelson A. Lopez Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture Division, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources 2/F PCA Bldg., Elliptical Road, Diliman, Quezon City, Metro Manila, Philippines

Introduction whose authority species are declared rare, endangered, extinct, or threatened remains The Philippine archipelago, with 7,100 a grey area. islands endowed with freshwater, estuarine and marine resources, provides habitats to Endangered Species more than a million species of flora and fauna. Many of these species are commer- The Philippine listings of fisheries cial commodities for human consumption. related species perceived to be extinct, rare, Biological, geographical, population, and threatened and endangered as covered ecological assessments as to whether these under the CITES, IUCN and the Bureau of species are over-exploited, near extinction, Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR)- rare, endangered or threatened, are scarce. Fisheries Administrative Order (FAO) No. This paper reviews the country’s threatened 208 listed commodities in freshwater (Table 1) fishery resources (excluding exotic species) and marine environments (Tables 2 and 3) and describes the existing conservation and are presented as follows: rehabilitation efforts, and recommends resource The listings of freshwater fisheries management interventions. resources constitute mostly finfishes that are The Philippines is participant of the all, except for one, found in the CITES list, the Convention on the International Trade of rest under the IUCN red lists and none in the Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora BFAR list. Majority of the listed species are (CITES), sharing lists of species common also specific to some areas like Lanao Lake, to each country which may be classified few in the RINCONADA lakes of Bicol as threatened or endangered. Although and scarce in some other minor lakes where the country has not formally adopted the they are found to be endemic. Most of the categories and guidelines of the Interna- indigenous cyprinid species are of commercial tional Union for the Conservation of Nature value to the locality and are the main source of

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST (IUCN) (Francisco and Sievert 2004), it has fish protein in the daily life of the fisherfolk. implemented globally accepted measures for marine ecosystem conservation, particu- The listings of marine finfishes consti- larly the establishment of Marine Protected tute mostly sharks and seahorses which are Areas (MPAs). all, except for one, found in the CITES list, the rest under the IUCN Red List and none Despite available listings to date, there in the BFAR-FAO list. Although BFAR is no systematic inventory or monitoring listed 20 species of whales and dolphins report which classifies whether flora and under its FAO 208, marine mammals are fauna in Philippine waters are extinct, not included in this report. Most of the endangered or threatened, over-exploited indigenous shark species are becoming or totally depleted. As to what basis and by rare and extinct due to the rampant shark 122 Stock Enhancement in the Philippines

Table 1. List of endangered, rare and extinct freshwater fish species in the Philippines.

English Local Habitat/ Listings Scientifi c name name name distribution IUCN CITES Spratellicypris palata Lanao carp Palata Lake Lanao endemic _/ Ospatulus truncatulus Lanao carp Bitungo Lake Lanao endemic _/ Ospatulus Lanao carp Lake Lanao endemic _/ palaemophagus Mandibularca resinus Lanao carp Bagangan Lake Lanao endemic _/ Puntius sirang Lanao carp Sirang Lake Lanao endemic _/ Puntius tras Lanao carp Tras Lake Lanao endemic _/ Puntius tumba Lanao carp Tumba Lake Lanao endemic _/ Puntius amarus Lanao carp Pait Lake Lanao endemic _/ Puntius baoulan Lanao carp Baolan Lake Lanao endemic _/ Puntius katolo Lanao carp Katolo Lake Lanao endemic _/ Puntius clemensi Lanao carp Bagangan Lake Lanao endemic _/ Puntius disa Lanao carp Disa Lake Lanao endemic _/ Puntius flavifuscus Lanao carp Katapa-tapa Lake Lanao endemic _/ Puntius lanaoensis Lanao carp Kandar Lake Lanao endemic _/ Puntius lindog Lanao carp Lindog Lake Lanao endemic _/ Puntius manalak Lanao carp Manalak Lake Lanao endemic _/ Puntius herrei Lanao carp Lake Lanao endemic _/ Puntius pachycheilus Lanao carp Lake Lanao endemic _/ Puntius manguaoensis Palawan carp Lake Manguao endemic _/ Puntius cataractae Mindanao _/

Puntius hemictenus Naujan carp Lake Naujan endemic _/

Hampala lopezi Busuanga _/ Stiphodon surrufus Goby Leyte endemic _/ Sicyopus auxilimentus Goby Leyte endemic _/ Mistichthys luzonensis Goby Sinarapan Lake Buhi endemic _/

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Endemic in Bigmouth Redigobius bikolanus Biya RINCONADA Lakes _/ goby of Bicol region Dwarf pygmy Pandaka pygmaea Bia Malabon and Mindanao _/ goby Sources: http://www.cites.org.2004. Listings of Philippine fisheries endangered species http://www.fishbase.org.2004. Summary of Philippine fisheries species in red list status http://www.iucn.org.2004. Red list of endangered fisheries species in the Philippines BFAR-FAO 208 (2001) Stock Enhancement in the Philippines 123

fisheries with the rising demand of shark 2004 because there are no recent studies. fins smuggled or exported abroad. At closer look, the CITES list only covers species that are traded and marketed but These marine finfishes are distributed not those without market value, while in coastal waters. IUCN gives emphasis to the preservation and conservation of the species heritage of The listings of marine gastropods, mol- the planet, which is the prime concern of the lusks, crustaceans and echinoderms are all Department of Environment and Natural found in the BFAR-FAO listings as Rare, Resources (DENR). Threatened and Endangered, while few and selective under the CITES and IUCN lists. Status of seed production technology Accordingly, these are the most common marine resource commodities that are over- Many species listed by the IUCN, CITES exploited, gleaned and gathered illegally, and BFAR have no hatchery/seed produc- and frequently exported or smuggled out of tion activities in the Philippines. However, the country by unscrupulous traders. some of the species that are being propagated on an experimental scale are the giant Why rare, threatened and clams Tridacna spp., sea cucumbers and sea endangered? urchins as pioneered by the University of the Philipppines-Marine Science Institute The BFAR is mandated by law (Republic (UP-MSI); abalone and top shell Trochus Act or RA 8550) to identify and manage spp., seahorse and groupers by the Southeast species that are found to be rare, threatened Asian Fisheries Development Center Aqua- and endangered. This prompted the issuance culture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD), and of FAO No. 208 classifying 26 gastropods the native catfish, lobed-lip river mullet and and two bivalve species under the rare weather loach currently being undertaken by category; three gastropods and one crab as BFAR. threatened species; 20 dolphins and whales as endangered species, including seven Aquatic Resource Management species of clams and one sea snake. These categories are defined under FAO No. 208 Resource management measures in as follows: the Philippines are supported by management programs, protected by policy rules rare - fishery or aquatic resources with and regulations, and implemented by many small world populations that are not key players and stakeholders. But who plays endangered or presently vulnerable what are the issues described in the following threatened - a general term which may Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST sections. be used to describe a fishery or aquatic species whose population is endangered, Fishery and other laws/regulationsregulations vulnerable or rare endangered - refers to the species, subspecies, There are three policy making bodies including the eggs, offspring, parts and involved in the formulation and implementa- derivatives of plants and animals as listed tion of laws pertaining to aquatic resources in the CITES Appendices. management, namely: the DENR, Depart- ment of Agriculture Bureau of Fisheries and The BFAR listings are based on results Aquatic Resources or DA-BFAR and the Local of field research conducted until 2001. Government Units (LGUs). The following They are shorter than the CITES list as of particular laws apply: 124 Stock Enhancement in the Philippines

Table 2. List of endangered, rare and extinct marine fish species in the Philippines.

Listings Scientifi c name English name Local name IUCN CITES Aetomylaeus nichofii Banded eagle ray _/ Urogymnus asperrimus Porcupine ray Pagi _/ Taeniura lymma Blue-spotted sting ray Pagi _/ Aetobatus narinari Spotted eagle Ray Pagi _/ Manta birostris Manta ray Pagi _/ Rhina ancylostoma Bowmouth guitarfi sh Pagi _/ Rhynchobatus australiae White-spotted wedgefi sh Pating sudsod _/ Rhynchobatus djiddensis whitespot giant uitarfi sh -do- _/ Pristis pectinata Wide sawfi sh _/ Anoxypristis cuspidata Knifetooth seafi sh -do- _/ Carcharodon carcharias Great white shark Pating _/ _/ Apristurus herklotsi Longfi n catshark Pating _/ Apisturus platyrhynchus Spatulasnout catshark Pating _/ Atelomycterus marmoratus Coral catshark Pating _/ Carcharhinus amblyrhynchoids Graceful shark Pating _/ Carcharhinus borneensis Borneo shark Pating _/ Carcharhinus brevipinna Spinner shark Pating _/ Carcharhinus dussumieri Widemouth blackspot shark Pating _/ Carcharhinus hemiodon Pondicherry shark Pating _/ Carcharhinus leucas Bull shark Pating _/ Carcharhinus limbatus Blacktip shark Pating _/ Carcharhinus longimanus Oceanic whitetip shark Pating _/ Carcharhinus melanopterus Black-tip reef shark Pating _/ Carcharhinus sealei Blackspot shark Pating _/ Carcharias taurus Sand tiger shark Pating _/ Centrophorus isodon Black gulper shark Pating _/ Centrophorus moluccensis Endeavour dogfi sh Pating _/ Centrophorus squamosus Deepwater spiny dogfi sh Pating _/ Centroscyllium kamoharai Jelly shark Pating _/ Chiloscyllium griseum Grey bamboo shark Pating _/ Chiloscyllium indicum Frog shark Pating _/ Chiloscyllium punctatum Brown-spotted catshark Pating _/ Galeocerdo cuvier Tiger shark Pating _/ Eusphyra blochii Slender hammerhead Pating _/ Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Hemipristis elongata Fossil shark Pating _/ Hemitriakis leucoperiptera Whitefi n topeshark Pating _/ Hexanchus griseus Bluntnose sixgill shark Pating _/ Megachasma pelagios Megamouth shark Pating _/ Nebrius ferrugineus Tawny nurse shark Pating _/ Prionace glauca Blue shark Pating _/ Sphyrna lewini Scalloped hammerhead Pating _/ Sphyrna mokarran Great hammerhead Pating _/ Sphyrna zygaena Smooth hammerhead Pating _/ Triaenodon obesus White-tip reef shark Pating _/ Stegostoma fasciatum Leopard shark Pating _/ Squalus acanthias Piked dogfi sh Pating sudsud _/ Stock Enhancement in the Philippines 125

Table 2 (continued from p. 124) Listings Scientifi c name English name Local name IUCN CITES Squalus mitsukurii Green-eye spurdog Pating sudsud _/ Isurus oxyrinchus Shortfi n mako shark Pating sudsud _/ Hippocampus barbouri Barbour’s seahorse Kabayong dagat _/ Hippocampus bargibanti Pygmy seahorse Koro-kabayo _/ Hippocampus comes Tigertail seahorse Koro-kabayo _/ Hippocampus kelloggi Great seahorse Koro-kabayo _/ Hippocampus kuda Spotted seahorse Koro-kabayo _/ Hippocampus spinosissimus Hedgehog seahorse Kabayong dagat _/ Hippocampus trimaculatus Longnose sea horse Koro-kabayo _/ Pegasus volitans Long-tail sea moth _/ Torquigener brevipinnis Pufferfi sh Botete _/

Sources: http://www.cites.org.2004. Listings of Philippine fisheries endangered species http://www.fishbase.org.2004. Summary of Philippine fisheries species in Red List status http:// www.iucn.org.2004. Red list of endangered fisheries species in the Philippines BFAR-FAO 208 (2001)

RA 8550, Article III - Operational Stan- to fisheries, particularly outside munici- dards and Procedures Sec.1: Identifica- pal waters tion and management of rare, threatened DENR - regulates foreshore and shore- or endangered species (except crocodiles, line areas and mandated to conserve turtles and dugong) is bestowed upon and protect coastal/marine environment BFAR jointly with the LGUs RA 8550, Article IV - Mapping, Charting Department of Transportation and Commu- and Identification of Certain Areas nication (DOTC) - regulates commercial Sec. 4: Fishery refuge, reserves and fishing vessel licenses and enforces anti- sanctuaries bestowed upon BFAR to pollution measures in shipping through establish criteria and procedures except the Philippine Coast Guard (PCG) and the in National Integrated Protected Area System (NIPAS) Maritime Industry Authority (MARINA) LGUs - share responsibility with the Although BFAR is tasked to implement national government in maintaining most of the provisions in the Revised Fisheries ecological balance and enforcing fishery Code (RA 8550), the DENR and LGUs also laws pertaining to municipal waters and have specific roles pertaining to manage- mangrove conservation; and formula- ment of aquatic resources. The NIPAS Act Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST tion and enforcement of local ordinances implemented by the DENR has provisions based on national laws and regulations. affecting coastal resource activities in fisheries that is, in fact the concern of the LGUs as Territorial Use Rights (TURFs) administrators of local resources. The concept of TURFs as applied to the Enforcement present management of aquatic resources in the Philippines is also governed by basic The following government agencies are national laws. The Local Government Code responsible for implementing fishery regu- (RA 7140) assigns to the municipal govern- lations: ments the responsibility of creating and DA-BFAR - lead agency in formulating implementing guidelines for local fisheries, regulatory mechanisms directly related granting duly registered organizations and 126 Stock Enhancement in the Philippines

Table 3. List of endangered, rare and extinct marine bivalves, gastropods, cephalopods and echinoderm species in the Philippines.

Listings Scientifi c name English name Local name Distribution IUCN CITES FAO 208 Smuggled moon Amusium obliteratum Philippine Coastal Waters scallop _/ R Eufistulana mumia Club-shaped boring clam -do- _/ R Hippopus hippopus Bear paw giant clam Kabibe -do- _/ _/ _/ E Hippopus porcellanus Porcelain giant clam Kabibe -do- _/ _/ E Pholas orientalis Angel wing clam Diwal-do- Endemic in Capiz, Iloilo, Negros _/ _/ T Tridacna gigas a Giant clam Taclobo Philippine marine waters _/ _/ _/ E Tridacna maxima Small giant clam -do- _/ _/ E Tridacna squamosa Scaly giant clam -do- _/ _/ _/ E Tridacna derasa Giant clam -do- _/ _/ E Tridacna crocea Southern giant clam -do- _/ _/ _/ E Trochus niloticus a Trochus shell -do- _/ _/ _/ T Bolma girgyllus Girgyllus star shell -do- _/ R Clypeomorus aduncus Bent cerith -do- _/ R Recluzea lutea Recluzia snail -do- _/ R Separatista True separatista -do- _/ R blainvilliana Malluvium lissus Deep sea cap -do- _/ R Strombus thirsites Thersite stromb -do- _/ R Varicospira crispata Network beak shell -do- _/ R Tibia martini Martini’s tibia -do- _/ R Cypraea childreni Children’s cowrie -do- _/ R Cyprae beckii Beck’s cowrie -do- _/ R Cyprae guttata Great spotted cowrie -do- _/ R Cyprae porteri Porter’s cowrie -do- _/ R Cyprae teramachii Teramachi’s cowrie -do- _/ R Cyprae martini Martini’s cowrie -do- _/ R Cyprae saulae Saul’s cowrie -do- _/ R Cyprae katsuae Katsue’s cowrie -do- _/ R Cyprae leucodon White toothed cowrie -do- _/ R Cyprae aurantium Golden cowrie -do- _/ T Cyprae valentia Prince cowrie -do- _/ Phenacovolva dancei Dance volva Tatus Quezon Islets, Batan Is. _/ _/ _/ T

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Cypraeacassis rufa Bullmouth helmet Trepang, Balat -do- _/ Phalium coronadoi Wyville’s bonnet _/ R wyvillei Phalium glabratum Glabratum smooth bonnet _/ R Morum kurzi Kurzi’s morum _/ R Morum grande Giant morum _/ R Morum watsoni Watson’s morum _/ R Legend: a.Hatchery technology available; R- Rare; T- Threatened; E- Endangered Sources: http://www.cites.org.2004. Listings of Philippine fisheries endangered species; http://www.fishbase.org.2004. Summary of Philippine fisheries species in Red List status; http://www.iucn.org.2004. Red list of endangered fisheries species in the Philippines; BFAR-FAO 208 (2001) Stock Enhancement in the Philippines 127

cooperatives of marginalized fishermen in 1977, and the Tubattaha Reef a Biosphere preferential rights to fishery privileges and Reserve in 1990 and World Heritage Site setting municipal fisheries 15 km from the in 1993. Despite the good start and all-out shoreline. The Fisheries Code (RA 8550) efforts of the government, management on the other hand, implies the return of levels of Philippine MPAs are considered “low” resource management from national agen- at 16-38% (Aliño et al 2004). Therefore, cies to municipal governments and gives the establishment of non-government orga- preferential use rights in municipal waters nizations e.g., the Pambansang Alyansa ng to municipal fisherfolk. Maliliit na Mangingisda at Komunidad sa Nangangalaga ng Karagatan at Sanktuaryo Habitat protection and rehabilitation sa Pilipinas (PAMANA) and Haring Ibon (HARIBON) Foundation, in the late 1980s The Resource Enhancement Projects has been essential to the information-educa- (REPs), which combine fish sanctuary, tion campaign to sustain the management of fisheries reserve, and mangrove rehabilita- MPAs. To evaluate the effectivity and efficiency of tion, are pioneering activities of the Fisheries MPAs, a Management Rating System was for- Resource Management Program (FRMP) mulated in 2001 by the Coastal Conservation of DA-BFAR. As of September 2003, 215 and Education Foundation. REPs (123 fish sanctuaries and 92 mangrove projects) were established in 18 FRMP bay Artificial reefs areas throughout the country (FRMP 2003). Artificial Reefs are structures installed Sanctuaries and protected areas at the sea bottom that serve as shelters, feeding and breeding areas of fish, whereas Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), also known Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs, locally known as “no-take zones”, sanctuaries, reserves, as payaw) are structures anchored at the harvest refugia, and marine parks, are marine surface or drifting at the mid-water levels areas protected by law or other mechanism which attract and aggregate fish. Originally from one or more activities. There are 459 set up to protect fish communities, FADs known MPAs nationwide (White et al 2004), instead encouraged overfishing often with probably the most numerous in Southeast the use of dynamite, cyanide, and unregu- Asia, but most are referred to as “paper parks” lated mesh size nets (Babaran 2004). due to lack of sustainable management strategies. Nonetheless, there are well established, National Restocking or Stock successful parks in the Philippines such as the Enhancement Program Hundred Islands National Park. It was created

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST by Presidential Proclamation in 1970 followed “National Stock Enhancement” or “Re- by PD 564 establishing the first national park stocking Program” in the Philippines does in the Philippines jointly managed by the not virtually exist as a matter of written Philippine Tourism Authority and the LGU policy, yet it has recently been practiced and of Alaminos, Pangasinan. implemented independently by concerned institutions and fisheries agencies according This was followed by the Sumilon Marine to their program mandates. BFAR, for Reserve (1974) and Apo Island Marine Reserve example, over the years since its existence (1985), the first fishery reserves established in as the Philippine Fisheries Commission, has the country. The United Nations Educational, carried out an annual “Fish Dispersal Pro- Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) gram” in Laguna de Bay and major inland declared Puerto Galera a Biosphere Reserve lakes (Villadolid 1965). This was carried on 128 Stock Enhancement in the Philippines

through tradition by reseeding lakes and b) Stock assessment or the status of the inland waters on special occasions during population should be identified annual Fish Conservation Week celebrations or c) Capacity of hatcheries to produce suf- when a President of the state visits a particular ficient juveniles inland lake area as part of a ceremonial Other components of restocking program activity. The implications, however, may a) Hatchery protocols to maintain the result in negative diversities in the reseeded genetic diversity of the stock areas since no regular follow-up nor moni- b) Requirement of released juveniles toring has been done to check whether the c) Quarantine procedures reseeded areas have been overstocked or have d) Management measures to maximize been critically depleted of their resources. benefits and determine the contribu- This is especially true since there have been no tion of restocking to recovery available biological productivity and carrying Other components of a responsible stock capacity studies, stock recruitment and Catch enhancement program per Unit Effort (CPUE) data. It was not until a) Maintaining sufficient spawning bio- 1980 that successful hatchery breakthroughs mass for replenishment in the Philippines were reported and stock b) Rotational fishing enhancement activities in marine waters as c) Integration with aquaculture initiated by UP-MSI (especially the giant clam d) Artificial habitats mariculture technology) were undertaken e) Removal of predators (Juinio-Menez 2004). This was followed by UP-MSI’s sea urchin hatchery production Monitoring in the 1990s, after the collapse of the sea urchin population in Bolinao. Moreover, Monitoring, Control and Surveillance UP-MSI pioneered in sea cucumber, top (MCS) under the FRMP integrates various shell and abalone seedstock production in elements of fisheries resource management 2002 and recently, SEAFDEC/AQD also into a three-tiered system of data collec- initiated the culture and stock enhancement tion (monitoring), legislation (control) and of abalone and top shells. enforcement (surveillance). The MCS Invest- ment plan includes setting up of one national Impact on catches and eight regional MCS coordination centers.

To determine the impact of stock enhance- Co-management by local ment on existing aquatic resources, the following communities/stakeholders factors should be given due attention: Loss of genetic diversity – negative impact Since LGU funding is not always enough, Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST on stock enhancement; Eisma (2004) suggested the following list of Unregulated stock enhancement – may possible funding mechanisms to initiate lead to displacement of other species in co-management efforts: the natural environment a) Amend specific provisions of the Local Information needed to assess the potential Government Code (LGC) to make benefits of restocking (Bell and Garces Coastal Resource Management (CRM) 2004): a basic service similar to health, agricul- a) Stock delineation or the size and ture, etc. distribution of stocks supporting a b) Include municipal waters in the compu- particular fishery to enable the develop- tation for sharing in Internal Revenue ment of an appropriate stock enhance- Allocations (IRA) ment program Stock Enhancement in the Philippines 129

c) Develop guidelines for use of the Envi- by CITES which is compulsory, and IUCN, ronment Guarantee Fund to include though non-obligatory. But in the domestic CRM fisheries trade and industry, specific regula- d) Appropriate special funds for CRM tions are set forth in FAO 208 which prohibits programs for LGUs in the Government the taking, catching, or gathering of species Annual Appropriations (GAA) that are categorized as rare, endangered e) Review/revise guidelines to include use and threatened. Yet there is still a need of 20% development fund for CRM for the government to collaborate with the f) Expand the menu of projects in the Rural- international regulatory bodies in assessing Urban development fund for CRM the biological, geographic, ecological popu- g) Include through an amendment, CRM lation of these species to come up with a as a priority area in coming up with the systematic inventory, monitoring report and Annual Investment Plan updating as to which species are to be clas- h) Legislate through an ordinance, a special sified as over-exploited, in near extinction, assessment tax or fee for a local CRM rare, endangered or threatened. fund similar to the Special Education Fund as collected via the real property The Philippines employs various aquatic tax; and resource management programs and has i) Tap the private sector and/or NGOs also formulated numerous laws, rules and through their vested interests as a source regulations towards conservation, rehabili- of funds and donors of equipment, hono- tation, enhancement and management as raria for “Bantay Dagat” (or deputized a whole, but most of these are focused on fisherfolks as law enforcers in charge of the establishment of MPAs, artificial reefs, patrolling the municipal waters and sanctuaries, reserves and mangrove habitat protection. Unfortunately, none of these apprehending illegal fishers). laws has addressed fish seed stock enhance- Summary, Conclusions and ment in fisheries. There are but few inde- Recommendations pendently implemented laws on pilot-test cases either under research, demonstration The Philippines is endowed with a diver- or on program/project-based interventions sity of marine resources valuable to the eco- by concerned agencies and institutions. nomic livelihood of the fishing community. With the establishment and commer- The demand to supply the domestic and cialization of hatchery technologies, it is foreign market has caused the overexploita- high time that a sound policy on fisheries tion and depletion of these aquatic resources. National Stock Enhancement and Reseeding Conservation, management, preservation and Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Program is implemented. A holistic, unified the wise utilization of these marine species and harmonized program by the govern- are the prime concern of the government. ment where concerted efforts of concerned However, lapses in the regulations, policies agencies, institutions, LGUs and stakeholders and implementation of existing laws are still are bound into one systematic initiative on intricacies which require sound governance how, where and when restocking or reseeding to systematic and scientific approaches as interventions have to be made. well as intervention involving the resource users and policy makers. References

International agreements which relate Aliño PM, Arceo HO and Uychiaoco AJ. to the classification of these species as to 2004. Marine protected areas, pp. their degrees of exploitation, are governed 219-222. In: DA-BFAR. In Turbulent 130 Stock Enhancement in the Philippines

Seas: The Status of Philippine Marine areas in the Philippines. In: Ablaza EC Fisheries. Coastal Resource Manage- (ed) FRMP Technical Monograph Series, ment Project, Cebu City, Philippines No. 7. 14 p. Babaran RP. 2004. Artificial reefs and fish FRMP. 2003. Flyer on FRMP program imple- aggregating devices: Help or hindrance, mentation. Quezon City, Philippines, 18 p. pp. 237-240. In: DA-BFAR. In Turbulent http://www.cites.org. 2004. Listings of Philippine Seas: The Status of Philippine Marine Fisheries Endangered Species Fisheries. Coastal Resource Manage- http://www.fishbase.org.2004. Summary of ment Project, Cebu City, Philippines Philippine Fisheries Species in Red List Bell J and Garces L. 2004. The potential role Status of restocking and stock enhancement in http://www.iucn.org. 2004. Red list of Endangered the management of marine invertebrate Fisheries Species in the Philippines fisheries in the Philippines, pp. 246-251. Juinio-Menez MA. 2004. Invertebrate stock In: DA-BFAR: In Turbulent Seas: The enhancement, pp. 241-245. In: DA-BFAR. Status of Philippine Marine Fisheries. In Turbulent Seas: The Status of Philip- Coastal Resource Management Project, pine Marine Fisheries. Coastal Resource Cebu City, Philippines Management Project, Cebu City, Phil- BFAR. 2001. FAO 208 s. 2001, Conserva- ippines tion of rare, threatened and endangered Villadolid DV, Montalban HR, Blanco GJ fishery species. BFAR flyer. 3 p. and Acosta PA. 1965. Popular Bulletin BFAR. 1998. Philippine Fisheries Code of No. 45. Fish Cultivation in Freshwater 1998. Quezon City, Philippines. 60 p. Units in the Philippines. Department Eisma RV. 2004. Local governance for municipal fisheries: can local governments afford of Agriculture and Natural Resources to have coastal resource management as a Manila, Philippines basic service responsibility?, pp. 180-183. White AT, Meneses AT and Ovenden MF. In: DA-BFAR. In Turbulent Seas: The 2004. Management rating system for Status of Philippine Marine Fisheries. marine protected areas: An important Coastal Resource Management Project, tool to improve management, pp. 226-231. Cebu City, Philippines In: DA-BFAR. In Turbulent Seas: The Francisco BS and Sievert RF. 2004. Guide- Status of Philippine Marine Fisheries. lines and considerations in the establish- Coastal Resource Management Project, ment and management of marine protected Cebu City, Philippines Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Thailand's Concerns in Endangered Species and Stock Enhancement

Marnop Chaengkij Roiet Inland Fisheries Research and Development Center Department of Fisheries, Roiet, Thailand

Introduction sale of endangered species. Likewise, there are also laws that protect species from various Thailand is situated in the tropical zone, forms of inhumane treatment including illegal and has abundant freshwater coastal and capture and killing. marine resources. Thai fishermen catch fish for family consumption and for trade. The Fishery Act, B.E. 2490 (1947) problem of endangered aquatic species in Thailand is caused mainly by the lack of 1. Fishing is not allowed in the conserva- tools for proper fisheries resource manage- tion area. ment and the limited breeding and aquacul- 2. Disposal of toxic substances or pollut- ture technologies for some of the threatened ants into public water systems is not species. allowed. 3. Electric current or dynamite cannot be Endangered Species used for fishing. 4. Some fishing gears are prohibited during Thailand is a member of the Convention breeding season. on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES) and it has regula- Importation Law, Decree B.E. 2547 (2004) tions to control the trade of endangered species. The endangered species of major concern in This law prevents the entry of diseases Thailand are listed in Tables 1 and 2. into Thailand which are brought in by exotic or imported fish species. Some fish species Status of seed production technology are not allowed for importation.

The Thai Department of Fisheries is Prohibition of Imported Dangerous Species breeding some of these endangered species Decree B.E. 2530 (1987) under the "Rehabilitation of Thai Local Fishes and Aquatic Animals Project". Some of these This decree prevents the importation and

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST species are bred for restocking in the wild. aquaculture of dangerous (invasive) species. Table 3 shows the list of some of the endangered species propagated by the Department Wildlife Preservation and Protection Act, of Fisheries. B.E. 2535 (1992) Aquatic Resource Management This Act provides for the additional protection of wild animals including aquatic Fishery laws and regulations fauna. It is illegal to hunt, sell, buy or keep these wild animals or any of their parts or There are several laws that have been products (Sangchuen 2004, Fish Inspection adopted to regulate the import, export and Trade Section 2004). 132 Thailand’s Concerns in Endangered Species

Table 1. List of endangered freshwater species. English name Scientific name Remark Vertebrates Bonytongue Scleropages formosus CITES Freshwater batfish Oreoglanis siamensis CITES Siamese tiger fish Datnioides microlepis CITES Ladderback loach/ Dwarf loach Botia sidthimunki IUCN Indo china featherback Chitala blanci IUCN Giant pangasius Pangasius sanitwongsei IUCN Isok barb Probarbus jullieni IUCN Laotian shad Tenualosa thibaudeaui IUCN Giant barb Catlocarpio siamensis NC Redtailed black shark Epalzeorhynchos bicolor NC Catfish Clarias nieuhoffi NC Indonesian featherback Chitala lopis NC Carp Albulichthys albuloides NC Carp Macrochirichthys NC macrochirus Thicklip barb Probarbus labeamajor NC Thinlip barb Probarbus labeaminor NC Rasbora Rasbora somphongsi NC Ceratoglanis scleronema NC Catfish Kryptopterus limpok NC Ompok eugeneiatus NC Wallago leeri NC Coius undecimradiatus NC Freshwater ray Himantura laoensis NC Bleeker’s whipray Himantura bleekeri NC Freshwater whipray Himantura chaophraya NC Sharpnose stingray Himantura gerrardi NC Freshwater ray ? Himantura krempfi NC White-rimmed stingray Himantura signifer NC Honeycomb stingray Himantura uarnak NC Daggertooth pike conger Muraenesox cinereus NC Whitefin wolf-herring Chirocentrus nudus NC Bornean grenadier anchovy Coilia borneensis NC Goldspotted grenadier anchovy Coilia dussumieri NC Sabretoothed thryssa Lycothrissa crocodilus NC Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Lindman’ grenadier anchovy Coilia lindmani NC Lowgjaw grenadier anchovy Coilia macrognathus NC Dusky-hairfin anchovy Setipinna melanochir NC Setipinna waitei NC Pellona filigera NC Raconda Raconda russeliana NC Barilius ornatus NC Dwarf rasbora Boraras maculatus NC Boraras micros NC Boraras urophthalmoides NC Leaping barb Chela caeruleostigmata NC Indian glass barb Chela laubuca NC Cirrhinus microlepis NC Thailand’s Concerns in Endangered Species 133

Table 1 (continued from p. 132)

English name Scientific name Remark Hora danio Danio shanensis NC Discherodontus ashmeadi NC Discherodontus schroeden NC Hoven’s carp Leptobarbus hoeveni NC Mekongina erythrospila NC Oxygaster maculicauda NC Poropuntius speleops NC Puntioplites bulu NC Rasbora agilis NC Rasbora bankanensis NC Harlequin rasbora Rasbora heteromorpha NC Glowlight rasbora Rasbora pauciperforata NC Sun loach Botia eos NC Botia longidorsalis NC Botia splendida NC Ellopostoma megalomycter NC Homaloptera thamicola NC Nemacheilus trogocataractus NC Schistura jarutanini NC Schistura oedipus NC Vaillantella maassi NC Bagrichthys macracanthus NC Heterobagrus bocourti NC Leiocassis poecilopterus NC Leiocassis stenomus NC Olyra longicaudata NC Krytopterus apogon NC Glass catfish Krytopterus bicirrhis NC Krytopterus hexapterus NC Ompok hypophthalmus NC Silurichthys hasseltii NC Silurichthys schneideri NC Silurichthys leucopodus NC Silurichthys phaiosoma NC Silurichthys cochinchinensis NC Akysis armatus NC Akysis leucorhynchus NC Akysis macronema NC Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Akysis maculipinnis NC Akysis pictus NC Parakysis verrucosus NC Angler catfish Chaca bankanensis NC Walking catfish Clarias batrachus NC Clarias leiacanthus NC Prophagorus cataractus NC Prophagorus nieuhofi NC Stinging catfish Heteropneustes fossilis NC Arias leiotetocephalus NC 134 Thailand’s Concerns in Endangered Species

Table 1 (continued from p. 133)

English name Scientific name Remark Beardless sea catfish Batrachocephalus mino NC Hemiarias stormi NC Hemipimelodus borneensis NC Hemipimelodus siamensis NC Ketengus typus NC Giant catfish Arius thalassinus NC Neostethus bicornis NC Neostethus lankesteri NC Neostethus siamensis NC Phenacostethus posthon NC Smith’s priapium fish Phenacostethus smithi NC Hemirhamphodon NC pogonognathus Zenarchopterus dunckeri NC Zenarchopterus pappenheimi NC Doryichthys martensii NC Spotted seahorse Hippocampus kuda NC Pipe fish Indostomus paradoxus NC Fire eel Mastacembelus erythrotaenia NC Orange-spotted grouper Epinephelus coioides NC Giant grouper Epinephelus lanceolatus NC Atlantic tripletail Lobotes surinamensis NC Plectorhinchus haetodontoides NC Flagfin prawn goby Mahidolia mystacina NC Mahidolia normani NC Odontobutis aurarmus NC Mugilogobius rambaiae NC Silver pomfret Pampus argenteus NC Chinese silver pomfret Pampus chinensis NC Pikehead Luciocephalus pulcher NC Malay combtail Belontia hasselti NC Parosphromenus paludicola NC Pearl gourami Trichogaster leerii NC

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Psettodes erumei NC Chonerhinus naritus NC Tetraodon suvatti NC Invertebrates Panda crab Phricotelphusa sirindhorn CITES Pigal crab Demanietta sirikit CITES Mealy crab Thaipotamon chulabhorn CITES

CITES – The Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species Fauna and Flora IUCN – International Union for the Conservation of Nature NC – National Concern Thailand’s Concerns in Endangered Species 135

Table 2. List of endangered brackishwater and marine species.

English name Scientific name Remark Vertebrates Whale shark Rhincodon typus NC Pointed sawfish Anoxypristis cuspidata NC Largetooth sawfish Pristis microdon NC Smalltooth sawfish Pristis pectinata NC Longcomb sawfish Pristis zijsron NC Humpback grouper Cromileptes altivelis NC Slender bamboo shark Chiloscyllium indicum NC Grey bamboo shark Chiloscyllium griseum NC Shark Chiloscyllium plagiosum NC Zebra shark Stegostoma fasciatum NC Sicklefin weasel shark Hemigaleus microstoma NC Silvertip shark Carcharhinus albimarginatus NC Grey reef shark Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos NC Pigeye shark Carcharhinus amboinensis NC Copper shark Carcharhinus brachyurus NC Bull shark Carcharhinus leucas NC Blacktip shark Carcharhinus limbatus NC Blacktip reef shark Carcharhinus melanopterus NC Dusky shark Carcharhinus obscurus NC Sandbar shark Carcharhinus plumbeus NC Spot-tail shark Carcharhinus sorrah NC Shark Galeocerdo cuvier NC Milk shark Rhizoprionodon acutus NC Grey sharpnose shark Rhizoprionodon oligolinx NC Spadenose shark Scoliodon laticaudus NC Whitetip reef shark Triaenodon obesus NC Bowmouth guitarfish Rhina ancylostoma NC Guitar fish Rhynchobatus australiae NC Guitar fish Rhinobatos granulatus NC Guitar fish Rhinobatos schlegelii NC Guitar fish Rhinobatos thouini NC Guitar fish Rhinobatos typusni NC Brown numbfish Narcine brunnea NC

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Electric ray Narcine indica NC Electric ray Narcine maculata NC Electric ray Narcine prodorsalis NC Numbray Narke dipterygia NC Electric ray Temera hardwickii NC Short-tail stingray Dasyatis brevicaudata NC Cowtail stingray Pastinachus sephen NC Spotted eagle ray Aetobatus narinari NC Mottled eagle ray Aetomylaeus maculatus NC Ray Aetomylaeus milvus NC Banded eagle ray Aetomylaeus niehofii NC 136 Thailand’s Concerns in Endangered Species

Table 2 (continued from p. 135) Ornate eagle ray Aetomylaeus vespertilio NC Rough cownose ray Rhinoptera adspersa NC Flapnose ray Rhinoptera javanica NC Harengula atricaudata NC Dorosoma chacunda NC Dorosoma nasus NC Invertebrates Order Antipatharia CITES Order Gorgonacea CITES Order Scleractinia CITES Order Stylasterina CITES Order Heliopracea CITES Order Alcyonacea CITES Order Actinaria CITES Scaly giant clam Tridacna sp. CITES Trumpet shell Charonia tritonis CITES CITES – The Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora NC – National Concern Goods Export and Import Act B.E . 2522 several places especially in the Andaman (1979) Sea. The smallest area covered by artificial reefs is 0.25 sq km and the largest This Act protects wild animals espe- is 30 sq km. Likewise, the artificial fish cially six species of turtles. Exportation of habitats have been deployed in rivers. goods made from parts of the turtle or any Wood stalks and used rubber tires are wild animal must have permits. The export of utilized as fish shelters in the conserva- ornamental marine fish is also prohibited. tion zone. Habitat protection and rehabilitation Stock Enhancement Program Habitat protection and rehabilitation are Species stocked undertaken as follows: Fingerlings are collected from the wild 1. The areas of the river near or connected and reared to broodstock size at fishery to the temples are considered as "No fishing stations. Induced spawning is sometimes

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Zone". Fishing with any type of gear is done by mobile teams from the Department not allowed in this area. of Fisheries. The fertilized eggs are moved from the site to hatcheries of the fishery sta- 2. A "Conservation Zone" as declared by the tions. Most of the fingerlings are restocked Minister of the Ministry of Agriculture yearly in natural habitats and the remain- and Cooperatives or Provincial Governor ing stocks are kept and grown as potential is an area designated for broodstock. broodstock (Table 4). Fishing for household consumption can be allowed with the use of some fishing Release strategies gears such as fishhooks, etc. Most of the fingerlings of endangered 3. Thousands of 1.5 m3 cement structures species produced by the Department of have been deployed as artificial reefs in Fisheries were stocked in sites where the Thailand’s Concerns in Endangered Species 137

Table 3. Some of the endangered species produced by Department of Fisheries, Thailand. Production Common name Scientific name per year (pcs) Asian bonytongue Scleropages formosus 100-200 Giant softshell turtle Chitra chitra 100-200 Ladderback loach Botia sidthimunki 10,000 Indochina featherback Chitala blanci 100-300 Giant catfish Pangasianodon gigas 100,000 Giant Pangasius Pangasius sanitwongsei 10,000-20,000 Isok barb Probarbus jullieni 200,000-300,000 Giant barb Catlocarpio siamensis 300,000

founder or parental stocks were originally donated by the State Railway of Thailand obtained. However, marking or tagging of and the Department of Highways for arti- the released animals was not done. Like- ficial reefs. The Department of Fisheries wise, impact on catches and cost-benefit studied the sites and the impact of the estab- analysis were not done. lishment of these artificial reefs to fisheries. The Thai Navy studied their impact on the Government agencies and non- environment. Cooperation and sharing of government organizations (NGOs) resources were discussed by small-scale and involved; co-management by local large-scale fishermen for the sustainability communities and stakeholders of the fishery resources. Cooperation in conservation, protection and rehabilitation of aquatic animals in References Thailand is quite successful. Several agencies, including NGOs, participate in these Sangchuen Y. 2004. Study on practical imple- activities. One of the Queen’s projects, mentation according to wild animal res- the "Rehabilitation of Marine Fisheries ervation and protection Act, B.E. 2535. Resources Project" was done in 2002. The Department of Fisheries. Thailand project was supported by government agen- Fish Trade Inspection Section. 2004. Wild- cies and several organizations. About 208 life Preservation and Protection Act, units of cabins from old unused trains and B.E. 2535 (1992). Department of Fisheries. 707 units of damaged cement pipes were Thailand Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST

Table 4. List of endangered species stocked in the wild by the Thai Department of Fisheries. First Species stocked No. of pcs Area covered stocking year Probarbus jullieni 240,000 Whole country 1981 Pangasianodon gigas 50,000-100,000 Whole country 1985 Catlocarpio siamensis 300,000 Whole country 1986 Rana blythii 30,000-50,000 480 ha 1990 Pangasius sanitwongsei 10,000-20,000 Whole country 1999 Botia sidthimunki 5,000 Nan River 5 2003 138 Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Endangered Fish Species and Seed Release Strategies in Vietnam

Thai Ngoc Chien, Nguyen Huu Khanh and Nguyen Xuan Truong Research Institute for Aquaculture (RIA) No. 3 33 Dang Tat, Nha Trang, Khanh Hoa, Vietnam

Introduction b) Destruction of ecosystem

World economic growth has led to consid- Mangroves and wetland ecosystems erable changes in the ecosystem in many have been converted into aquaculture places and has raised concerns on global ponds. Dam construction for irrigation resource management particularly aquatic and building of shipping harbors have animal resources and their living environment. also affected the ecosystem. In Vietnam, aquatic animal resources play an important role in the national economy and c) Water pollution are one of the targets for economic devel- Industrial, agricultural and domestic opment. However, under high population waste discharges reduced the biodi- pressure, high demand for seafood has versity and spawning of animals. resulted in unfavorable living environment. Aquatic animal resource has been over- Aquatic Resource Management exploited and in some places reported to be declining, hence some species have become Although the government of Vietnam extinct or endangered. has issued many regulations and legislation for environmental and resource manage- This paper presents some endangered ment, guidelines and methods for effective species, seed production and release strategies implementation are still lacking. Legislation for resource conservation. has not been updated.

Endangered Species In recent years, integrated coastal or community-based management programs have Based on the Red Book, various fresh- been undertaken in Vietnam. Some protected water fish (Table 1) and marine animals marine areas such as Hon Mun PMA (Nha (Table 2) have different levels of endan- Trang Bay), Trao Reef (Van Phong Bay), sea gered status.

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST garden (Van Phong Bay) have been organized. Reasons for the various species being Likewise, a long-term resource management endangered are as follows: strategy has been established.

a) Fishing Artificial propagation of many endangered species has not been successfully High fishing pressure and destruc- achieved. Seed production technology has tive fishing gears/methods such as been focused on high value species due to trawls, seines, explosives, dynamite, farmers’ demands. For endangered freshwater etc., have been used in coastal and fish, hatching the snakehead fish Channa inland waters, which resulted in the striata, C. micropeltes and C. maculata has been destruction of habitats and death of successfully done. To date, seed production of animals. Cyprinus centralus, Labeo chrysophekadion 140 Endangered Species and Seed Release in Vietnam

Table 1. List of freshwater fish species that are endangered (E), very endangered (V), threatened (T) and at risk (R). Symbol + indicates the presence of the species in the specified locations. Location Central High- Eastern Mekong Scientifi c name Status North Center South lands South Delta

Scleropages formosus E + Anguilla japonica E + + Procypris merus E + Cyprinus multitaeniata E + Tenualosa reevesii V + Hilsa kelee V + + Hilsa toli V + + Clupanodon thrissa V + + Konosirus punctatus V + Laichowcypris day V + + + Onychostoma laticeps V + + Semilabeo notabilis V + + + Bangana lemassoni V + + + Spinibarbus caldwelli V + + Spinibarbus denticulatus V + + + Cyclocheilichthys enoplus V + + Tor tambroides V Mylopharyngodon piceus V + + Luciocyprinus langsoni V + Megalobrama terminalis V + + Pangasius larnaudii V + + Hemibagrus elongatus V + + + + Cranoglanis bouderius V + + + Bagarius bagarius V + + + Trichogaster pectoralis V + + Chanos chanos T + Chitala chitala T + + + Cyprinus centralus T Catlocarpio siamensis T + + Squaliobarbus curriculus T + + + Ochetobius elongatus T + + + Cirrhinus microlepis T + Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Cosmochilus harmandi T + Labeo chrysophekadion T + + Probarbus jullieni T + + Channa micropeltes T + Channa striatus T + + + + Toxotes chatareus R + Anguilla marmorata R + Anguilla bicolor pacifi ca R Gyrinocheilus aymonieri R + Sinogastromyzon tonkinensis R + + Pangasianodon gigas R + + + +

Source: Fisheries Ministry of Vietnam (1996) Endangered Species and Seed Release in Vietnam 141

Table 2. List of endangered marine animals that are endangered (E), very endangered (V), threatened (T) and at risk (R).

Scientifi c name Status Location Nematolosa nasus E Vietnam sea except for Ca Mau Anodontostoma chacunda E Tonkin Gulf; Thailand Gulf Crocodylus porosus E Eastern; southwest Crocodylus siamensis E High lands; south Sepia tigris E Tonkin Gulf; central south Trochus niloticus E Central south; southeast Trochus pyramis E Central south; southeast Turbo marmoratus E Khanh Hoa province Anomalocardia squamosa E Khanh Hoa province Gafrarium tumidum E Khanh Hoa province Nautilus pompilius E Khanh Hoa and Vung Tau provinces Loligo formosana E Tonkin Gulf; southern center Chelonia mydas E Vietnam Sea Eretmochelys imbricate E Tonkin Gulf; southern center Dermochelys coriacea E Hai Phong, Khanh Hoa and Kien Giang provinces Microthele nobilis E Khanh Hoa province Thelenota ananas E Khanh Hoa province Bostrichthys sinensis V Tonkin Gulf; southwest Hippocampus trimaculatus V Tonkin Gulf Hippocampus kelloggi V Tonkin Gulf Hippocampus histrix V Tonkin Gulf Hippocampus kuda V Tonkin Gulf Panulirus longipes V Center Panulirus ornatus V Tonkin Gulf; center; southeast Panulirus versicolor V Center Panulirus homarus V Center Sepioteuthis lessoniana V Khanh Hoa province Strombus luhuanus V Southern center; southwest Charonia tritonis V Southern center Haliotis asinina V Tonkin Gulf and southern center Haliotis ovina V Tonkin Gulf Heterocentrotus mammillatus V Khanh Hoa province Actinopyga echinites V Khanh Hoa province Actinopyga mauritiana V Khanh Hoa province Caretta caretta V Vietnam Sea Lepidochelys olivacea V Vietnam Sea Masturus lanceolatus T Tonkin Gulf Rhina ancylostoma T Tonkin Gulf Tachypleus tridentatus T Vietnam sea except for southwest Cypraea testudinaria T Khanh Hoa and Quang Ngai provinces Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Pocillopora damicornis T Southern center; southwest Pocillopora verrucosa T Southern center; central south Acropora fl orida T Southern center; central south Elops spp. R Nam Ha province Albula vulpes R Nam Ha, southern center Cyttopsis cypho R Tonkin Gulf; southern center Trachyrhamphus serratus R Vietnam Sea Syngnathus acus R Vietnam Sea Solegnathus hardwickii R Center Ateleopus japonicus R Vietnam Sea Solenostomus paradoxus R Nha Trang Schindleria praematura R Tonkin Gulf Sathyrichthys rieffeli R Quy Nhon 142 Endangered Species and Seed Release in Vietnam Table 2 (continued from p. 141)

Scientifi c name Status Location Anacanthus barbatus R Tonkin Gulf Oxymonocanthus longirostris R Truong Sea Mola mola R Tonkin Gulf Antennarius striatus R Khanh Hoa Etmopterus Lucifer R Tonkin Gulf Anoxypristis cuspidata R Tonkin Gulf Pristis microdon R Tonkin Gulf Cypraea argus R Khanh Hoa province Cypraea histrio R Khanh Hoa province Cypraea mappa R Southern Center Cypraea spadicea R Khanh Hoa province Cypraea scurra R Khanh Hoa province Ovula costellata R Khanh Hoa province Calpurnus lacteus R Center Calpurnus verrucosus R Southern Center Lambis crocata R Khanh Hoa province and Con Dao Cymatium lotorium R Khanh Hoa province Epitonium scalare R Khanh Hoa province and Con Dao

Source: Fisheries Ministry of Vietnam (1996)

and Cirrhinus microlepis is being studied. the Ministry of Fisheries carried out over The seedstock of some endangered brack- 70 projects on seed production. For fresh- ish and marine water species, such as water fish, success in the seed production green mussel Perna viridis, abalone Haliotis of bighead carp Aristichthys nobilis, silver asinina, top shell Trochus niloticus, have carp Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, grass carp been successfully produced. However, the Ctenopharyngodon idella, common carp Cyprinus biology of some important species such as carpio, etc. was achieved. In recent years, we Panulirus ornatus and Actinopyga echinites are have given more attention to broodstock currently being undertaken. improvement. In addition, research projects on some endangered species were initiated Through the support of the Ministry of and promising results have been achieved for Fisheries and many international organiza- Hemibagrus elongatus, Mystus wolffii, Silurus tions, such as Support to Freshwater Aqua- asotus, Cyclocheilichthys enoplus and Cyprinus culture (SUFA), Support to Brackish Water centralus. Seed production of tiger shrimp and Marine Aquaculture (SUMA), Danish Penaeus monodon, mud crab Scylla serrata, International Development Agency (DANIDA),

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST World Fish Centre (formerly ICLARM), and swimming crab Portunus pelagicus was Southeast Asian Fisheries Development likewise successful (Research Institute for Center (SEAFDEC), Australian Centre for Aquaculture No. 3, 2004). International Agriculture Research (ACIAR), Success in seed production has also been and the Norwegian Centre for International achieved for abalone Haliotis asinina, oyster Cooperation in Higher Education (SIU), etc., there have been many projects on seed Crassostrea sp., hard clam Meretrix lyrata, blood production and resource conservation in cockle Anadara granosa, babylonia snail Baby- recent years. lonia areolata, cobia Rachycentron canadum, sea bass Psammoperca waigiensis and Lates In Vietnam, aquaculture is one of the calcarifer, sea cucumber Holothuria scabra, major activities; hence, advanced technol- sea urchin Tripneustes gratilla, and some ogy has been of high priority. In 2000-2004, ornamental fish (Research Institute for Endangered Species and Seed Release in Vietnam 143

Table 3. Freshwater fish species stocked in Ea Soup reservoir, Daklak province.

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Price Total Species (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (VND)/kg (VND)

Grass carp 90 30 75 52 - 48,000 11,856,000 Silver carp 85 60 120 60 48,000 12,720,000 Rohu 21 39 40 52 105 48,000 7,296,000 Indian mrigal 52 - - - - 48,000 2,496,000 Tilapia 20 - - - - 48,000 960,000 Hybrid carp - - 100 6 164 48,000 4,800,000 Total 268 129 215 230 165 - 40,416,000 Source: Database from Project of reservoir and river fisheries management in Mekong Delta basin/DANIDA (2004).

Aquaculture No. 3, 2004). These achieve- been considered to increase the resources. ments will diversify the culture of species as Restocking of fish in reservoirs and lakes has well as increase the farmers’ income. been implemented but in small-scale. Table 3 shows the freshwater fish species stocked in Stock Enhancement Program Ea Soup Reservoir from 2001 to 2005. Like- wise, seeds of indigenous fish species such Stock releasing campaign as black sharkminnow, bagrid catfish and The population size of some species has mud barb were released in the same reser- been decreasing and becoming extinct such voir in 2003 (Table 4). In Lak Lake 45 kg as Giant barb Catlocarpio siamensis, which of Me hoi were released (DANIDA 2004) inhabits the Mekong Delta basin (Research in 2003. The marine species released in sea Institute for Aquaculture No. 2, 2002). Seed garden in 2005 were top shell, abalone and release of declining aquatic animals has sand fish (Table 5).

Table 4. Indigenous fish released in Ea Soup Reservoir in 2003. Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Species 2003 2004 English name Scientific name Quantity kg Quantity kg Black Labeo chrysophekadion 61,965 79 3,900 6.5 sharkminnow Bagrid catfishes Mystus wolffii 2,000 2 Mud barb Leptobarbus hoevenii 2,800 14 Total 63,965 81 6,700 20.5 Source: Database from Project of reservoir and river fisheries management in Mekong Delta basin/DANIDA (2004). 144 Endangered Species and Seed Release in Vietnam

Table 5. Marine animals released in sea garden 8. Carp Paraspinibarbus macracanthus supported by SUMA –DANIDA in 2005. 9. Four-barred tigerfish Coius quadrifasciatus Quantity Price (VND)/ Species (no. of animal Conclusion animals) Top shell 3,000 1,000 Aware of declining aquatic resources, some endangered species have been highly Abalone 5,000 1,000 considered for stock enhancement. Although Sand fish 10,000 1,000 this program is very new, some activities have been carried out such as reproduction, stock releasing campaigns, and restricting illegal Future research on seed production fishing gears. But we lack experience in terms and resource restoration of stock assessment and understanding fish population dynamics, therefore we would like The following lists of animals (top- to cooperate with other countries to build up down priority) are the priority for future this knowledge. stock enhancement programs in Vietnam.

Marine animals References 1. Red lobster Panulirus longipes Fisheries Ministry of Vietnam. 1996. Fish 2. Spiny lobster Panulirus versicolor resources in Vietnam (in Vietnamese). 3. Sea urchin Heterocentrotus mammillatus Agriculture Publisher. 616 p. 4. Horseshoe crab Tachypleus tridentatus Fisheries Ministry of Vietnam. 2005. Pro- 5. Trumpet triton Charonia tritonis ceedings of the National Workshop on 6. Green turban Turbo marmoratus Research and Technology Applied in Aquaculture (in Vietnamese, English Freshwater fishes abstract). Agriculture Publisher. 959 p. 1. Giant barb Catlocarpio siamensis Research Institute for Aquaculture No. 2. 2. Mekong giant catfish Pangasianodon 2002. Journal of Mekong Fisheries (in gigas Vietnamese, English abstract). Agricul- 3. Spot pangasius Pangasius larnaudii ture Publisher. 306 p. 4. Snakeskin gourami Trichogaster pectoralis Research Institute for Aquaculture No. 3. 2004. 5. Japanese eel Anguilla japonica Collection of scientific and technological 6. Black sharkminnow Labeo research (in Vietnamese, English abstract). chrysophekadion The 20th Anniversary of Institutional 7. Asian catfish Clarias macrocephalus Foundation (1984-2004). 656 p. Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Appendix 1 - List of Participants

A. COUNTRY PARTICIPANTS Fax: (95-1) 228 258 E-mail: 1. Ms. Nurul Istiqomah Directorate of Fish Health and Environment 6. Mr. Nelson A. Lopez Directorate General of Aquaculture Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture Ministry of Marine Affairs and Division Fisheries Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Ragunan, Pasar Minggu Resources Jakarta, Indonesia Arcadia Bldg., 860 Quezon Avenue Tel/Fax: (62-21) 782 7844 Quezon City, Philippines E-mail: Tel: (63-2) 373 0792 Fax: (63-2) 373 0792 2. Dr. Katsuhiro Kiso E-mail: Ishigaki Tropical Station Seikai National Fisheries Research Institute 7. Mr. Marnop Chaengkij Fisheries Research Agency Roiet Inland Fisheries Research and Fukai-Ohta 148-446, Ishigaki Development Center Okinawa 907-0451, Japan Department of Fisheries Phone: (81) 980 88 2571 Roiet, Thailand Fax: (81) 980 88 2573 Tel: (66-2) 561 4690 E-mail: Fax: (66-2) 562 0529 E-mail: 3. Mr. Hanh Choundara Cooperation and Investment Unit 8. Mr. Thai Ngoc Chien Planning Division Research Institute of Department of Livestock and Aquaculture No. 3 Fisheries 33 Dang Tat Street P.O. Box 811, Vientiane, Lao PDR Nha Trang City, Khah Tel: (856-21) 416 932 Hoa Province, Vietnam Fax: (856-21) 415 674 Tel: (84-58) 831 541; (86-58) 830 069 E-mail: Fax: (84-58) 831 846 E-mail: 4. Mr. Kamarruddin Bin Ibrahim Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Turtle and Marine Ecosystem Centre Rantau Abang, 23050 Dungun B. RESOURCE PERSONS Terengganu, Malaysia 9. Dr. Sena De Silva Tel: (60-9) 845 8169, 845 3107 Fax: (60-9) 845 8017 School of Ecology and Environment E-mail: Deakin University, P.O. Box 423 Warrambol, Victoria 3280 5. Mr. Kyaw Myo Win Australia Department of Fisheries Tel: (61-3) 55 633 527 Sinmin Road, Ahlone Township Fax: (61-3) 55 633 462 Yangon, Myanmar E-mail: Tel: (95-1) 225 260 146

10. Dr. Edgardo D. Gomez 15. Dr. Takuma Sugaya University of the Philippines Kamiura Station Marine Science Institute National Center for Stock Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines Enhancement Tel: (63-2) 920 5301, 924 7678 Fisheries Research Agency Fax: (63-2) 924 7678 Ooaza-Tsuiura, Kamiura E-mail: Saeki, Ohita 879-2602, Japan Tel: (81) 972 32 2125 11. Dr. Benjamin J. Gonzales Fax: (81) 972 32 2293 Fisheries Resource Management E-mail: Project 16. Mr. Suriyan Vichitlekarn Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic SEAFDEC Secretariat Resources Department of Agriculture Kasetsart University Campus Estuar Building, Quezon Ave. Phaholyotin Road Quezon City, Philippines Bangkok 10900, Thailand Tel: (63-48) 434 4926 Tel: (66-2) 940 6326, 940 6332 Fax: (63-48) 433 4367 Fax: (66-2) 940 6336 E-mail: E-mail:

12. Dr. Thuy T. Nguyen 17. Dr. Amanda C. J. Vincent Network of Aquaculture Centres in Project Seahorse Fisheries Centre Asia-Pacific University of British Columbia P.O. Box 1040 Kasetsart Post Office 2204 Main Mall, Vancouver B.C. Bangkok 10903, Thailand V67 1Z4 Canada Tel: (66-2) 561 1728 (Ext. 118) Tel: (604) 827 5139 Fax: (66-2) 561 1727 Fax: (604) 827 5199 E-mail: E-mail:

13. Ms. Marie Frances J. Nievales 18. Dr. Koichi Okuzawa College of Arts and Sciences SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department University of the Philippines Tigbauan 5021, Iloilo, Philippines in the Visayas Tel: (63-33) 511 9171, 336 2965 Miag-ao 5023, Iloilo, Philippines Fax: (63-33) 511 8878, 335 1008 Fax: (63-75) 554 2755 E-mail: E-mail: Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST 14. Dr. Naruepon Sukumasavin 19. Dr. Ma. Rowena R. Eguia Inland Fisheries Research and Binangonan Freshwater Station Development Bureau, SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department of Fisheries Department Kasetsart University Campus Binangonan, 1940 Rizal, Philippines Phaholyotin Road, Bangkok 10900 Tel: (63-919) 552 1860 Thailand Fax: (63-2) 652 0527 Tel: (66-2) 579 7231 Fax: (66-2) 940 5622 E-mail: E-mail: 147

C. OBSERVERS 25. Ms. Sanine Keuter German Development Services 20. Ms. Moonyeen Nida R. Alava Kalibo, Aklan, Philippines Marine Conservation International Tel.: (63-928) 269 3000 Philippines Email: 20 South Lawin St., Philam Homes West Ave., Quezon City, 26. Dr. Liberato V. Laureta Philippines University of the Philippines in the Tel: (63-2) 412 8194, 924 8235 Visayas Fax: (63-2) 412 8195 Miag-ao 5023, Iloilo, Philippines E-mail: Tel: (63 918) 351 7148 E-mail:

21. Ms. Adelaida T. Calpe 27. Mr. Rene Geraldo G. Ledesma Philippine Council for Aquatic and National Fisheries Research and Marine Resources Development Development Institute Los Baños, Laguna 4030 Department of Agriculture Philippines 940 Quezon Ave., Quezon City Tel: (63-49) 536 5580 Philippines Fax: (63-49) 536 1582, 536 5580 Tel: (63-2) 373 7411 E-mail: Fax: (63-2) 373 7411 E-mail: 22. Dr. Annabelle del Norte-Campos Division of Biological Sciences 28. Ms. Marlynn M. Mendoza College of Arts and Sciences Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau University of the Philippines in the Department of Environment and Visayas Natural Resources Miag-ao, Iloilo, Philippines Ninoy Aquino Parks and Tel.: (63-33) 315-9636 Wildlife Center Fax: (63-33) 315-9271 Diliman 1156, Quezon City Email: Philippines 23. Dr. Romeo D. Fortes Tel: (63-2) 925 8950 College of Fisheries and Ocean Fax: (63-2) 924 0109 Sciences E-mail: University of the Philippines in the

Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Miag-ao 5023, Iloilo, Philippines 29. Ms. Yasmin Primavera-Tirol Tel: (63-33) 315 8143 Aklan State University Fax: (63-33) 315 8143 New Washington, Aklan E-mail: Philippines Tel.: (63-36) 265 2004 24. Dr. Jose Ingles Email: World Wildlife Fund Philippines #65 Mindanao Ave., Bagong Pag-asa 30. Mr. Eric Richer Quezon City 1128, Philippines Municipal Environment and Natural Tel: (63-2) 920 7923, 920 7926, Resources Office 920 2931 Tangalan, Aklan, Philippines Fax: (63-2) 426 3927, 927 0247 Tel.: (63-918) 378 5924 E-mail: Email: 148

31. Mr. Francisco F. Santos 38. Ms. Junemie H. Lebata National Fisheries Research and Researcher Development Institute Department of Agriculture 39. Ms. Ma. Teresa C. Mallare 940 Quezon Ave., Quezon City Head, Training Section (until Philippines May 2006) Tel: (63-2) 373 7411 Fax: (63-2) 373 7411 40. Atty. Jerry T. Opinion E-mail: Head, Administration and Finance Division 32. Dr. Karsten Schroeder German Development Service 41. Dr. Rolando R. Platon 2F/Alumni Hall, USP Department Chief (until April 2006) Lahug, Cebu City, Philippines Tel: (63-32) 231 0040 42. Dr. Jurgenne H. Primavera Fax: (63-32) 231 8570 Senior Research Specialist E-mail: 43. Dr. Emilia T. Quinitio Senior Research Specialist 33. Lynnette Trofeo-Laroya Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau 44. Mr. Marcial Eduard M. Rodriguez Department of Environment and Researcher Natural Resources Ninoy Aquino Parks and 45. Mr. Wilfredo G. Yap Wildlife Center Head, Research Division and Quezon Ave., Diliman 1156 Head, SEAFDEC Manila Office Quezon City, Philippines (until April 2006) Tel: (63-2) 924 6031 to 35 Fax: (63-2) 924 0109 SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department E-mail: 46. Dr. Ma. Lourdes C. Aralar Head, Binangonan Freshwater D. SEAFDEC PARTICIPANTS Station Binangonan Freshwater Station SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department Binangonan, Rizal, Philippines Tigbauan Main Station Tel: (63-919) 552 1860 Tigbauan 5021, Iloilo, Philippines Fax: (63-2) 652 0527 Tel: (63-33) 511 9171, 336 2965 E-mail: Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST Fax: (63-33) 335 1008 34. Dr. Teodora U. Bagarinao SEAFDEC Marine Fishery Resources Head, Training and Information Development and Management Division (until May 2006) Department 35. Ms. Ruby F. Bombeo Fisheries Garden, Chendering Training Officer 21080 Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia Tel. (60-9) 616 3150 to 52, 616 3173, 36. Ms. Shelah Mae Buen-Ursua 01998 3302 Research Specialist Fax: (60-9) 617 5136 37. Dr. Fe Dolores P. Estepa 47. Mr. Sallehudin Jamon Research Specialist Research Officer 149

48. Mr. Zulkifli Talib 51. Ms. Eva T. Aldon Researcher Information Specialist SEAFDEC Training Department 52. Ms. Nanette C. Bantillo Samutprakan 10290, Thailand Administrative Assistant Tel: (66-2) 425 6100 Fax: (66-2) 425 6110 to 11 53. Ms. Salve C. Gotera E-mail:

50. Mr. Stephen B. Alayon 57. Ms. Ma. Antonia A. Tresvalles Data Bank Assistant Administrative Assistant Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST 150 Downloaded by [Anonymous] from http://repository.seafdec.org.ph on January 30, 2019 at 10:19 PM CST