COMPARING ECOLOGICAL RESOURCE- DEPENDANT LIVELIHOOD PATTERNS BETWEEN A PROJECT AND NON-PROJECT AREA
by Suha Sanwar
POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN WATER RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
Institute of Water and Flood Management
BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
March, 2010 COMPARING ECOLOGICAL RESOURCE- DEPENDANT LIVELIHOOD PATTERNS BETWEEN A PROJECT AND NON-PROJECT AREA
Suha Sanwar
Institute of Water and Flood Management
BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
March, 2010 LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE SERIAL NO. TITLE NO. Figure 2.1 Impact of flood land removal on fisheries: a schematic 19 presentation Figure 3.1 (a) Map of Gopalganj district; (b) map of Tungipara 27 upazila
Figure 3.2: River system of Gopalganj district 30
Figure 3.3 Very High (>3o%) incidence of Hard-core food poverty 33 in Tungipara upazila (black- circled) of Gopalganj District on Poverty map of Bangladesh
Figure 3.4: 0-25% people in Tungipara are below the lower poverty 34
Figure 4.1 Location of red-circled Kakuibunia (project area) and 50 green-circled Dariarkul (non-project area) villages in Tungipara, Gopalganj; the three red-circles indicate location of three water-controlling gates under the SSWRP implemented by LGED
Figure 5.1 Livelihood balance in the project area 76
Figure 5.2 Livelihood balance in the non-project area 80
Figure 5.3 Wetland ecological resource-livelihood linkages on 85 Sustainable Livelihood framework
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LIST OF PLATES
PAGE SERIAL NO. TITLE NO. Plate 3.1 Baira farming in Gopalganj districts in Bangladesh 47
Plate 4.1 (a) agriculture-dominated landscape in the project area 51 in Kakuibunia; (b) wetland dominated landscape in the non-project area in Dariarkul
Plate 4.2 Participants drawing resource map for the project area in 54 Kakuibunia
Plate 4.3 Participants drawing resource map for the non-project 54 area in Dariarkul
Plate 4.4 The resource map for Kakuibunia village 55
Plate 4.5 The resource map for Dariarkul village 56
Plate 4.6 Seasonal calendar prepared by the participants in project 57 area
Plate 4.7 Seasonal calendar prepared by the participants in the 57 non-project area
Plate 4.8 During a Focused Group Discussion with the female 58 participants from marginal and landless farmers’ families
Plate 4.9 People found busy in the open beel in different 59 professions early in a morning during the transect boating
Plate 5.1 (a) Vast agricultural lands in the project area of 61 Kakuibunia; (b) van-pulling - a minor profession in the same area
Plate 5.2 Chai set in water to catch fish 63
Plate 5.3 (a) An old couple setting nets for fish; (b) people 66 catching fish during Chaitra in the Baghiar beel
Plate 5.4 (a) Thushi, a local instrument for snail-catching; (b) a 67 boy catching snails early in the morning in Baghiar beel near Dariarkul village; (c) his catch of snails
Plate 5.5 (a) Shapla collected from beel; (b) grass under beel 67 water collected for livestock feed; (c) people collecting
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PAGE SERIAL NO. TITLE NO. waterhyacinth for livestocks
Plate 5.6 (a) Two involved in boat-making; (b) Chambal tree 68 used in the making boats
Plate 5.7 (a) Cutting earth from inundated land; (b) Collecting 69 it on boats to transport
Plate 5.8 (a) Vast agricultural land in Kakuibunia; (b) The 70 Kakuibunia gate (from outside); (c) the gate (from inside) that controls water allowed into and out of the agricultural fields
Plate 5.9 Herbs growing on roadsides, by beels useful for different 72 medicinal properties
Plate 5.10 (a) Hogla growing in wetlands; (b) A woman 72 making pati (mat) using dried hogla near Dariarkul village
Plate 5.11 (a) Dried dhaincha stored to be used as fuel in 73 households; (b) A woman displaying Jessorer lata good for its medicinal properties, during one FGD in Hotathgram in Dariarkul village
Plate 5.12 Vegetables grown in homestead garden, roadsides by a 81 landless lady
Plate 5.13 Hens and ducks reared up by Ujiran that help the family 81 meet weekly installments as well as the protein-supply
Plate 5.14 Mosharraf catching fish in Baghiar beel 82
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LIST OF ANNEXURES
PAGE SERIAL NO. TITLE NO. Annexure 1 Completed and Ongoing Projects of BWDB in 93 Gopalganj district
Annexure 2 Completed Sub-Projects of SSWRDSP in Gopalganj 94 District Annexure 3 Sub-Projects under the Ongoing SSWRDSP-2 94
Annexure 4 Resource map of Kakuibunia village 95
Annexure 5 Resource map of Dariarkul village 96
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Chapter One Background
1.1. BACKGROUND
Wetlands and their provisioning services are crucial to life and livelihoods. In a land of wetlands like Bangladesh, livelihoods of people, particularly those living below the poverty line, are intricately related to and sometimes depend entirely upon the sustainability of these wetlands. Water development interventions, in its different forms, is accelerating in recent times; the aim being to harness and enhance the potentiality of wetlands in contributing towards poverty-stricken peoples’ livelihoods. The outcomes of these interventions on ecological resources of wetlands and subsequently, on the dependency of poor peoples’ livelihoods demand some review.
Wetlands of Bangladesh have great ecological, economic, commercial and socio- economic importance and values. These have substantially been contributing to the lives of millions of people of rural Bangladesh by providing opportunities of employment, food and nutrition, fuel, fodder, transportation, irrigation etc. They contain very rich components of biodiversity, both flora and fauna of local, national and regional significance.
Traditionally livelihoods and cultures of people living in and around these wetlands developed based on these wetlands and its numerous resources over time. The provisioning service of wetlands are particularly important for Bangladesh as they cover 35 percent of the country’s land area and it has been estimated that 80 percent of people in rural Bangladesh depend on wetland areas for fish and other aquatic resources (USAID, 2007). Of these, Gopalganj-Khulna beels are one of the most important freshwater wetlands located in the low-lying basins of south-western hydrological region of the country.
Gopalganj, characterized by beels, baors and peat-muck lands, is a perfect example of floodplain ecosystems. These freshwater ecosystems sustain life and provide economic goods and services of enormous value. On the other hand, water supplies are dependent on the protection and sustainable use of ecosystems that naturally capture, filter, store and release water - such as wetlands, forests and soils - and their biodiversity. However,
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poverty induces people to focus on satisfying immediate needs rather than achieving future security in resources for their own livelihoods. Understanding livelihoods require examining the interrelations between the processes, which operate at various scale or levels that impinge on livelihoods. Variability in resources seasonality, availability and accessibility set peoples’ livelihood and their day-to-day activities at different levels.
Human interference in wetlands in the form of massive physical infrastructures, conversion to agricultural lands or unsustainable use, lease systems have been damaging to the fragile ecosystem and to the long-term sustainability of the wetlands which is bound to impact the livelihoods of people in the areas. In recent years due to consistent decline in inland capture fisheries, agriculture has emerged as the overwhelmingly dominant sector of the economy in these areas. The navigation system has been either closed or substantially reduced which have caused significant shifts from livelihoods based on boat-making, repairing and transportation to others, mainly as agriculture labor. Thus any unprecedented intervention in development of water resources may harm the existing harmony in a society through interruption or complete diversion of common peoples’ livelihood activities, in a cyclic manner.
Imhoff et al. (2004) pointed out that the ongoing growth and consumption pattern in Bangladesh is likely to impoverish local ecosystems and diminish the important services they provide. To date, South Asian development process, including those in Bangladesh, has been environment-intensive and environment-depleting (Alauddin, 2004) and the demand for ecosystem services is projected to increase significantly in the future from the currently high but non-inclusive growth trajectories of many countries in the region. The degradation of ecosystems is likely to be a significant barrier to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) related to reduction of poverty, hunger and disease in the region and hence, the livelihoods.
People interact with and are dependent on a number of what may conventionally be termed ecosystems. Taking a sustainable livelihoods approach (DFID, 1999), predominantly sedentary, rural poor communities may depend upon goods and services provided simultaneously from several biotic communities within the landscape e.g. freshwater and forest communities may provide different seasonal contributions (fish and fuel) to livelihood. An ignorance of important ecosystem linkages is often the primary reason behind failures of resource management policies in the region. What is the
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relationship between ecosystem services and poverty alleviation? Finding answers to this question is vital if resources are to be used sustainably and to alleviate poverty. However, this is a question that has not received enough attention in Bangladesh.
Changes in the flow of ecosystem services affect the wellbeing of the poor, directly or indirectly, through multiple pathways. It is generally presumed that environmental degradation affects the poor more adversely (than the non-poor), owing to their relatively greater dependence on nature’s resources combined with limited diversification/exit options. However, very few studies provide detailed empirical evidence on the manner and degree of such impact on the poor, relative to the non-poor (Markandya, 1998). Still fewer studies identify the complete ‘impact pathways’ from drivers to responses in dynamic settings; i.e. linkage between poor people’s livelihood and ecological resources needs to be established through scientific studies and proper recognition of the invaluable resources that the wetlands hold.
1.2. OBJECTIVES
In this context, the following study was undertaken to delineate the changes in livelihood patterns of the poor people due to the implementation of a water resource development project in Kakuibunia village of Patgati Union as compared to the poor people’s livelihood in an un-intervened area in Dariarkul of Gopalpur Union, both under the Tungipara upazila in Gopalganj-an ecologically rich, low-depressed region of Bangladesh, aiming at: 1) Identifying the livelihoods of the poor people of the study areas and their patterns; 2) Identifying the ecological resources of the two areas; and 3) Establishing linkages between ecological resources and livelihood patterns of the poor people in both project and non-project area.
The intension of the study was to detect simultaneously, the impact of a water resource development project on shifting peoples’ livelihood and to find scopes to improve or manage opportunities for maximizing poverty alleviation.
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1.3. SCOPES OF THE STUDY
This study may help future studies of linkages between ecological resources and peoples’ livelihoods or water development intervention decision-makings in floodplains by:
1) being a secondary data source for - a. the representative wetland ecological resources, livelihoods of the low-lying areas of the floodplains of Gopalganj; b. highlighting the linkages between the wetland ecological resources and poor peoples’ livelihoods pattern; c. the impacts of the local and regional water resource development interventions on shifting of and patterns of peoples’ livelihoods in that area. 2) helping policy planners in making decision to consider peoples’ wellbeing, environmental sustainability and reflect these in the water project implementation and monitoring phases.
1.4. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Since the study was for the degree of Post Graduate Diploma, there were some limitations regarding the depth of research, time-constraints; otherwise -
1) the study should have spanned a couple of years to identify shifting in livelihood patterns over time which could not be done; 2) statistical sampling and same interviews repeated with more clusters of populations would have made the study more informative and specific to the local situations. That would also indicate the specific intervention scopes in the area.
1.5. ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT
The first chapter introduces briefly the set up of the study, its justifications, objectives along with the scopes and limitations it involves.
Literature reviews that led to the study are compiled under the second chapter titled “Ecological Resources - Livelihood Linkages”. The chapter defines the key-terms to be
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considered in the study, the enormous potentials that wetlands hold in Bangladesh. Finally the chapter closes highlighting the impacts that different water development interventions have caused in different parts of the south-western region.
The third chapter sequentially chalks out the entire methodological procedures followed to carry out the study.
The results and discussions, in the fourth chapter in this report, discloses the data, records observations made during the study and tries to compare the ecological resources, livelihoods, livelihood patterns of both project and non-project areas. Attempts have been made to link the availability of resources with the variation of livelihoods over the time span of the study. Finally, recommendations with policy implications sprouting out of the study have been added at the end of the chapter along with a summary of discussions.
Chapter six is the concluding one that highlights the recommendations and policy implications of the study.
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Chapter Two Ecological Resources-Livelihood Linkages
2.1. WETLANDS OF BANGLADESH
Wetlands are invaluable components of the environment, ecology, resource potential and biodiversity in Bangladesh. They are integral part of the local ecosystem based cultures. About half of the area of the country can be considered as wetlands; in fact, more than two-thirds of Bangladesh may be classified as wetland according to the definition enunciated in the Ramsar Convention. These consist of wide variety of types ranging from lakes, rivers and coastal forest to deepwater paddy fields and ponds. About 6.7 percent of Bangladesh is always under water, 21 percent is deeply flooded (more that 90 cm) and 35 percent experiences shallow inundations (FAO, 1988). The wetlands in Bangladesh encompass a wide variety of dynamic ecosystems ranging from mangrove forests (about 577,100 ha), natural lakes, manmade reservoir (Kaptai lake), freshwater marshes (about 400 haors), oxbow lakes (about 54,488 ha, locally known as baors), freshwater depressions (about 1,000 beels), fish ponds and tanks (about 147,000 ha), estuaries and seasonal inundated extensive floodplains (Khan et al., 1994).
All these wetlands form a unique mosaic of habitats with extremely rich diversity of flora and fauna, much of it as yet biologically undiscovered. Wetlands in Bangladesh are very rich depository of vegetations, aquatic plants, reeds and algae. The flora composition is relatively uniform throughout the haors, beels, jheels and baors but the dominance varies seasonally. The wetlands also support the livelihood of millions of people from such diverse activities as fishing to collecting honey and materials for thatching and fuel wood. The prospect of massive and enormous productivity lies in the development of wetland resources since Bangladesh has the highest wetlands to total land ratio in the world.
2.2. ECOSYSTEM SERVICES AND LIVELIHOODS
2.2.1. Ecosystem
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA, 2003) adopted the definition of ecosystem as “a dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their nonliving environment interacting as a functional unit” following the UN Convention on 7
Biological Diversity, 1992. Such terms as ecosystem/ecological and goods/services are sometimes used as synonyms in combination (e.g. Daily, 1997; Costanza et al., 1997). The difficulty in defining and valuing ecosystem goods and services (Boyd and Banzhaf, 2006; Hartje et al., 2003) is not only compounded by what constitutes an ecosystem in terms of ecological structures and functions but also by what features of the system stakeholder groups (scientists, managers, policy makers, public bodies, interest groups) consider to be relevant (Haines-Young et al., 2006).
2.2.2. Ecosystem Goods and Services
The concept, that there are free ‘goods and services’ provided by nature that are overexploited by population growth exacerbating poverty, is often articulated in terms of environmental degradation. In the context of poverty alleviation however, focus on loss of goods and services places emphasis on the resources available to the poor and the provision and delivery of them across a range of spatial scales.
The biogeochemical functioning of ecosystems delivers a range of ecosystem services such as food, building materials, clean air, fresh water, detoxification and decomposition of waste, renewal of soil fertility, regulation of climate, drought and flood mitigation, pest control, pollination.
2.2.3. Livelihoods Livelihood comprises of the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities required for a means of living (Carney, 1998). Livelihoods can only be understood if the locally specific contexts in which they occur are considered and examined. So the interrelations between the processes, which operate at various scale or levels that impinge on livelihoods, need to be examined.
Resources are a key component of livelihoods. They may be tangible resources (such as land or cattle) but many are non-tangible. For examples, one could think about policies or law as resources around which peoples’ livelihoods revolve. It is essential to identify these resources in a non-rigid way, particularly as they can have multiple meanings. The framework, to establish linkages with livelihood, thus needs to accommodate such processes of social change and how they affect the configuration of available key resources and what individuals and households can do with such resources. The
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framework intends to deepen our understanding of social differentiation and vulnerability. It aims to be dynamic, by taking into account the capacities of people themselves, the changes that take place over time and how this affects the variety of ways by which individuals and households try to adapt and/or cope with the changes in their institutional and physical environment.
2.3. SIGNIFICANCE OF WETLANDS AND THEIR LIVELIHOOD SUPPORTS
In Bangladesh about 4 million hectares of land are inundated with water every year in the monsoon (rainy) season, and over half the country is under water in an exceptional flood year (Ali, 1997). In the dry season, the wetlands reduce in size to form a system of rivers, beels (depressions and lakes that hold water permanently or seasonally) and baors (oxbow lakes). The floodplains of Bangladesh are one of the world’s most important wetlands and home to hundreds of species of plants, fish, birds and other wildlife. The wetlands provide the habitat for over 260 fish species (Rahman, 1989) and hundreds of thousands of migrating birds (BirdLife International, 2004), and are an important source of income and nutrition for millions of households in rural Bangladesh, especially the poor. As many as 80% of rural households catch fish for food or sale (FAP 16, 1995) and about 60% of animal protein consumption comes from fish (BBS, 2008). In addition, poor and marginal households catch many small fish that are not included in official statistics or policies, and use aquatic plants and animals for food or as feed for livestock.
The major role of wetlands are - ground water recharge/discharge, storage of flood water, shoreline stabilization and reduction of erosion, sediment trapping, nutrient retention/removal, support for food chains, fisheries production, habitat for wildlife, recreation, natural heritage values, biomass production, water transport, bio-diversity presentation and micro-climate stabilization (IWRB, 1992). Bangladesh wetlands play an important role in flood control and storm surge protection. They also support fisheries, wildlife and forest resources. Wetlands are unique for their rich biodiversity and cultural heritage. It is the combination of all these function, yields and values that makes wetlands so important to the society.
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Wetland ecosystems provide a number of vital services including medicinal plants, clean water and air and buffers from extreme natural events; and biodiversity is the foundation upon which ecosystems are built. Biodiversity includes the number and array of species present in an ecosystem. Many aspects of the stability, function, and sustainability of ecosystems depend on biodiversity (Tilman, 1997). Wetlands of Bangladesh contain very rich components of biodiversity of local, national and regional significance. Among the estimated 5,000 species of flowering plants and 1,500 of vertebrates in the country, up to 300 plant species and some 400 vertebrate species are judged to be dependent on wetlands for all or part of their life span. Wetland also provide habitat for a variety of resident and migratory waterfowl, a significant number of endangered species of international interest and a large number of commercially important ones. The inland capture fishery is based on the vast freshwater resources with some 260 species of fin fishes and 25 shell fish. Wetlands also support a significant range of other activities such as extraction of reed, harvesting of edible aquatic vegetation and their products, medicinal herbs, shell, etc. (Khan et al., 1994).
Some prominent freshwater wetland trees include hijal (Barringtonia acutangula), karoch (Pongamia pinnata), mandar (Erythrina variegata), gab (Diospyros peregrna), jaldumur (Ficus sp.), borun (Crataeva nurvala), chhitki (Phyllanthus reticulatus) and panibaj (Salix tetraspera); other marshy vegetation include many herbs (e.g. grasses, sedges and creepers), shrubs (e.g. patipata and bet or rattans) and of course true aquatic species (e.g. duckweed, water hyacinth, lotus and water lily). For cattle feed, species like aurli (Leersia hexandra), barti (Panicum paludosum), kochuripana (Eichhornia crassipers), petinar (Paspalidiium punctatum) and phutki (Hygroryza aristata) are common in the list.
Branches and twigs of hijal, karoch, baladumur (Ficus heterophylla), bhuiokra (Lippia alba), reeds and all grasses (after dried) are used as fuel in the floodplains. Nalkhagra (Phragmites karka) and kash (Saccharum spnteneum) are used in paper and pulp mill and lime burning. In addition to timber for house construction, wetland plants also supply materials for thatching of huts and as protective screen in homestead. Some examples include golmethi (Cyperus corymbosus), C. platystylis and Elecocharis fulcis. Hogla (Typha sp.) is used for mats and screens while patipata/murta (Schumannianthus dichotoma) is well known for the famous shitalpati (a kind of mat). Kochuripana and
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10 other aquatic plants are good to produce compost and also, in southern Bangladesh, are used to construct floating gardens for seedling and vegetable production. Besides these, several thousand of algal species and many mosses and ferns have so far been recorded from the wetlands of Bangladesh and many more are being reported every year. Several of these vascular and non-vascular species are endemic to this region again indicating uniqueness of this country from geographical position (IUCN Bangladesh, 2005).
2.3.1. Wetlands as Source of Food and Medicinal Plants The vast majority of the poor in the wetlands are dependent on water resources for their subsistence. For most of the local residents, wetlands are the only source of biomass for foods, fuel, timber, forage, medicine and fertilizer. The rootstocks of ghechu (Aponogetom spp.), tatro or kachu, Indian lotus and water lilies are rich in starch, for example. The seeds of makhna (Euryale ferox) are also relished. Two wild species of rice, dhan (Oryza coarctata) of brackish water and jhora dhan (Oryza rufipogom) of fresh waterbodies, are used as substitute for cultivated rice. Paniphal (Trapa bispinosa and T. maximowickzii) are plentifully available in large waterbodies and provide nutritious starchy kernels. A number of other aquatic herbs are consumed as leafy greens. Many people collect these resources for earning livelihoods as well as for household consumptions. For example, ghechu tubers yield milky white flour having nutritive value like potatoes; since the tubers are not damaged in flood waters, ghechu forms one of the most important famine foods (IUCN Bangladesh, 2005).
Apart from the cereals and other crops cultivated in the vast areas of the floodplains many wetland plant species are also used as food with high nutritional value e.g. Shada Shapla (Numphaea pubescens), Helencha (Enhydra fluctuans), Kolmishak (Ipomoea repens) etc.
Wetlands provide a wide variety of medicinal resources. A number of species of Polygonum locally known as bishkatali of kukra are effective antibacterial agents. The flowers and seeds of Paddo (Indian lotus) are prescribed for piles, as a cardiac tonic and for elimination of ringworm. The flowers of water lilies are reputed as a remedy for heart ailments. Local kabirazs (traditional health practitioners) harvest these medicinal resources for their earnings and many local people use these for remedy from various disease. People of wetlands also rely upon different herbs with medicinal properties as
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11 talmakhna (Hygrophila auriculata), shada hurhurey (Gynandropsis gynandra), bishkatali (Persicaria hydropiper) and khetpapra (Hedyotis corymbosa) (IUCN Bangladesh, 2005).
2.3.2. Role of the Wetlands in Sustaining Fishery Production System The rivers, floodplains, beels and estuaries are components of a single integrated open water fishery production system. During the monsoon months, all the components become connected with each other and remain under a single sheet of water, thus becoming a single integrated fishery production system. Within such systems, the floodplains play the most important role in maintaining and enhancing fish productivity.
The fish species found in the floodplains during the flood phase are mostly small sized such as koi, kholisha, bele, mola, dhela, taki, punti, meni, singi, magur, chanda, baim, pholi, darkina etc. Fishes like aire, boal, shol, gazar and fry and fingerlings of river breeding major carps like rui, catla, mrigal and kalbasu also visit the floodplains to feed and grow. Besides fish, several species of freshwater prawn such as kucha chingree, gura icha, golda chingree, thengua chingree etc (IUCN Bangladesh, 2005) and their larvae and juveniles also are found in the floodplains. In addition, several species of freshwater mussels and snails also occur in the floodplains. Several species of freshwater mussels bear pink pearls. Mussel shells are also crushed to make lime for use with betel leaves and nuts. Snails are harvested to use their meat for feeding golda chingree (freshwater giant prawn) under cultivation.
The most significant role the floodplains play in the monsoon is the dispersal of all fish and prawn to all nooks and corners of the floodplain. During the floods, fish and prawn on the floodplains are thus carried literally to the doorsteps of the rural households when members of the rural households catch them freely as truly common property natural resources.
2.3.2.1. Role of fishery resources to maintain rural livelihood system Fishing is the second largest livelihood activities in Bangladesh, agriculture securing the first position. The structure of the rural livelihood system depends on the inland open water fisheries to sustain rural livelihood system, status of protein intake and problem on health of rural population and economic importance of the floodplain fish. The available information indicate that this sector employs about 2 million people who remain fully
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engaged in fishing, handling, packaging, transporting, distribution and marketing of fish. An estimate shows that about 10 million people are engaged as part-time fishermen to supplement their income or to live on fishing in some part of the year (IUCN Bangladesh, 2005). About ten per cent of the population depends on fisheries for their livelihoods in Bangladesh. Therefore, floodplain fishing and fish related activities play a vital role to employ rural people, which is very much essential both to maintain sustainable livelihood and to eradicate the unemployment.
After planting aman paddy, e.g. in July to October (in monsoon), people become unemployed and become seasonal vulnerable due to less demand of work in agriculture field. Then agriculture labors are engaged in floodplain fishing to cope with the vulnerable situation or to earn livelihoods. Fishing into the floodplain in the monsoon season is common practice all over the country. Some poor fishermen engage in making fishing gears e.g. net and bamboo traps for selling to the fishermen for their livelihoods.
2.4. VULNERABILITY AND INSECURITY
A key dimension of poverty is vulnerability, which “reflects a household’s resilience in the face of shocks and the likelihood that a shock will lead to a decline in well-being” (World Bank, 2007). Poor households are vulnerable to sudden and pronounced fluctuations in income that may arise out of scope of livelihoods, availability of resources, natural calamities, health, thin markets as well as market fluctuations. Since the rural poor in Bangladesh are primarily dependent on the agriculture sector for livelihood, they automatically become the most vulnerable to climate change induced risks of crop failure and livestock losses.
The causes of vulnerability are as numerous as the causes of poverty. Vulnerability is a complex issue, rooted in a number of causes: poor governance, rapid urbanization, population growth and migration, social inequities, inequitable land tenure issues, uneven crop production, and unsustainable resource use (Borrini-Feyerabend et al., 2004). There are many examples of the correlation between environmental degradation and vulnerability, for example, • deforestation leads to soil erosion which increases the chance of landslides;
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• draining of wetlands for agriculture leads to flooding; • sand extraction from riverbed or near shore increases vulnerability to sea surges; • conversion of mangroves for aquaculture increases vulnerability to cyclones and sea surges.
The World Bank has estimated that 60 percent of the poor in Asia, 80 percent of the poor in Latin American and 50 percent of the poor in Africa live on “marginal lands” (Twigg, 2004). Paradoxically, many high-risk areas - coastal areas, low-lying floodplains, riverbeds and volcanic zones - offer good conditions for sustaining livelihoods. Either willing to accept a certain level of vulnerability, or unable to avoid it, people have always tried to manage risk by modifying their environment. They have built terraces to prevent landslides, irrigation canals to reduce drought, and sea walls to protect against storms. If poor populations live on marginal or high-risk land, it is because they often have no other choice.
Vulnerability to natural disasters is possibly the greatest in Bangladesh. As a flood-prone country, approximately 34 percent of land in Bangladesh stays submerged under water for 5 to 7 months of the year and affects approximately 60 percent of its households (Rahman and Hassan, 2006). During floods, women and children become particularly vulnerable to health impacts and wage laborers suffer from sharp falls in employment. For many rural households in Bangladesh, riverbank erosion is a more constant threat to well-being. It has been estimated that 2,000 to 3,000 km of riverbank experience erosion in Bangladesh annually (Hutton and Haque, 2004) and 31 percent of households in Bangladesh are vulnerable to riverbank erosion (Rahman and Hassan, 2006). The impact is severest among the landless and the marginal farmers. Hutton and Haque’s (2004) study suggests that the displaced, particularly women, suffer mental stress because of social fragmentation and difficulties in adjusting to where they migrate.
2.4.1. Climate Change and the Future Projections for Bangladesh Climate change will put even more stress on freshwater ecosystems and human systems. While local impacts of climate change are hard to predict, greater extremes are likely in weather patterns. The average global temperature is set to rise by 1.4°–5.8°C this century, depending on our technological and lifestyle choices. Low-lying and coastal areas will
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14 become increasingly vulnerable to flooding and storms. Droughts and desertification are already spreading. Many countries face severe water constraints.
Climate change is predicted to result in a significant aggravation of the environmental pressures in many developing countries of Asia including Bangladesh and interrupt sustainable development of the region. The projected surface warming and shifts in rainfall in most countries of the continent is expected to cause up to 30 percent decline in agricultural crop productivity in central and south Asia by the mid-21st century. It is predicted with a high confidence that climate change together with the current population explosion could be threatening to the biodiversity and cause environmental degradation resulting from land use changes.
2.4.2. Environmental Degradation and Poverty – Multiple Pathways Environmental degradation reduces the stock/productivity of natural capital and limits or denies the poor their income generation capability, which in turn makes them more dependent on environment. In Nepal, for instance, lowered agricultural productivity resulting from loss of soil nutrients and severe erosion as a consequence of hill forest degradation and fragmentation has lowered rural communities’ income and livelihood support (Gautam et al., 2003).
Loss of ecosystem functions not only reduces the direct access for food and fuel but also creates a scarcity of these goods in local markets leading to increased prices. Environmental degradation also raises the risk of natural hazards and extreme events for the poor on account of insufficient coping capacity, adaptation capability and resilience. Ecological damage has been found to be the cause of increasing prevalence of diseases in many developing countries (Duraiappah, 2004).
2.5. DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS: MODES AND INTERFERENCES
Human interference in the wetlands has been damaging to the fragile ecosystem and to the long-term sustainability of wetlands. Over the last three decades, massive physical infrastructures in the form of rural road and flood embankment have been developed in the floodplains. Many of these infrastructures disregarded local topographic condition and
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natural water flow direction, which has often resulted in poor drainage or water logging and impacted on the local surface water, declined fish-production by preventing timely entry of fish fry into the floodplain (BCAS and CDI, 2006). In recent years, due to consistent decline in inland capture fisheries, agriculture has emerged as the overwhelmingly dominant sector of the economy in the areas. The navigation system has been either closed or substantially reduced which have caused significant shift from livelihoods based on boat-making, repairing and transportation to others, mainly as agriculture labor.
Wetlands in Bangladesh have long been facing serious degradation and loss, due to many natural and anthropogenic factors. Besides natural causes, factors like overuse of resources, lack of property rights, human encroachment, and conversion to other uses and also absence of effective enforcement of laws are some of the most important factors for the decline in wetland biodiversity of the country (Islam, 2005) leading to certain extinction of the existing ecosystem structures and functions. This situation has arisen largely due to the unplanned resource harvesting by the ever-increasing population.
Since independence there has been an accelerated expansion of physical infrastructure in the floodplains and haor areas. In recent years, decentralization of administration at the Upazila (sub-district) level also led to a rapid expansion of roads and feeder roads even in the rural areas of the floodplains. However, many of the infrastructural development without due consideration the environmental flow has led to the environmental degradation that is taking its toll on people’s livelihood, particularly the poor one that depend on nature for the supply the most. These poorly planned roads and drainage structures created water logging and had serious impact on the water regimes in the floodplains.
Polders built to prevent sea water during storms and floods from entering agricultural fields adjacent to wetland bodies called beels have served to block the tidal flow of rivers and created siltation and water logging, which eventually do not allow sea water to be drained (Choudhury et al., 2004).
Wetlands in the past were thought to be “wastelands” in Bangladesh and government’s goal was to drain out and “recover” them for agriculture production (albeit for one crop a
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16
year during the dry season). Even in areas that have not been converted to agriculture, wetland ecosystems have been threatened by many other pressures e.g. • Flood embankments and water control structures have blocked many fish migration routes. • Irrigation has expanded winter rice cultivation but reduced the surface water that aquatic life needs to survive in the six-month dry season. • Industrial development causes severe local pollution that kills breeding fish populations during the dry season, residual pesticides and agro-chemicals also adversely affect wetland habitat. • Deforestation and poor land management cause high rates of siltation, often filling in dry season wetlands that serve as fish holding habitat during a crucial time of the year.
Many wetlands are drying out, converted into agricultural lands, or otherwise subjected to unsustainable use. Poor property rights and development infrastructure are among the chief contributors to the degradation of wetland ecosystems. The government leases out fishing rights in public water bodies, but short-term leases have encouraged maximum exploitation without giving incentives to protect resources for the next generation. In the case of the beels in Bangladesh, for instance, the government typically provides short or long-term leases, which encourages maximum exploitation while excluding poor people from using the resources (Islam et al., 2000). In total, the identified khas land amounts to 3.3 million acres, only a tiny portion has so far been distributed to the poor who face multifaceted difficulties in both obtaining and retaining land. Most khas land, identified or un-identified, are illegally occupied by the rich segments of the society who are integral part of the power structure. Out of these 3.3 million acres 0.8 million acres are agricultural land, 1.7 million acres are non-agricultural land and 0.8 million acres are water-bodies. It sets an example of economic intervention in the beel area. Freshwater wetlands in Bangladesh are usually leased out for a period of three to five years at a time. This system allows rich middlepersons to obtain the leases. The lessee hires fishers to do the fishing. In most cases fishers of foreign origin are employed at very low wages or on a share-harvest basis. The marketing of the fish is totally controlled by the lessee. Fishers are not allowed to sell their share in the market. They have to sell it back to the lessee at a low price fixed by the lessee. This system of management does not allow the local fishing
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communities to have a role in the management paradigm. As the lease period is fixed, the lessee seeks to maximize income through intensive methods (such as pumping out the water from the wetlands) that are highly degrading for the ecosystems. More and more people fish destructively by dewatering or using fine mesh nets.
Unanticipated environmental consequences of development projects caused a great source of misery for local communities. Constructions of upstream projects often create downstream environmental hazards leading to significant loss of livelihood. Thus, for instance, constructing embankments in the Ganges-Brahmaputra river basin to moderate flood impacts has put large areas in the basin region in a semi-permanent waterlogged state, seriously affecting human health and agriculture (Bandyopadhya, 2002). The factors which are at the root of the downward spiral of poverty-environmental degradation, namely, risk aversion, poor health and population growth are not the consequence of poverty alone but a myriad of other factors. Lack of connectivity to local markets and exclusion from capital markets result in limited livelihood options for the poor often a cause of degradation-causing dependence. Insecure or incomplete property rights fail in providing incentives to the poor to invest in future conservation of resources. An ignorance of important ecosystem linkages is often the primary reason behind failures of resource management policies in the region. Hence, development without long-term vision, may boost up economic activity in a region temporarily, but might end up in making its supposed beneficiaries vulnerable all the more in the long run.
2.5.1. Recent Degradation of Wetlands and Damage of Natural Resources due to Interventions
The construction of embankments for the large-scale flood-protection and irrigation projects inhibited the flow of fish fingerlings (ESPASSA, 2008). It contributed to reduction in fish supply in the open-water bodies and had adverse effects on the livelihoods of fishermen water fisheries. Second, the construction of earthen roads in the seventies and eighties under food-for-works program blocked many natural drainage channels. These earthen roads were later converted into paved roads. These roads now cause drainage congestion during flooding leading to duration and intensity of flooding in certain areas.
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As many as 69% of our people are landless, laborers, workers, slum dwellers are forced to live in perpetual poverty, hunger, malnutrition and deprivation. The increasing population in the country is increasingly demanding natural resources for their survival. Each person needs 21.9 hectares of the Earth’s surface to supply their needs whereas, it was calculated, the Earth’s biological capacity is 15.7 hectares per person. Bangladesh is the 11th most densely populated country in the world with 1045 living in per square kilometer. Therefore, the calculation reminds us how our country is dangerously exploiting natural resources.
Nishat (1993) pointed out that the degradation of wetlands in Bangladesh are mainly due to: increase of population and expansion of human habitats; expansion of agriculture and subsequent conversion of wetlands through drainage into rice fields; flood control and irrigation project for enhancement of agricultural productivity; national, local and rural infrastructures like ill-planed roads; narrow culvert etc.; over-felling of wetland trees; over-grazing by livestock; over-fishing and associated disturbances; siltation due to degradation of watershed areas which are often transboundary in nature; inconsiderate control/ regulation/ use of water flows of main river systems in upper riparian; and pollution of water due to industrial, urban, agrochemicals and other types of pollutants including pollution from transboundary sources.
A number of studies on the impact of water management projects e.g. FCD/FCDI projects, FAPs and CPP projects pointed out that the production floodplain fisheries are declining (Figure 2.1). Due to the construction of embankments, sluice gates, culverts and other structures, monsoon floodwater cannot enter into the floodplains quickly and there is less floodwater. Fish fry could not enter into the floodplains, because of the delay in floodwater flow into the area. Loss of aquatic habitats happened for installing various physical infrastructures such as dam. Many inland water bodies have dried up. Mirza and Ericksen (1996) found that Flood Control Drainage and Irrigation (FCDI) projects contributed to the decline of fish stocks and fisheries by creating obstacles in the fish migration routes. As a consequence, fish production has declined. In addition, farmers use chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which have devastated fish culture in a wider scale. Results from the research show that fish yields were better under pre-project conditions. Under project conditions per capita fish consumption has dropped significantly, and the
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19 price of fish has risen beyond the means of the poor people, so that fish protein in the diet of poor people is gradually declining. Bangladesh is planning to expand water control facilities to the remaining flood-prone areas in the next 15–20 years. This will cause further loss of floodplain fisheries. If prices for closed-water fish remain beyond the buying power of the poor, alternative sources of cheap protein will be required.
Figure 2.1: Impact of flood land removal on fisheries: a schematic presentation (Source: Mirza and Ericksen, 1996)
Over utilization of land reduces fertility of land for meeting increasing demand of food. In addition, utilization of chemical fertilizer and pesticides hampers fertility besides polluting water and creating health hazards. Thus, ecosystem is also hampered by the excessive utilization of land. The increasing demand for urbanization motivates unplanned infrastructural development at rural areas. River bank erosion and siltation are other cases for land degradation. Natural and manmade both causes are involved in this process. A study found symptoms of land degradation such as depletion of organic matter, nutrient deficiency, acidification, salinization, soil compaction, plough pan formation, overgrazing, deforestation of hilly land, shifting cultivation without adequate
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fallow periods, water logging, and accelerated erosion. Degradation of the wetlands in Bangladesh has created the following impacts: • serious reduction if fish habitat, fish population and diversity; • extinction and reduction of wildlife including birds and reptiles; • extinction of many indigenous varieties of rice with the propagation of high yielding varieties; • loss of many indigenous aquatic plants, weeds and shrubs; • loss of natural soil nutrients; • deterioration of living conditions; • Loss of natural water reservoirs and their resultant benefits; and • Degeneration of wetland-based ecosystems, occupations, socio-economic institutions and cultures.
Regarding the impact of WRD interventions, in a FGD (Mirza and Ericksen, 1996), people were found to see the issue differently. They were diverging in their opinion while the FGD was conducted. They, from Chuadanga, faced difficulties in recalling about any water resource development intervention in the area. According to them most of the interventions was routine development activities and do not have any negative impact on natural water flow.
Respondents of Bagerhat told that during the year of 2000 and 2001, BWDB has built embankment to protect crops. But now it has become a backlash. Respondents complained that, water has become more saline than before. Beel splashed by tidal water diurnally that is important for growth of some species. Now water has become stagnant. Respondents of Narail complained that, built embankment is hampering natural water flow. They also accused the polders that have been built in downstream. Due to that establishment now tidal height has increased by 1-2 feet higher than before.
Most healthy ecosystems can rebound naturally from a stress event if it is not prolonged or repeated. Human-induced stresses, however, such as loss of habitat, unsustainable forest practices, overgrazing and extreme hydro-meteorological events resulting from climate change, lead to irrevocable disturbance to ecosystems. This in turn can cause irreversible loss of biodiversity. 80% of rural people in Bangladesh depend on wetlands for fish and other aquatic resources, but fish consumption fell by 11% in recent years and
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about 40% of fish species are now threatened with national level extinction. Out of Bangladesh’s 260 freshwater fish species (Rahman, 2005), more than 40% are now threatened with national extinction (IUCN-Bangladesh, 2000) and may soon follow the path of other wetland fauna and flora. Since 1985, natural carp spawn catches have declined by 75% (Ali, 1997) and major carp and large catfish have declined by 50% in national catches. Fish consumption fell by 11% between 1995 and 2000 (by 38% for the poorest households), and it is estimated that inland capture fisheries catches fell by 38% between 1995 and 2002 (Muir, 2003). Despite recent changes in national policies that call for an end on drainage of remaining wetlands (MWR, 1999), wetlands continue to be encroached for agriculture, industry, brickfields and aquaculture with no sign of abatement. Transnational corporations have been doing aggressive business of chemicals used by these sectors across the country. Thus, the concepts of sustainable agriculture and its organic nature are wiped out by the corporate greed.
2.5.2. Impact of Development Interventions on Livelihoods Unplanned construction of different establishments like the construction roads, culverts, sluice gates, bridges are the major responsible development interventions that caused destruction of the ecology and reduction of Chanda beel in Gopalganj, for example (BCAS and CDI, 2006). Irrigation during the dry season, increasing settlements, raising of the beel by deposition of silt and decomposed water hyacinths and conversion of wetland to agricultural land have been identified as some of the causes for reduction of water/fishery area coverage in the beel. Decrease of water flow due to unplanned construction of roads without adequate number of culverts, sluice gates and as a result siltation of the mouth bed connecting water channels of the beel altogether created barrier in the beel. Farmers gradually converted the wetlands into agricultural lands, by the process, the entire Chanda beel has been brought gradually under increased irrigation practices leaving a negligible percentage of the wetland areas, where water remain throughout the year (BCAS and CDI, 2006).
Thousands of people were engaged as boatmen and were dependent on that profession for their livelihood for ages in the Chanda beel; many were involved in boat-making as well. The economic conditions of both these groups were good enough earlier. There was a dingi in almost every household once in the Chanda beel areas for different uses by its
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people. Gradually, after the interventions started accelerating, navigation facilities through water decreased and the country boats has almost stopped in recent years; only a few are till reported but only to transport people during the rainy season. Such massive disruption of water ways of the Chanda beel has created significant adverse impacts on the livelihoods of people who were dependent upon waterways transportation. Income of the local boatmen engaged in carrying goods and people locally or in long routes got eventually disrupted. They faced unemployment problem and were compelled to change their family profession; they had to seek other employment whatever available in and around the area. They often had to leave the areas for work outside in the nearby upazilas and districts around. Significant number of people, mostly fishers of the Hindu community left the country. Such transformations of professions brought miseries in their lives since they lacked required skills for the new profession when boatmen had to work as agricultural day-laborers, rickshaw/van-pullers. Many of the boat-makers shifted their profession as carpenter.
Though development intervention were responsible for such disruptions of water ways, but construction of roads, bridges for communication and sluice gates for water control for irrigation have brought positive impacts on the livelihoods of the people. Road construction has empowered easy mobility of people throughout the year expanding their connections with outside all the more.
2.5.3. Case Studies reflecting Ecosystem-Poverty-Intervention Linkage This subsection overviews some of the case studies from ESPASSA (2008) focusing the linkages that was found among water development interventions occurring in different parts of the south Asia, their impacts on ecosystem and eventually on the poor fragment of relevant societies.
One of these cases is from Aghapur village, located on the fringe of the Keoldeo National Park in Rajasthan (India). There grazing and livestock rearing was the main occupation of 300 households. The cattle used to graze in the national park area till 1955 under a community monitored system. The area is famous for a number of bird species including Siberian cranes. The grazing of cattle resulted in trampling of grass, making it ideal for laying of eggs. The declaration of the National Park led to a total ban on grazing, which resulted in loss of livelihood for the grazers and also decreased the number of
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migratory birds. Since the grazing was banned the grass started growing unobstructed which harmed the birds’ feathers while landing on water surface. Also, in the absence of trodden grass, the birds lost the ideal breeding ground. Loss of livelihood also resulted in illicit activities.
The next case study is related to the fisheries sector in Pakistan. Pakistan’s marine resources are a direct source of livelihood for over a million people dispersed along a 700 mile coast line. More than 15,000 fishing vessels of various sizes are engaged in fishing; almost one-third is shrimp trawlers mainly owned by non-local investors. The provincial and federal governments have acted on the premise of adequate stocks, setting no limits on the number of fishing vessels, restricting catch sizes or protecting threatened species. Increasingly, traditional practices are being replaced by new fishing methods (e.g. trawling, use of winches etc.) that are environmentally harmful. Degradation of the marine habitat has contributed to reduced fish catch and depletion of fish stocks. Technology upgrades along with depleting catches have made local fishermen increasingly dependent on loans to finance not only their capital expenditures but also the running expenses. In the absence of institutional credit, the fisherman’s only recourse is the exploitative informal credit system. Rising costs and decreasing catches have resulted in falling income levels and increased indebtedness. The poverty of fishermen is linked to the loss of their resource rights. The former landlords have taken possession of the coastal creeks and link permission to fish in the creeks to the sale of the catch to designated traders (beoparis). Further, there is a clear case of policy failure due to arbitrary changes in zoning laws, as well as to weak enforcement. Until recently, the fishing waters off the Sindh and Balochistan coasts were divided into three zones: the coastal zone extending up to 12 nautical miles and coming under provincial jurisdiction; a buffer zone between 12- 35 nautical miles to protect fish stocks; and the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) - waters beyond and up to 200 nautical miles - that are fished largely by deep sea trawlers. Both the buffer zone and the EEZ fall in the federal government’s policy remit. In 2001, the federal government abolished this zone and, subsequently, trawlers have begun to ingress into the coastal zone. The local fishermen complain they denude fish stocks by intercepting the inbound fish spawning runs, and degrade the ocean habitat with their drag nets. One of the major causes of destruction of Pakistan’s coastal fishing grounds is the degradation and depletion of mangrove forests in the Indus delta. Ecosystem degradation
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24 in the Indus delta has been linked to reduced fresh water outflows on account of upstream diversions. The present level of silt discharge, estimated at 100 million tons per year, is a four-fold reduction from the original level before the rivers were dammed. The combination of salt-water intrusion (some reports show this as 30 km inland) and reduced silt and nutrient flows has changed the geomorphology and hydrology of the delta considerably. The area of active growth of the delta has reduced from an original estimate of 2600 sq. km (growing at 34 meters per year) to about 260 sq. km. The delta is being transformed by strong wave erosion, an increasing dominance of sand at the delta front and an increase in wind-blown sand deposits as a result of losses in vegetation. Proposals to increase upstream diversions under the Indus Water Accord would result in a further reduction in existing sub-optimal flows and aggravate an already critical situation.
Ecosystem dynamics are believed to involve interactions amongst the constituent biotic and abiotic variables that operate at different temporal and spatial scales (Holling, 1986). Human interventions tend to influence, and be influenced by, such interactions; thus, as Aggarwal (2006) observes, ‘the different elements of social and economic organization (such as technology, institutions, values, and cultures) co-evolve with ecological variables’. Institutions function at the interface of ecological and human systems – governing the access to natural resources and their joint use – and have their own dynamics.
Gunderson et al. (1997) define ecological resilience as the ‘magnitude of the disturbance that can be absorbed before the system redefines its structure by changing the variables and processes that control behavior. The experience in South Asia also shows that the poor cannot afford to adopt coping strategies by spending on mitigation and defensive activities for minimizing the damages from environmental degradation. In fact, the distributional asymmetry appears to be such that the rich benefit more from ecological conservation than the poor, while the latter suffer relatively more damages from degradation. Kerr’s (2002) study of watershed development projects sponsored by different donor agencies in 70 villages in Maharashtra (India) reports that despite a common focus on poverty alleviation, the projects’ successful conservation achievements and productivity benefits also had strong evidence of skewed distribution of benefits toward larger landholders. These situation analyses indicate the need to develop
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25 frameworks that aid decision making to protect and improve ecosystems services for poverty alleviation.
Ecological Resources-Livelihood Linkages
Chapter Three Introducing the Study area: Gopalganj & its Water Resources
The southwest region comprises of the greater districts of Kushtia, Jessore, Faridpur, Gopalganj, Khulna, Barisal and Patuakhali including 16 districts of Khulna administrative division, 5 districts of Dhaka administrative division and Hamchar upazila in the Chandpur district of the Chittagong administrative division. The region has an area of approximately 40,450 sq.km which is 30% of the total area of Bangladesh and may be divided into the following ecological zones as: flood free zone, the Ganges floodplain, the lower Meghna floodplain, the coastal embankment and Sundarbans.
Major rivers in the region include Ganges-Padma, Lower Meghna, Madhumati, Bhairab, Matibanga, Chitra, Nabaganga, Gorai, Kumar etc. Most of the rivers are silted causing drainage congestion in the area. Some of the channels have abandoned their original courses leaving ox-bow lakes or depressions called baors. The major irrigation projects in the central and western part of the region are the Ganges-Kobadak project, the Barisal Irrigation Project, the Bhola Irrigation Project etc.
The study area is within the Madaripur-Gopalganj peat basin consisting of a basin-like depression with patches of perennial water. Gopalganj is one of the low-lying districts in the southwest region carrying huge water bodies, characteristic baors and rivers that hold huge potential for its people through careful water development initiatives. The physical and hydrological characteristics and processes of this Madhumati floodplain ecosystem differ considerably from those of other wetland ecosystems. Seasonal variations in ecosystem characteristics from being predominantly aquatic in the monsoon season to being predominantly terrestrial in winter are the result of large annual fluctuations in river and floodwater levels.
3.1. GEOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE STUDY AREA: GOPALGANJ 3.1.1. Location Gopalganj district (Figure 3.1) is located in the central area of the southwest region of Bangladesh, at about 120 km south from Dhaka. The total area of the district is about
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1496 sq.km. The district is bounded by Madaripur and Barisal districts in east, Narail and Bagherhat districts in west, Faridpur district in north and Bagerhat and Barisal districts in south. The district comprises of five upazilas, namely, Gopalganj sadar, Muksudpur, Kotalipara, Kashiani and Tungipara including 4 Paurasavas namely, Gopalganj sadar, Kotalipara, Tungipara and Muksudpur. Tungipara is located in the southern part of Gopalganj.
(b)
(a)
Figure 3.1: (a) Map of Gopalganj district; (b) map of Tungipara upazila (Source: Banglapedia, 2003) 3.1.1.1. Tungipara Tungipara upazila with an area of 127.25 sq.km is bounded by Gopalganj sadar and Kotalipara upazilas on the north, Chitalmari and Nazirpur upazilas on the south, Kotalipara upazila on the east, Mollahat and Gopalganj sadar upazilas on the west. The important rivers in the upazila are the Madhumati river, the Ghagar river and the Shailadaha river.
3.1.2. Climate Gopalganj district has a typical monsoon climate with hot wet summer from May to September and cooler dry winter. The monsoon is characterized by high temperature, heavy rainfall and high humidity, while winter season is experienced by cool dry weather with little or no rainfall. Mean of minimum monthly temperature ranges from 3.9°C in
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January to maximum 41.7°C in April-May. Mean annual rainfall is 1972 mm. The two main seasons are separated by truncation periods namely the pre-monsoon and post- monsoon period. The pre-monsoon period is again associated with local tornado and sometimes with cyclonic storms due to low depression in the Bay of Bengal. The post- monsoon period is fairly smooth with declining temperature and humidity.
3.1.3. Topography, Physiography and Soil characteristics The study area in Tungipara belongs to the Old Meghna Estuarine Flood Plain (AEZ-19) covering 8% area of the district. Tungipara upazila has smooth, almost level floodplain ridges and shallow basins. In general, the land elevations slopes from north to south and varies between elevations less than 0.0m (PWD) to 4.0m (PWD). Land form of the district is very young and so are the rivers. Most of the rivers are flowing on nearly level plain of recent deposits that lack by geological structure or topographic features to control the flow pattern of the rivers.
The soil of the district is formed in combination with three types of soil: (a) the Young and Old Ganges meander floodplain, (b) the Peat basin deposit, and (c) the lower Meghna estuarine floodplain. The south-eastern part (including Tungipara) of the district is composed of dark grey silty clay of the lower Meghna estuarine floodplain. Topsoil is rich in organic matter and they are non-calcareous.
3.1.4. Land Type and Land Use According to the land classification system of Water Resources Planning Organization (WARPO), land is divided into four types (Table 3.1.) high land (F0-type with inundation depth up to 0.3m in average flood), medium highland (F1-type with inundation depth up to 0.3-0.9m in average flood), medium low land (F2-type with inundation depth 0.9-1.8m
Table 3.1: Land types of the Gopalganj district
Inundation Depth Land Type (m) Area (ha) % of Net Cultivable Area (Average Flood) High land (F0) 0.0-0.3 8,253 6.68 Medium high land (F1) 0.3-0.9 15,177 12.28 Medium low land (F2) 0.9-1.8 42,639 34.48 Low land (F3) >1.8 57,567 46.56 Total 1,23,636 (Source: District Agricultural Extension Office, Gopalganj: based on agricultural lands, 2009)
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in average flood) and low land (F3-type with inundation depth >1.8m). The district covers a gross area of 149,649 hectares, of which 123,636 hectares are available for cultivation (Table 3.2). Homesteads, villages and infrastructures cover an area of 25,983 hectares and remaining 8,868 hectares are the area of ponds/tanks etc.
Table 3.2: Present land use in Gopalganj district
Land use Area in (ha) Percent of Gross Area Net Cultivated Area 111,450 74 Fallow Area 2,595 2 Homestead 12,186 8 Ponds and water bodies 8,868 6 Forest Area 8,436 6 Infrastructure 6,114 4 (Source: District Agricultural Extension Office, Gopalganj, 2009)
3.1.5. Hydrology Gopalganj district has several important rivers (Figure 3.2) as the Madhumati river, the Madaripur Beel Route (MBR) channel, The Kumar river and the Chandana Barasia river, the Ghagor river, the Kirtinasha–Palong river, the Chatkhali river, the Baghia river etc. Besides there are numerous khals, beels, baor and tanks in the district rendering high potentials of water availability. In the study area lays one of the most important perennial rivers of the district- the Madhumati flowing along the west and southwest border of the district. The Ghagor River is traversed in Kotalipara and Tungipara upazilas of the district which is perennial, too. Another river flowing through Tungipara is the Chatkhali River which originates from Barni baor area in Tungipara. Not less important, the entire Baghia river, originating from the Chatkhali river, flows in Tungipara; it’s meandering course in the south-west direction, meets the Madhumati river near Patgati hat.
Groundwater levels fall after mid-October in response to evapotranspiration and rapid drainage of surface water. The natural rate of fall is highest in October-November. During dry season, nearly all the minor rivers of the district are sustained by the major recharge from the ground water outflow, and there is significant loss of water Table adjacent to the rivers because of change of water levels in the rivers. Often unnecessary groundwater extraction is observed in the district despite its high potentiality for surface water use.
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Madhumati River
Figure 3.2: River system of Gopalganj district (Source: LGED, 2007)
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3.2. POPULATIONS AND LIVELIHOODS OF GOPALGANJ
The district has a total population of about 1,165,273 comprising of 0.94% of the country’s total population; 50.87% are male and 49.12% are female. According to the population census of 2001, total number of households of Gopalganj district is 221,986. Population density is around 1001 per sq km, about 16% higher than national average density (839/sq km). Tungipara has 18,292 households in total with a population of 99462 (male - 52,015; female - 47,447). Farming constitutes 35.51% of household occupation (Table 3.3) followed by day labor counting 26.41%, fishermen (1.67%), traders (16.12%) and others (17.52%) in Gopalganj. Economically active population in the district is 69%.
Table 3.3: Distribution of working population by occupation in Gopalganj
Number % Profession category Farmers>0.21 ha. land holder 78448 35.51 Day labor 58353 26.41 Fishermen 3751 1.69 Traders 35620 16.12 Poultry, Fisheries, Dairy 961 0.43 Transport (Rickshaw, van puller), Boatman 5052 2.28 Others (Services, remittance) 38699 17.52 Total 220884 100 (Source: BBS, 2001 and BBS, 2006)
Agriculture farming is the main occupation in Gopalganj. Most of the adult males are involved either in farming own land, sharecropping of others land or as farm wage labor. There is a significant proportion of own operated land in the hands of the marginal farmer and landless households. In this district, sharecropping is more prevalent with large and medium farmers sharing out land to small farmer, marginal farmer and landless households. It is estimated that 95% of the land is sharecropped. Large farm households are only 3.84% of total farm households in Gopalganj district while they own 21.34% of land (Table 3.4). It further shows that large farmer, medium farmer, small farmer, marginal farmer and the landless own 21.34%, 43.83%, 25.34%, 5.97% and 3.49% of the land respectively.
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Table 3.4: Farm categories by land ownership and tenancy in Gopalganj district
Own land % of land Farm categories Number % of total population (in ha.) owned Landless (0-0.02ha) 30,433 15.45 4017 3.49 Marginal farmer (0.02-0.20 ha) 77,209 39.20 6860 5.97 Small farmer (0.21-1.00ha) 51,161 25.97 2996 25.34 Medium farmer ( 1.01- 3.03ha) 30,554 15.51 50324 43.83 Large farmer (3.03+ha) 7,575 3.84 24511 21.34 Total 196,932 100 114808 100 (Source: BBS, 2001 and BBS, 2006)
3.3. GOPALGANJ ON POVERTY MAP
Poverty induces people to focus on satisfying immediate needs rather than achieving future security in resources. Poverty increases population pressure (fertility response), which raises the demand for land in agriculture and pasture, and in turn increases deforestation. Poverty is a multidimensional problem encompassing issue of income, consumption, nutrition, health, crisis, cropping capacity, education, housing and insecurity. Poor people are more vulnerable and suffer more compare to the non-poor. Being poor, they do not possess food security, social and economic support to cope with hard days.
Poverty and malnutrition in Bangladesh are characterized by regional variation. Factors such as tendency to natural disasters, distribution and quality of land, access to education and health facilities, level of infrastructure development, employment opportunities, and dietary and hygiene practices provide possible explanations for this.
There is a conceptual link between household and communal poverty and the landscape from which livelihood resources are drawn and the concomitant goods and services provided by ecosystems. Bangladesh (BRPMP, 2004) covering a number of poverty indicators including land tenancy, livestock ownership and adult educational attainment and also based on the sustainable livelihoods approach to detect broad causal links between poverty and ecosystem services such as access to irrigation water.
Despite Gopalganj district being a food surplus district, it has a high level of poverty in terms of caloric intake measurement (Figure 3.3). Poverty level ranges from 31-37% in
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Tungipara leaving them in high food insecurity. About 32% people in the district live below the absolute poverty line, compared to national poverty level of 33% of population. About 42% of the district populations live under general poverty level compared to national general poverty level of 47% of population. In fact 0-25% people are belolw the lower poverty line (Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.3: Very High (› 3o%) incidence of Hard-core food poverty in Tungipara upazila (black- circled) of Gopalganj District on Poverty map of Bangladesh (Source: BRPMP, 2004).
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Figure 3.4: 0-25% people in Tungipara are below the lower poverty line (Source: BRPMP, 2004) 3.4. WETLANDS AND ECOLOGICAL SERVICES
BCAS and CDI (2006) conducted a study on the impacts of development intervention on people in Chanda beel in Gopalganj. Most of the reviews shared in this section are based on that study.
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35
Major wetlands in the district includes river, seasonal floodplain, baor, beels (seasonal), ponds, ditches, lakes and borrow-pits. All these wetlands are important resource as these serve the people and nature itself in various ways. The district bears the mark of wide variety of biodiversity. Review of reports and field survey indicate that some 50-60 years back, the district was famous for wide range of biodiversity. But this rich biodiversity has been threatened over time by many causes both man-made and natural. So the previous balanced environment has been distorted partially.
Although there is no organized forest area in the district, the plain land is mostly covered under homestead forests containing varieties of fruit trees and other trees. The southern part of the district is comparatively low lying area where one can find homestead forests with luxuriant growth. These contain indigenous timber trees like karobi, haldu, bazna, keora, sheora, margazaj, mehogini, jalpai, bohera, amloki etc. However, all these trees are mostly scattered. Mango, banana, melon, jackfruit, mandarins, citrus fruits, palm, lime coconut, betel nut, guava, litchi, blackberry, papaya, jambura etc. are among common fruits found in this district. Besides, trees found in this district are gab, haritaki, keora, bairi, sonali etc. Clumps of bamboos are found everywhere. Medicinal plants include Babla (Acacia), Madar (Calotropis), Bhat (Calerodendram), Haritaki (Chebula), Chireta (Agatholes), Dhuteira. Besides, the district produces a good number of trees required for fuel and timber of local use.
Marsh plants and weeds are found in great variety and luxuriance and in the beel area, the surface of the marshes is covered with huge stretches of inundated rice or with mottled floating islets of sedges and grasses and with various water lilies, the striking of which is the Makana (Eurale ferox). Reeds e.g. hogla is used for roofing huts. Almond, banyan
(Ficus indica), jam (Eugenia jambolana), tamarind or tetul, bel (Aegle marmelos), kamranga, jamrul, dumur and some other varieties are found in this district.
Gopalganj district has a rich diversity of land invertebrate mammals, amphibian birds, reptiles and fresh water animals, spiders, multipedes and innumerable insects. Leeches, earthworm slugs, snails, silk moths and silkworm are commonly found in the district. Wild buffalos used to be found in the district. Carnivorous animals include fox, dog boar, pig etc. Tigers sometimes coming from the Sundarbans area were also found in the district. Domestic cow, goat, sheep, buffalo are quite common in the district. Bats, Shrews, squirrels, rats, mice, cats and wild cats are also found in the district. The reptiles
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36 include different species of snakes, lizard and tortoises, guisap, python, cobra and other varieties of poisonous snakes are found almost all over the district. There are amphibians like toad, frogs and tree frogs.
Many kinds of colorful and singing birds are seen in the district. These include the national bird Robin Magpie (Copsycus sanlaris), Halde pakhi (Oriolus xanthornus), Kingcrow (Dicrurns adsimilis), Myna (Sturnus malabarica), Shalik (Acridotheres tristis), Shama (C. malabaricus), Sparrow (Passer domesticus), several species of pheasants, quails, pigeons, doves, duck, geese, cocks and hens, kingfisher, lark, swallow, crow, crane, pelicans, woodpecker and many other varieties of small birds, Raptoral birds include king Vulture (Trogos calvus), Lanner Falcon or Baj (Falco biarmicous), Gochila (Circus aeruginesus), Cheel (Milvus migrans), several species of stork. Some migratory birds like Greenleg goose (Anser anser), Rajhans (Anser indicus), Pitail (Anas acuta), etc. are also seen during winter season.
With large water area the district is well stocked with fish. Some of the commonly available fishes are ruhi, mrigel, kalabous, katla, shingi and magur are also found in large quantity in beels and khals. Many other species of river and fresh water fishes are also found in the district. Of these the principal varieties are koral, vetki, tapsi, dhain, chital, ghona, air, bagair, pangas, boat, ritha, bain or eel, chapila, bhagna, nandail bacha, pon, gargla, kaulia, kapali, khorsols mehsir, golsa tengra, chanda, tekchanda, kachki baila, bheda, batashi, ghausa, kakila, phalli, tatkini, pabda, chela, gangchela, gajal, foli, koi, khalisha, punti, malandi, bashpata, lengra, kakra, meal, shrimps and prawn are found in the district. However, some of these varieties, especially those which inhabit in the marshes and tanks, are declining due to over catching and other reasons such as use of insecticides and pesticides for crop production, etc. Exotic fishes like grass carp, silver carp, tilapia, nilotica etc. have also been introduced for commercial pisciculture in ponds and tanks.
The loss of wetlands has become an issue of threat in combination of factors both natural and man-made. Local aged people has opined that many of the wetlands like beel, low land (F2 + F3 land) have been converted gradually into agricultural farm land over the last few years.
In view of the opinion of local people (LGED, 2007) of Gopalganj district it could be inferred that there has been a loss of aquatic bio-diversity in the district due to wetland
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37 reduction (LGED, 2007). It could be calculated from the above data, information, views and facts obtained from different sources that at least 2% to 5% of the low land (F2+F3 land type) has been removed till date (estimated water bodies in Gopalganj district is 8,868 ha). But there is no exact data available as to the exact quantity of conversion of wetland into others.
3.4.1. Livelihood implications of wetlands The wetland environment has united the inhabitants into a society, which has a definite shape, culture and livelihood pattern. Due to the availability of wide variety of harvestable products, the people of the wetlands are traditionally self-reliant and have subsistence-oriented economy and livelihood. Wetlands in the region are one of the major sources of livelihoods particularly for cultivating food crops, vegetables, fishing, and pasture lands. Cultivation of rice is a major livelihood activity in and around the wetlands.
During the dry season, domestic livestock are allowed to graze in the marshes and turfs. Of late, wetlands are also being used for raising ducks. The evolution and process of livelihood adaptation are usually backed by traditional and indigenous knowledge system and on rare occasions supported by modern researcher and extension.
3.5. AGRICULTURE
About 76 % of the country total population live in rural area and major parts of the rural area is under various types of wetlands including floodplains, haors, baors, and lakes in Bangladesh. About 50% rural people are directly dependent on agriculture for their livelihoods and many others indirectly depend on agriculture input and crops marketing activities in wetland areas. In recent years due to consistent decline in inland capture fisheries, agriculture has emerged as the overwhelmingly dominant sector of the economy in the areas. High level of agricultural dependence may be the preponderance of landless rural households who have no access to other productive employments in the wetlands.
The vast flooded areas of wetland are covered by crops which can tolerate water logging and inundation. Another major crop of wetlands is jute, the fiber of which is in considerable national and international demand. Wheat, rapeseed, potato, tobacco, water melon, cucumber and pumpkins are also grown there. Homesteads are the major areas
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38 where fruits like papaya, banana, pineapple, guava and various vegetables like sweet potato, yams and taro are cultivated. Almost all seasonal wetlands are now used for cultivation of HYV rice in the dry season. Landholders are engaged in crops cultivation in different season of the year. Poor people and the land less groups work in crop fields as wage labor or cultivate rich people’s land as sharecropper for earning livelihood income by cultivating crops.
3.5.1. Irrigated Agricultural Production Basin agriculture in the form of paddies dominates agriculture in Bangladesh, both in the wet and the dry seasons. Today the lifting of water from surface water bodies using traditional methods serves an ever declining area of land and tends to be an activity used by the poorest in society.
In Gopalganj district, at present 18 deep tubewells (DTW) and 6382 shallow tubewells (STW) are operating for irrigation purpose in all the three cropping seasons. The entire irrigation system in Gopalganj district is being done in the private sector by DTW and STW. Use of LLPs is in increasing mainly for shortage of surface water. Area under irrigation coverage, by the wells, is 30,874 hectares, which is about 50% of the total cropped area in Rabi and Kharif-1 and supplementary irrigation in Kharif-2 seasons. Other 50% of irrigated area is cultivated by LLPs and under rain-fed condition. The district being draught prone area requires irrigation in the rainy season in long spell of rainless days.
Total cropped area estimated in the district is 197,273 hectares of which HYV Boro is dominant. Boro covers more than 35% of total cropped area of which HYV is more than 33%. The next dominant crop is B. Aman occupying more than 20% of total cropped area. B. Aus is the predominant crop in the Kharif-1 season occupying nearly 9% of the total cropped area. Other Rabi crops are wheat, oilseed, spices and pulses. Perennial crops, sugarcane and betel leaf cover nearly 5% of the total cropped area. Summer and winter vegetables also cover about 3% of the cropped area. Of the total net cultivated area in Gopalganj district, 34.15% is single cropped, 57.99% double cropped and 7.85% triple cropped area.
Transplanted Aman (T. Aman) cultivated in rotation with HYV Boro is the major cropping pattern in the district. Cultivation of T. Aman is also followed by Rabi crops. On
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lower elevation HYV Boro is cultivated as single crop. In a considerable area, T. Aman is preceded by jute, which is again followed by the Rabi crops. There is another important cropping pattern-jute or vegetables cultivation is followed by Rabi crops or vegetables in the winter. In a significant area, spices or mustard is intercropped with perennial crops and sugarcane. Minor area in highland is covered by maize. Cropping pattern and land area of the district is shown in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5: Major cropping patterns of Gopalganj district
rabi kharif-I kharif-II
Boro Fallow T. Aman Pulse T.Aus T. Aman Boro Fallow Fallow Pulse T.Aus T. Aman Boro Dhaincha T. Aman Pulse/Mustard B. Aman - Source: District Agricultural Extension Office, Gopalganj, 2009
Cropping intensity or the ratio of the total cropped area to the net cultivated area is 174%. This shows that each unit of cultivated land in the district supports about two crops in one crop calendar year. It reveals from the cropping intensity that the district has significant agricultural development potentials.
3.5.2. Labor Labor requirement per hectare cultivation of various crops appears to be medium in the district, because hired labor is used for land preparation. Labor wages are also low except during harvesting time of Aman paddies and HYV Boro, which are Tk. 160.00 and Tk. 180.00 per day respectively. During off-season/lean period laborers can be engaged at Tk. 60.00 to Tk. 70.00 per day.
3.5.3. Benefit of Selected Crop Medium production level not only affect the farmers, but the district itself also suffers in food production. Although production cost of winter vegetables is comparatively higher but benefit is maximum. Winter vegetable cultivation, however, needs irrigation
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3.6. FISHERIES
These wetlands support over 260 fish species (Rahman, 2005) and hundreds of thousands of migrating birds (BirdLife International, 2004). These floodplains provide a critical source of income and nutrition for millions of rural Bangladesh’s poorest people – intensive use for agriculture, fishing and collection of other aquatic resources helps to support a population of over 800 people/sq.km.
Inland fisheries are particularly important: the four million hectares of regularly inundated floodplain wetlands form a major capture fishery (Ali, 1997) and source of livelihoods for rural people these wetlands contribute about 46% of all fish consumed (DOF, 2000). Over 70% of households in the floodplains catch fish either for income or food (Thompson and Colavito, 2007). In fact about 60% of animal protein consumption comes from fish (BBS, 2008). The poor catch many small fish that are not included in official statistics or policies, and use aquatic plants and animals for food or as feed for livestock.
3.6.1. Fisheries Habitat The numerous rivers of Gopalganj (viz. the Madhumati, the Baghia and the Ghagor rivers) have tidal effects and especially during the monsoon many of the riverine species of fish and shrimp migrate into district through the khals and into the inundated floodplains. The rivers have very little or even no flow during dry season and at many places river beds have risen by siltation beels and numerous ponds of the district were once main source of fish habitats. But, nowadays these water bodies have been drained for agriculture or used as a source of surface water for irrigation. As a consequence fish habitats are being lost. Water quality in beels, river and canals of Gopalganj is good for fish habitat. It is important to keep them free from agricultural and other pollution.
3.6.2. Present Status of Fisheries People of Gopalganj were dependent on natural fisheries in the past. Fish and aquatic animals like turtle, crab, snails, clams etc. were found in natural water bodies. Aquatic plants were also collected for human and animal consumption from natural wetland/water bodies. But, the degrading changes in river flow regime and water conservation capacity of other natural water bodies have also changed the aquatic biodiversity. As a result
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harvesting of traditional and non-traditional aquatic animals is greatly reduced. The district, fish surplus area in the past, is now fish deficit. Table 3.6 shows the statistics of fishery resources in the district.
Table 3.6: Fishery statistics of Gopalganj district
Open Water Fishery Resources
Annual Name of Fish Area Sale Water Catch/Year Major Species Harvested (ha) (lakh bodies (ton) taka) Rui, Mrigel, M.carp, Bata, Bhangna, Puti, River 3077 228 114 Aire, Boal
Rui, Mrigel, M.carp, Bata, Bhangna, Putti, Beels 901 392 196 Aire, Boal, Shot
Koi, Shol, Sing, Takie, Punti, Tengra, Rui, Baors 110 76 38 Boal Punti, Tangra, Veda, Shol, Taki, Shing, Floodplain 64952 4813 2882.51 Magur Shrimp 141.70 115.15 57.55 Golda, Bagda farm Khal 209 15 7.5 Rui, Mrigel, Bhangna, Punti, Tengra, Boal
Closed Water Fisheries Resources (Ponds) Annual Cost of Fish Pond Area Annual Sale Major Species Production Production Type (ha) (lakh taka) Cultured (ton) Tk./Ha Culture 1553 4268 30350.00 2134 Exotic Carps, Pangas Cultivable 849 779 3200.00 389.5 EC, Air breathers Derelict 479 219 1500.00 109.5 EC, Air breathers (Source: FRSS, 2009)
The present trend is that the catch from open waterbodies is declining day by day but their catch from ponds and beels under aquaculture are increasing as water bodies are increasingly brought under better management. Besides floodplain community based water body management; homestead aquaculture is contributing towards increased fish production of the district. The major endangered fish species are listed in Table 3.7.
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Table 3.7: Major endangered fish species of Gopalganj district
Scientific Name Local Bangla names Puntitus sarana Sarputi Silonia silndia Shilong Pangasius pangasium Pangash Entrpiichlys vacha Bacha Rita rita Rita Mystus seenghla Guza air Labeo calbasu Kalbaus, Kalia Ompak pabda Pabda, Pota Mystus aor Aier Colisha sp. Kholisha Nandus nandus Bheda Nolopterus Chitala Chital (Source: FRSS 2009)
3.6.3. Fishing Community
The socioeconomic condition of fishing community in the area differs from category to category. Out of the total fishing households, only a few households are professional Hindu fishermen. Their socio-economic condition is very poor. They are the neglected people in the society and are deprived of health and education facilities. They are engaged in this profession since long but due to lack of fishing facilities (lack of fish habitat, fish, fishing gear, fishing craft, credit etc.) at present, they have started leaving this profession and switching over to other profession like earth cutting, day laborer, salesman etc. Most of these fishing households presently available in the area are living from hand to month. They are poorest of the poor in the society. In the district, women are also increasingly involved in fisheries activities such as pond fish culture, shrimp seed collection, net making and fish drying and work in fish processing plants. Some of the problems encountered by fishermen community of the district are: • difficulties to sustain the profession; • limited opportunity for alternate livelihood; • limited access to developed public waterbodies because of their leasing to other organizations;
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• limited fishing rights in beels and baors.
3.6.4. Impact of Water Resource Development Interventions
The construction and implementation of FCD and FCDI project have in many cases resulted into negative impacts on fisheries. Particularly the openwater fisheries ecosystem is the worst affected due to such implementation.
Under the post-FCDI project conditions, due to the following changes negative impacts usually occur in the floodplain ecosystem: • Inhibition of fish movement and migration; • Reduction of monsoon floodplain fishery habitat (Local People's opinion); • Inhibition of breeding, feeding and early development floodplain breeding fish; • Limited recruitment of fish fry and fingerlings resulting in poor per-ha-yield; • Fish harvesting activity is reduced; • Reduction of fish biomass contribution in rivers and beels. Fish migration has stopped from the Madhumati river to floodplain. During the fish breeding season i.e. early monsoon, the river fish like many cat fish such as boal, pabda, tengra, bele etc. move from river to flood plain for the purpose of feeding and breeding. But the embankment and sluice gates (closed) becomes an obstacle for them to their migration. As a result, the freshwater fish spawning process is obstructed and serious negative impact is caused upon fish population of open water (LGED, 2007).
The surface water irrigation is also another threat to open water fisheries. Large-scale abstraction of surface water from water bodies (khal, beel) significantly reduces the fisheries habitat. Moreover, the abstraction of water facilitates over exploitation of fish from the habitat.
Flood control measures in most cases have inhibited fish migration and movement of fish and prawn to their feeding and breeding grounds. Thus breeding, development, early growth, feeding of fish, condition to breed and feed in the inundated floodplains have been restrained.Consequently, the following issues have arisen in the area which the locals are much worried about: • Fishery habitat loss; • Transfer of profession,
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• Conflict between fishermen and farmers, • Decreased fish production, • Cultivable and derelict ponds, • Extension service lack, • Water retention capacity of fish cultured pond.
3.7. WATER RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT STATUS IN THE DISTRICT
3.7.1. Setting of the District in Hydrological Units and Sub-Units The district is located mostly in Flood Action Plan (FAP) Regional Planning Units SC4, SW6 and SW7. Southwest Area Water Resources Management Study formulated under FAP-4 (1993) divided the region into a number of Planning Units (PUs). FAP-4 (1993) demarcated the regions primarily using hydrological characteristics, and also considering resource characteristics.
3.7.2. Hydrological Units and Sub-units of DWRA The study district has been divided into 4 Hydrological Units (HU) such as HU-1, HU-2, HU-3 and HU-4. Each of HU-3 and HU-4 has been divided again into two sub units. These units and sub-units have been divided on the basis of drainage pattern and network, land type and flood depth, existing projects and their boundaries, possible water development opportunities and options, public consultation and responses. The hydrological units are:
• HU-1: Kumar-MBR-Barasater Khal Unit • HU-2: Madhumati-Barasater Khal Unit • HU-3: Ghagor-MBR-Madhumati Unit • HU-4: Ghagor left bank Unit.
The HSU-3B or the Ghagor-MBR-Madhumati Southern Sub-Unit covers large area in south-central part of the district in, Tungipara and Kotalipara Upazilas. Northern boundary is aligned by Ghagor branch river and Gopalganj-Kotalipara road. Eastern boundary is defined by Ghagor river and south western border is marked by Madhumati
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river and lower reach of MBR. F1 and F2 type land formation are seen to grow long stem aman, jute and sugarcane. Drainage congestion exists for long time of the year due to siltation of the riverbeds. Tidal effect also retards drainage efficiency and aggravates inundation both in level and duration.
3.7.3. Water Resources Development: BWDB and LGED BWDB has several projects on the both banks of the river. BWDB has completed 6 FCDI and River Bank protection projects in the district while there are another three ongoing FCDI project and River Bank protection projects. The completed projects suffer from lack of maintenance and thus do not serve the desired purposes. Tarail-Pachuria FCDI project of BWDB is located in the area of influence of the river. LGED also completed 8 SSWRD sub-projects benefitting about 3,245 ha lands.
Under the Small Scale Water Resources Development Sector Project (SSWRDSP), LGED has been implementing small scale water resources development sub-projects since 1995. The benefited area of those projects is less than 1000 ha. Success of the SSWRDSP-1 made the government and development partners interested to expand the scope of the project further. Thus the project has been extended to second phase under SSWRDSP-2. District Water Resources Assessment (DWRA) study is being undertaken under SSWRDSP-2. There are eight completed small scale water resources development sub-projects of LGED in the district under the first SSWRDSP. Lists of completed sub- projects of SSWRDSP and sub-projects under the ongoing SSWRDSP-2 in Gopalganj district are in annexure 1 and annexure 2, respectively.
3.8. OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS IN GOPALGANJ WETLANDS
3.8.1. Opportunities: Indigenous Knowledge within the Context of Freshwater Ecosystems
3.8.1.1. Wild catch fishing: Bangladesh has traditionally been rich in fish stocks. The Padma, the Brahmaputra and the Jamuna and their numerous tributaries have provided a plentiful supply of freshwater fish, supplemented by fish collected from other inland water bodies such as oxbow lakes
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and lowland areas, known as beels flooded during the monsoon. The inland fisheries system is estimated to contribute almost 73 percent of total production and supplies 80 percent of the country’s animal protein requirements (Rahman, 1989).
Country analysis shows that rice-fish systems presently occupy only a very small percentage of the potential area. The wide array of systems that exist can be broadly characterized by field design, growing period and fish species. Three types of field design are common: trench within the rice field, pond or swamp within or adjacent to the rice field and deepwater rice field. Research found that modest increases of 10 to 20 percent are to be expected in rice yields when fish are cultured in rice fields. While overuse of pesticides has limited fish culture in rice fields, research findings indicate that proper application, selection of chemicals and integrated pest management (IPM) strategies can overcome this constraint.
People use every conceivable type of fishing gear including hands, spears, traps and nets. The study found a total of 51 types of fishing gear in operation over the survey period. The type of fishing gear changes with the seasons, according to flood conditions, target species and size of fish. This includes 11 types of trap which display a bewildering variety of shapes, sizes and modes of operation .The polo for example is a bell shaped trap with an open bottom and a small opening at the top. This type of trap is used throughout Bangladesh during the dry season from December through to May. The trap is pressed into the mud in shallow water. The chai by comparison is a rectangular box like trap. The trap has a door extending from the base of the front to the apex at the back. At the top there is an opening for the removal of fish. The trap is set at the surface under floating vegetation. Often snail meat is placed inside as bait. A fisherman may operate about 100 traps which are set in the evening and checked in the morning.
3.8.1.2. Indigenous knowledge of farmers Over the years, the farmers in many floodplains have found various ways of improving their farming techniques and adapting to their situation. Wetland remains submersed in water during a considerable time of the year. This restricts farming activities severely, but the farmers of different floodplains have adopted the practice of making floating gardens using water hyacinth for growing seedlings. They also cultivated nodular plants to increase the soil fertility and for a protection against wave erosion. The sections below give details of these two indigenous techniques used by the farmers in Chanda Beel.
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3.8.1.3. Baira cultivation in Chanda beel
Water hyacinths or Kochuripana (Eichhomia crassipes) grows in abundance in Chanda beel. It is generally regarded as an invasive weed since it multiplies and matures quickly. It not only obstructs navigation, but also makes the water unsuiTable for other aquatic organisms. Its benefits include its use as construction blocks, ropes, compost, fuel, etc. An interesting use of water hyacinth is its use in making floating platforms for vegeTable and other crop cultivation. The floating garden made from water hyacinth, locally called baira, is an age-old practice and has been in use in some parts of Bangladesh.
Inside Chanda beel, people grow vegeTables only to meet their family demands rather than for selling in the market. Some communities of Gopalganj, Barisal and Pirojpur areas of Bangladesh have been traditionally in practice of baira cultivation for quite some time. In Gopalganj, the upazilas that are traditionally practicing this Baira cultivation are Gopalganj sadar, Muksudpur, Kashiani and Kotalipara.
Other districts namely Jessore, Narail, Bagerhat, Khulna and Satkhira have numerous wetlands suitable for baira farming. Baira platforms (Plate 3.1) are placed on a relatively higher ground (locally called kandi) by the waterbodies. These are then broken down and mixed with the soil as organic fertilizer. Beds prepared in this manner are then used to grow winter vegetables. In this way baira is used as floating platform in monsoon and then as fertilizer in winter to grow seedlings and crops for almost all year round in southern Bangladesh.
Plate 3.1: Baira farming in Gopalganj districts in Bangladesh
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3.8.2. Drawbacks An agro-ecosystem is not a natural but a man-made managed system where various types of land and water interacted. Several drivers of change are evident in the district as in many parts of the country. These can prevent cultivation of crops such as rice. Climate change and global warming is a key driver since it affects rainfall that refills both surface and groundwater sources used in agriculture. Silting up of rivers and canals is also a major driver that has affected the ecosystem. It led to reduction in the availability of surface water for irrigation and induced people to overexploit the ground water resources.
The modernization of agriculture using the ‘green revolution’ technologies (improved seeds, fertilizer and mechanized irrigation) has not generally been beneficial to local fish production. The irrigation-based growth of food-grain production has led to the reclaiming of floodplains, while rapid increase in the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides for the control of weeds, crop pests and diseases poses a serious threat to the availability of wild fish. There has also been overexploitation of the country’s fisheries resources. Environmental degradation has been hastened by deepening rural poverty, which has increased the pressure on the aquatic ecosystem. Overfishing has depleted the natural fish resources in the rivers, lakes and ponds.
The use of small mesh nylon fishing nets reduces the numbers of small and immature fish left in the water. Natural fish stocks have reportedly also decreased due to increasing river siltation. Population pressure has reduced the quantities of land left for village ponds. Increased population pressure has also reduced the number of fish available. However, increased exploitation of aquatic resources is also the result of poor management practices by the states in the region. The construction and continued debacle over water dammed by the Farakka barrage has interfered with migrating fish. The system of leasing fishing rights to beels has been reduced in Bangladesh from five to one year, leading to over fishing and the neglect of the long-term viability of such water bodies, which represent essential common resources for rural communities. Matters have been made worse in recent years by the appearance of ulcerative fish disease. It is particularly worrying that the ulcerative disease primarily threatens the wild fish species, such as Shoal and Gojar, (as opposed to the cultured carps) upon which the rural poor depend heavily for protein.
Introducing the Study area: Gopalganj & its Water
Chapter Four Materials & Methods
This study involved a number of stages starting with reviewing previous literature, problem identification following field visits, proposal development that led to data collection and their subsequent analysis and compilation. Gradually these led to the objectives of the study i.e. - a) identifying the ecological resources of a water development project intervened area and an area with no such interventions; b) identifying livelihoods and comparing the livelihood patterns; and c) establishing possible linkages between the ecological resources and livelihoods of the poor people in the corresponding areas.
The study involved two field investigations, each consisting of several days. The first investigation was for a reconnaissance study of the wetlands in Gopalganj and the major economic activities in the area. The visit helped identifying scopes of this research and site location; hence the proposal development. After a cross-verification of primary and secondary data, checklists were prepared and a number of PRA-tools were selected to be used in data collection during the second and last visit. This chapter compiles the steps followed throughout the study.
4.1 LOCATIONS OF STUDY AREAS
During the first visit to Gopalganj in Chaitra, the dry season, Kotalipara and Tungipara upazilas were visited since most of the wetlands are concentrated in these parts of the district. After some group discussions, individual interviews and discussion with LGED, two sites (Figure 4.1) for this study were selected. Kakuibunia (22°55.945’N, 89°55.475’E) village under Patgati union was selected to represent a water development project intervened area. Dariarkul village (22°61.32’N, 89°65.271’E) under Gopalpur union had been selected to represent a comparatively natural state of wetlands having no water development interventions yet.
LGED implemented three water controlling gates in Tripalli, officially named Chinguria (three villages viz. Kakuibunia, Nobukhali and Chinguria) in Patgati union 10 years back. The project is officially named as Tripalli FMD subproject under the program, Small
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Scale Water Resources Development Sector Project (SSWRDSP). One of the three gates is in Kakuibunia and the other two are in Nobukhali.
Figure 4.1: Location of red-circled Kakuibunia (project area) and green-circled Dariarkul (non-project area) villages in Tungipara, Gopalganj; the three red-circles indicate location of three water-controlling gates under the SSWRP implemented by LGED (Source: LGED, 2007)
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Kakuibunia belongs to mouza no. 339 of the Patgati union. Both the study areas belong to Tungipara upazila of Gopalganj district, one of the south-western districts of the country. The district has some characteristic wetlands e.g. Gopalganj-Khulna beels, peat basins while the district itself is considered as an interior coastal district of the country.The water controlling gates prevent entry of saline water in dry season from the river and protect crops within the project area during monsoon. As LGED and the locals claim, the project has allowed two-cropping instead of single-cropping as in the past. The Dariarkul village belongs to mouza no. 452 of the Gopalpur union.
According to ESPASSA (2008), the term landscape provides an operational definition of a land (including coastal and/or freshwaters) surface delivering ecosystem services. It may be either natural or derived and maintained by anthropogenic processes (e.g. agricultural landscapes) and may comprise multiple/numerous habitats. The landscape in Kakuibunia (Plate 4.1-a), the project area, comprises mainly of the irrigated agricultural lands on one side of the locality and a distributary of the Madhumati river called Shailadaha river on the other side. Its agricultural landscape is dominated by only rice during the dry season. On the other hand, landscape in the Dariarkul village (Plate 4.1-b), is dominated by vast open water bodies, e.g. Baghiar beel, Bornir baor, human settlements sparsely sprouting at comparatively higher elevations by the waterbodies, in small villages. Livelihood here are more diverse; life appears to be more vibrant though more challenging; not as monotonous as observed in the project area.
(a) (b)
08/04/2009 08/04/2009
Plate 4.1: (a) agriculture-dominated landscape in the project area in Kakuibunia; (b) wetland dominated landscape in the non-project area in Dariarkul
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4.2 DATA COLLECTION
Required data were collected for the study through reconnaissance visits to the study area, interviews, group discussions, observations and reviewing secondary data that led to checklist development, practicing selected PRA tools during the later visits and finally data were compiled.
Data collection of this study broadly can be divided into – a) Primary data collection Primary data collection mainly involved practicing relevant participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools i.e. resources mapping, seasonal calendars and focused group discussions (FGD), semi-structured interviews with women from landless and marginal farmers’ families. It also involved interviewing LGED, WMC, key informants interviews and group discussions. One FGD was conducted in the project area and two were conducted in the non-project area.
PRA is a short-cut method of data collection. It is a method for action research and utilizes a range of techniques involving people and outsiders from different sectors and disciplines. Outsiders facilitate the locals in analyzing information, practicing critical self- awareness, taking responsibility and sharing their knowledge of life and conditions to plan and act (Bhandari, 2003).
During PRA, female members representing the marginal and landless farmers’ families from both the project and non-project area were invited in advance. Open spots were selected to practice specific PRA tools. On the scheduled days, the techniques were explained in front of the participants along with the reasons. Once they had a clear idea, they spontaneously participated in the process with occasional assistance from the facilitators. The participants were supplied necessary stationeries to do the tasks. The same followed in both project-intervened and non-project areas.
b) Secondary data collection This phase involved reviewing previous literature, web search, visiting different government institutions e.g. Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE), Department of Fisheries (DOF) at Union level and Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS). Secondary data on the area, its resources, institutional set-up, management initiatives, opportunities and impacts of previous project interventions were retrieved from the Union Parishad
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(UP) of Gopalganj, Local Government Engineering Department (LGED), publications of SEMP from Bangladesh Center for Advanced Studies (BCAS), Ecosystem Services and Poverty Alleviation Study in South Asia (ESPASSA) etc.
4.2.1 Review of Existing Data
Reviewing relevant existing data provide an understanding of the issues related to trends in resource utilization, impact of resource extraction and resource utilization practices on the resources, taxonomy, ecology, extraction rates and changes in bio-physical conditions.
This phase involved reviewing previous literature, visiting different government institutions and other official and unofficial studies and reports on socio-cultural, ecological conditions, national and area specific statistics, topical and area-specific articles from journals and newspapers, archives and files, aerial and satellite photos and maps.
4.2.2 Direct Observation
This helped identifying different zones within appraisal area, economic activities, key indicators of conditions, new topics or issues for discussion. Direct observations also helped to understand the interface between the users, i.e., villagers, and the natural resources, to assess extraction and utilization patterns
4.2.3 Informal Interviews
Informal interviews provided an insight to the researchers into the livelihood strategies of villagers, information on the changes in the resources over time, villagers’ perceptions of what causes resource declines and how resources can be utilized more sustainably. Chains of interviews between the different key individuals, groups and specialists can be a useful sequencing of data collection. Meeting people, particularly the aged ones, on roadsides and talking to them revealed important information during the reconnaissance visit for this study. It also helped arranging the female participants to form the focused-group for subsequent FGDs.
4.2.4 Resource Mapping
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The purpose of the community sketch map is a visual representation of what the community perceives as their community space and help identifu resources that the community consider important for them. This includes showing the shape (appearance) of the community, boundary and all the major features as understood and known by the community. Resource map were drawn by the participants representing marginal and landless farmers’ families which showed natural resource of the project and the non- project areas, locations and uses of natural resources, fields and land uses, physical land features, water location, quality and use or soil types, uses, location. The participants drew two different resource maps during two separate FGDs in Kakuibunia (Plate 4.2 and Plate 4.4) and in Dariarkul (Plate 4.3 and Plate 4.5). The original resource maps for the project and non-project areas can be found in annexure 4 and annexure 5.
Plate 4.2: Participants drawing resource map for the project area in Kakuibunia.
Plate 4.3: Participants drawing resource map for the non-project area in Dariarkul.
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Plate 4.4: The resource map for Kakuibunia village.
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Plate 4.5: The resource map for Dariarkul village.
4.2.5 Seasonal Calendar
The seasonal calendar, a PRA tool, attempts to identify regular cycles or patterns of activities and occurrences within a community over 12 months. The participants during FGD conducted in the project (Plate 4.6) and non-project (Plate 4.7) areas prepared the following seasonal calendars to show their livelihood activities throughout a year. The
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seasonal calendars developed helped to compare community activities, their usual patterns by month. It clearly indicates timings of agricultural production, income and expenditures etc. The time chart (seasonal calendar) also displayed how villagers allocate their time as well as their labor in various activities within the village. The calendars identified cycles of activity that occur within the life of local communities on a regular basis, and helped to determine whether there are common periods of opportunities over the course of normal year. These yearly cycles are important in determining for example; timing for activity, potential absorptive capacity for new activities, times of diseases and food shortage and variation of cash flow.
Plate 4.6: Seasonal calendar prepared by the participants in project area
Plate 4.7: Seasonal calendar prepared by the participants in the non-project area
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4.2.6 Focus Group Discussions
Focused Group Discussions or FGD involved (Plate 4.8) interviewing individual groups of women representing landless and marginal farmers’ families from project and non- project areas to have clear view of the wetland resources the locals depend on, extent of their access to these resources, variations of livelihoods patterns etc. FGDs helped to identify their access to and availability of natural resources and the level of dependency on these for their livelihoods over the year. They also helped to identify problems associated with access to resources by different stakeholder groups and opportunities to overcome imbalances in accessing resources. .
Plate 4.8: During a Focused Group Discussion with the female participants from marginal and landless farmers’ families
4.2.7 Semi-Structured Interviews
Semi-structured interviews with randomly selected individual villagers used some predetermined questions and topics that allowed new topics to be pursued as the interview developed. New issues, constraints, previous status of wetland resources in the study areas were learnt through this practice where, old persons were given priority while interviewing. The interviews were informal and conversational but carefully controlled. They reflected the villagers’ perceptions of resource management, changes in the resource systems and trends in resource utilization.
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4.2.8 Transect Walks
Transect walks and drawing up transects helped the study by understanding the socio- economic conditions of villagers, access to resources for different stakeholder groups (traditional, modern etc.) and possible options for responsible management of natural resources. In particular, a boat ride was conducted in the open beel early in a morning during pre-monsoon to observe people involved in different kinds of livelihood activities and interview the workers on the spot (Plate 4.9).
Plate 4.9: People found busy in the open beel in different professions early in a morning during the transect boating
4.2.9 Group Meetings
Group meetings were found to be one of the most important tools for community information gathering and communication of information. The discussion took place with WMC and the locals separately in the project and non-project areas. They helped the study providing information, issues of relevance, consensus on issues, identifying problems and solutions and validate interpretations of evaluation results and formulate recommendations. They helped to establish rapport with the villagers, and lay the ground for problem identification i.e. declines in resources and work out a possible research methodology incorporating indigenous knowledge systems.
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4.3 DATA ANALYSIS
Collected data were compiled, analyzed and were put into a framework of ecosystem- resource linkage. The resource maps of the area and seasonal calendars for crops helped both the participants and the study to recognize the livelihoods the locals are involved in, their patterns and the significant ecological resources they need for that.
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CERTIFICATION OF PROJECT REPORT
The project report titled COMPARING ECOLOGICAL RESOURCE- DEPENDANT LIVELIHOOD PATTERNS BETWEEN A PROJECT AND NON-PROJECT AREA Submitted by Suha Sanwar, Roll No: 1008281005, Session: October/2008 has been accepted as satisfactory in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Post Graduate Diploma in Water Resource Development on April 26, 2010.
Board of Examiners
______Chairman Dr. Md. Rezaur Rahman Professor IWFM, BUET, Dhaka (Supervisor)
______Member Dr. Md. Munsur Rahman Professor IWFM, BUET, Dhaka
______Member Dr. G. M. Tarekul Islam Associate Professor IWFM, BUET, Dhaka
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Chapter Five Results & Discussions
Through this study conducted in a project intervened and an un-intervened area, the livelihoods and their patterns, ecological resources were identified and an attempt was also made to identify the linkages between the livelihoods and the ecological resources to draw a comparative picture in the end. As mentioned in the previous chapters, Kakuibunia was chosen to represent the project-intervened area where Tripalli Flood Management Drainage (FMD) sub-project has been implemented by the LGED; Dariarkul represented an area without any water development intervention. The observations and the findings of the study and their policy implications are detailed in this chapter.
5.1 LIVELIHOODS OF POOR PEOPLE AND THEIR LIVELIHOOD PATTERNS
5.1.1 Project Area
People are mostly involved in agricultural activities within the studied project area in Kakuibunia. Immediately after the implementation of the FMD sub-project (which protects crops from being inundated), livelihoods in Kakuibunia and in the surroundings quickly switched from rotational cultivation-fishing pattern to only cultivation (Plate 5.1- a). A very small number remain involved in some other professions e.g. shrimp-trading or van-pulling (Plate 5.1-b) or shop keeping, however.
(a) (b)
Plate 5.1: (a) Vast agricultural lands in the project area of Kakuibunia; (b) van-pulling - a minor profession in the same area
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5.1.1.1 Agriculture
Agriculture is mainly rice cultivation-oriented in the low lands of the project area like any other parts of the country. Marginal farmers and the landless ones, generally cultivate lands on share-cropping basis, which is quite common in the region. Landless farmers also work as labors in others’ fields. Rice received from sharecropping can support a marginal or landless family for 7-8 months. Local established agricultural practice is that either one will cultivate land on the share-basis where he has to give the land-owner 50% of what he grows or the farmers pays the owner earlier to get the land for cultivation and can keep all the product; the latter is known as the thua-jama system. When the land owner provides seeds for cultivation, he gets the straws to be used as livestock feed throughout the monsoon.
Farmers are aware of compost and biofertilizers, but are reluctant to use in their fields despite accusing irri rice cultivation for the extinction or declining population of some native fish species e.g. sarputi. Often they miss the link between their practices and outcomes. In fact, they still opt for using only the chemical fertilizer.
Cultivated rice varieties mainly are irri and HYV boro. Some of the aman varieties cultivated at present are kumrogouri, jaowra and mainamati. Some of the local traditional aman varieties are kurmoni, kapadighia, lambadighia, porenga, kalavuna, gowra, kajol, khoiamotor, palabis and shadajabra most of which are extinct. However, aus and aman are grown in very limited quantity since their yield is quite low considering the high demands of the present day; gradually, HYV boro, irri have taken over the rice cultivation instead. One figured out, during an interview, that their forefathers used to cultivate only 2-3 bighas and the harvested rice could support the entire family. On an average, 20 mands reported to be harvested on an average in 10 katha of land.
Some of the locally popular cultivated rice varieties are commercially named Hira-29, 28 and bhajan; seeds usually being supplied from the local Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) and are also available in the market. Seeds of these varieties sometimes are also stored in home to be used next season using which farmers can make seedbed on their own. Bad seeds are sometimes supplied from the agricultural office in the name of foreign donation.
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Irrigation involves lifting and lowering down the gate established in Kakuibunia by LGED. During the high tide, water is allowed in and in low tide, it is allowed to leave. Farmers with lands far from available irrigation source use polythene pipes tied up to the water source to supply water to their fields. A farmer has to pay 70 to 80 taka/hour to avail the facility.
For vegetables, people depend on local markets. Chilies, brinjals, ladyfingers, mesta, pui, palong, bungi (futi), kolai, rapeseeds etc. are grown in some of the higher lands. Chili is grown on very small-scale though the soil is highly suitable for it. Bungi (Futi) is observed to be quite profitable; even more than paddies. One estimate is that growing this fruit may cost 25,000-30,000 taka while at the end of the season, a farmer may make a profit as high as 0.1 million taka. Females in landless families often grow vegetables like data, chilies, tomatoes, brinjals in small spaces surrounding their huts.
5.1.1.2 Capture fishery
Capture fishery is observed within the project. Chai (Plate 5.2) is one of the fishing instruments used in the locality which is also termed as duphuir. They usually use these from Falgun or Baishakh to Kartik. Some other local fish-catching instruments are charpeta, jhakijaal and chaatjal.
Plate 5.2: Chai set in water to catch fish.
Despite having a high potential of fish culture in the project area in monsoon, a conflict between the farmer-members of the local Water Management Co-operative Society
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(WMC) and the pond-owners interrupt the potentiality of fish-culture within project area. The pond-owners are reluctant to culture fish in it; rather they prefer doing it in their individual ponds. This would allow them to maximize individual profits than sharing the benefit with others. The later even complained the pond-owners taking the advantage of having all fish eggs during the dry season from fish released by the Society few years back. After trying for a resolution for three consecutive years, now fish no more is cultured in the beel during monsoon by the Society. However, the WMC seems to have high authority on fish caught within the area. Ultimately it is the locals, particularly the landless ones who have limited access to whatever small amount of fish becomes available inside the project area. This not only limits their access to fish-protein but particularly makes women, the deprived, vulnerable all the more. It may put health of pregnant women at high risk and hence the future generation in the long run.
When enquired whether the project-implementation has been a threat to fish and fishermen of the area, the co-operative leaders claimed that not to happen at all stating that any person from Tripalli can become a member of the co-operative society by following its rules and regulations and the landless people can catch fish from the project area when spawns are not released. They also added that the project did not interrupt the livelihood of the local fishermen because there is still a fishing community living by the river that catches fish from the river. Besides as a resident of Tripalli, those fishermen are also earning from their shares in the Society. There are as many as 312 fishermen- member in it. Nevertheless, the local people find the situation not to be as satisfying as claimed.
A landless lady, Sharifuzan (68) was found rearing a cow, her only means of income. She received it from a local NGO. She earns by selling its milk for 3-5 months of the year. She can sell as much as 20-25 liters of milk a day. However, for the remainder part of the year, she has no definite source of income. She suggested that if loan for the destitute women were arranged, women like her could buy paddies after harvest and could boil them or could make dried rice (muri) and sell them in the market as there is a good local market for that. Women within the project area are involved in raising poultries, livestock, sewing katha - traditional quilts and growing vegetables in the homestead gardens etc. People reported during group discussions that, 10 years back, the constructed gate worked fine for the lands. But as water level has increased, the gate requires to be lifted up higher.
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Observations on peoples’ livelihood pattern reveal that almost all works in the field is only during Kartik to Falgun. The landless classes have little works for earnings at other time. Also access to land resource in the project area does not seem to be on equity basis. Hence the landless are left with little option for improving their economic status.
5.1.2 Non-project Area
On the contrary, the study found non-project area were found to be vibrating with diverse livelihoods ranging from agricultural activities to catching fish, snails, making mats, boat- making, masonry, picking shapla (water lilies) or cutting earth from the inundated beels in the monsoon to raise house.
5.1.2.1 Agriculture The non-project area is single-cropped during Poush to Baishakh mainly with aman rice. Landless people are sharecroppers cultivating other’s land and giving the landowner 3 sholi paddies. Cost of share cropping is shared between the sharer and the land owner. Harvested crop is divided in 50-50 basis. That rice support the sharer’s family need for about 8 months. Another system is that if the owner is given money (at a rate of 6,000- 7,000 tk./bigha) before cultivating the land, the sharecropper won’t have to give anything else after harvest in thua-jama.
Besides this, jon or labor in the field is another source of income which involves deweeding and preparing others’ fields as labor, locally termed as kishan. This involves working from 8 in the morning to 3 in the noon in the field bringing 100 tk./day. During Kartik-Agrahayan, people are involved in agricultural activities in the fields, mainly in land-preparations e.g. bon-gachha (weeding), dhanbuno (sowing) etc. Both males and females are involved in these activities; however, females working in the fields are usually Hindu by religion. Again many landless works as labor in the field during the harvest in Baishakh-Jaishthya. During the harvest, the wage is 1/8th of the harvested crops for all the labors together; the remainder 7/8th is for the land-owner. The rice meets the demand of a labor’s family of 6-7 members for two months. They have to buy rice for the remaining part of the year.
Some locally grown vegetables are – mula, lau, lalshak, chalkumra, pui, kushi, jhinga, angina etc. Likewise the project area, women here are involved in growing vegetables for their family-consumption.
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5.1.2.2 Fishing
No culture fishery was reported in the non-project area. People, in fact, have beels as their only source of fish (Plate 5.3) throughout the year. Common people have access to catch fish from the open water, unless it is not leased out. The highest catch of fish occurs during Kartik to Agrahayan. Selling fish can earn one as much as 300 taka daily in peak season. The female participants of FGD reported that the lowest catch of fish is from Chaitra to Jaishthya. Locals claim that fish are less in quantity in the beel and also are expensive these days.
(a) (b)
Plate 5.3: (a) An old couple setting nets for fish; (b) people catching fish during Chaitra in the Baghiar beel.
The fish caught are used for family-consumption; the spare, if any, reach market for sell. Main instruments for catching fish are current nets which can be bought at 4000 tk./kg. With 250 kg threads, 20 patajal can be made, an old man claimed while fishing. Patanet is also used for catching fish. They buy nets to catch fish, mainly current/fute nets which are widely used in the locality. A net may cost as high as 2500 taka. A family of two elderly people was found to set nets in the open beel in the afternoon. According to them, they earn as much as 80 tk./day by selling fish. The family set nets in the afternoon to catch fish early the next morning.
5.1.2.3 Snail catching
During Sraban to Kartik, people catch snails using a local instrument called thushi (Plate 5.4-a). During the peak season in Kartik, one spends entire night in open beel in boats with headlights and thushi to catch snails that yields a phenomenal scene in the dark. An average catch per night weights 1 mand selling at 3tk./kg. However, some catches snails at dawn, particularly children (Plate 5.5-b and Plate 5.5-c) and continue to catch it up to
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around 8 am in the morning. After they sell the snails, many of them were found to go for school around 9 am.
(a) (b) (c)
Plate 5.4: (a) Thushi, a local instrument for snail-catching; (b) a boy catching snails early in the morning in Baghiar beel near Dariarkul village; (c) his catch of snails.
During a boat-visit to the Baghiar beel, one Ajay Kumar (50-55 yr.) was found to catch only snails (unlike others catching both fish and snails). He claimed that to earn him 100 tk. a day on an average. He can earn as much as 300 taka a night from selling snails if he catches for a whole night. He also assists local mason at later part of the day and earns 150 tk./day. He can also earn about 150 tk./day by working in others fields but then he can’t work in his own field. Buying fish of about 20 taka for daily family consumption saves him enough time to work on other source of income which earns him higher rather than collecting fish from beel himself.
5.1.2.4 Shapla collection
Selling shapla (a variety of water lily) is another livelihood locally known as nyles. People grab shapla from the beel (Plate 5.5-a) and sell at 1 tk./bundle. Particularly the poor, children and women, use this as a good means of little earning. People also collect (Plate 5.5-b and 5.5-c) grasses of different types from open beel and sell those in the market as livestock feed.
(a) (b) (c)
Plate 5.5: (a) Shapla collected from beel; (b) grass under beel water collected for livestock feed; (c) people collecting waterhyacinth for livestocks.
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5.1.2.5 Boat making
Unlike the project area, boat-making was found to be an important profession in Dariarkul and the adjacent villages since people need boats for fishing, catching snails, plucking shapla, earth-cutting or for communications. Hence, boat-makers (Plate 5.6-a) remain busy in monsoon. Boat-making is at its peak for two months only. Mainly they use Chambal (Plate 5.6-b) to make boat; 144 sq.inch of it weighs 1 kg and sells at 125 taka.
(a) (b)
Plate 5.6: (a) Two involved in boat-making; (b) Chambal tree used in the making boats.
The boat-makers mainly come from Kotalipara, not in Tungipara where the study was conducted. In fact, the boat maker, Nikhil claimed that there were only three boat makers in Tungipara including himself. Local type of boats are named as – dingi/finnish boats/ kosha. Interview with a boat maker, Nikhil Chandra Bala (55) revealed that a boat-maker like him can make 5-6 boats weekly. Each boat takes one and half a day to get ready. Starting from 12 pm of one day, he was found to finish the boat making at 11 pm the next day. Each boat sells at 1300 taka on an average which earns him a handsome amount before monsoon ends. At other times of the year, he assists local carpenters in making houses and works in other’s fields.
5.1.2.6 Earth-cutting
Earth-cutting is an interesting means of livelihoods in the water abundant, non-project area. During monsoon, earth from the inundated part of beels is cut by some people. The worker first loosens (Plate 5.7-a) the earth with a specialized instrument, under water. Later he brings up the blocks in bare hands and stores (Plate 5.7-b) in the boats. These blocks are is later sold and transported to people who plan to elevate their home. A single
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trip can earn one about 70 taka after paying for the boat. On an average, one can cover 3- 4 such trips a day.
(a) (b)
Plate 5.7: (a) Cutting earth from inundated land; (b) collecting it on boats to transport.
Another source of income is fattening cows for kurbani; though it’s not very common. Females practically play the lead role in it. After raising a cow, when it’s returned to the real owner, the rearer can keep the cattle. This arrangement is termed locally as Bagerhalia.
Comparisons between livelihoods between the project and non-project area (Table 5.1) shows that the major livelihood in the project area is agriculture. All other livelihoods are very minor there. Contrary to that, diverse sources of income co-exist in the non-project area. Individuals remain involved in different economic-activities varying not only with seasonal availability of resources but also with hours of a day; for example, one catching snails in beels early in the morning, works as farmer during the later part of the day . Such tendency of being involved in more than one income-generating activity minimizes the risk of depending only one as in the project area.
Table 5.1: Comparisons between livelihoods in project intervened area and non-project area
Type of livelihood Project intervened area Non-project area Major livelihood Agriculture, culture fishery Agriculture, capture fishery Minor livelihood Van-pulling, shop keeping, shrimp Snail-catching, earth- culture cutting, boat making
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5.2 ECOLOGICAL RESOURCES IN THE STUDY AREA
5.2.1 Project Area
Landscape of Kakuibunia is agriculture-dominated (Plate 5.8-a). Vast areas of crops are protected from being inundated with the Kakuibunia gate (Plate 5.8-b and Plate 5.8-c) established by LGED under the Tripalli FMD sub-project in Patgati. Wetland ecological resources are less diverse in the project area due to present controlled water system under the project. This limits both the quantity and quality of these resources compared to the past, as the locals repeatedly reflected. The landscape being dominated by agriculture, through a) imbalanced and excessive chemical fertilization, b) use of pesticides, and c) inconsiderate groundwater irrigation, poses further threats to whatever water resources still exist there.
(b) (c) (a)
Plate 5.8: (a) Vast agricultural land in Kakuibunia; (b) The Kakuibunia gate (from outside); (c) the gate (from inside) that controls water allowed into and out of the agricultural fields.
Nevertheless, the area still has fish in the Shailadaha river, a branch of the Madhumati, flowing past the Kakuibunia. Small amount of shapla is plucked and sold after rice is harvested. The locals claim snails are found to be quite low in number in the project area due to excessive amount of pesticides and fertilizers used in the agricultural fields.
There are 4 to 5 square-shaped ghers inside the project area. When rice is harvested in Baishakh and Jaishthya, people release spawns of shrimps and rui in gher. Fish is caught from Ashwin to Chaitra. The cultured fish-species are: japanese rui, puti and grasscarp. Some locally found fish species in the river includes meni, shrimps, nola, royna, baila, katla, aire etc. Some fish-catching instruments are badhajal, khetajal.
People cook in earthen stove using cowdung, wood sticks from mango trees, Chambal, coconuts etc. Patkhari (dry jute stick), leaves, twigs and branches of Chambal, dry leaves
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One woman called Kajol Bishwash has 16 katha of land. There she grows ladyfingers, chilies and brinjals. Some of the leafy vegetables in the locality, she reported, are jute, shechi, helencha, thankuni and telakur etc. She also has cows and she uses the straw she gets from her field to feed the cow for 7-8 months of the year. From beel, outside the project area, they collect uri, omoli, malancha, bamboo leaves to feed her livestock. In monsoon, common livestock feed is kalmi, kochuri, fushshha, malancha etc. Kuro are used as poultryfeed. The fields has snails in the fields during Ashar to Ashwin which the ducks eat during the season; but the remainder of the year, ducks have to eat something else as snails cannot be stored for them for more than a day.
5.2.2 Non-project Area
Dariarkul, with no water resource development intervention yet, presented a comparatively natural set-up of wetland environment for the study. The resource map prepared by the female landless villagers shows the village to be surrounded by a number of open water bodies e.g. the Baghiar beel, the Barnir baor that offers them a bountiful collection of wetland resources. The local communities traditionally have become dependent on these resources for their own sustenance in some way or other.
Wetlands are habitat to rich biodiversity. Some of the common as well as native, rare and vulnerable fish species can be found in these wetlands. Local fish species are chela, chu- chu (kholshe), ghutkuro (guttum), icha, chuchra, baim, tengra, puti, baila, koi, puti, taki, jiyol, tengra, potka, shing, bowal, sharputi, chanda, bojori (small tengra), taki, katla, aire, khoyra etc. Puti was abundant in the past unlike the present. Local large fish species are rui, nandelbaush, mrigel, aire, magur, shol, boal, royna and koi. Poush-Magh are the peak months for catching large fish species. Chela, chuchu, kuichchha are also found in higher quantity during the winter. During Chaitra, fish production becomes quite low. In the beel, the species are – royna, shol, khoira, kayra (crabs) etc. Ghuni, char are used locally as fishing instrument. Some others are badhajal, koyajaal, putijaal, jhakijaal etc. Khetajaal are also used to catch fish irrespective of their size which is often detrimental for fish population. No culture fishery was reported in the area, except in some ponds.
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Some of the naturally growing roadside plants recorded during this study are helencha, shechi, demi, darpushua, arali, malancha, telua etc. Dholkalmi, hogla, kochu, kochuripana, jessorer lata, dupurilata, ghughui lata (for cow feed) are some of the herbs (Plate 5.9) growing on the riverside.
PlatePlate 5.9: 5.9: Herbs Herbs growing growing on roadsides, on roadsides, and byby the beels beels useful, useful for differentfor different medicinal medicinal properties. properties.
Hogla (Plate 5.10-a) grows in abundance in wetlands around Dariarkul. They take one year to grow starting from Kartik. Hogla is used to make pati, a local type of mat used for sitting purpose (Plate 5.10-b). Some other aquatic resources observed in Dariarkul are snails and ducks. Kuro and snails are used as duck feed from Baishakh to Kartik making duck-raising quite easy here unlike inside the project area (where ducks are limited fearing crop-damage).
(a) (b)
Plate 5.10: (a) Hogla growing in wetlands; (b) an woman making pati (mat) using dried hogla near Dariarkul village.
During Chaitra, water hyacinths are available but cannot be used for livestock feed since they are too soft for them. Later in the season, they mature enough to be used as feed.
In Dariarkul, sources of fuel are lakri or dry wood stick, dried cow dung, dead leaves, darkhari, boira. Lakris can be bought at 80 tk./mand. The lakri-species are- Chambal – a
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rain tree species, Shishoo, barks and leaves of bamboos etc. encouragingly, few families were observed to grow plants like dhaincha (Plate 5.11-a) in their small portion lands by the beel that usually remain under water for most of the year. These plants, when dried, are their whole year supply for fuel. During one of the FGDs conducted with women in this study, an elderly women also mentioned some of the herbs used for medicinal purposes e.g. jessorer lata (Gastric) (Plate 5.11-b), dubla, kochur kosh etc. Skin of neem is also used for medicinal purposes as well as the barks of arjun, thankuni (fever), pipeljhinge/kawajhinge (blood pressure), tamarind etc.
(a) (b)
Plate 5.11: (a) Dried dhaincha stored to be used as fuel in households; (b) a woman displaying jessorer lata good for its medicinal properties, during one FGD in Hotathgram in Dariarkul village.
River water becomes saline during Falgun-Ashar. Salinity arrives in the non-project area at the end of Chaitra, almost in Baishakh. Fortunately, it cannot damage rice since by then, rice is already harvested. Saline water glows at night during that season. However, since water becomes saline when paddies are already in flowering stage, salinity do not interfere much with rice cultivation. Local people held the Farakka barrage responsible for this salinity stating that low-flow from upstream allows salinity intrusion from the opposite. Source for drinking water is either water from rivers/beel or tube wells located far at a distance which takes lot of efforts. Deep tube well has failed several times because of stony bed within 100 ft. from ground.
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5.3 LINKAGES BETWEEN ECOLOGICAL RESOURCES AND LIVELIHOOD PATTERNS
5.3.1 Project Area
As mentioned earlier, agriculture was found to be the one and only significant economic activity in the project area; shrimp culture, retailing occurring in a very small–scale. Wetland resources appear to be less diverse in the project area due to the present controlled water system under the project. This limits both the quantity and the quality of wetland resources in the area compared to the past, as the locals reflected repeatedly. People are mostly involved in agricultural activities within this project area, a practical example of wetlands being converted to agricultural lands.
Earlier fishing was a prominent livelihood in the area, before the water resource development project was implemented here by LGED. After the implementation, most of the fishermen switched to either fishing in the Shailadaha river, a distributory of Madhumati river or are catching fishes for others in other districts e.g. in Chandpur leaving their family in Tripalli; some of them have started working as agricultural labor shifting from their age-old profession in which they are much more skilled. It is true that the area earlier was single-cropped; people had to spend a major part of the year being surrounded with water as claimed by the LGED. The project has not only made it possible to cultivate the area twice a year but the communication has also improved immensely. This gave the farmers access to a wider market for their products.
As can be seen in the seasonal calendar (Table 5.2) prepared by women from the landless and marginal farming families, people of this agri-dominating area are mostly busy in the fields only for few months, i.e. from Magh to Chaitra. Aman-cultivation is very limited in the area at present. Observations on peoples’ livelihood pattern reveal that almost all work in the field span around Kartik to Jaishthya. The landless classes have little works for earnings during other months. During FGD the participants claimed Jaishthya to Kartik to be their good months since they felt secured with plenty of rice in their stocks during that period. Irri is sown in Agrahayan and is harvested in Poush whereas aman is sown in Ashar and harvested in Agrahayan. If the field is still dry after harvesting boro, then Aman (Kurmuli variety) can be sown in Baishakh and can be harvested in Ashwin; or else as the fields go under water, people have to remain idle.
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Table 5.2: Seasonal calendar of livelihoods and related wetland resources in the project area
Means of Bangla months livelihoods
Legends
***
Baishakh Jaishthya Ashar Srabon Vadro Aswin Kartik Agrahayan Poush Magh Falgun Chaitra Irri* Labor in cultivation field Aman** Off-peak cultivation for work Fishing Peak for work Growing Shrimp- vegetables culture Gathering fuel Scarcity Catching No snails relevant activity Ducks & chicken rearing *Irri – rice variety grown in dry season; **Aman- rice variety grown in wet season; Baishakh***- a Bangla month starting from 15th of April; each Bangla month has about 30 days of duration.
The participants identified last 15 days of Baishakh to be their busiest period of the year. Livelihood of the entire region solely being rice-oriented put the farmers rather in vulnerable conditions. These leave them with little option to improve their economic condition; and not to mention what happens during a bad-year. They appear to be in more risky position than the people of non-project area that have livelihoods to switch in between.
People mostly have to buy fish from the nearby market. To prevent crop damage and scarce open water, very few can manage to rear ducks in the project area. These restrict the nutrition access of these people; particularly threatening the pregnant. Ponds inside
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Before the project, there were only one crop; either boro or irri could be grown then. People started irrigating lands at large scale around mid-sixties. At present a very small amount of snail collection within the project area is still in practice which sell at 10-12 tk./kg if the shell is open and 5tk./kg if it’s closed. The covers of snails can also be sold as fish meal at a price of 80-90 tk./kg.
The locals have the only advantage of the project in the form of increased rice cultivation; otherwise their nutrition is highly threatened due to the continuously decreasing fish population.
Livelihoods in the project area appeared to be in an unbalanced state that can be displayed as in Figure 5.1. Usually in the wet season, livelihoods involve mainly agriculture, with minor cases of capture fishery outside the project area. Water bodies are full in water during the wet season providing a convenient and cheaper mode of communication through boats. The scenario alters in the dry season when van-pulling comes up as a minor profession. Nevertheless, agriculture the major source of living for the area irrespective of seasons; of with threats of low production or yield at any particular year.
note: font size expressing the significance of certain livelihoods for that season
Figure 5.1: Livelihood balance in the project area
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Even in normal years, when the rice-stock of the landless farmers starts shrinking near Kartik, they have to use whatever little savings they makes throughout the year, to run the family until the harvest. Since all economic activities in Kakuibunia mainly revolve around agriculture, overall conditions of the marginal and landless farmers are highly
vulnerable a bad harvest-year pushes down these classes downwards.
5.3.2 Non-project Area
Contrary to the observations in project area, this study found the non-project area to be vibrating with diverse livelihoods. Rather than concentrating only on agriculture, livelihoods are diffused over many. The livelihoods in the non-project area were found to be intertwined with the numerous ecological resources that the wetland environment holds. People depend on the beel and baors surrounding them for rice, fish, vegetables, fruits and fiber for nutrition, earth and wood for houses, hogla for crafts or screens, water hyacinths for livestock, water for ducks or snails for selling.
Thus livelihoods in the non-project area were found to be intertwined with the numerous ecological resources that the wetland environment holds. People switch in between livelihoods that vary both with hours in a day as well as seasonally. Females in the non- project area identified Baishakh and Jaisthya (Table 5.3) as the best months of the year for them because of the rice harvesting during that period while making the seasonal calendar for Hothathgram in Dariarkul standing by the Baghiar River. Usually a labor working in the field gets 150 tk./day. They grow bunakochu during Baishakh to Sraban.
The highest catch of fish occurs during Kartik and Agrahayan. Poush-Magh are the peak months for catching large fish species. During the peak season of fishing, people can earn as much as 200-300 tk./day by catching and selling them which help them to meet their weekly installments. Small fish e.g. chela, chuchu, kuichchha are found in higher quantities during winter. During Chaitra, fish production becomes decreases. However, unanticipated economic interventions like leasing open waterbodies to some influential people relentlessly continue to harm natural balance of fish population. In Kartik, hogla starts growing. Next Kartik, hogla are dried enough to be used for fencing the houses or making mats locally called pati. People pass the busiest period in Agrahayan in the non- project area.
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Table 5.3: Seasonal calendar of livelihoods and related wetland resources in the non- project area.
Means of Bangla months livelihoods Legend s
Baishakh Jaishthya Ashar Srabon Vadro Aswin Kartik Agrahayan Poush Magh Falgun Chaitra Rice Labor in cultivation field Gathering Off-peak fuel for work Herbal medicine Peak for collection work Growing vegetables Scarcity Fishing No relevant activity Catching snails Collecting shapla Mat making
In Jaishthya, during the field visit, small snails were seen stuck to leaves. By Kartik, they are expected to grow up consuming growing algae and then they float. People start catching them in Kartik. Some even take catching snails as their main livelihood during the peak season; after a whole night catch, the catcher rest throughout the day. Old, middle-aged, even the children were found catching snails; the latter being surprisingly efficient at the task and they catch till noon (12 pm). The elders mainly stop the search around 9 am. During the peak month, one spends whole nights in open beels in boats with headlights and thushi to catch snails that yields a phenomenal scene in the dark. A whole night catch can sell at 300-400 taka. Snails are sold at 2-3 tk./kg to 5 tk./kg at peak season.
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Snails are caught from the 15th of Jaishthya to 15th Sraban. During the same time, shapla is also collected and sold by some at 4-5 tk./kg. After harvesting, people catch snails throughout the night. These snails are collected by the shrimp hatcheries from adjacent districts, e.g. Khulna, Bagerhat as shrimp feed.
One economic intervention in the area is leasing the waterbody by the government. When leased out, people can catch fish in the fields but not in the canals. Auctions for fish take place in Magh-Chaitra. This leasing system started 20-30 years back. When the beel is leased, the lease takes 200-500 taka for a season from the common, local people for letting them catch fish from the leased beel. There is installment system in paying them which is two in number or else they are not allowed to catch fish from the beel. Fish that one catches this way can earn them on an average about 50 taka. Sometimes the lessee dewaters the beel several times for the last remaining of fish. Thus the lease relentlessly continues to harm natural balance of fish population, not leaving the optimum fish population to enhance the stock. The lessee does not release any fish fries but only catches them which the locals opine to be responsible for low fish production.
Aquatic resources like snails are also used as duck feed from Baishakh to Kartik making duck-raising quite easy here unlike inside the project area (where ducks are limited fearing crop-damage). Selling shapla is another livelihood, locally called nyles, particularly for children, destitute or poor women since it requires no capital or special instruments and good to earn little money for small expenses.
People also collect grasses, water hyacinth from open beel as livestock feed. Earth-cutting is an interesting means of livelihoods in the water abundant, non-project area. People in the non-project area are almost never out of work, since they have something to depend on in every season that maintains a balanced livelihood scenario (Figure 5.2). While in the wet season fishing emerge as a prominent source of living with simultaneous other options available, agriculture takes the lead position in the drier seasons. Hence almost always people have something or other to earn their livelihoods.
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Figure 5.2: Livelihood balance in the non-project area
5.4 CASE STUDY: A LANDLESS FAMILY WITH VIBRANT ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES IN NON-PROJECT AREA A family of four with Mosharraf Sheikh (52), his wife, Uziran (32), and their two sons – one 11 and the other one 13 years old were observed during the study.
This family is landless and live on the roadside, in a small hut. They own one boat, a cow and few ducks and hens. The man works in the field as labor. Their elder son had a gap in his studies. So now his younger brother is in the fifth standard while he is in the fourth grade. All the members of this family were interviewed separately to get idea on the activities a landless family may carry out and to cross-check information.
The lady was found to grow good amount of vegetables on the homestead space and baira (hydroponic, common in the region) she built on roadside (Plate 5.12). These meet not only her family’s nutrition demand, but some are also sold in the market to earn them some extra money. Thus the female-member is actively involved in the economic activities and financial management of the family.
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Plate 5.12: Vegetables grown in homestead garden, roadsides by a landless lady
She also raises poultries (Plate 5.13) bringing her some money. These enable her to pay for her son’s stationeries for school and weekly installments. Consequently, she can actively play role in decision-makings in her family. Whereas other poor of the communities might be deprived of health-facilities, she was even found at a later stage of this study, to be being treated in an urban hospital. Through this, her family, in fact, is recognizing her contribution.
Plate 5.13: Hens and ducks reared up by Ujiran that help the family meet weekly installments as well as the protein-supply
The husband catches fish; the best catch occurs in Poush-Magh in winter. Again he catches fish from Jaishthya – Vadra in the beel; in Sraban, observing the highest catch. During the monsoon, fish catching is the only earning source. He uses Fulkuchi to catch shol, gazar, shing, baila etc.
When in Chaitra, the beel is leased out; the family pays the lessee, as others in the area, to catch fish. The family head, Mosharraf, uses ghuni to catch fish (Plate 5.14) like tengra, guita, puti, taki etc. Thus by working in others’ fields as labor he can earn as
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Plate 5.14: Mosharraf catching fish in Baghiar beel
Mosharraf also cultivates land on share basis and the crops he gets in share can feed his family for 6 months (for cultivating one bigha of land, he pays two sholi of rice to the land-owner). He often cannot catch any fish in those 6 months when he is busy in fields. Sometimes, if he has time, he prepares others’ land; thereby earning some extra money when possible.
His son, Hassan Sheikh also catches snail early in the morning, from 6-10 am, before going to school. He claims to catch 8-12 kg snails each morning.
This family alone stands out as an example of how a landless family over the years can improve their economical conditions through making little savings when they are active and have access to natural resources for utilization.
5.5 GENDER ASPECT In both the project and non-project area, women were found to be actively involved in family economic activities. But their gender role traditionally has been disregarded at decision-making level.
Women in the project area, along with their daily household chores, are involved at almost every steps of agricultural activities (raising seedling, thrashing paddies, processing rice and their storage), which is the predominant economic activity in the area.
Compared to that, women in the non-project area are simultaneously involved in a range of tasks that their families depend on, at any particular season. Generally these include
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poultry or livestock raising, growing vegetables, household activities similar to the project area. Other than that they are often responsible also for regular maintenance of tools that ensure uninterrupted livelihoods, e.g. nets for fishing, thushi for snail-catching etc. The same reason that the un-intervened wetlands offer highly diverse livelihood options to these communities is also the reason of female members of such families being busy throughout the year. This often plays significant role in gender empowerment.
Women are actively involved in economic activities of the families. This often go without any recognition since by tradition, they are held responsible for these activities; while at crisis she is the most vulnerable one. In the non-project area, besides growing vegetables in homestead gardens, there is an added facility of rearing ducks in open water. Being involved in so many activities like these, women help their families to meet nutritional demands, weekly installments and many other minor expenses. Instead in the project area, lack of open water, restriction on ducks from damaging others’ crops, scarcity of fish seriously hampers peoples’ access to protein and other nutrition, particularly that of pregnant mothers. Salinity in tube well-water in the region and limited access to pure drinking water in the non-project area, are found to cause health-hazards like increased blood-pressure, diseases resulting from low quantity of drinking water. In addition, collecting drinking water from distant places on regular-basis, put women at higher risk.
5.6 POLICY IMPLICATIONS
Ignorance of important ecosystem linkages in water resource development projects could be primary reason behind failures of resource management policies in the region. These might have led to environmental degradation, subsequent natural resource scarcity aggravating the degree of poverty of the poor, which was not the intention, in the first place. Thus any unprecedented intervention in development of water resources may harm the existing harmony in a society through interruption or complete diversion of common peoples’ livelihood activities, in a cyclic manner.
5.6.1 Development Approaches
Present tendency at policy-planning level seems to identify and implement potential water resource development scopes considering the theoretical IWRM in proposal development or reports and the engineering aspects only and often completely disregarding
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sustainability of such wetlands and its people in most of the cases. This way, human wellbeing is overlooked and the gender scenario is little improved. When a project is based on the sustainability of nature, communities wellbeing and gender roles, it can be expected to be more meaningful in the true sense of IWRM.
People living near and dependant on waterbodies, might not be free from needs or demands or their living conditions might not be the best; but then, these might be the scopes of interventions that they actually need. Policies better shift from the conventional approach of developing water system through irrigation projects or only concentrating on rice-cultivations. These might not be the only suitable development options for such ecologically rich wetland communities, especially when these are threatening the existing conventional, sustainable structure of ecological resource–dependent livelihoods. Often simpler, small-scale interventions like ensuring access to health-facilities, safe drinking water and sanitation, education, women-health programs could do the trick and sustain human wellbeing, causing less damage to nature itself.
5.6.2 Human Wellbeing
Though we did not use any Human Happiness Index for measurement, it appeared that people in the non-project were happier than that in the project area. Wetlands ensure their fish-protein supply and allowing duck rearing at the same time. Grasses available for the livestock, herbs with medicinal properties ensure the health for this poor and disadvantaged group. Why not choose the cheaper development consideration and harness this sound co-existence and ensure the human wellbeing?
The gender role in these societies also need to recognized and harnessed, to boost up the resilience of this group and thereby, the capacity of the community itself.
Recognizing significance of both agriculture and wetland and chalking out zonal planning will reduce the increasing pressure on environment. Ecosystem management in fact leads to productive ecosystems that can support sustainable income-generating activities. For ecosystems to make these contributions, it is essential that they be factored development project plans effectively; not doing so may cause nothing but significant economic and environmental losses, and impose hardships on already vulnerable communities. Development, lacking long-term visions, while accelerate economic activity in a region
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temporarily, may end up in making its targeted beneficiaries vulnerable all the more, in the long run.
Comparisons between livelihoods between the project and non-project area shows that the major livelihood in the project area is agriculture while others are very minor there. Contrary to that, diverse ecological resources in the non-project area offer a variety of livelihood options enabling individuals to remain involved in different economic- activities varying not only with seasonal availability of resources but also with hours of a day. Such tendency lowers the risk of depending only one activity which was evident in the livelihood balances from two studied areas. After identifying the important livelihood activities within the study areas and the natural resources that they are dependent on, they were linked through putting them in the Sustainable Livelihood framework. This evolved a complex ecological resource-livelihood linkage (Figure 5.3) for the wetland area.
Figure 5.3: Wetland ecological resource-livelihood linkages on Sustainable Livelihood framework
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The studied region is full of diverse natural resources making a highly potential and rich natural resource base. Some of it also contributes to the physical resource base for the region. The interactions of the local communities and having highly nature-dependant livelihood have shaped up the cultural values of the region and have enriched the indigenous knowledgebase over generations.
The linkage exhibits the significance of restoring the highly sensitive and fragile wetland environment through proper environment aware development intervention approaches for future where community-based co-management might play important role in ensuring the sustainability nature and the endurance of nature side-by-side.
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Chapter Six Conclusions & Recommendations
During this study, exploring possible linkages between wetland ecological resources and poor people’s livelihoods relevant to their ultimate wellbeing, revealed some interesting and important insights. Livelihoods are intertwined with the ecological resources in wetlands in the non-project area. People living in and around wetlands in Gopalganj, particularly the poor are highly dependent on ecological resources (food, fertile soil, fish, medicines etc.) and services (cheap transportation, floodwater storage, habitat, aesthetic value etc.) that these wetlands offer. In any particular season, people in non-intervened area have sound flow of livelihoods, directly or indirectly linked to these wetlands. They appear to be less vulnerable because they always have different options of livelihood available which has both diurnal as well as seasonal variations. Thus less anxiety and staying close to nature play a significant role in their wellbeing.
Implicitly the poor depend upon the ecosystem services but the nature of the dependence is not uniform throughout the year. There is a monsoon influenced, cyclical pattern dependant on cropping seasons and the nature of responses to natural phenomena like flood and drought. The seasonal patterns of dependence of the poor and their existing coping strategies require in depth evaluation in the whole region. A priority-setting exercise should be conducted to inform the research agenda in individual agro-ecological zones that may help decision-makers in planning interventions.
Any existing linkages between ecological resources and livelihoods in wetlands, an important environmental setting, need to be identified. Recognizing the significance of such linkages to human wellbeing, poverty alleviation and promoting gender equity is essential for the sustainability of any development interventions. Policies often fail to recognize the implications of ecological resource-livelihood linkages, gender and ultimately, the human wellbeing during water-resource development interventions which critically question the objective of the initiatives in the first place.
Many an infrastructural development without due consideration to the environmental flow has led to the environmental degradation that is taking its toll on people’s livelihood, particularly the poor one that depend on nature for the supply the most. Hence, the development, lacking long-term vision, while boost up economic activity in a region
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temporarily, ends up in making its supposed beneficiaries vulnerable all the more, in the long run.
The ecosystem approach is considered one of the most promising strategies to manage or restore ecosystems and their services while focusing on human livelihood needs. It is a relatively recent concept and the tools for its application are still evolving. Ecosystem management requires being factored development project plans effectively.
It has been realized that no environment management initiative would be sustainable unless the management approach recognizes the overall qualities of life of the people living in and around an ecosystem and that they are interlinked with diversity, productivity and quality of the ecosystem. IWRM is practiced by local people informally (indigenous) for their livelihoods from ecological resources for long. The only issue that is needed to be addressed is how to incorporate the techniques in water development prospects. Moreover it is also necessary to understand the interactions that exist among different group of stakeholders in a wetland ecosystem. Those interactions should be addressed in order to develop a balanced and participatory approach aimed at effecting human and ecosystem wellbeing together, which will eventually lead to sustainability.
Gender and IWRM-oriented water development intervention is only at flourishing-stage in Bangladesh; considering human well-being in development-planning is only emerging. Policy planning and implementation based on such newly emerging concepts may seem difficult at first; but, conventional policy planning for water resource development interventions need to be revised in these contexts. Policies often fail to recognize the implications of ecological resource-livelihood linkages, gender and ultimately, the human wellbeing during water-resource development interventions which critically question the objective of the initiatives in the first place. Hence, sustainability of water resource lies in policies addressing these issues to support co-existence of human and nature.
Conclusions & Recommendations
BIBLIOGRAPHY Alauddin, M. 2004. “Environmentalizing economic development: A South Asian perspective”. Ecological Economics 51: 251-270. Ali, M.Y. 1997. Fish, Water and People. University Press Ltd., Dhaka. Aggarwal, R. M. 2006. “Globalization, local ecosystems, and the rural poor”. World Development 34(8): 1405-18. Bandyopadhyay, J. 2002. “A Critical Look at the Report of the World Commission on Dams in the Context of the Debate on Large Dams on the Himalayan Rivers”, Water Resources Development 18: 127-45. Banglapedia. 2003. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Retrieved: 19 October 2009. www.banglapedia.org/httpdocs/HT/T_0242.HTM BBS. 2008. “Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh”. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Dhaka. BBS. 2006. “Agricultural Census 2006”. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Dhaka BBS. 2001. “Population Census 2001”. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Dhaka. BCAS (Bangladesh Center for Advanced Studies) and CDI (Caritas Development Institute). 2006. Final Report on Impact of Development Intervention of People in Chalan Beel and Chanda Beel. Dhaka, Bangladesh. Bhandari, B.B. 2003. “Participatory Rural Appraisal”, module 4. Institute of Global Environmental Strategies. BirdLife International. 2004. “Important Bird Areas in Asia: key sites for conservation”. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Borrini-Feyerabend, G., Pimbert, M., Farvar, M.T., Kothari, A. and Renard, Y. 2004. “Sharing Power: Learning by doing in co-management of natural resources throughout the world”. IIED and IUCN/ CEESP/ CMWG, Cenesta, Tehran. Boyd, J. and Banzhaf, H.S. 2006. "What are ecosystem services? The need for standardized environmental accounting units”. RFF Discussion paper DP 06-02. (http://www.rff.org/rff/Publications). Resources For the Future. BRPMP (Bangladesh Rural Poverty Mapping Project). 2004. “Geographical concentration of Rural Poverty in Bangladesh”. PR Number 24660. Report for the Food and Agriculture organisation of the United Nations (FAO) and the Consortium for Spatial Information (CSI). Carney, D. 1998. “Sustainable rural livelihoods: what contribution can we make?” London, Department for International Development. Choudhury, N.Y., Paul, A. and Paul, B.K. 2004. “Impact of coastal embankment on the flash flood in Bangladesh: a case study”. Applied Geography 24: 241-58.
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Costanza, R., d'Arge, R., Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S., ONeil, R. V. Paruelo, J., Raskin, R.G., Sutton, P. and Belt, M. 1997. "The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital." Nature 387: 253-60. Daily, G.C. 1997. “Nature's Services - Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems”. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. DFID (Department for International Development). 1999. Sustainable Livelihood Guidance Sheets. DOF (Department of Fisheries). 2000. “Fish Catch Statistics of Bangladesh 1998- 1999”. Department of Fisheries, Dhaka. Duraiappah, A., 2004. “Human Well-being, Poverty and Ecosystem Services: Exploring the Links”. The United Nations Environment Programme and International Institute for Sustainable Development. ESPASSA. 2008. “Ecosystem Services and Poverty Alleviation Study in South Asia (ESPASSA): A Situation Analysis for India and the Hindu Kush Himalayan Region”. New Delhi: The Energy & Resources Institute. FAO. 1988. “Agro-ecological Regions of Bangladesh”. FAO, Rome. FAP (Flood Action Plan) 16. 1995. Potential impacts of flood control on the biological diversity and nutritional value of subsistence fisheries in Bangladesh. Flood Action Plan 16 Environmental Study, Flood Plan Coordination Organization, Ministry of Water Resources, Dhaka. (Report prepared by Irrigation Support Project for Asia and the Near East). FAP (Flood Action Plan) 4. 1993. "Final Report of Southwest Area Water Resources Management Project", Flood Action Plan 4, vol.4: Coastal Studies. Halcrow, S.W. & Partners Ltd. and others. Dhaka. Flood Plan Coordination Organization. FRSS (Fisheries Resources Survey System), 2009. “Fishery Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh 2003-2004”, 21st ed., Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Bangladesh, 42 p. Gautam, M.K., Roberts, E.H. and Singh, B.K. 2003. “Community based leasehold approach and agro-forestry technology for restoring degraded hill forests and improving rural livelihoods in Nepal”. Paper presented at Rural Livelihoods, Forest and Biodiversity Conference, 19-23 May 2003, Bonn, Germany. Gunderson, L.H., Holling, C.S., Pritchard, L. and Peterson, G.D. 1997. “Resilience in ecosystems, institutions and societies. Propositions for a research agenda”. University of Florida, Department of Zoology, Gainesville. Haines-Young, R., Potschin, M. and Cheshire, D. 2006. “Defining and identifying environmental limits for sustainable development. A scooping study”. Final full technical report to Defra, Project Code NR0102. Hartje, V., Klaphake, A. and Schliep, R. 2003. The International Debate on the Ecosystem Approach: Critical Review - International Actors - Obstacles and 90
Challenges. Study on behalf of the German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (Bundesamt für Naturschutz). BfN-Skripten 80, BfN, Bonn, 50 p. Holling, C. S. 1986. “The resilience of terrestrial ecosystems: local surprise and global change”. In: W. C. Clark and R. E. Munn (eds.) Sustainable Development of the Biosphere. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hutton, D. and Haque, C.E. 2004. “Human vulnerability, dislocation, and human settlement: adaptation process of river-bank erosion erosion-induced displaces in Bangladesh”. Disasters 28 (1): 41-62. Imhoff, M. L., Bounoua, L., Ricketts, T., Loucks, C., Harriss, R. and Lawrence, W.T. 2004. “Global pattern in human consumption of net primary production”. Nature 429 (24): 870-873. Islam, T.U. 2005. “Third Bangladesh National Report Submitted to Secretariat of Convention on Biological Diversity”. Ministry of Environment and Forest, Bangladesh Secretariat, Dhaka. 153 pp. Islam, S.T., Shamsuddin, S.D. and Jamal, F. 2000. “The Common Property Resources of Bangladesh; its use, abuse and potentials". The Jahangirnagar Review 23-24: 77-95. IUCN Bangladesh. 2005. Major Interventions for Sustainable Wetland Resource Management. IUCN Bangladesh Country Office, Dhaka, Bangladesh, x + 135 pp. IUCN Bangladesh 2000. Red list of Threatened animals of Bangladesh. IUCN- The World union for Conservation. Bangladesh Country office- Dhaka, Bangladesh, xi+54 pp. IWRB. 1992. Action Programme for the Conservation of Wetlands in South and West Asia. Northeast Regional Water Resources Development Project (FAP 6), 1992. Draft Thematic Study. Regional Water Resources Development Status, Flood Plan Coordination Organization, Government of Bangladesh, Dhaka. Kerr, J. 2002. “Watershed development, environmental services, and poverty alleviation in India”. World Development 30(8):1387-1400. LGED (Local Government Engineering Department). 2007. “District Water Resources Assessment-Gopalganj”. Second Small scale Water Resources Development Sector Project. Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. LGED, IWRM Unit. Khan, M.S., Haq, E., Huq, S., Rahman, A. A., Rashid, S.M.A. and Ahmed, H. 1994. Wetlands of Bangladesh. Published by Bangladesh centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS) Dhaka, Bangladesh. MA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment). 2003. Ecosystems and Human Well Being: A Framework for Assessment. Island Press: Washington, D.C. Markandya, A. 1998. “Poverty, income distribution and policy making”. Environmental and Resource Economics 11(3-4): 459-72.
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Mirza, Q.M. and Ericksen, N.J. 1996. “Impact of water control projects on fisheries resources in Bangladesh”. Environmental Management 20(4):523-539.
Muir, J. (ed.) 2003. Fisheries Sector Review and Future Development: theme study: economic performance. World Bank, Danida, USAID, FAO and DFID, Dhaka. MWR (Ministry of Water Resources). 1999. National Water Policy. Government of People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Ministry of Water Resources, Dhaka. Nishat A. 1993. “Freshwater Wetlands in Bangladesh: Status and Issues”. In: Aninun Nishat, et al. (eds.) Freshwater Wetlands in Bangladesh: Issues and Approaches for Management, IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Dhaka Bangladesh. Rahman, A. and Hassan, M. (eds.). 2006. People’s Report 2004-2005 Bangladesh Environment. Dhaka: Unnayan Shamannay. Rahman, A. K. A. 2005. “Freshwater Fish of Bangladesh”. Dhaka University, Dhaka. Rahman, A. K. A. 1989. “Freshwater Fish of Bangladesh.” Dhaka University, Dhaka. Tilman, D. 1997. “Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning”. In: Daily, G. (ed.). Nature’s Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems. Washington, D.C: Island Press, pp: 93-112. Thompson, P. and Colavito, L. 2007. “Economic value of Bangladesh wetlands”. MACH Technical Paper 6. Winrock International, Dhaka Twigg, J. 2004. Good Practice Review. Natural Risk Reduction. Mitigation and Preparedness in Development and Emergency Programming. London: Humanitarian Practice Network, Overseas Development Institute. USAID. 2007. Restoring Wetlands through Improved Governance: Community Based Co-Management in Bangladesh, The MACH Experience. Technical Paper 1. World Bank. 2007. World Development Indicators 2007. Washington, D.C.
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Annexure 1: Completed and Ongoing Projects of BWDB in Gopalganj district
Location Benefited Project Component (upazila) area/sect Name of Project Prot. Khal Embt. Work & (km) (km) others 1. Completed projects Sadar and Madaripur Beet Muksudpur Route Project of 383.0 39.0 - 20,720 (MBR) Gopalganj; Rajor 5 Nos. Gopalganj, West Gopalganj ( Closure), 2 Kashiani 29.0 10,040 Polder No.2A Nos. (Foot Upazilas bridge) Sadar, 5 Nos. West Gopalganj Kashiani & 46.0 52.0 (Foot 8,217 Polder No. 4 Muksudpur bridge) Upazilas Tungipara, Tarail-Pachuria Kotalipara - 50.0 - 8,400 Polder No. 2 & Sadar Tungipara 3 Nos. Tarail-Pachuria Kotalipara 90.0 58.0 (Flood 7,491 Polder No. 3 & 4 Upazilas Shelter) Kotalipara Satla-Bagda 3 Nos. of - 36.1 6,985 FCDI Gopalganj (Closure) & Najirpur 2. On-going projects River Bank : Protection of Chinguria- 750 m save property Madhumati river at Patgati Chinguria- Patgati Bank protection: save work of MBR at Koligram 400m property Koligram Rehabilitation of Rehabilitate Rehabilitati flood (2004) ion of on of flood 18.0 450 m effected works existing (2004) (part -D) projects
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Annexure 2: Completed Sub-Projects of SSWRDSP in Gopalganj District
Benefited Khal Embankment Name of Project Union Upazila Area (km) (km) (ha) SP no. 14200, Patgati Patgati Tungipara 350 2.00 - drainage sub-project SP no. 13042, Tripalli FMD Patgati Tungipara 350 0.45 2.00 subproject
SP. no. 14169, Kusholi- Kusholi Tungipara 176 3.10 - Boyra khal sub-project
SP no. 13043, Gobra FCD Gobra Sadar 400 2.00 0.96 sub-project SP.no.15330, Mochna, Ramkrisnapur Drainage Muksudpur 764 8.50 - Gohala sub-project SP no. 14167, Char Boyra-Char Gobra Gobra Sadar 315 3.60 - Drainage sub-project SP. no. 14168, Kutibari Suktail Sadar 465 1.56 - Khal WC & Dr. sub-project SP no. 12022, Tarashi- Kushla, Kotalipara 425 - 10.87 Tihatti FMD sub-project Hiron
Annexure 3: Sub-Projects under the Ongoing SSWRDSP-2
Benefited Name of Khal Embankment Structure Union Upazila Area Sub-project (Km) (Km) (No.) (ha) SP no. 24131, Bolojtala- Borni Tungipara 355 3.80 2.34 3 Kolmadanga FCDI sub SP no. 24151, Radhanagor,
Kunshaban-Pittalpara Ghagor, Kotalipara 424 1.75 9.02 2 FCDI sub-project Amtali SP no 21012 Nanikhir Muksudpur 500 2.30 4.90 5 Kaliadaha
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Annexure 4: Resource map of Kakuibunia village
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Annexure 5: Resource map of Dariarkul village
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CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION
It is hereby declared that this report or any part of it has not been submitted elsewhere for the award of any degree or diploma.
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Suha Sanwar
Dedicated to Wetland People
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All praises to Allah upon reaching the targets, this study aimed for.
I take the opportunity to express my heart-felt gratitude to my honorable supervisor, Dr. Md. Rezaur Rahman, Professor, Institute for Water and Flood Management (IWFM), Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) for his intellectual supervision which taught me a lot. Without the inspiration I had from him throughout the research and preparation of this manuscript, it wouldn’t be as it is presented.
My sincere thanks go to Dr. Hamidul Huq, Research Coordinator of the Crossing Boundary (CB) project, IWFM, BUET. His experience-sharing advices helped in shaping up the ideas gathered from field visits and the subsequent data collection.
It is the spontaneous participation of the villagers in Tripalli and in Dariarkul that made this study possible. Authorities of LGED, DAE and DOF of Gopalganj are highly acknowledged for their sincere cooperation in supplying data and relevant information for the study.
SaciWATERs is credited for funding this study. Its support and advanced co-ordination of water-based researches will surely benefit not only policies at national level but at the regional level as well. My participation in the training arranged by SaciWATERs in Sri Lanka in September, 2009 helped to have an IWRM-view while drawing conclusions.
I acknowledge the sincere cooperation that I received from time to time from the staffs of the IWFM, BUET.
Last but not the least, Hence I am thankful to my parents, brother and my husband.
Without my family’s continuous support and patience, it would have been much harder for me.
SUHA SANWAR
ABSTRACT
An attempt was made to establish linkage between ecological resources and livelihood patterns of the poor, during a comparative study between a water resource developments intervened area and a non-intervened area on a floodplain land. Two villages, Kakuibunia and Dariarkul both in Gopalganj district of Bangladesh were selected to represent, respectively, a water management project and a non-project area. Different PRA tools (resource mapping, seasonal calendars, transect walking and boating, FGD) were practiced and key informant interviews, group discussions were conducted with female participants from marginal and landless farmers’ families. Observations found livelihoods to be intertwined with the ecological resources in wetlands in the non-project area. Seasonal variations offer people there with diverse livelihood options to switch in between. Sustainable nature and sustained source of living are synonymous in the area. Families in the non-intervened area are found to be involved in a wide array of livelihoods varying not only with seasons but also with hours of a day. Livelihoods involve extracting ecological resources from open water (beels) during monsoon and cultivating rice during the short period they get during dry season before monsoon sets in and also include other relevant activities e.g. boat-making, earth-cutting. Naturally people here have more livelihood choices to make when required. On the contrary, in the water-project-intervened area, sole dependency only on two paddies put the farmers in a vulnerable state, with less option for alternative income. Projects may have offered them with new options like pulling vans as alternative and better communication but at the cost of a major shift in the ecological settings and relevant professions e.g. fishing, boat-pulling etc. Hence the entire system always is at risk from any sudden climatic, economic threats to crop production. Water interventions or irrigation projects focusing on higher rice-production might not be the only suitable development-option for such communities, especially when these are threatening the existing conventional, sustainable structure of ecological resource– dependent livelihoods. Often small-scale interventions like ensuring access to health- facility, safe drinking water and sanitation, education, women-health programs might set these communities on the track of real development while nature continues to sustain without any disturbance and maintain human wellbeing. Gender and IWRM-oriented water development intervention is only at flourishing-stage in Bangladesh; considering human wellbeing in development-planning is only emerging. Policies often fail to recognize the implications of ecological resource-livelihood linkages, gender and ultimately, the human wellbeing during water-resource development interventions which critically question the objective of the initiatives in the first place. Hence, sustainability of future water resource development policies lies in addressing these issues to support the co-existence of human and nature.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Baor - Oxbow lake BWDB - Bangladesh Water Development Board BCAS - Bangladesh Center for Advanced Studies DTW - Deep Tubewell DWRA- District Water Resources EC - Exotic Carps ESPASSA- Ecosystem Services and Poverty Alleviation Study in South Asia FAP - Flood Action Plan FCDI - Flood Control Drainage and Irrigation FGD - Focused Group Discussions (FGD) Govt. - Government LGED - Local Government Engineering Department PA - Planning Areas PRA - Participatory Rural Appraisal SEMP - Sustainable Environment Management Program sq. km. - square kilometer STW - Shallow Tubewell UP - Union Parishad WARPO - Water Resources Planning Organization WRD - Water Resource Development WMC - Water Management Co-operatives Society 1 shole - 3.5 munds 10 Katha - 52 Shotangsho 5 Sholes - 20 munds
CONTENTS Page no. ABSTRACT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS LIST OF TABLES iv LIST OF FIGURES v LIST OF PLATES vi LIST OF ANNEXURES viii
Chapter One Background 1-5 1.1. BACKGROUND 1 1.2. OBJECTIVES 3 1.3. SCOPES OF THE STUDY 4 1.4. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 4 1.5. ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT 4
Chapter Two Ecological Resources-Livelihood Linkages 6-25 2.1. WETLANDS OF BANGLADESH 6 2.2. ECOSYSTEM SERVICES AND LIVELIHOODS 6 2.2.1. Ecosystem 6 2.2.2. Ecosystem Goods and Services 7 2.2.3. Livelihoods 7
2.3. SIGNIFICANCE OF WETLANDS AND THEIR LIVELIHOOD SUPPORTS 8 2.3.1. Wetlands as Source of Food and Medicinal Plants 10 2.3.2. Role of the Wetlands in Sustaining Fishery Production System 11
2.4. VULNERABILITY AND INSECURITY 12 2.4.1. Climate change and the Future Projections for Bangladesh 13 2.4.2. Environmental Degradation and Poverty – multiple pathways 14
2.5. DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS: MODES AND INTERFERENCES 14 2.5.1. Recent Degradation of Wetlands and Damage of Natural Resources due to Interventions 14 2.5.2. Impact of Development Interventions on Livelihoods 21 2.5.3. Case Studies reflecting Ecosystem-Poverty-Intervention Linkages 22
Chapter Three Introducing the Study area: Gopalganj & its Water Resources 26-49 3.1. GEOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE STUDY AREA: GOPALGANJ 26
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3.1.1. Location 26 3.1.2. Climate 27 3.1.3. Topography, Physiography and Soil characteristics 28 3.1.4. Land Type and Land Use 28 3.1.5. Hydrology 29 3.2. POPULATIONS AND LIVELIHOODS OF GOPALGANJ 31
3.3. GOPALGANJ ON POVERTY MAP 32
3.4. WETLANDS AND ECOLOGICAL SERVICES 34 3.4.1. Livelihood implications of wetlands 37 3.5. AGRICULTURE 37 3.5.1. Irrigated Agricultural Production 38 3.5.2. Labor 39 3.5.3. Benefit of Selected Crop 39
3.6. FISHERIES 40 3.6.1. Fisheries Habitat 41 3.6.2. Present Status of Fisheries 41 3.6.3. Fishing Community 42 3.6.4. Impact of Water Resource Development Interventions 43 3.7. WATER RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT STATUS IN THE DISTRICT 44 3.7.1. Setting of the District in Hydrological Units and Sub-Units 44 3.7.2. Hydrological Units and Sub-units of DWRA 44 3.7.3. Water Resources Development: BWDB and LGED 45
3.8. OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS IN GOPALGANJ WETLANDS 45 3.8.1. Opportunities: Indigenous Knowledge within the Context of Freshwater Ecosystems 45 3.8.2. Drawbacks 48
Chapter Four Materials & Methods 49-60 4.1 LOCATIONS OF STUDY AREAS 49
4.2 DATA COLLECTION 52 4.2.1 Review of Existing Data 53 4.2.2 Direct Observation 53 4.2.3 Informal Interviews 53 4.2.4 Resource Mapping 54 4.2.5 Seasonal Calendar 56 4.2.6 Focus Group Discussions 58 4.2.7 Semi-Structured Interviews 58 4.2.8 Transect Walks 59 4.2.9 Group Meetings 59 4.3 DATA ANALYSIS 60
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Chapter Five Results & Discussions 61-86 5.1 LIVELIHOODS OF POOR PEOPLE AND THEIR LIVELIHOOD PATTERNS 61 5.1.1 Project Area 61 5.1.2 Non-project Area 65
5.2 ECOLOGICAL RESOURCES IN THE STUDY AREA 70 5.2.1 Project Area 70 5.2.2 Non-project Area 71 5.3 LINKAGES BETWEEN ECOLOGICAL RESOURCES AND LIVELIHOOD PATTERNS 74 5.3.1 Project Area 74 5.3.2 Non-project Area 77
5.4 CASE STUDY: A LANDLESS FAMILY WITH VIBRANT ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES IN NON-PROJECT AREA 80 5.5 GENDER ASPECT 82 5.6 POLICY IMPLICATIONS 83 5.6.1 Development Approaches 83 5.6.2 Human Wellbeing 84
Chapter Six Conclusions & Recommendations 87-88
Bibliography 89-92 Annexure 93-96
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LIST OF TABLES
PAGE SERIAL NO. TITLE NO. Table 3.1 Land types of the Gopalganj district 28
Table 3.2 Present land use in Gopalganj district 29
Table 3.3 Distribution of working population by occupation in 31 Gopalganj
Table 3.4 Farm categories by land ownership and tenancy in 32 Gopalganj district Table 3.5 Cropping pattern by land area of Gopalganj district 39
Table 3.6 Fishery statistics of Gopalganj district 41
Table 3.7 Major endangered fish species of Gopalganj district 42
Table 5.1 Comparisons between livelihoods in project intervened 69 area and non-project area Table 5.2 Seasonal calendar of livelihoods and related wetland 75 resources in the project area
Table 5.3 Seasonal calendar of livelihoods and related wetland 78 resources in the non-project area.
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BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, DHAKA
OFFICE OF THE MEMBER SECRETARY OF THE COMMITTEE FOR ADVANCED STUDIES & RESEARCH, BUET, DHAKA.
Application for the approval of P.G. Dip (Water Resources Development) project proposal
Date: 10-08-2009
1. Name of the students: SUHA SANWAR Roll No: 1008281005
Status: Full-Time Session: October, 2008
Present Address: 44/4 Lake Circus (1st floor), Kalabagan, Dhaka-1205
2. Name of the Supervisor: Dr. Rezaur Rahman Designation: Professor
3. Name of the Department: IWFM Programme: P.G.Dip (WRD)
4. Name of the Co- Supervisor: N/A Designation: N/A
5. Date of First Enrolment in the Programme: October, 2008
6. Tentative Title. COMPARING ECOLOGICAL RESOURCE-DEPENDENT LIVELIHOOD PATTERNS BETWEEN A WATER PROJECT AND A NON- PROJECT AREA.
7. Background and present state of the problem
More than two-thirds of the country’s landmass may be classified as wetlands according to the definition delineated in the Ramsar Convention. The wetlands of these areas have a wide range of ecological, socio-cultural, economic and commercial importance and values in Bangladesh (Khan et al. 1999). Among them, Gopalganj-Khulna Beels is one of the most important freshwater wetlands situated in low-lying basins of the South-western hydrological region of the country. The people living in and around the area depend on the unique mosaic of habitats with extremely rich diversity of flora and fauna for their livelihoods. People catch fish and collect different aquatic vegetables for food, fuel, fodder and thatching materials (ESPASSA 2008).
Human interference in the wetlands has been damaging to the fragile ecosystem and to long- term sustainability of the wetlands. Over the last three decades, massive physical infrastructures in the form of rural road and flood embankment have been developed in the floodplains. Many of these infrastructures disregarded local topographic condition and natural water flow direction, which has often resulted in poor drainage or water logging and impacted on the local surface water, declined fish-production by preventing timely entry of fish fry into the floodplain (BCAS and CDI 2006). In recent years due to consistent decline in
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inland capture fisheries, agriculture has emerged as the overwhelmingly dominant sector of the economy in the areas. The navigation system has been either closed or substantially reduced which have caused significant shift of livelihoods based on boat-making, repairing and transportation to others, mainly as agriculture labor.
This study is undertaken to delineate the changes in livelihood pattern of the poor people due to the implementation of a water resources development project in Nobukhali as compared to the poor people’s livelihood in an un-intervened area in Dariar kul, both under the Patgati Union in Gopalganj-an ecologically rich, low-depressed region of Bangladesh.
8. Objectives with specific aims and possible outcome
1) To identify the livelihoods of the poor people of the study areas and their patterns;
2) To identify the ecological resources of the two areas;
3) To establish linkages between ecological resources and livelihood pattern of the poor people in both project and non-project area.
Possible outcome is detecting the impact of a water resource development project on shifting peoples’ livelihood and finding scopes to improve or manage opportunities for maximizing poverty alleviation.
9. Outline of Methodology
The area under study would include Dariar kul to represent “no project intervention situation”; Nobukhali would represent project interventions implemented by LGED. The ecological resources that poor people either consume directly or use to serve different purposes would be observed and recorded through direct observations during field visits.
Other primary data required for this study will be collected through use of various Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools. In PRA (Conroy 2002), female members representing the poor, landless families from both the project and non-project area would participate separately in making resource maps of the area and their seasonal calendars for crops and dependency on ecological resources. Through FGD, information on their livelihoods would be sought. Experience of living in such low-lying areas, opportunities to improve water resource developments, to alleviate poverty and improve their living standards will also be gathered.
LGED and water management committees will be interviewed for their roles, mechanisms of execution of plans, initiatives taken so far and their outcomes and future plans and scopes for conservation of ecological resources sustainably through interviews. All these will lead to primary data for the research.
Secondary data on the area, its resources, institutional set-up, management initiatives, opportunities and impacts of previous project interventions will be collected from the Union 2
Parishad of Gopalganj, LGED, publications of SEMP (Sustainable Environment Management Programme) from BCAS (Bangladesh Center for Advanced Studies), ESPASSA (Ecosystem Services and Poverty Alleviation Study in South Asia) etc.
All the primary and secondary data will be analyzed and synthesized to develop a framework of livelihood pattern in the region.
10. References
BCAS (Bangladesh Center for Advanced Studies) and CDI (Caritas Development Institute). 2006. Final Report on Impact of Development Intervention of People in Chalan Beel and Chanda Beel.Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Conroy, C. 2002. PRA tools used for research into common pool resources. Natural Resources Institute, The University of Greenwich.
ESPASSA (Ecosystem Services and Poverty Alleviation Study in South Asia). 2008. A Situation analysis for India and the Hindukush Himalayan Region (Regional Analysis). A Project Report Prepared for NERC, DEID, and ESRC by the ESPASSA Consortium.
Khan, S., Rahman, A. A., Rashid, S.M.A. and Ahmed, H. 1999. Wetlands of Bangladesh. BCAS, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
11. List of courses taken:
Course No Course Name Credit Grade Grade points G.P.A WFM 5101 Watershed Hydrology 3 A 3.5 WFM 5202 Socio-economic Analysis 3 A 3.5 WFM 5203 Hydrogeology and groundwater 3 B+ 3.0 WFM 6104 Gender and water 3 A+ 4.0 3.5 WFM 6303 Integrated Water Resource 3 ongoing - Management WFM 5203 Environmental Analysis 3 ongoing - WFM 6000 Project 6 ongoing -
______
Signature of the Tabulator
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12. Cost Estimate:
Item Estimated cost a) Cost of Materials: Tk. 2000/- (Secondary data, maps, reports etc.) b) Travel cost a. Field visits (2 visits, Conveyance approximately Tk. 500/ per visit) Tk. 2000/-
Tk. 1500/- b. Local transport for primary data collection c. Local transport for secondary data collection Tk. 1500/-
c) Thesis Preparation: Typing, Binding & Paper etc. Tk. 3000/- Total cost Ten thousand taka only will be borne by CB Project of IWFM Tk. 10000/- 13. Approximate time (in hour) for BUET workshop facilities (if required): None
14. Justification of having Co-Supervisor: Not applicable
15. Doctoral Committee/BPGS/RAC reference:
16. Appointment of Supervisor & Co-Supervisor Approved by the CASR Meeting No. (For Ph.D): N/A Resolution No. :……………. Date:……………….
17. Appointment of Doctoral Committee Approved by the CASR Meeting No. (For Ph.D): N/A Resolution No.:…………….. Date: …………………
18. Result of comprehensive examination for Ph.D. (photocopy of the result should be enclosed) Date: …………………… Satisfactory/Unsatisfactory Not applicable
19. Number of Post-Graduate Student(s) working with the Supervisor at Present: 2
______Signature of the Student
______Signature of the Supervisor
______Signature of the Director of the Institute
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