DAS SCHULWERK A FOUNDATION FOR THE COGNITIVE, MUSICAL, AND ARTISTIC DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN

LORI-ANNE DOLLOFF

Monograph Number 1

RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES IN MUSIC EDUCATION Edited by Lee R. Bartel DAS SCHULWERK A FOUNDATION FOR THE COGNITIVE, MUSICAL, AND ARTISTIC DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN

LORI-ANNE DOLLOFF

Monograph Number 1 RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES IN MUSIC EDUCATION Edited by Lee R. Bartel

Canadian Music Education Research Centre UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO 1993 Published by Canadian Music Education Research Centre as part of the monograph series, RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES IN MUSIC EDUCATION

Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data

Dolloff, Lori-Anne, 1958­ Das Schulwerk: a foundation for the cognitive, musical, and artistic development of children

(Research perspectives in music education) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 1-895570-02-6

1. orff, Carl, 1895-1982. Orff-Schulwerk. 2. Music ­ Instruction and study - Juvenile. 3. Constructivism (Education). I. Canadian Music Education Research Centre. II. Title. III. Series.

MTl. D65 1993 780' .7 C93-094304-X

ISBN 1-895570-02-6

Copyright It> 1993 by the Canadian Music Education Research Centre

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permisSion of the publisher.

Printed in Canada PREFACE

~EARCH PERSPECTIVES IN MUSIC EDUCATION is a new series of monographs published by Canadian Music Education Research Centre (CMERC). It features a wide range of topics related to the practice of music education and is unified by the emphasis on research in each work. The research methodology included in the series may span all traditional quantitative social science methodologies as well as theoretical, philosophical, historical, or descriptive methods. The focus on the practice of music education makes each monograph valuable to practitioners as well as scholars.

The first monograph in this series is, Das Schulwerk: A foundation for the cognitive, musical, and artistic development ofchildren by Lori-Anne Dolloff. This monograph traces the historical influences on Orf£' s ideas, discusses the nature of music in Orf£' s approach, realistically points out weaknesses in this popular method, and analyzes the potential of the Orff method to address the cognitive development of children in light of theories by such prominent thinkers as Gjerdingen, Piaget, Gardner, and Serafine. This monograph provides a thoroughly reasoned foundation for an intensive application of music education in childhood. Lori-Anne Dolloff has done a masterful job of strengthening the theoretical rationale for Orff methodology.

Monograph two by Alan Stellings, Musical referentialism: A discussion of its aspects, provides an outstanding example of philosophical research--the analysis of existing thought and the synthesis into a clearer statement than previously in existence.

iii In addition to the monograph series, RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES IN MUSIC EDUCATION, the Canadian Music Education Research Centre publishes technical research reports and books. The first pUblication of this type is the Guide to Provincial Music Curriculwn Docwnents Since 1980. This Guide represents several of the major objectives of the Centre: (1) to conduct research studies related to music education in Canada; (2) to create and disseminate research tools and findings to researchers and users of research; and (3) to establish an outstanding Canadian collection of research documents and reports, survey research databases, and music education documents to facilitate the conduct of music education research. The Guide accomplishes all three of these objectives.

Itis a great pleasure to introduce this new publication venture. It is especially so because it offers a valuable service to the music education profession in Canada.

Lee R. Bartel, Series Editor Director of CMERC

iv CONTEI'JTS

PREFACE ...... iii

CONTENTS ...... v

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

THE ORFF APPROACH TO MUSIC EDUCATION ...... 3 Characteristics of the Approach ...... 3 Historical Influences ...... 6 Herder and the Ages of Language ...... 6 Goethe and the Role of Experience ...... 8 Pestalozzi and Education von Kinder aus ...... 10 The nature of music in Orffs approach ...... 14 Weaknesses in practice ...... 17 Summary ...... 18 Conclusions ...... 18

ORFF AND COGNITIVE SCIENCE ...... 21 Schema theory ...... 22 Orff and Play ...... 25 Gardner's Theory of Artistic Development ...... 27 Music as Intelligence ...... 31 Serafine and Music as Cognition ...... 33 Orff and the Development of Cognitive Processes ...... 37 Successive Temporal Processes: ...... 39 Phrasing ...... 39 Patterning ...... 40 Motivic Chaining ...... 41 Idiomatic Construction ...... 41

v Simultaneous Temporal Processes ...... 42 Textural abstraction ...... 42 Motivic Synthesis ...... 43 Timbre synthesis ...... 43 Non-temporal Processes ...... 44 Closure ...... 44 Transformation ...... 44 Abstrdction ...... 46 Hierarchic structuring ...... 47 Summary ...... 49

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 51

EN'DNOTES ...... 53

REFERENCES ...... 57

vi INTRODUCTION

T he approach to music education developed by Carl Orff enjoys widespread use by contemporary music educators. The approach is recognized as a valued method of music education by many writers addressing contemporary music education in North America. Michael Mark (1986) includes a description of Orff methodology in COnJemporary Music Education, an exploration of current themes and practices in music education. l Lois Harrison (1983), in her book Getting Started in Elementary Music Education, considers the Orff approach a major method in elementary music education. Other authors have shown how the Orff approach, which was originally conceived in the context of German culture, may be adapted to a North American educational context. 2 In fact, published versions of Orff-Schulwerk have also appeared in over twenty languages, suggesting world-wide application of the principles of Carl Orff (Frazee, 1987, p. 5).

A review of the literature indicates that the emphasis in research on the Orff approach has been on the history of the approach, teaching techniques and implementation. There is little research, especially in English, on the theoretical foundation of the Orff approach.

Orffs work is encapsulized in the five volumes of Das Schulwerk--a collection of sequenced materials for voice, "Orff' instruments and recorders. Orff has stated that the materials reflect the historical evolution of music (1962, p. 3). There is no explicit discussion of the musical development of the child. What theory has determined the sequencing of these

1 materials? Is Dos Schulwerk merely a collection of historical models? Or is there a developmental theory implicit in the prescribed activities and sequence of materials employed in the Orff approach?

The purpose of this paper is: (1) to determine the extent to which a developmental theory is implicit or explicit in the Orff approach; and (2), to explore any congruencies between Orff's concept of musical development and current theories of the development of music cognition.

The first part of this paper explores the background of the Orff approach to determine the existence and nature of Orff's concept of musical development. The second part, "Orff and Cognitive Science," makes comparisons between the theory discovered in Part One and current research in cognitive science.

2 THE ORFF APPROACH TO MUSIC EDUCATIOI\J

T he literature published by Orff and his colleagues reveals evidence of considerably more developmental theory behind the selection and sequencing of repertoire than is commonly acknowledged. In his writings concerning the approach, Orff (1962, 1963, 1976) concentrated on the choice of repertoire and the nature of music as an elemental human endeavour. His assistant, Gunild Keetman, wrote a manual on the teaching methods used in the Orff approach (Keetman, 1970). Other German pedagogues sought a place for Orff's work within the context of educational theory. Eberhard Preussner, director of the Mozarteum in Salzburg, posited a connection between the educational theories of Pestalozzi and those of Orff. Werner Thomas, who worked closely with Orff in Germany and Austria, found evidence of links between Orff and the work of Herder and Goethe. Preussner and Thomas presented a foundation for the Orff approach which is rooted in the artistic spirit of the German poets, represented by Goethe, Schiller and Herder, and in a German pedagogical reform which extended from the nineteenth into the early twentieth century. They saw the Orff approach as the embodiment of the ideals expressed in this reform (Preussner, 1962, p. 13).

Characteristics of the Approach

Orff was a proponent of the idea that "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny": that the evolutionary stages in the development of the human species are mirrored in the developmental stages of the individual. This is known as the theory of recapitulation or biogenesis. It has been

3 popularly applied to the physiological development of the foetus in vitro (Kimball, 1974, p. 706), as well as to intellectual development. The original theory is attributed to Stanley Hall (Hawn, 1986, p.18). Orff states a slightly modified version in the context of musical development:

The child's world of pl~y reflects (or can be likened to) the early archaic stages in the development of mankind. Poetic maniff;stations of prehistoric ages are magic formulas and oracles, rules and customs, proverbs and riddles, sagas and songs, legends and fairy tales. (Orff, 1962, p. 3)

This adaptation of Hall's theory appears to have developed under the influence of Karl Jung. Stated in this way, the theory holds that through playing the child is "liberated" from earlier stages and moves on to higher stages of musical development (Hawn, 1986, p. 18). It should not be interpreted that earlier stages are somehow more primitive or later stages of greater value. Rather, the idea is that through play the child avoids "re-inventing the wheel." The individual assimilates developments of the past in an encapsulated form and builds new concepts on this foundation. 3

Of course, Orff does not restrict repertoire in Das Schulwerk to prehistoric forms. Rather, he broadens the scope of the material to include examples of the forms found in Western Pre-Classical music. Forms include call and response, canon, ostinato, chaconne, processional, rondo, quodlibet, fauxbourdon, recitative, and various dances. Melodic and harmonic examples include plainsong-like recitatives, organum, paraphony, and compositions which make use of functional harmony. A variety of tonalities from pentatonic to modal and diatonic are presented. Rhythmic complexity progresses from monosyllabic-word-rhythms to poly metric and polyrhythmic compositions. Andreas Liess, a biographer of Carl Orff, says Das Schulwerk "leads from the primary basis of innate musicality to the world of historical musical forms" (Liess, 1966, p. 161). Werner Thomas, a long-time colleague of Orff, describes Das Schulwerk as "no pedagogical construction but an historical crystallization" (Thomas, 1960, p.3l).

4 In a lecture at the University of Toronto, Orff (1962) described six characteristics of Das Schulwerk which distinguish it from other pedagogical approaches.

1. The Schulwerk avoids false simplification, for a child's world is neither primitive nor transitory .

2. The Schulwerk has no ambition to be "modern," for progressing from pentatonic to diatonic modes, it closely corresponds to the development of the child. It is wrong to disregard the growth of music in history and to base instruction on the theory of intervals. The Schulwerk protests against the systematic rationalization ofour elementary music education.

3. The Schulwerk avoids introducing, prematurely, concepts and notions into a child's play-world which are derived from the contemporary level of our mechanical civiliza­ tion....The world of technology and causality that surrounds us reaches only as far as rationally measureable relationships are concerned; spiritually, artistically it is sterile....The Schulwerk develops the imagination and directs it towards the archetypes in nature and creation; the child is in contact with positive forces that are ordering, relaxing and healing.

4. The pieces it contains are simple, elementary if you will, yet always meaningful, each one baving a "Gestalt" of its own. But they do not add up to a progressive system in the usual sense of the term. It is the treatment of musical elements that set the Schulwerk apart from other systems, which usually start with unison and two-part pieces, proceeding step by step to more difficult pieces in many parts and complicated structures. It is true that the Schulwerk also progresses stepwise--from borduns to parallel chords and chords in dominant relationship; ...The rate of progress, however, depends on a child's receptivity; this takes both music and language into consideration.

5. The Schulwerk does not tamper with traditional texts nor does it invent new ones (except in the case of improvisation).... Our texts are taken from folklore, or else from recognised poets, both lyrical and epic.

6. Schulwerk pieces are not "compositions" in the subjective sense; they do not depend on inspiration (as the term was understood in the 19th century), they do not illustrate a text. They are musical models, typical rather than individual in character.

5 Historical Influences

Carl Orff's theories developed within the pedagogical legacy of Herder, Goethe and Pestalozzi. These people represent a school of European educational reform which began in the late eighteenth century. Although the theories put forth by these men are not always complementary, each in some way influenced the development of Das Schulwerk. In fact, many of the ideas discussed are echoed in the work of Dewey and Bruner, fathers of current North American pedagogical practice.

Herder and the Ages of Language. Werner Thomas (1960) has suggested that Orff was influenced by the writings of Herder. Johann Gottfried Herder was an eighteenth-cen­ tury author and essayist who wrote extensively on the origins and development of language. Herder posits four stages in the development of language: (I) Childhood (Kindheit), (2) Youth (Jugend), (3) Manhood (das mfumlicher Alter), and (4) Old age (der Greis) (Herder, 1766). In keeping with the theory of recapitulation, Herder maintains that these stages may be applied to the development of language in the individual, or to the development of the language of a culture. In Von den Lebensaltem einer Sprache, Herder characterizes the first stage as one in which the child (or species) does not speak; rather, language consists of sounds and pantomime (Herder, 176611968, p. 18-19). As language develops it becomes more poetic. The second stage, the youth of language, is described as the age of imagination. The sounds of the words and their rhythms are used for beauty, and for symbolic purposes. Herder describes the third stage of language, manhood, as the stage of beautiful prose (p. 19). The old age of language, the fourth stage of development, becomes increasingly preoccupied with correctness. This stage lacks the delight of earlier stages. Herder believes that the highest stage of development is the third. The fourth stage he considers a decline. From the third stage, he maintains, one can venture back into the wonder of poetry or forward into absolute correctness while having the capability of philosophizing and theorizing with the ease of well-developed prose (p. 19). Is there a parallel between Herder's stages of language development and musical development?

6 Thomas (1960), looking for parallels between Herder and Orfrs developmental scheme, maintains that single-word speech exercises accompanied by rhythmic gestures found in Volume One of Das Schulwerk are indicative of Herder's first stage. This may be true of language development, but it does not take into consideration the child's first attempts at making music. Michael Holahan (1986), a researcher in the development of musical syntax in infants, speaks of an early stage of musical development which may be considered equivalent to Herder's flrst stage. Music babble, as Holahan describes it, consists of sounds accompanied by movement. Speech is distinguished from babble when the sounds made by the child become associated with meaning--Le. they become symbols, (words). So too, music babble advances from sensual play with sounds to melodies with form and songs with lyrics. Music has become a symbol for the child. The child is now ready to begin choosing which sounds he makes based on their expressive qualities.

Das Schulwerk is full of examples of using words for their sheer sensuous beauty, a transition to the second stage in Herder's scheme. In Volume One (pentatonic) there are many speech exercises in which the words are clearly chosen for their sonance. At all levels of development children are encouraged to feel the sensuous qualities ofwords, to explore rhythmic and dynamic properties, and to play with combinations of words. Proverbs and other folk-Ioric poetry are also clearly in the youthful stage. Children are also encouraged to create their own poems. The final stage of development of a language in Herder's scheme is one in which rules of grammar have become normative. The imagination is no longer evoked, variation is discouraged, the purely technical and "correct" is prized. Gardner (1982) posits a similar pattern of development. As the child becomes pre-occupied with cultural rules and practices, the spontaneity and individual creativity of his artistry decreases, giving way to rule-derived, culturally "correct" forms (pp. 85, ff.). Thomas (1960) maintains that Orff avoids this stage through a constant renewing of speech and music. The improvisatory character of the approach allows for the exploration of perpetually-new possibilities (p. 34). Herder describes the third stage, the manhood stage of a language, as one which contains the best of both worlds. A

7 program for music education which is analogous to this would be one in which creativity is encouraged and fostered, yet the analytical is not forgotten. The child would possess both procedural knowledge and propositional knowledge--she/he would know-how as well as know-that (Bamberger, 1979; Gardner, 1983). This reflects the emphasis in the Orff approach on the process of music. The Orff approach seeks to maintain the poetic, magical stage in all stages of music-making. Orff (1962) describes the approach as the "awakening of the imagination" (p. 3). Through play with sounds and high-lighting the poetry of the text, Orff seeks to sensitize children to the expressive qualities of words and music.4

Goethe and the Role of Experience. According to Thomas (1962), another important figure in the development of Orff's philosophy was the nineteenth-century German poet Johann von Goethe. To Goethe, experience was education. An individual learned about a subject through experience with that subject. In his novel Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre, Goethe portrays the experience of life as education--as an apprenticeship. The novel follows Wilhelm, an aspiring actor, from childhood through manhood. Every situation in which Wilhelm finds himself is an education for him. Wilhelm not only learns his craft but draws spiritual knowledge from his experiences (Goethe, 1795/1966). The value of experience in shaping our perceptions and knowledge structures is now a field of research. Schema theory is beginning to explain what Goethe seemed to know intuitively. 5 Goethe held music to be the fundamental force behind all education:

Bei uns ist der Gesang die erste Stufe der Bildung, alles andemach schlieBt sich daran und wird dadurch vermittelt....Deshalb haben wir denn unter allem Denkbaren die Musik zum Element unserer Erziehung gewahlt, denn von ihr laufen gleichgebahnte Wege nach allen Seiten.6

(Goethe from Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre, in Heise et al., 1973, p. 12)

Although this description of the value of music in education comes from a novel, it is safe to assume that the portrait of a school described in this poetic way reflects the educational philosophy of Goethe himself.

8 Goethe was fighting against the trend toward a technical education. He constantly stresses the imaginative, the artistic and the poetic. We can hear this echo in the writings of Orff when he begs for the growth of imagination and the use of creativity. Goethe held folk-poetry and folk-song in high esteem. In a review of Des Knaben Wunderhom, a nineteenth-century collection of German folksongs and poetry, Goethe (1806/1962) claims that this collection of what he believes to be the highest form of poetry should be in every house (p. 24).

Are there echoes of Goethe in the work of Orff? Carl Orff, like Goethe, saw music as a force which had influence in domains in addition to the artistic domain. Orff considered music education to be a fundamental component of education and a humanizing force: Elementary music, word and movement, play, everything that awakens and develops the powers of the spirit, this is the "humus" of the spirit, the humus without which we face the danger of a spiritual erosion ....

Just as humus in nature makes growth possible, so elementary music gives to the child powers that cannot otherwise come to fruition. It must therefore be stressed that elementary music in the primary school should not be installed as a subsidiary subject, but as something fundamental to all other subjects. It is not exclusively a question of musical education; this can follow, but it does not have to. It is, rather, a question of developing the whole personality. (Orff, 1963, p.9)

Orff, following Goethe's theme of experience as education, stresses the experiential side of the approach: It [elementary music] is music that one makes oneself, in which one takes part, not as a listener but as a participant. (Orff, 1963, p. 6)

Goethe appealed for the acceptance of folk-song and poetry as examples of great art. Similarly, Orff (1962) claims that true folksongs and folktexts are archetypes of Art. Their inclusion in education is imperative (p. 6). This is born out in the selection of texts Orff made for Dos Schulwerk. The five volumes of Dos Schulwerk include nursery rhymes, riddles, fairy tales, and texts from the Wunderhorn and from the works of Goethe, Herder, Schiller, and the

9 Gospels. There is some inclusion of folk-songs in languages other than German. In keeping with Orff's view of learning music as you would learn a language (i.e. beginning with the mother tongue), folksongs of other languages do not appear until the fmal volumes. Orff never conceived of his Schulwerk being used in so many different countries and languages. He designed it to be a collection for his home-state of Bavaria. The material in the five volumes was chosen with the German heritage in mind. For this reason, Das Schulwerk cannot merely be translated to other cultural contexts. It must be adapted to local culture. Thus the materials with texts found in the editions by Doreen Hall and Margaret Murray reflect the English heritage, as other national authors reflect their own heritage.7 The instrumental pieces are included unaltered.

Pestalozzi and Education von Kinder QUS. Eberhard Preussner (1962) claims that another important educational influence on the development of Orff's educational philosophy was the work of Pestalozzi. Although many of Pestalozzi's revolutionary ideas about education did not mature to his satisfaction during his own lifetime, his ideas did foreshadow important ideas held by educational systems in this century. One of his beliefs was that every child should be educated. To this end he set up poor schools to teach the children of farmers. For Pestalozzi, as for Goethe, education was a humanizing force. The aim was to produce independent thinkers. Education, then is the art of bringing to life and fortifying the good which is inherent in every human being; it consists in guiding the child towards the best realization of himself and of the things ofthe world. It does not impose anything alien upon him but draws out what lies in him, either latent or obstructed; it takes as its starting point the child himself. It cultivates his own powers and encourages his independence. Thus the educator acts, as Socrates has said, more as a midwife than as a begetter of men. He merely prepares the way which the pupil must travel himself. (Silber, 1965, p. 137)

These ideas underpin what is known as the von Kinder aus school of pedagogy. John Dewey echoed the same ideas in Experience & Education (1938).

10 Most of Pestalozzi' s ideas met with opposition during his own lifetime. Goethe criticized his development of individuals as counter-productive to the good of society (Thomas, 1962, p. 81). Pestalozzi, for his own part, thought that Goethe was too elitist, that Goethe's aristocratic position placed him in opposition to his own democratic ideals.

One of Pestalozzi's key ideas was the development of what he termed Anschauung. Anschauung is a complex concept encompassing what we now conceptualize as perception, intuition, and sense-impression. Silber (1965), in a study of Pestalozzi and his work, describes Anschauung as a "fundamental power of the human mind underlying all mental activity and making possible all knowledge" (p.138). Pestalozzi maintains that this is the foundation for all intellectual growth and that the development of perception should be the first goal of education (Silber, 1965, p. 139). There are five forms of Anschauung in Pestalozzi' s scheme. These may be summarized as: 1. Chaotic, unorganized impressions of the world received by the sense organs.

2. Impressions organized and reinforced by parents and teachers.

[Thus far perceptual capacity has been passive and dependant upon the environment. The next three forms are actively constructed:]

3. A self-motivated, active striving to maintain and develop insight, knowledge, skill and perception. [pestalozzi credits this with making perception conscious. This seems to be equivalent to the development ofconceptual knowledge mentioned by others, cf. Piaget.]

4. As a result of activity, knowledge becomes more specific. This has the effect of increasing the accuracy, completeness and harmony of perception with the resultant achievement: clarity or distinctness of ideas.

5. Finally, the intellect is able to construct ideas and conceptualize about things never seen due to their resemblance to things already experienced. [cf. schemata] 8

11 This description of cognition and cognitive development as ranging from unorganized, purely sensory awareness to actively-organized, conscious intellectual activity resembles other influential theories of cognitive development which we shall examine later. Each stage of development is dependant upon earlier stages. Silber (1965) summarizes: ...knowledge is reliable only if all previous stages are contained in its final result, or in other words, distinct concepts are true only if they are grounded on sense impres~ions. (p. 140)

Nowhere is there a statement of purpose which more fully articulates the aim and belief of Dos Schulwerk than Silber's definition of education quoted at the beginning of this section in the monograph. Orff believed in the integrity of every child. He wanted every child to be exposed to the humanizing, self-realizing power of music (1962, p. 3) in order to realize his latent musical potential.

Orff's idea. of independent thinking must be explained. Each child develops individual potential within the context of the group. The role of the teacher is to prepare the environment in which the musical skills and intellect develop for the individual and for the group. Each child is led to the development of his own abilities but learns to use them in the context of the ensemble as well as individually.

The Orff approach fits very well into the developmental concept of Anshauung, as proposed by Pestalozzi. Orff begins first with the sensory: the sound of words; the kinesthetic sense of rhythm. The use of movement presents music to the individual through his visual and tactile senses. Gradually these sensual experiences of music develop to include conceptual knowledge of forms and names. However, Qeff always emphasizes that the sense of music (the pure experience of music) should come first. In the most advanced form of musical Anschauung we are able to mentally represent music from a score and imagine sounds we have not actually heard.

12 Pestalozzi favoured a methodological progression of material and concepts that moves from simple, through moderate difficulty to advanced difficulty (Preussner, 1962, p. 7). One of the catch-phrases of the Orff approach is "from simple to complex. If Musical experience begins with simple forms, two-note call melodies and rhythm patterns of eighth- and quarter notes. Grarlually, more complicated rhythms and melodies are introduced. Body percussion begins with clapping. Later, a second sound--patschen--is added, then stamping and snapping, and so on. Accompaniments begin with the simple bordun on one type of instrument. The bordun is then broken, the rhythm becomes more complex. The texture increases, timbres are added. Unison singing becomes part-singing. From elemental forms--AB, ABA--the child progresses to canon, rondo, theme and variations. Even within the complexity there exists the elemental grains of simplicity. Larger, more complex forms are built up from simple motives and groupings. Melodic and rhythmic cells are used as ostinati which are layered to produce the Gestalt: the fully formed musical work.

Although Pestalozzi was not a musician, he placed a high value on music as part of his Menschenerziehung (education for life). Die Wichtigkeit des Gesangs als eines Teils der Menschenbildung, sein Eingreifen ins Ganze derselben, und das diesfiillige Bediirfnis des Yolks und der Volksschulen sind so unbedingt anerkannt, daB es vollig iiberfliissig ware, hieriiber noch ein Wort zu sagen. (pestalozzi, in Heise et al, 1973, p. 12)9

Nageli was the music instructor at one of Pestalozzi's early school experiments. He developed his teaching from Pestalozzi's ideals. Unfortunately his interpretation of Pestalozzi's method gave rise to a very mechanical product (Preussner, 1962, p. 9). However, several of Nageli's teachings are not without value. According to Nageli, rhythm is the first step in all music education: "Die einzig wahre Elementarlehre stellen wir auf, wenn wir den Rhythmus zum Ersten machen. "10 For Orff, rhythm is the life-force of all music and music-making. ,Everything else evolves from rhythm. Am Anfang war die Trommel.

13 Die Trommellockt zum Tanz. Tanz ist aufs engste mit Musik verbunden.

Rhythmus zu lehren ist schwer. Rhythmus kann man nur losen, entbinden. Rhythmus ist kein Abstraktum, Rhythmus ist das Leben selbst. . .. er ist die einigende Kraft von Sprache, Musik und Bewegung. l1 (Orff, 1976, p. 17)

Undoubtedly there were many more influences on Orfrs development of educational philosophy than these. His own tastes in music, his own music education, and, not least of all, his own experiences as a composer were surely not without influence. Most important, however, was Orfrs view of the nature of music.

1be nature of music in Orffs approach

Itis necessary when developing a pedagogical approach to know the nature of the subject in question in order to the know the goal of the educational process. What is the nature of music in the Orff approach?

There is no one source in which Orff specifically states his philosophy of the nature of music. His view must therefore be synthesized from the way in which he treats music, in his compositions and in the material and method used in Dos Schulwerk.

Music is seen as an expressive form in the Orff philosophy Jos Wuytack, a leading Orff proponent, used the words of the LIGI, the Chinese book of ethical wisdom, to express the Orff view of music as an expressive force: Song derives from word, it is made up of sustained words. If man has cause to rejoice, he expresses it in speech. If speech does not suffice, he "talks" in sustained words. (Wuytack, 1977, p. 59)

14 This talk-like quality of music is the subject of a recent essay by the philosopher Frances Sparshott. Sparshott (1988) holds that there are two distinct kinds of music: phone and tone. The first refers the Greek conception of the voice. "Voice" [phone] in nature is psychic sound, issuing from near the vital center, the heart; it has pitch, tune...and phrasing.... Voice includes all animal cries as well as musical performances; articulate speech is a futher differentiation of it (p. 47).

This defmition is very similar to the impassioned utterances described in the LIGI. Sparshott uses the Greek word tone to refer to the instrumentally conceived music that derived from the formalization of scales (p. 47).

The anthropological view of music is "something you do"--a practice. This is the definition of music suggested by anthropologist Alan Merriam. Music is a uniquely human phenomenon which exists only in terms of social interaction; that is, it is made by people for other people, and it is learned behavior. It does not and cannot exist by, of, and for itself; there must always be human beings doing something to pnxluce it. In short, music cannot be defined as a phenomenon of sound alone, for it involves the behavior of individuals and groups of individuals. (Merriam, 1964, p. 27)

The definition of music as a practice is also proposed by Sparshott (1988). Music is something that you do. It is not just a product, it is also a behaviour, a process leading to a product. In an aesthetic model, performing--the doing of music--is a means to an end: it is the means of pnxlucing an expressive form which is valuable in and of itself. In Sparshott's model, the making of music has intrinsic value--it is an end as well as a means. We can enjoy and learn from the process even as we enjoy and learn from the product. This doing of music for the sake of the doing is an important cultural phenomenon in many societies. This is often the motivation for organizing community bands and choirs, groups of people coming together after a work-day to make music. Although there is usually a performance involved at some point, that one-time experience of the "finished" music would not be enough to keep these people coming back week after week. The practice of music in a group week by week must also be of value to the

15 participants. Sparshott (1988) maintains that to perform is to enter another world. This is the reason he gives for the popularity of amateur choral societies: To sing in a choir, even for those who have to learn by rote a piece they do not understand, immerses one .. , in a form of social reason that is autonomous and strange at the same time as it is the law of one's own action. That is why so many people sing in choirs without getting paid for it. (p. 79)

The practice of music in a group reflects the concept of music in the Orff approach. This premise is born out by the fact that there is virtually no solo repertoire in the Orff literature. Music is meant to be a community effort. The model for Orff ensembles came from Orf£' sown knowledge of ethnomusicology. He took the basic concept of the Orff ensemble from the Javanese Gamelan. The model of music as a community effort is surely evident here, as in African traditions.

The Orffapproach is music education for EVERY child. Within Orff activities and the Orff ensemble there is a layered texture which allows for individual participation at whatever level the child is capable. Each child is actively and totally involved in music-making. Each child is part of the community of music-makers. Everyone learns every part. Every part has integrity in the ensemble. Each child is responsible for performing his part to the best of his/her abilities--for his/her own satisfaction as well as for the good of the group.

Orff is music for the WHOLE child. The children do not experience or learn music simply by playing or singing, but kinaesthetically: by involving the whole body. The passage quoted from LIGl, above, continues:

If sustained words do not suffice, he adds exclamations and sighs. If exclamation and sighs do not suffice, it comes imperceptibly to a point where the hands swing and the feet dance. (Wuytack, 1977, p. 59)

Rhythms are clapped, snapped, patsched, and stamped. The rise and fall of the melody is felt physically through hand-signs and movement. The WHOLE child is also called upon to exercise

16 artistic choices--to relate to music intellectually and conceptually. The child makes the decisions of a composer in improvisation and orchestration: "Which sounds do I want to use here?"; and the performer: "How can I play this expressively?" Just as doctors learn to be doctors by doing what doctors do, children learn to be musicians by doing what musicians dO. 12

Weaknesses in practice

One of the key objections to the Orff approach is its presumed preoccupation with pentatony and rondo-form--Le. that development is limited to a very specific and narrow range style. In fact, only Volume One of the five volumes is dedicated to pentatonic tonality. Orff himself was opposed to the idea of artificially restricting children to pentatonic tonalities for a protracted period. Time and again the question is asked whether a child must only play pentatonic, avoiding any other kind of music. This is nonsense of course, since it is both impossible and undesirable to shut a child off from all other musical influences. It is the main purpose of pentatonic training to help a child to find and to form a musical expression of his own. (Orff, 1962, p. 1)

The varieties of tonality are indeed more extensive than that found in the repertoire of most of the current textbook series. The misuse and neglect of the full range of repertoire available is perhaps due to the fact that most teacher-training courses in Schulwerk only scratch the surface of the first volume. The immediate success attained when improvising in the pentatonic mode make it a comfortable tool. Many teachers simply lack the training and experience to take children past this point. So too with rondo form. This is a tidy, self-contained form assuring almost certain success. The teacher is often incapable of improvising in any of the other forms. Hence everything becomes a rondo. This lack of training combined with a misunderstanding of Orff's original design has resulted in programs in which the mere inclusion of xylophones and glockenspiels is cause enough to use the label 01jf. These programs are really little more than glorified rhythm bands. There is no appreciation of tonality or form. There is no real creativity taking place. Often the texts and musics used are inferior and are selected for their "cuteness"

17 and appeal. Of course there is certain value in "entertainment" music but the appeal of these compositions often wears thin. Orff deplored what he called Kindergarten Unpoetry--songs contrived to appeal to small children. He believed, instead, that we should use the texts of folklore and of great poets of history verbatim (see also above).

Summary

The Orff approach to music education draws on the ideas of several nineteenth-century reformists. From lohann Gottfried Herder comes the idea of a developmental cycle and a poetic age of language. Orff captures the magic of this poetic age in his music. Goethe stresses the role of experience-of participatory learning in education. Goethe also maintained that music was a fundamental component of all education--a thought happily echoed by Orff. Pestalozzi was an early proponent of the von Kinder aus school of education. Orff bases his progression on beginning with the child and drawing potential out of him. Pestalozzi posited a framework for the development of perception. This development begins with pure sensory stimulation and ends with cognitive creation of new concepts. Orff also progresses from the kinaesthetic (the sensory) to the analytic (the conceptual). Nageli, working closely with Pestalozzi, placed rhythm at the beginning of all musical learning. Carl Orff, too, maintained that rhythm was the Ur-element from which all other musical elements and forms developed. Music is viewed as a practice in the Orff approach to music education. It is not only the sounds created, but the practice of creating and working with those sounds that make music and music education. The full potential of the Orff approach is often hindered by a lack of comprehensive training for teachers.

Conclusions

The purpose of the first part of this paper has been to determine if the Orff approach is based on a developmental theory and, if so, to explore the nature of that theory.

18 Carl Orff held that every child is innately musical (Orff, 1963). Orff's endorsement of the theory of recapitulation indicates that he believed that there is one developmental path which all individuals follow. This pattern of development mirrors the evolution of music in history. This belief accounts for Orff's choice of repertoire and their sequencing in Dos Schulwerk.

Orff also believed that a child's musical development is tied to the development of his language. 13 The evolutionary stages of language as detailed by Herder may be extended to suggest stages in musical development. These stages are: (I) Babble, or play with sounds; (2) A poetic/symbolic stage during which the imagination uses sounds and words for beauty and symbolic purposes. This stage is characterized by intense creativity; (3) A logical stage, one in which the individual develops powers of reason and analytic thought; and (4) A rule-driven stage, pre-occupied with correctness. The Orff approach moves from the earliest stages of play with sounds and music (stage 1), encouraging the development of musical imagination (stage 2), and finally, developing the ability to think and create music analytically (stage 3). The approach seeks .to avoid the sterility and rigidity of Herder's fmal stage through constant stress on the imagination.

The Orffapproach borrows from Goethe the idea of education as an apprenticeship, i.e. that the process of development is the result of concrete experiences with a medium. The nature of this development is similar to Pestalozzi's account of the development of Anschauung or perception. Orff believes that musical development begins with the kinaesthetic or sensory experience of music. Through play with music and positive environment organized by parents and teachers the initially sensuous. perceptions of music become intellectual conceptions of music. The child, through performance, improvisation, and composition begins to make conscious musical choices based on his developing musical understanding. The progression moves from simple to complex. However, it is not a question of successive stages supplanting earlier ones. Rather, like the layers of an onion, progressive musical skills and concepts are added to the body of procedural knowledge which the child possesses.

19 The emphasis in the Qrff approach is, therefore, not on a body of skills or facts; rather, it is on the experience with music--the actual practice of music. This belief is supported by anthropological and philosophical definitions of music. This philosophy of the nature of music also governs the selection of repertoire and teaching strategies used in the approach. The strategies used suggest that musical development is achieved through active participation in music-making, not abstract pen and paper learning.

20 ORFF AND COGNITIVE SCIENCE

T he developmental theory behind the arff approach to music education evolved from the European educational philosophies of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. If the approach is to be considered for use in contemporary music education, it must have points of congruency with current educational theories. The purpose of this second chapter is: (1) to examine several of the current theories as they pertain to music education; and (2) to explore possible congruencies with the theory behind the arff approach.

The field of cognitive science is burdgeoning. The study of the development of mind has rich implications for the field of education in general, and music education in particular. Schema theOry and play theory both hold keys to the organization of our pedagogy and curriculum. Recent research (Gardner, 1983; Serafine, 1988) proposes cognitive processes and domains which are unique to music. Much research and experimentation is now probing the cognitive development of children. Brief mention will be made of Piaget's theory of playas it relates to Das Schulwerk. An extensive discussion of Piaget and music will not be presented as this has already been explored by many authors. 14 After examining the current trend to view music not as a magical, mystical entity, but, rather as a product and/or process of cognition, congruencies with the arff approach will be sought.

21 Schema theory

One of the current buzzwords in cognitive science is schema (pI. schemata). Although variations in the interpretation of the meaning of this word exist, schemata are commonly understood to be intellectual structures resulting from interaction with the environment. Robert Gjerdingen (1988) develops Leonard Meyer's theory of expectation in his work, A Classic Tum of Phrase: Music and the Psychology of Convention. Gjerdingen examines the value of schematic theory for a theory of perception of music. Two definitions of his collection from various authors are important for our purposes. He cites F. Bartlett, one of the earliest authors to use the word schema: "Schema" refers to an active organization of past reactions, or of past experiences, which must always be supposed to be operating in any well-adapted organic response. That is, whenever there is any order or regularity of behavior, a particular response is possible only because it is related to other similar responses which have been serially organized, yet which operate, not simply as individual members coming one after, but as a unitary mass. (in Gjerdingen, 1988, p. 4)

The other applicable definition comes from Jean Mandler who defines schemata as mental structures which are "formed on the basis of past experience with objects, scenes, or events and consisting of a set of (usually unconscious) expectations about what things look like and/or the order in which they occur" (in Gjerdingen, 1988, p. 4).

Both of these definitions contain the key concept that schemata are built from experience with things, be they objects or events. It follows then that the more experiences with a particular thing, the clearer and truer will be the schemata which are created. Schemata are not specific knowledge files. Rather, they are generalized knowledge. They are flexible and may, therefore, be adapted to different situations. David Rumelhart lists six features of schemata: 1. Schemata have variables. 2. Schemata can embed, one within another. 3. Schemata represent knowledge at all levels of abstraction 4. Schemata represent knowledge rather than definitions.

22 5. Schemata are active processes. 6. Schemata are recognition devices whose processing is aimed at the evaluation of their goodness of fit to the data being processed. (in Gjerdingen, 1988, p.5)

Schemata are not meant to be exact moulds into which all other experience is jammed. Instead, they provide a frame of reference for understanding. This concept of schemata as frameworks for organizing our world is compatible with Pestalozzi's fifth stage in the development of Anshauung: Dinge, die ich nie anschaulich sehe, konstruiere ich mir auf auf Grund der von mir angenommenen Ahnlichkeit mit Dingen, die ich wahrgenommen habe. (Preussner, 1962, p. 8)15

In other words, experience builds schemata which guide our conceptual constructions. The more information that is stored in these schemata, (i.e. the more experiences from which we develop these schemata), the more accurate and more sophisticated will be our constructions. As we encounter new experiences our schema are modified and refined. 16 This has a great deal of importance in a constructivist theory of music perception, such as that proposed by Serafine (1988). Philip Lewin (1986), in a paper discussing the construction of cognitive structures, elaborates on the refinements of schemata in the process of learning a dance step. In terms of dance, that which is already known, both cognitively and kinaesthetically, functions as cognitive schema [sic] for movements through which the novel is initially understood. Learning movement, then, consists of incorporating the novel phrase into an existing system of representations, and modifying those representations in tum to "accomodate" the novel within them. And these 'representations' are not only procedural in the sense of knowing how or when knowledge is to be applied, but exist much more fundamentally as kinaesthetic. How one apperceives movement will depend both on how one understands movement and what ways of transforming and connecting movement are already embodied as skill. (p. 13)

This underscores the presence of schemata related to skill. The necessity to acknowledge skill development as a component of the educational process will be discussed below.

23 What is the significance of schema theory for elementary music education? The crux of the matter is this. In order to perceive and to be able process musical input, we need to have a set offiles or schemata to help us classify what we hear. These schemata are the result of experience. The earlier we begin to set up schemata the more we can process. The content of those early experiences is also of the utmost importance as they will colour all future experiences of music. The second half of Lewin's statement quoted above indicates that perception is also affected by kinaesthetic or performance schemata. Sparshott (1988) supports this when he claims that a violinist hears violin music with his hands: "part of his hearing is the way his fingers corroborate the playing" (p. 85); and, "for a violinist, an inseparable component in the experience of hearing is what is felt in the fingers" (p. 97).

The Orff approach builds several different kinds of schemata in children. First there is the actual experience of musical sounds and their organization into historical forms. Das Schulwerlcprovides models of historically correct forms (Thomas, 1960, p. 31), Secondly, there is the ensemble experience, schemata for performance considerations. Students are not merely hearing the music, they are experiencing it more directly through creating it. The use of instrumental pieces allows for a greater variety of timbres and forms than the sole use of vocal and choral music. Most importantly, however, are the affective schemata formed by the child towards music. The Orff experience is designed to be a positive experience of music for the child. He learns that his own music (composing initially in the form of improvising) is valuable; that his own musical expression is worthwhile.

Carl ()r:Ws great gift is to children. In essence that gift is a way of looking at music that deeply involves them in its creation, and thereby entails respect for their capabilities. (Frazee, 1987, p. 5)

On a broader scope the child learns to risk exposing his ideas, musical or artistic. All of these experiences set up patterns of expectation--schemata.

24 The purpose underpinning Orff's approach is compatible with schema theory. Orff's aim for Das Schulwerk was the formation of fundamental structures of musical understanding, although he did not use the term schema. In the preface to Volume One he states: So soIl eine Grundlage fUr alles spatere Musizieren und Interpretieren geschaffen werden, d.h. wahres Verstandnis fur musikalische Sprache und Ausdruck, die hier, wie in einer Fibel, erstlingshaft gebildet werden. 17 (Orff, 1950, p. ii)

This Gnmdlage, when thought of in cognitive terms, is none other than a set of musical schemata.

Orff and Play

Play is an important component of development. Howard Gardner gives one definition of art as "a goal-directed form of play" (Gardner, 1973, p. 166). Jerome Bruner sees·play as a key to intrinsic learning. Play serves the function of reducing the pressures of impulse and incentive and [sic] making it possible thereby for intrinsic learning to begin. (Bruner cited in M. Willman, 1983, p. 63)

Through play children can set up schemata, which, as we have seen, are flexible enough to be applied in other situations.

Jean Piaget recognized the value of play in education. Play for Piaget was the purest form of assimilation of the environment. Cognitive growth arises from the balance, or equilibrium between accomodation (imitation), and assimilation (play) (Hawn, 1986, p.18). In addition to his now-famous "ages and stages" of intellectual development, Piaget posited three stages of play: (1) Practice Games, characteristic of the ages birth through two; (2) Symbolic Games, ages two through seven; and (3) Games with Rules, ages seven through eleven. These stages are posited as sequential but earlier stages co-exist with later stages (Hawn, 1986, p. 18).

25 In an exploration of the role of play in the Qrff approach, Hawn (1986) has found analogies of each stage in the activities of Qrff Schulwerk. He classifies practice games as those in which exploration is an essential ingredient. This includes exploration of voice, instruments and movement possibilities. Also in this category are chants and pitch matching games. The emphasis is not on the group but on individual response. Group coordination comes into play with symbolic games. Here Hawn suggests notation, fIrst pictorial, later traditional, as well as uSing metaphors to teach musical concepts. Games with rules take the form of singing games. The rules may be few or many, simple or complex. The individual's response must fit into the group's collective response. These games extend into instrumental ensembles and choral or dance experiences (Hawn, 1986).

Piaget makes mention of one further type of play--constructive play. It is in this type of play that aesthetic and artistic judgement comes into play. The child constructs his world by choosing from possibilities gleaned through previous or current exploration (p. 20). Through constructive play with early forms, the child learns to manipulate the elements of music in his own creative forms. This is a different procedure than imparting rules which were formulated by adults for adults.

Willman (1983 has called improvisation a game with rules. Improvisation plays a major role in the Orff approach. It is the most direct way of encountering music. There is no intermediary composed work or notation. The child experiments with a variety of musical forms. This is not, however, a completely open discovery method. It is preferable to set some boundaries (rules) within which children create their improvisations. If boundaries are not given, the possible choices can be overwhelming. Rules help the child limit possibilities. Improvisation approached as a game also helps create a comfortable environment, and engenders a willingness to take risks. Consequences of less successful attempts are not as likely to be viewed as critically in a negative sense. This is not free play, however. The progress must be

26 guided and evaluated; "nothing demands more careful preparation on the part of a teacher than improvisation exercises" (Orff, 1962, p. 7).

Gardner's Theory of Artistic Development

The aim of the Orff approach is not to produce specific instrumental or vocal skills in children. Instead, it seeks to produce well-rounded, creative, competent musicians--artists, if you will--by involving children in the activities in which musicians engage: creating music; performing music; evaluating music; and listening to music. How dos this goal compare with the components of overall artistic development as expressed by Howard Gardner?

Gardner was one of the first cognitive psychologists to explore the development of music as an intellectual process. In a series of books, beginning with The Arts and Human Development, (1973) and continuing most specifically in Frames ofMind (1983), Gardner poses the theory that artistic activity is intellectual activity. In the latter book Gardner posits a unique intellectual faculty for music. In his early writings Gardner concurs with Piaget's scheme of stages in child development. As he works out his artistic theory, however, he develops a different pattern of development for artistic development, independent of the four stages of Piaget. Piaget's theory states that at each succeeding stage of development the child re-organizes her world-view. According to Gardner, this is unnecessary in artistic development. Gardner feels that these supposed shifts in view in later stages are merely "different ways of thinking about scientific thought, not psychological shifts" (Gardner, 1973, p. 134). Gardner's theory places him in opposition to both learning theorists and cognitivists. While he disallows reorganization of the nature of thought patterns in later stages of development, he does propose one major reorganization. This occurs as a transition from direct actions in the world to the world of symbols (p. 130). In music this means a transition from music as merely pleasing sound to music as a symbol. This transition takes place in the period between ages two and

27

I seven, which Gardner classifies as a critical period for learning (p. 56). It is during this time that children naturally acquire languages, and other symbolic media.

The essence of Gardner's theory of artistic development is that by seven the child is functioning as an artist. There is no need for further stages. Development now takes the form of refinement of skill, "acquaintance with artistic tradition and sensitivity to nuance" (p. vi). What has occurred to this point to create the young artist? Gardner's model of child development includes three developing systems: Making, perceiving and feeling. Making signifies any notion or action; perceiving refers to discrimination of the environment; andfeeling deals with affect. In adults, according to Gardner, these three systems are one integrated system. In the child they are discrete. Gardner's theory may then be summarized as the transition from three discrete systems to one integrated system, ...and then the employment of these integrated systems by the organism in the years following infancy in the skilled use of various symbolic media and elements.

Although the mastery of any symbolic system takes years, I do not feel that a new order mechanism comes into play at specific times ....Rather an organism's experience with these symbol systems involves an increasingly complex making, perceiving, and feeling which draws in a comprehensive way on the mechanisms evolved during infancy. (p. 45)

If the child is to develop artistically she needs to be given opportunities to engage in activities which use each of the three systems.

Following from these three systems--making, perceiving, and feeling--Gardner develops artistic roles which he feels are present and to be nurtured in every child. These roles are interdependent yet separate, with unique functions and skills. They are analogous to participants in the artistic process: The Creatorl Artist The Audience Member The Critic The Performer

28

I The role of the creator is creation of a work of art. The job of the audience member is to follow that work so he may be moved. The critic puts her affective reaction into words. The performer transmits the work to larger audiences (pp. 25-26). Although Gardner maintains that everyone develops in each of these roles, he places a special emphasis in education on creating as a component in the artistic development of children. According to Gardner, children's sensitivity to artistic fonns comes through far more clearly in their own works than in their perception of the works of others. He attributes this to a fundamental difference in the intellectual activities involved in making and perceiving: [to achieve] Balance, harmony, or rhythmic effects in a work, a child need only work with symbolic media; in contrast, he can only demonstrate his perception of these

properties in the work of others by speaking of them and this is a verbal and II meta-aesth­ etic" task, more demanding than simple practice. (1973, p. 168)

Perceiving requires not only the musical expertise, but also the ability to talk about it, linguistic competence. The experience of the properties of music is much more immediate in making, as opposed to perceiving activities. This is a clear justification for the emphasis on improvisation and perfonning (not in the sense of a concert) in the Orff approach.

The Orff approach includes opportunities for all of Gardner's roles. Traditionally, in elementary music education the creator and performer are different people. However, it is more common in the Orff approach for the creator and performer to be one and indeed also for the ensemble to be both creator and performer. This is the case in the creation of rondos. Each person in the ensemble is given the opportunity to create a part of the whole composition, as well as perfonning the A sections.

The role of the audience member is one which is not particularly well-developed in the Orff approach. There is no unique strategy for listening to the works of others. The teacher should make as many opportunities as possible for listening to the creations of the group. A desireable addition to the Orff approach would be a strategy for directed listening which

29 ...... ,....-s features indicative of the approach. This is an area of needed and worthwhile

Evaluating the results of the creating process is a part of the lesson which is often left

~ This could be for two reasons. The teacher may be ill-equipped to make evaluations kndf. 1bere could also be a misguided sense that critical evaluation of a work of art is not possible. It is possible to objectively view processes and overall effect in a constructive manner widJout destroying the child's creative spirit. Indeed, this reflection is necessary if the child is going to develop and not merely continue to re-create similar works. Orff would be the first

10 advocate the evaluation of works in order to guide students to further development of their musical ideas.

In the swing of the pendulum away from skill-oriented programs towards aesthetic education we too often deny the fact that skills (and a sense of skill) are necessary for both perception and expression. A similar view is expressed in Johnson-Laird (1987) regarding jazz improvisation where he states that it is necessary for the improviser to have a representation of the structure of an improvisation (a schema) and of the tacit skills to construct an improvisation. This has particular import for the Orff approach since it is based on improvisation. Gardner raises an important issue in this discussion: ...in most cases ...skills do not naturally evolve; one is faced with a choice between explicit instruction or the creation of a situation in which that skill is likely to develop. (1973 p. 195)

The Orff approach is an example of the latter situation. Certain skills are necessary for musical expression, even on the seemingly primitive percussion instruments. However, it would go against the philosophy of this approach to instruct merely for skills. As stated elsewhere the experience is always "of the music."

30 Music as Intelligence

Prominent in Gardner's research is a theory of multiple intelligences. This is set out in Frames ofMind (1983). In this work Gardner proposes that the musical competence is actually an autonomous intelligence within our cognitive system. He defines musical intelligence as "the abilities of individuals to discern meaning and importance in sets of pitches rhythmically arranged and also to produce such metrically arranged pitch sequences as a means of communicating with other individuals" (p. 98). Reminiscent of the statements on the genesis of song from the LIGI, Gardner speculates that speech and music may have arisen from a "common expressive medium. If However, over the course ofevolution the cognitive structures controlling them have changed and speech and music have become autonomous intellectual "competences" (p. 98). Development in distinct intelligences does not necessarily follow the same pattern of stages. The stages are determined culturally and by the medium, as well as by age (p. 314). Education is necessary "before the raw intellectual potential can be realized in the form of a mature cultural role" (p. 372).

Certain features of this development may be considered "natural" or innate, according to Gardner's theory. Part of the process of education "simply involves certain 'natural' processes of development, whereby a capacity passes through a predictable set of stages as it matures and is differentiated" (p. 372). Music is a special competence, however, since it requires specific skills as discussed above. Gardner qualifies his stand on natural acquisition of a competence thus: "when it comes to the transmission of specific skills and knowledge, one beholds a more complex, less 'natural' process at hand" (p. 372).

Gardner's rationale for developing this cognitive framework was to explain why some educational approaches succeed and others fail (p. 333). He particularly favours the Suzuki approach to music education. The features which he finds commendable are available to a great extent in the Orff approach, without some of the drawbacks.

31 Among the features which Gardner feels contribute to the perceived success of the Suzuki method is the stress on early exposure to music. This feature is not unique to Suzuki. Kodaly and Orff both stress that children learn music as they would learn their mother-tongue, through early eXJX>sure in the home. Suzuki exploits the parent-child relationship. The parent is held responsible for the attitude that the child develops toward music. The child-peer group relationship is also of great importance in the approach. The child is motivated and encouraged by his relationships within the group. It is an unfortunate occurrence that this is not always a JX>Sitive influence. Comparisons within the group often lead to unhealthy competition. An Orff-based approach also stresses the child in relation to his peers. However, as music here is of an ensemble nature, there is less chance for comparison when everyone has their own contribution to make than in a situation where children are performing the same task.

Gardner's criticisms of the Suzuki approach include the seeming devaluation of notation through emphasis on the ear; the limited musical skills and knowledge (limited to Western musical traditions and repertoire); the extreme emphasis on reproducing an interpretation. Gardner holds that the emphasis on reproductive skills develops an attitude that the most imJX)rtant thing is to replicate sound. There is little room for the possibility of changing sounds. This is not the case in the Orff approach where it is desireable to create variation. It is true that the Orff approach also favours the ear over learning notation. This stems from the belief that this is a more direct way of experiencing music. Orff did not intend that students not learn notation. Instead notation should come as a result of wanting to save and transmit musical creations. There are many active ways of teaching notation which may be incorporated into an Orff-based program to overcome the chance of musical illiteracy.

One of Gardner's criticisms of Orff would surely be its lack of music from the "masters. If Gardner (1973) gives three components of a developmental approach to music education: 1. Free exploration 2. Building up of skills (cognitive and technical) under guidance

32 3. Exposure to great works for study and imitation (p. 286).

It is the last component that may be lacking in anOrff approach. According to Drff himself, the models presented in Das Schulwerk would satisfy this category. It is more likely, however, that Gardner intends the term great works to mean acknowledged works of art. The materials presented in Das Schulwerk should be supplemented with examples by other composers. For example, following an experience with Chaconne (Book V) students should have the opportunity to listen to a recorded example of a chaconne.

By way of criticism of his own theory Gardner (1983) states: ...analysis of educational experiments must attend to such factors as motivation, personality, and value: the fact that my own analysis focuses heavily on 'purely cognitive components' must be considered a limitation of the present formulation (p. 373).

Gardner maintains that musical competence must include an affective dimension--motivation, personality and value. The Drff approach also addresses these three factors. We have seen above that Orff placed high importance on the development of personality. Through quality experiences with music, individuals come to value music. In the Orff approach the experience of music is meant to be a positive, affirming experience. This goes a long way towards ensuring positive motivation on the part of the student.

Serafine and Music as Cognition

Mary Louise Serafine, in her recent book, Music as Cognition (1988), develops an innovative theory of music cognition. According to Serafine it is necessary to redefine music before we can form a theory of musical thought. She defines music, or musical thought as she prefers to call it , as: ..human aural cognitive activity that results in the posing of artworks embodying finite and organized sets of temporal events described in sound (p. 68).

33 Music is both an external phenomenon--the sound--and what is constructed in the mind. This is the definition of music as cognition. Serafine explains the external/internal nature of music: "Musical events occur. The job of thought is not just to follow but to construct such events" (p.73). The sounds may be actual physical sounds. Some researchers (Shepard and Kossylyn, 1983) are also proposing a mental image of sounds in the brain, much like our mental pictures of visual phenomena. This theory of mental representation of sound underscores the fact that music can and does occur in the absence of sound. Beethoven, even in his deafness, must have experienced the music he was writing, albeit not in the sense of our common experience.

Serafine has difficulty with an emphasis on pitch perception as the basis for cognitive representations. Pitches, duration, loudness and timbral characteristics are merely the medium for organizing temporal events. The use of pitch perception as a basis for a theory of music cognition does not take into account the complete nature of music. Serafine states that while sound is necessary, the definition of music as sound is an insufficient definition. The constructive theory of music cognition developed here includes representations that are specific to a culturally-learned, community-nurtured style, as well as those which are universal, or generic. The generic processes involved in mentally representing a piece of music are: Identification: The musical sounds must be grouped as distinct from the non-musical sounds. Textural Organization: The sounds are organized to produce a texture. Temporal Organization: a) Simultaneous: recognizing the blend and juxtaposition of sounds, timbrally and thematically. b) Successive: construction of units and extension of shorter units into larger ones, patterning and grouping by phrases. Nontemporal Operations: a) Abstraction: a theme is relocated to a new context. b) Transformation: a theme is altered. c) Hierarchic structuring (assigning structural weight). d) Closure: signaling a point of rest as opposed to movement.

Serafine borrows many of these processes from other theories. One benefit of her work is the removal of music from the realm of the mysterious art-object, stressing instead the

34 necessity of mental structuring by an individual--hislher beliefs about, and expectations of, the music heard. The individual is actively creating music, whether he or she is in the role of composer, performer or listener. According to Serafine's concept of music as cognition, these specific roles are "external manifestations of musical cognition" (p. 75). She defines each role: Composing: all deliberate acts of combining sounds within a specified time frame for the purposes of creating interesting temporal events. (This includes improvisation but not random sound collection.) Listening: an active organizing and construing of the temporal events heard in a composition. Performing: a hybrid activity involving both listening and composing (in the sense of creating a certain interpretation within the bounds of a composition's pre-specified materials. )

Serafine indicates that although there are processes unique to each of these activities, the processes above operate in all three activities (p. 71). One of the tenets of Serafine's theory is that we form musical communities which express common beliefs about the way music is structured stylistically. The representations involved are style-dependent and serve to structure the creation, production and apprehension of musics of that community.

Serafine's description of these representations excludes a mental representation of physical sounds of music. When we form a mental representation of a painting are we not including in our representation colours and lines? Yet Serafine believes that it is the temporal nature of music that is represented. Just as we require sounds as a medium of representation of temporal movement in the real world, so too we need something to represent just the temporal flow mentally. Beethoven, having lost his hearing late in life after so much musical experience, likely had a very vivid imagination of the sounds. Indeed, trained musicians can hear a notated score, drawing on their memory for sounds. I agree that we do not likely include discrete pitches in our mental representations. Rather, we probably have a conception of the "whole"--of the way the melody "goes," i.e., the contour. Melodies with exactly the same contour may have completely different sounds due to the relative position of the contour in the tonal system. In

35 holding this concept, of a mental abstraction of the "do, re, mi" of our tonal system, or the equivalent in the tonal systems of other cultures, I concur with Dowling and Harwood (1986).

If a challege to Serafine's theory is forth-coming, it will take the form of an episte­ mological argument.. This is the age-old empiricist vs. rationalist debate. Serafine herself recognizes this when she states that the choice is: whether what we perceive is the source of what and how we think [empiricist], or whether what we think is the determiner of what we will perceive [rationalist]. (p. 235)

Serafine's constructivist theory comes down unequivocally on the side of our thoughts determining what we perceive. Without a lengthy philosophical argument to prove or disprove this position, the bias of this paper will be made explicit now.

While it is true that we can only perceive and understand events for which we have a framework or prior knowledge (Le., schema), each new encounter changes these cognitive frameworks--subtly or radically. Thus the position favoured here is the middle ground, an interactive process of perception and organization illustrated by the following diagram.

influence what you attend to in

------~ IDEAS ABOUT MUSIC MUSICAL SOUNDS (schemata)

~------refine and create new possibilities for

This is the musical equivalent to Lewin's (1986) statement about the modification of schemata in the learning of a dance step (above). Ifthis were not the case, continued education would be useless since there would be no chance of modifying schemata once they had been

36 developed. This would run counter to the ideas of classical thinkers (Pestalozzi) as well as current schema theory. Serafine states that: the state of a child's cognitive mechanisms, the availability of particular processes, is the surest determiner of what he will perceive. (p. 235)

The position supported in this paper argues that these "particular processes" develop in, and only in, the context of experience. It is the marriage of cognitive structures with the present stimulus that determines what the child perceives. This difference in doctrine does not negate the import­ ance of Serafine's categories of cogni-musical processes. The development of these processes is useful in building a complete capacity for musical understanding.

Orff and the Development of Cognitive Processes

Through a series of experimental tasks with subjects aged five years to adult, Serafine found differences in understanding and competence with regard to her list of generic processes. She found no significant differences within one age group between those with formal training

and those without, 18 with the exception of two tasks. These two tasks were closure and motivic chaining. The correlations between training and improved performance were significant but low. These results lead Serafine to conclude that: ...at the least, formal instrumental training is neither necessary nor sufficient for the development of the generic processes. Rather, with age as the principal predicter of success on the tasks, the more potent factors may be general (nonmusical) cognitive growth and normal, everyday musical experience (p. 229).

In Serafine's definition of the traditional formal approach to instrumental training the emphasis is on developing dextral skills and learning set pieces, generally with an interpretation specified by the teacher. The student memorizes fingerings and absorbs the ideas of the teacher. The development of processes of musical cognition in the individual is incidental, dependent on the innate cognitive capacity of the individual. A more complete program, however, includes activities which develop the innate processes to the greater musicality of the individual. Note

37 that the purpose of the latter approach is not to create professional musicians but to develop the musical intelligence in all individuals.

The Orff approach is one such approach which includes activities specific to these processes. More importantly, the methodology involved illuminates these processes, allowing for the reflection necessary for composing, analyzing and teaching. Teaching is included in this group because it is a meta-musical activity, like composing and analyzing. In addition to the ability to recognize and organize musical sounds, the knowledge of how to produce that organization in sound is necessary before that knowledge can be transmitted to others.

There are specific activities from the multiplicity of behaviours used in the Orff approach which aid development of the processes categorized by Serafine. A summary of the processes and tasks Serafine used to test each is followed by detailed application of Orff activities. Temporal Organization a) successive i) phrasing ii) patterning iii) motivic chaining iv) idiomatic construction

b) simultaneous i) textural abstraction ii) motivic synthesis iii) timbre synthesis

Nontemporal Operations a) Closure i) closure task

b) Transformation i) block task ii) echo task iii) bead task iv) minuet task

c) Abstraction i) motivic abstraction ii) rhythmic abstraction

38 d) Hierarchic structuring i) hierarchic levels

Successive Temporal Processes: Phrn.sing. In Serafine's experiment for phrasing, children were expected to make divisions of a longer melody into shorter units. One of the cues for such division was cadence points. Even the young children performed well on this task when cadences were the cues. This confirms Ries' findings (1987) that enculturation to musical styles occurs very early in childhood musical development. Perhaps if children from another culture were given the same melody the cue would have to be different. For as much as the process of phrasing (or chunking) may be generic, it seems obvious that the cues are not.

The Orff approach develops a natural sense of phrase through its use of speech. Phrases are created in vocal music because of the structure of the text. The use of poems, rhymes and jingles is the frrst step to the idea of phrase. Secondly, the activity of echo--be it rhythmic or melodic--reinforces phrase structure. In a carefully constructed echo activity, the echo follows the model directly, within the pulse set up by the model. This creates a rhythmic phrase. A third activity for the development of a sense of phrase is question-answer. An extension of echo/imitation activities, the model (question) given by the teacher/leader is answered by a contrasting or complementary phrase. Orff's models in Das Schulwerk indicate that all phrases should not be two bars of 4/4 and that it is not always the teacher who provides the model. A good evaluation of children's development may be gained as much from children's questions as from their answers. All of these activities are performed in the different modalities of Orff--speech, body-rhythms, singing, playing instruments, and movement. At first, when developing phrases, it is solely the length of response that is important. As one progresses to some of Serafine's other tasks one will see that refinement of these same activities leads to the development of other processes.

39 Patterning. Serafine's experiment in patterning involved attention to a three- to five-note fragment. Two fragments were given: A and B. These were presented in three ways: 1. a phrase involving static alternation [ABABAB etc.]; 2. a phrase involving descending tonal movement [Le. a sequence] 3. a phrase involving harmonic sequence with alteration [sequence with harmonic accompaniment] (p. 113)

The compositions performed and created in arff activities make extensive use of motives. Rhythmic and melodic cells are used to create larger phrases. Serafme's tasks depend on the child being able to recognize the repetition of cells when they are heard in a composition. A task in the arff classroom would involve creating these compositions. After extracting or creating two cells, children would be asked to combine these to create a longer pattern. Experimentation with the sounds would lead to a greater perceptivity to these characteristics in other music the children hear outside the classroom.

Serafine's first task, static alternation, is part of early training in the arff approach. The other two tasks, melodic and harmonic patterning, represent a later stage of compositional tasks. One way of developing the idea of melodic sequence is through movement: e.g., "Pick a move­ ment," then, "Can you perform that same movement higher? lower?" The child's aural understanding is reinforced through the visual representation of a cell. This representation could also take the form of graphic notation. However, given that young children learn a great deal kinaesthetically, movement is a much better form of representation for young children.

Serafine's third task, harmonic patterning, involves an added simultaneous feature. The subject is given added harmonic information. Whether this is in fact the same category of task is doubtful. The cell with harmonic accompaniment would either become a different cell, or the harmonic accompaniment would be considered in addition to the original cell, a simultaneous, not successive task.

40 Motivic Chaining. Serafine uses motivic chaining to refer to the process of combining units to produce longer chains. In this task two melodic cells, A and B, were again introduced. The tasks involved subjects judging whether what they heard was the phrase AB or some other combination of cells (AX, ZB, etc.). It seems reasonable that the same activities which increase a child's understanding of repetition and alternation of cells will increase her ability to recognize when a different cell has been introduced. Activities which involve completing a phrase--a development of question and answer activities--in a variety of ways will develop this process. For example, a child could be asked to continue a given rhythm pattern using choices from a particular set of rhythm values. Following a first attempt, the same opening with a different ending is requested. Vocally, or at the instruments, the task could be to continue a given melody ending high, then ending low. These tasks involve creating different chains beginning with the same motive.

Idiomatic Consttuction. Serafine admits that although she considers the above processes generic, an individual's musical experience is influenced by an unavoidable exposure to the music of the cultural style of his environment. Idiomatic construction involves creating a unit which abides "by the organizational rules of some idiom." Units may be: "melodic fragments or motives, longer melodies, rhythmic patterns, harmonic or timbral sequences, or any coherent 'block' or area of sound that acts as a cohesive unit" (p. 75). The experimental task was, again, purely auditory. Serafine presented nine-note melodies. There were four melodies which conformed to a tonal idiom. Each of these four produced two more melodies which were created by randomizing the nine-notes partially and completely. The twelve melodic cells were then presented in a random order, each with an echo. The task was to discern whether the echo was the same as, or different from the model. The point of this task was to prove that the four original tonally-idiomatic melodies were easier to process for the purposes of comparison with a second stimulus. An idiomatic response was registered if performance on intact melodies was better than that on random melodies. The question here is whether idiomatic, global references, or individual pitch recognition are at work in the comparison of melodies. Children did not

41 generally find the idiomatic melodies easier to discriminate than the random ones. Serafine draws the conclusion that '''pure' discrimination ability represented in the random items precedes and is not a sufficient condition for sensitivity to idiomatic, rule-governed melodic constructions" (p. 132).

What are the activities in an Orff approach that lead to this sensitivity for the idiom? On a large scale, of course, it will be argued that performing compositions in a given idiom increases sensitivity to that idiom. This is only common sense. If one adopts Serafine's unit level, however, it seems that the feature of the Orff approach that would best encapsulate idiom-recognition would be the creation and use of ostinato. These cells are created to match (Le. be idiomatically cohesive with) the song, melody, or poem for which they are intended. They must "fit" tonally, rhythmically and, in the case of speech or vocal ostinati, textually. Ostinati are a mainstay of the Orff approach and are used in all stages of musical development. Extraction and creation of ostinati require the student to reflect on the salient features of an idiom. Ostinati which are taught provide models for critical evaluation of the suitability of ostinati.

Simultaneous Temporal Processes Textural abstraction. The purpose of this test was to determine awareness of simulta­ neous "parts" in a piece of music (Le. recognition of individual lines in a vertical texture). The subject was made familiar with individual parts before hearing them in combination. The two textures used were homophony and polyphony. The results showed that young children had difficulty discerning the number of parts--substituting rhythmic complexity for dense texture. Serafine found that perceiving individual parts in a texture did not occur until age ten and then only in two parts.

The use of melodic and rhythmic ostinati creates a polyphonic texture. It is part of the pedagogy of Orff that each participant learn every part, regardless of his or her role in the final

42 ensemble rendition. This probably aids children in the development of greater awareness of the components in the finished texture. It is difficult within the context of lessons on an instrument to provide this same sort of textural awareness. It is possible to highlight certain parts of the overall texture in a band or choral class. However, the players do not gain the same degree of awareness of the individual parts as they would if the students were given the opportunity to play every part. The layered process of building a composition in the Orff approach lends itself to heightened awareness of texture. One traditional activity which could aid development in this area is the use of partner songs (e.g., "Fish & Chips & Vinegar; Rufus Rustus etc.).

Motivic Synthesis. Similar to the task involving successive combination of motives, motivic synthesis required the subjects to recognize the simultaneous combination of motives A and B, ( shorter fragments than in the first test). Results showed that younger children could be successful at this task.

Activities from the Orff approach are the same as above. The multi-layered accompani­ ment to many Orff compositions consists of the simultaneous performance of small cells.

Timbre synthesis. This task is similar to the above with the exception that the two or more parts used had different instrumental timbres. It is a simpler task to discern individual lines in a texture when their individuality is not merely melodic but also timbral.

The variety of timbres usually employed in the Orff Instrumentarium in addition to the use of melodic ostinati and patterns of accompaniment seem a natural teaching tool for this process. There has been some criticism levelled at perceived limitations of timbre in the Orff process. Orff himself encouraged the use of any and all instruments--folk and traditional--along with the Instrumentarium, although the tendency is to restrict the students to the so-called Orff instruments. Such limitations are unfortunate as they neglect string, brass and keyboard timbres.

43 The use of Gamba (plucked and bowed), is specified in many compositions in Das Schulwerk. Its use, however, is rare in this writer's experience.

Non-temporal Processes Closure. Although the methods used to obtain closure--or points of rest in a composition­ -are style specific, the process of including these points of rest is generic, according to Serafine. Serafine chose the use of open and closed cadences to indicate closure. Examples included both simple melodies and harmonized items. Results showed that young children did not consistently recognize which phrases were finished and which were not.

There is a specific activity used in the Orff approach which leads to this end. We have discussed the question-answer technique above. In early stages of instruction, the restrictions placed on the answer are minimal. Gradually, certain restrictions may be included to teach certain concepts. One process for familiarizing the ear with cadences follows. The teacher remarks that the question she plays ends high. "Could you make your answer end low?" The reverse is also explored. After establishing that we are performing in a given key the teacher ends the question on the dominant, requesting the students to end their answer on the tonic. Students are given the opportunity to play both parts--question ending on the dominant, answer on the tonic. This is the first step in establishing tonic-dominant harmony. The same process would work for other tonal systems.

T:ransfonnation. In the transformation tasks of Serafine's investigations, students were tested for their ability to discern similarities and differences in four different activities. In the block test the subject was asked to choose which of two fragments sounded most like a given model. One was a transformation of the original model, the other completely unrelated. The degree of success increased with age.

44 The echo test was similar except that half of the models were transformations of a previously learned rote-melody. The premise was that familiarity with this ur-melody would increase correct response on those examples which were transformed versions of this melody. The results did not support this.

The bead task was the reverse of the echo task. The task was to choose which of the two model melodies the experimental fragment was most like. This is more difficult as the child must remember two phrases, and test the experimental fragment against each. More memory is required for this task than for either the block or echo tasks. Again the success rate increased with age, indicating to Serafine that this task is associated with cognitive growth.

The final task in this section was the minuet task, in which the subject was required to recognize occurences of a target melody. within the context of a short piano piece. Of eight occurences five are exact melodic repetitions with harmonic variation, the other three are melodic as well as harmonic tranformations. This is a very difficult task and, as may be expected from other results, young children fared poorly. An overall view of the four tasks showed that those which required the most memory--the bead task and the minuet task--were the ones in which children fared the worst. It is interesting to note here that a group of subjects with intense Suzuki training fared better at younger ages. Serafine attributes this to the rigorous musical memory training involved in the Suzuki approach.

Like Suzuki, the Orff approach is a rote-based approach. Notation is introduced when it is needed for the purposes of recording students' compositions. Music is experienced directly without the intermediary symbols of notation. As such this approach also develops a musical memory. We might reasonably expect, therefore, that subjects with Orff-based training would also fare better in memory-determined tasks.

45 Activities pertaining to the process of transformation really depend on the creativity of the teacher. Creating variations on given poems, rhythms, and melodies would surely train the student to recognize similarities. It would also give opportunities to study what must be varied to make a variation. This is an activity for later stages of the approach. Beginning steps in transformation could be as simple as timbral differences: playing the same rhythm ort a different instrument or orchestrating it differently with body percussion. Other early experiences with transformations could include playing a melody with a different rhythm, or varying an accompaniment pattern.

Abstraction. Abstraction tasks involve recognizing a motive in a different context. Serafine created two such tasks: Motivic abstraction and Rhythmic abstraction. In the first the subject was required to find a melodic motive within different melodic phrases. A model phrase containing. a certain motive was compared with two other phrases. One was a related theme which contained the same motive. The other was unrelated and did not contain the motive. Other variables for choice such as the same key, contour or mode were avoided. Serafine found that young children were unable to recognize a chunk of melody when it had been placed in a new context.

One activity which would aid in the development of this process is a game derived from the Orff activity of echoing. In this game (really a version of the classic "Simon Says") students are asked to imitate the model given by the teacher only if a given component is present. This game is possible using singing, movement, rhythms, speech or instrumental behaviours. For example, the teacher plays a melody on the xylophone. If that melody uses the interval s-m then the class echoes. If not, then the class plays nothing. This would at first be played using distinctly different melodies--those which use completely different intervals vs. those which consist solely of this interval. This is a first step. The restrictions could get amazingly complex!

46 A second category of abstraction is rhythmic abstraction. Again, three melodies were used: the model, a melody rhythmically identical but tonally different, and a/oil (different both in rhythmic and tonal properties). Again, young children could not match melodies based on shared rhythms. The "Simon Says" game could be adapted to this task. Another task, however, is the improvisation of melodies to a given rhythm, This is a favourite activity in the Orff approach. Often an instrumental melody is created using the rhythms of a poem. 19 After learning the words of a poem, the rhythm is extracted and transferred to melodic instruments. Through this activity a wide range of melodies all sharing the identical rhythm are created.

Hierarchic structuring. Hierarchic structuring, in Serafine's view, is similar to the structural analysis of Lerdahl and lackendoff (1983). A derivative of the Chomskian "tree-diagrams" for grammatical syntax, hierarchic structuring maps the structural weight of musical events. It is a reductionist version of the Schenkerian school of analysis.

Serafine's experimental task was to choose, from two possibilities, the most likely reduction of a given model. It was in this task that older Suzuki-trained subjects out-performed their "untrained" counterparts.

The Orff approach is generally thought of as the opposite process--from simple to complex. It depends on elaboration of skeletal patterns for activities and compositions. It is quite possible that this activity--the progressive elaboration of structures--would sensitize students to hear the reduction in the final form. However, it is not certain that this is such an important skill. The elaborated melody has a character all its own that transcends the character of the original harmonic structure.

There are examples in Dos Schulwerk of this progressive elaboration. Two particularly worthwhile examples are Gassenhauer (Book III) and Chaconne (Book V). Each of these begin with a simple ostinato--a chord progression in the first case, a melodic pattern in the second.

47 The texture increases progressively, and the melody becomes more complex until at last the complete ensemble is playing. In both cases, the final form is derived from an extremely elementary ostinato pattern.

Serafine's research found that, for all of the processes, performance improved with age. 20 This led her to her conclusion that the increased success was due to the cognitive development associated with maturing. Except for the cases noted, the rigorous training of the Suzuki approach did not increase performance success in the given tasks. However, within the framework of the Orff approach there are activities which would specifically train the processes given by Serafine as generic-cognitive processes.

The- study documented in Music as Cognition is not without flaws. It is not within the scope of this paper to detail these flaws. However, two exceptions must be made with regard to the Orff approach.

Serafine posits three activities for the "posing of an artwork" -- composing, listening, and performing. Her tests are one-sided in that they exploit only one: listening. The Orff approach stresses listening only in so far as it relates to hearing the works created and performed by the group. There is no explicit provision made for an approach to listening which incorporates the ideals of the approach (Le., active participation, corporal involvement, and foundational role of speech). It is the area of listening activities that proponents of Orff need to develop.

Serafine completely excludes the affective side of music. The theory is perhaps like Herder's fourth age of language which is clinical, analytical, and rule-driven to the exclusion of delight in the sheer sensuousness of music. This is in opposition to the very essence of Orff--the magical and mystical.

48 Summary

Cognitive psychologists are exploring a number of different theories that have implications for educational practice. Among these are schema theory, play theory, music as intelligence and music as a cognitive process. There are elements of each which are compatible with the Orff approach. One of the areas in the Orff approach which is neglected is listening. Listening strategies which employ the activities used in the approach should be developed.

49 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The background and educational theory of the Orff approach to music education is very rich and not without compatibility with several current paths in contemporary cognitive theory. Orff's selection of compositions in Dos Schulwerk was made on the basis of the historical development of music. Sequencing was based on Orffs belief in the theory of recapitulation. Carl Orff believed that there was no such thing as an unmusical child. Rather, he held that music was latent in all human beings. The purpose of education, according to Orff, was the liberation or the release of this latent force. Many of Orffs educational ideas seem to have developed from the writings of Herder, Goethe and Pestalozzi, educational reformists of the nineteenth century.

Current research in cognitive psychology is stressing schema theory, i.e., the development of conceptual frameworks with which we organize our knowledge of the world. Activities associated with the Orff approach are designed to teach through experience: the one necessary component in the building of schemata.

Other researchers in cognitive psychology are looking at music as an intellectual function. Howard Gardner defines music as one of seven intelligences. He posits a theory of artistic development based on this belief. Included in this theory is a belief in the need for early exposure to music and the development of situations which promote the learning of necessary skills.

51 Mary Louise Serafine has redefined music as a set of cognitive processes. These processes may be style-oriented or pan-stylistic. The Orff approach includes activities which seem germane to the development of the processes she proposes.

Conclusions

Gardner and Serafine both see music as a universal acquisition, not merely something that belongs to the talented few. Orff would agree with this position. How can we educate this universal intelligence in Pestalozzi' s sense of IIguiding the child towards the best realization of himself and of the things of the world, II in this case music? It has been the purpose of this monograph to explain in what sense the Orff approach to music education shares the goals of several contemporary cognitive scientists, and, in addition, how Orff offers the activities and method to facilitate the development of music cognition.

The Orff approach allows for musical and artistic development through its multiplicity of musical activities and opportunities for practicing artistic behaviours. Students are not merely studying music, they are acting as musicians, engaging in the same activities as artists--creating, performing and listening. The approach is not without its limitations, however. A weakness of the Orff approach is its lack of opportunities for listening to music performed and composed by others. A process for directed listening activities needs to be used as a supplement to this approach. Yet, it is not inconceiveable that some of the activities used in the Orff approach could be encorporated into a strategy for listening. Orff specialists are currently exploring the role of directed listening activities in the approach. With this necessary addition the Orff approach would seem to be a viable and developmentally sound approach to of music education, limited only by the resources of the individual teacher.

52 ENDNOTES

1. "the strength of Onfs Schulwerk is its appeal to children ...Onfs Schulwerk allows children to grow artistically in ways that are most meaningful for them" (p. 122).

2. Authors include: B. Landis and P. Carder, (1972), and L. Wheeler and L. Raebeck, (1972).

3. See the importance of play in the Onf approach below on page 25.

4. It is interesting to note that the recorded version of Onfs Schulwerk is called Muska poetica. This is a play on words, involving both the artistic sense of "poetic," and the transla­ tion of the Greek "poiein," "to make" (Thomas, 1976, p. 11).

5. For a discussion of current trends in schema theory, see page 22.

6. This speech is given by the supervisor of the school where Wilhelm is enrolling his son Felix. "Here song is the first stage of education, from which everything else follows, and by which everything else is imparted ....Therefore underneath all thought we have chosen music as an element of our instruction, since similarly paved paths progress from it in all directions." (trans. by L. Dolloff)

7. An example is the use of such Canadian folksongs as "Land of the Silver Birch II and "Les Raftsmen" in Doreen Hall's English translation. The American Orff-Schulwerk pUblications make use of the blues and jazz forms indigenous to the United States.

8. These five forms were translated and summarized from Pestaiozzi' s original German as quoted in Preussner, 1962, pp. 7-8. (Translation and summary by L. Dolloff)

53 9. "The importance of song as a part of education, its role in the whole process of education and the need of the people and elementary schools for it are so absolutely recognized that it would be completely superfluous to say another word here." (trans. L. Dolloff)

10. "True elementary education is only established when we make rhythm the foundation." (in Heise et al, 1973, p. 12) (trans. L. Dolloff)

11. In the beginning was the drum. The drum entices us to dance. Dance is closely bound to music. Rhythm is difficult to teach. We can only set it free, release it. Rhythm is not abstract, rhythm is life itself. . . .it is the unifying force behind speech, music and movement. (trans. L. Dolloff)

12. This is an idea ascribed to Jerome Bruner, cited in A. E. Burkart, 1977, p. 39.

13. See Orff's discussion of his pedagogical approach on page 5.

14. Authors who find a strong relationship between Piaget's ideas and music cognition include Serafine (1979) and Pflederer and Sechrest (1968). One psychologist that rejects Piagetian conservation as a measure of musical development is Wohlwill (1981).

15. "We are able internally to construct notions and ideas which we have not experienced due to a 'resemblance' with things already experienced." (trans. L. Dolloff)

16. This same idea is expressed through extension of Pestalozzi's fourth statement about Anschauung: "As a result of activity [read experience] knowledge [read perception] becomes more specific.

17. "Thus a basis for all later music-making and interpreting should be created [by the features he mentioned prior to this], i.e. a true understanding for musical language and expression, that is here, as in a primer, first developed." (Trans. L. Dolloff)

18. By training Serafine implies a formal instrumental training. She differentiates this from "school music" and "normal, everyday musical experience."

54 19. This activity is not unique to Orff. Bruno NetU relates evidence that the xylophone orchestras of the Chopi Indians use speech as a basis for musical composition. (NetU, 1956, p. 21)

20. A noted exception to this conclusion was a characteristic "slump" at age eleven (p. 225).

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