Appendix 1. Virchow's Last Year

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Appendix 1. Virchow’s last year

1a. The celebration of Rudolph Virchow’s 80th Birthday

A personal impression by Sir Felix Semon, Berlin, October 13th, 1901

With additional comments by other correspondents. The British Medical Journal ii, October 19th: 1180–1182 (1901)

“COMMON admiration for great and good men draws nations together, and common pursuit of noble and scientific objects makes a brotherhood of intellectual interest.” These warm-hearted words from Dr. Pye-Smith’s contribution towards the international “Virchow Number” of the Berliner klinische Wochen- schrift may fitly be taken as giving the keynote to the days through which we are living at the present moment. Unique as the man, in whose honour we are assembled here, are the celebrations on the occasion of his eightieth birthday, which a kind fate has permitted him to see in full and undimmed vigour of mind and body. From almost every European country, from America, from Japan, have representatives of all the manifold interests with which Virchow’s name has been and for ever will be connected, hurried to Berlin to “lay their wreaths at the great pathologist’s feet,” foremost amongst them, it need hardly be said, members of that profession which, without difference of nationality, looks upon him as its brightest, proudest ornament. It would be impossible for me, not having the official list of guests at my command, to enumerate all the distinguished guests and delegates who have flocked to Berlin. Suffice it to say that, besides representatives of all the German universities, societies, learned bodies, municipal corporations, Great Britain and Ireland are represented by Lord Lister (Royal Society and numerous other institutions), Sir Felix Semon (Royal College of Physicians), Mr. Howard Marsh (Royal College of Surgeons), Dr. Rose Bradford (Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society), Mr. Watson Cheyne (Pathological Society), Professor Muir (University of Glasgow), and Dr. Graham Brown (Royal College of Physi- cians of Edinburgh); France by Professor Cornil; Italy by His Excellency Professor Baccelli, Minister of Agriculture, and by Professor Maragliane; the Nether- lands by Professor Stokvis;Austria by Professors Toldt,Weichselbaum, and various other delegates; Denmark by Professor Salomonsen; Norway by Professor Armauer Hansen; Switzerland by Professor Ruge; Russia by Professor von

251 Appendix 1. Virchow’s last year

Raptschewski and several other men of science. In fact, there is hardly a single country which has not sent one or several representatives. The festivities were ushered in by a dinner on Friday evening, given by Pro- fessor Posner, one of the editors of the Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, which was of an absolutely international character.The hostess sat between Lord Lister and Professor Baccelli, next to whom in turn were placed Virchow himself and Professor von Leyden, whilst opposite were the Rector of Berlin University and Professor Gerhardt.Then followed, harmoniously mixed, a profusion of medical talent of all countries. The host, in a polyglot speech, drank to the health of all his guests, and Professor Baccelli most felicitously replied:“To the Queen of the Banquet, to the Emperor of Pathology, to the Senate of Science”. Lord Lister toasted host and hostess, and the Rector of Berlin University, Professor Hart- nack, the absent Mrs.Virchow.This brought Virchow himself to his feet, and we enjoyed the somewhat unusual pleasure of his proposing the health of a dignity of the Church. (Professor Hartnack is a Professor of Theology.) It was late before the company separated, soon to assemble again at the Hotel Bristol, where at an informal meeting under Professor Waldeyer’s presidency all arrangements were made for the official celebration. The latter from beginning to end was so extraordinary of its kind, that as yet but three things stand out prominently from the kaleidoscopic impressions which overwhelmed us yesterday: the conviction that surely never before had a richer life been lived than Virchow’s, the joy and gladness that on the evening of such a life the achievements of this unique man are universally acknowledged without a single dissentient voice being heard, the thankfulness that such a man should have been spared to the world in such astonishing vigour of mind and body as this “Grand Old Man of Science”. For to begin with the last-named fact, surely it was astonishing that in the morning this octogenarian should have on the eve of his eightieth birthday treated the audience, which he had invited to his pathological museum, the pride and the joy of his old age, to a wonderful retrospect of the past, and a sketch of the future of pathology, made in a speech of one and a-half hour’s duration, a speech made without notes, should have sat through and have made at a two hours’ dinner in the evening one of the most felicitous and humorous dinner speeches ever heard, and should after this have listened and replied – standing almost the whole time – to speech-making, which lasted from 9.30 to 12.30 p.m. without any interruption, saying a kind word or two to almost everybody who had come to do him honour. But to remain in order and do my duty as faithful chronicler of events. At noon yesterday (Saturday) a most distinguished audience thronged, on the “Jubilar’s” own invitation, the amphitheatre of his museum. Secretaries of State, representatives of the German Army Medical Service, all his professorial colleagues, delegates from every civilised country, former assistants, now great men themselves, and pupils galore sat, as of old, at the master’s feet and listened spellbound to his broad-minded, philosophical statements concerning the mean-

252 1a. The celebration of Rudolph Virchow’s 80th Birthday ing of the word “pathology”, to his historical description of the development of his science, to his spirited defence of the views which he has unwaveringly held throughout his long life, to the sketch of the aims which he hopes will be stead- fastly followed in his Institut, even when his strong hand – absit omen – should no longer guide it. It was a wonderful feat, and we all felt we had been privi- leged to be present at a historical occasion. At the end of Virchow’s oration, Surgeon – General Schäfer, the head of the Charité Hospital, with which the Pathological Institute is connected, expressed to him in warm, well-chosen words the thanks of the authorities of the hospital, and in conclusion our great teacher gave a demonstration of a series of beautiful photomicrographs of animal and vegetable parasites thrown upon a screen.After this the audience dispersed to admire the treasures of the museum, brought together and arranged with never – resting industry mainly by himself. But if the morning was most interesting it was surpassed by the evening. At 6 P.M. a company of 200, including Virchow’s family, sat down to dinner in the Festraum of the beautiful new abode of the Prussian House of Commons. From amongst the numerous speeches made I single out for special mention the heartfelt words of three hale and hearty contemporaries of Virchow’s, Drs. Körte, Langerhans, and Meyer, who told us of their recollections of “young” Virchow, who testified to the influence he had exercised upon their development, who praised him as a husband, a father, a lover of his domestic pets. And most interesting in the same connection was the speech made by Privy Coun- cillore1 Althoff, who had unearthed from the archives of the Cultus–Minis- terium,Virchow’s application for matriculation, dated Easter, 1839, the German essay he wrote on this occasion, entitled, “A Life Full of Work and Labour is no Burden but an Enjoyment”, and the report he received after examination. The latter, Dr. Althoff stated, was “somewhat monotonous”, there being no other terms in it than “excellent”, “very good”, “most satisfactory”. Even in “singing” he had satisfied his masters! It was a charming idea of the speaker’s to have had the two first-named documents reprinted, adorned by a portrait of the “Jubilar” at the age of 6 (!), which already foreshadows the massive fore- head and the penetrating eyes of the future man (although the nose, he humor- ously observed, had since been improving), and to distribute the whole under the title “Little Virchow” amongst the company. After dinner we all adjourned to the imposing meeting room of the Prussian House of Commons, where meanwhile a large and distinguished company, including many ladies in brilliant toilettes, had assembled, and now the ceremony proper of the occasion began. It was a never-to-be-forgotten picture.The whole scientific world had assembled it seemed to do honour to one man. A never- ending stream of bearers of the most illustrious names, decked with glittering stars and decorations, clad in the picturesque uniforms of many nations, bearing addresses, medals, pictures executed in Virchow’s honour, passed our dear old master, who for once in his life had donned his own high decorations, and

253 Appendix 1. Virchow’s last year who stood there erect, modestly listening to every word said in his praise, a tower of intellectual strength, and yet with a kind smile on his lips, a warm word, a firm shake of his hand for everybody who had come to congratulate him. It was a marvellous, an unforgettable sight! How much must this man, long though his life has been, have done, that the whole world should thus have united to do him honour! That thought, I believe, must have impressed itself with ever-increasing force, upon every witness of this imposing ceremony; that thought prevented it, in spite of its length, from ever becoming tedious; that thought filled us all with ever-growing respect and admiration for this unique man, as deputation after deputation passed and testified to what Vir- chow had been to them, what he had done for them. Never before had it become so clear to me what a giant we had come to do honour to. Politics, art, science, medicine, public health, municipal interests, hospital management, anthropology, geography, archaeology, palaeontology, natural sciences – all these various great interests, in each of which an ordinary mind would feel ample scope in employing all its time and talents, have been embraced by this master mind; on each of them has he impressed the stamp of his personality upon its development; in each of them his name is mentioned with respect and admiration. It was a pageant of a unique kind that passed before us last night. First a most gracious autograph letter from the German Emperor recording all that Virchow had done for Germany’s greatness and bestowing the Great Gold Medal for Science upon him – a spontaneous act of appreciation, which was most warmly welcomed by all. After this, deputations from the Prussian Ministry for Public Instruction, headed by the Secretary of State himself, from the Scientific Deputation for Medical Affairs, from the governing body of the Royal Museums, from the Prussian Ministry of War, from the Italian Government, from the Prussian Houses of Parliament, from the Berlin Academy of Sciences, from the University of Berlin, from the Medical Faculties of all German Universities, from the general practitioners of Germany, from the municipal authorities of Berlin, from his native town Schivelbein, from the village Virchow, from all the Berlin and many other German Medical Societies, from Anthropological and Natural Science Societies in all parts of Germany, from the German Society for Pisciculture – formed the first part of the procession. After a short interval the foreign deputations paid their reverence to the master. Need I say that nobody was more warmly acclaimed than our own revered leader, Lord Lister, who most warmly testified to the feelings of venera- tion, gratitude, and esteem in which Virchow is held in Great Britain and Ireland. Addresses from Virchow’s past and present assistants, and presentations of works specially written in honour of the occasion, brought this wonderful celebration at last to an end; but not before the last speaker, Professor B. Fraenkel, had drawn attention to the fact that it was no longer the eve of Virchow’s 80th birthday, but the 80th birthday itself which had dawned, for it was half an hour after midnight when the last speech had been made. A most enthusiastic “Hoch!”, in

254 The order of the ceremonies which the whole assembly joined upstanding – and the never-to-be-forgotten official celebration was at an end.Today Professor Waldeyer has invited a number of the foreign delegates to luncheon, and Virchow himself will unite his family and a few friends round him at dinner; but this is to be of a strictly private character, and the chronicler’s pleasing duty ends here with heartfelt wish that our “Jubilar” may long be spared in equal vigour of mind and body to his family, to his friends, to his country, and the whole world, which loves and admires him. e1 see ‘Translator’s Notes”, this volume.

Tributes from foreign countries The special number of the Berliner klinische Wochenschrift to which Sir Felix Semon refers is dated October 14th. It opens with an address in elegant Latin by Guido Baccelli, In Regio Romano Archiathenaeo Clinices Medicae Profes- sor. Next comes a paper, the joint production of Professors Weichselbaum and Zuckerkandl of Vienna “On Virchow’s Influence on the Development of Path- ological Anatomy, Public Health, and Anthropology in Austria”; then follows a short note, Souvenirs d’ Autrefois, by Professor Cornil of Paris, recalling the time which he spent working under Virchow in 1862; then the paper by Dr. Pye- Smith on “The Influence of Virchow on Pathology in England”, from which Sir Felix Semon quotes; then a paper on Virchow and Medicine in the Netherlands, by Professor Stokvis of Amsterdam; next one on Rudolf Virchow and Russian Medicine, by Professor W.Schervinsky of Moscow; next on Rudolf Virchow and Swedish Pathology, by Professor Carl Sundberg of Stockholm; next on Rudolf Virchow and Danish Medicine, by Professor C. J. Salomonsen of Copenhagen; then a short note by Professor Georg Karamitzas of Athens, on Rudolf Virchow and Greek Medicine; then an article by Professor A. Jacoby of New York on Rudolf Virchow and American Medicine; and, finally, a description of the Path- ological Museum of the University of Berlin by Professor O. Israel.

The order of the ceremonies (From our Special Correspondent in Berlin.)

The great day of the Virchow celebration has come and gone, an “Indian summer” day of brilliant sunshine, the first after a long spell of rain and storms. To give an account of all the festive functions, which filled the day from forenoon to long past midnight, with only a short interval during the afternoon, would be impossible within the limits of a short letter.This may be said at once: Never yet has homage so wide, so general, and so deeply felt been paid to any private individual before. And this too: In that illustrious assemblage, the “fine flower” of

255 Appendix 1. Virchow’s last year medical science throughout the world, no personality was more interesting, more characteristic than the unbent, spare and wiry little figure of the octogenarian, with his keen but passionless face, his level voice and sober demeanour, as he stood for hours in his Pathological Museum, and again for hours at night in the Abgeordnetenhaus, without a trace of excitement or fatigue, up to the very last moment. The day itself had its prologue, a dinner in honour of Virchow and the foreign delegates, given by Professor Posner (who was secretary and chief mov- ing spirit of the Berlin Virchow Committee), on Friday evening, October 11th.

Virchow’s address On the October of 12th the official proceedings began at 11.30 in the Pathological Museum. Here Virchow received the Prussian Cultusminister, Dr. Studt; the Cabinet Ministers, Count Posadawsky, von Thielen, and Möller, with several of their heads of department and Geheimrath; von Leuthold, Army Surgeon in Chief, with the General Army Surgeons Schjerning, Stahl, and Schaper, Ober- bürgermeister Kirschner, and other official personages. Dr. Studt made a speech, presenting a marble bust of Virchow, which is to remain in the museum. Then a move was made to the Lecture Hall, which meanwhile had entirely filled, all the foreign delegates and the whole medical world of Berlin being present. Need- less to say, that a tremendous reception was accorded to Virchow as he stepped up to his laurel-wreathed lecturer’s desk. He began by words of thanks and wel- come, and then led up to the subject of his address: The History of Pathology. For more than an hour he spoke, touching upon malformations, upon trichinosis, tuberculosis, etc., and upon the enlightenment to be gained on all these subjects by the collections of the Pathological Museum. After the address a large number of microscopic preparations were thrown on the screen, and finally Generalarzt Schaper rose to speak as the representative of the Charité Hospital, of which the Pathological Museum forms a part. For fifty-seven years, he said, the Charité had been the scene of Virchow’s incomparable labours. Might he live to see the completion of the entire Pathological Institute so admirably planned by him. A stand-up lunch and inspection of the treasures of the five-storeyed museum under Virchow’s leadership closed the morning’s proceedings at about half-past three. It may be interesting to note here that no fewer than 20,883 objects are arranged on view in the museum, while upwards of 2,000 more have still to be placed there.

The banquet At half-past six a “small and intimate” banquet of 220 covers united the Virchow family with the foreign delegates, and chief personages of the Virchow celebration. Lord Lister and Baccelli, the Italian pathologist and Cabinet Minister, were perhaps the most remarked amongst the guests.

256 Addresses of delegates

Count Posadowsky gave the German Emperor’s health; Geheimrath Körte, Virchow’s oldest friend, gave the toast of the day; and other after-dinner speeches, affecting and jocular by turns, followed. Direktor Althoff, of the Cultusminis- terium, made an agreeable and unexpected diversion by presenting Virchow with a pamphlet, Der kleine Virchow, containing a portrait of the 7-year-old child and the school-boy’s matriculation essay on the motto: “A Life full of Work and Labour is no Burden, but a Boon”.

Addresses of delegates Meantime the guests, who were to witness the great official function of the evening, had assembled in the Parliament Hall, the ladies in the galleries and boxes above. The banqueters from the dining hall slipped in groups and took their places, and at a quarter to nine (true to the Akademische Viertelstunde) a flourish to trumpets announced and welcomed the entrance of Virchow. And then began a series of addresses and presentations from all quarters of the globe, the mere enumeration of which would fill pages – in truth, a grand and universal homage to intellectual achievement! As the hours passed, medals, pictures, caskets, and rolls of addresses accumulated on the chairs and tables around Virchow, until at last he stood – for he stood through it all, the wonderful youth of 80! – fairly surrounded by them. Professor Waldeyer gave the opening address – a fine and spirited speech, at the close of which he presented a document setting forth the gift of 50,000 marks (£2,500), collected by colleagues near and far, as a contribution to the Virchow-Stiftung for the assistance of scientific research. The Cultusminister Studt read aloud a letter from the German Emperor, words of congratulation and grateful appreciation of Virchow’s great lifework, with the bestowal of the Great Gold Medal for Science. A congratulatory telegram from the Imperial Chancellor, Count von Bülow, was also read. Loud applause greeted Baccelli, who in the name of the Italian Government presented a picture (the heads of Morgagni and Virchow side by side, with the hexameter motto, Ut quos corda fovent praesentes lumina spectent), and read a beautiful and enthusiastic address written in Latin.Among the speeches that followed – their name is legion – a few stand out in one’s recollection. Harnack, rector of the Berlin University, was eloquent in claiming Virchow as the Uni- versity’s “very own”; Oberbürgermeister Kirschner presented a contribution of 100,000 marks (£5,000) to the Virchow Stiftung, and asked Virchow to stand sponsor to the new municipal hospital. Dr Langerhans, President of the Town Council, read an address full of gratitude for Virchow’s labours for the weal of the City of Berlin; Professor von Bergmann – as delegate of the Berlin Medical Society – quoted from the minutes to prove that Virchow had read no fewer than 107 papers at its meetings, and had taken part in its discussions 587 times.

257 Appendix 1. Virchow’s last year

Professor Cornil, the French delegate, was much applauded. Enthusiastic calls greeted Lord Lister, who said:“Revered master, I am here as a delegate of the Royal Society of London, of which you are an honoured member, and on behalf of which I have to present to you a loyal address. I have been also requested to hand you addresses from six other societies which greatly regret that it has been impossible for them to send special delegates. They are as follows: (1) The Anthropological Section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science; (2) the University of London; (3) the University of Edinburgh; (4) the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow; (5) the Medico-Chirurgical Society of Edinburgh; (6) the Royal Academy of Medicine in Ireland.All these bodies join in recognition of your gigantic intellectual powers, in gratitude for the great benefits that you have conferred upon humanity, and in admiration of your personal character, your absolute uprightness, the courage which has enabled you always to advocate what you believed to be the cause of truth, liberty, and justice, and the genial nature which has won for you the love of all who know you.The astonishing vigour which you displayed in the address to which we listened to-day justifies the hope that, when many of us your juniors shall have been removed from this scene of labour, it may be granted to you to celebrate your 90th birthday not only in health and honour, but in continued activity in the service of mankind”. A graceful and modest speech was Sir Felix Semon’s, who said that he had been selected to convey the sincere congratulations of the Royal College of Physicians of London first because the College considered that it would be agreeable to Virchow to receive its good wishes from the mouth of an old and faithful pupil, and secondly because by selecting a native of Germany the College wished to emphasise the old scientific brotherhood which had so long united German and British science, and to express its sincere gratitude for the beneficial influence that Virchow had exercised no less upon English than upon German science. It was long past past midnight when Virchow’s former and present assistants, headed by Professors Liebreich (Berlin) and von Recklinghausen (Strassburg) came up at last to offer their homage and congratulations.

258 Appendix 1b

Pages in thanks for my friends

By Rudolph Virchow

Virchow’s Archive 167: 1–15 (1902)

Editors’ comments This is an article of thanks to all those who expressed their best wishes to Virchow on the occasion of his eightieth birthday.There is a brief review of his achievements, without any general philosophical statement – in self-justification or otherwise. He may have begun to write this before his accident (on January 5th, 1902), but the article was published later in the same year.A summary of this article appeared in the Lancet: I pp 321–322 (1902).

Editors’ summary of points Pages 1–2 general points, how the birthday celebrations were arranged; 3 review of his major scientific activities, ‘hunger typhus’ – Dr Obermeyer and the causative spirillum; 4 events of 1848, sanitary improvements, Koch, importance of pathological anatomy; 5 achievements in sanitation in Berlin; 6 trichinosis, awards of Freedom of the cities of Berlin and Bologna; 7 other civic honours, specific gifts from southern Europe,Australia; 8 from Switzerland, and his contacts with that country; 9 gifts from England, Scotland and Ireland, Italy; 10 Scandinavia, Finland, France, Holland, Russia; 11 Japan; 12–13 Germany, including Royalty; 14 old friends from youth; 15 the Berlin Manual Worker’s Club, trust in people as an article of faith.

The 13th October of 1901 brought for me not merely a day of celebration of incomparable magnificence but a whole week of festivities with daily new joys, which was so rich that I was quite incapable of thanking all participants individually. Hence now – surveying it all – it becomes clear how many people were apparently or in fact, neglected; and thus I see no other way of getting closer to some extent to these many people, except through the Press. For my scientific friends – who, after all constituted the main contingent for this festival – this old archive, which for more than fifty years has been our common means of friendly communication with each other, may well fulfill this function once more. Its wide circulation – across the whole world – grants me the cer- tainty that my words will not die away wholly unheard. When the thought emerged of celebrating my eightieth birthday, my closer friends reduced my disinclination to a public celebration with the assurance that any influence of mine on such a celebration was out of the question. Indeed, when the festive days approached, they

259 Appendix 1b

2 treated me like a patient whose doctors have prescribed a regime of activity such that he must renounce making any arbitrary interference. Thus I was able to find out only piece-meal what they had in store for me. The committee – and particularly its chairman, so experienced in such tasks, and my dear friend and colleague Waldeyer, and his always ready and skillful executive Posner – was able to transform my inner excitement into such a state of calm that I abandoned all resistance. In this state, I entered the festival without being able to foresee all the consequences, and indeed – as I may assume – without the ring leaders themselves being able to have any picture as to what dimensions this festival would take on. Since then, the festival has taken place, and the Press has ensured that news of it has gone out everywhere. I restrain myself therefore, from giving yet another description of it here.A survey of the addresses and testimonials which reached me will perhaps be printed later: their number is so large that even listing the various categories at this point would be too cursory.The number of telegrams alone amounts to nearly eight hundred. Their content is so various that they have unrolled before me a mirror image of my entire, very restless, life and therefore to anyone else, they may well appear to be confusing. This comes from the fact that – in the course of time – I have taken very many different directions in research and activity, and that not merely the site of my professional work has changed, but also that I have undertaken long journeys through the whole of Europe, and have visited important parts of Asia and Africa. Personal relationships from each of these places have remained intact, and in point of fact, for the most part, the really close relationships are maintained by excellent people. Here, I would like to remember only Dürkheim in Rhine Palatinate. But also, almost all these places gave me the opportunity to open up new areas of knowledge for myself, and of devoting to them scientific works of my own. No little contribution to this has been made in no small measure by the fact that my frequent participation

3 in periodic scientific gatherings – whether national or international and particularly the German Society for Natural Scientists and Doctors, and the Society for German Anthropologists – compelled me directly into practical involvement. Thus the course of my researches has not only brought these various lands and their inhabitants into my ambit, but in each case – according to prevailing circumstances – I have made the objects of my studies Medicine and the Natural Sciences, also Anthropology and Archaeology, and occasionally too the literature, philosophy, politics and social conditions (of those regions). This mixture was not undertaken arbitrarily or indeed in any tendentious way. Decisive here was a mission with which I was entrusted at the beginning of 1848 by the then Prussian Minister of Health. It involved an investigation of the severe epidemic of so-called “hunger typhus” which had broken out in Upper Silesia. In discussing the causes of this epidemic, I reached the conviction that

260 Pages in thanks for my friends the worst reasons of it were to be found in the wretched social conditions, and that the fight against these miserable circumstances could only be carried out through by profound social reforms. My report aroused much displeasure, but I find consolation for this in the fact that the government very soon, took the path of reforms and that thereby, most beneficial results were achieved. Even more am I pleased by the feeling that my procedure has not only had significance for Upper Silesia, but that gradually, one region after the other has undertaken on a similar course of action (of improvement of social conditions). Subsequently our own region had repeated evil experiences of famine. Almost immediately after my move to Bavaria (i.e. Würzburg) in 1849, I was commissioned there to study the neediness in the Spessart district. In the following years, the hunger epidemic in Prussia too worsened considerably: I dealt with East Prussia in a specific essay, and as doctor in charge in the Charité, I twice saw my section completely filled with patients who were suffering from spotted fever (infec- tious typhus). From one of these epidemics, one of my Assistenten, Dr Ober- meyer discovered the microscopic blood parasite Spirillum.e1 This opened the way to knowledge of the ever-growing 4 number of dangerous blood parasites. I won’t speak of cholera, of smallpox, and other evil epidemics which increased movement (of humans) or the privations of war have brought to us. My only concern is to remind us once again of how unavoidable it is to place practical medicine in direct relationship to political legislation – something which I tried to do in the past in “Medical Reform” (1848–1849). Since public hygiene has become an integral (integrirender) com- ponent of general welfare, the reproach: “that a doctor is also a politician” has lost all meaning. Certainly, even now it is not easy to acknowledge the right of (the inclusion of) medical judgment in large questions of the lives of the people. Anyone who has continuously followed the discussions in recent years on acclima- tization and colonisation will know how dangerous it is – when assessing the circumstances of the peoples’ lives – simply to ignore the scientific fundamentals or to judge them superficially. Sanitary conditions in the cities are relevant here. It was in Würzburg that I carried out my first experiments towards scientific statistics of local illnesses. Even before the question as to the spread of tuberculosis had become fashion- able, I had carried out the first (and still perfectly valid) surveys of deaths due to phthisis in an entire metropolitan population. In following up these surveys, I attempted for years to investigate the nature of tubercle and of consumption, and I am of the opinion that my principle points – derived at that time – have not lost their significance, although I did not then know the tubercle bacillus. On the other hand, knowledge of this bacillus is not the “alpha and omega” of the tubercle theory, as has been very recently shown in the study of the bovine tuberculosis in cattle. This disease too, I first studied thoroughly when I was in Würzburg. My very accurate data did not prevent this being called tuberculosis,

261 Appendix 1b

and even being denoted as the main source of human tuberculosis. Only the most recent data from a definitely unimpeachable witness, Mr Robert Koch, has stirred up the question again as to whether bovine e1 This was in 1873 (reference is on p 168 in Dhom, 2001). Relapsing (“recurrent”) fever is caused by strains of Borrelia recurrensis, spread by lice. Otto Obermeyer (now usually spelled “Obermeier”) was clinical Assistant in Virchow’s ward at the Charité (Köhler, 2005). The European type of the disease is called ‘Obermeyer’s relapsing fever’ (Lefebvre and Greenier, 1994).

5 tuberculosis is different from human tuberculosis. e2 But it is to be hoped that it will be a permanent warning, not to admit a mixing of the causes of disease with the nature of disease without thorough prior studies in pathological anatomy. I cannot leave this topic without reminding us of the great sanitary improvements associated with the construction of new human housing and settlements in recent times; whether they are carried out in towns or in villages. It was also the mixture of medicine and social politics which led me to that area in which – thanks to fortunate circumstances – I have been successful in fundamentally changing living conditions in Berlin. I owe the possibility of collaborating so decisively in such great changes, in the first instance to the circumstance that I had become a City Councillor in Berlin, and then (second) to the great and lasting trust my fellow citizens have had in me for almost fifty years. If later, they accorded me the Freedom of the City, I may also point to the fact that since my collaboration, the entire physiognomy of the German capital has been changed. Because the clean- ing-up of the city demanded not only an all-encompassing water supply, a comprehensive drainage system and extensive sewerage farms, but also a correspon- ding straightening and leveling out of entire streets and building work in every house.That cost hundreds of millions, but my fellow citizens took on the enormous burden in the absolute trust that any sum of money is rewarded by its equivalent in health and longevity. Thus Berlin has become simultaneously one of the cleanest, most beautiful, but also healthiest of the large cities. If in spite of my accumulated – and at times really overburdening – responsibilities, I still retain supervision of the sanitation of the city and have even recently taken on again election as City Councillor, I may indeed presume that this will be attributed not to ambition but to a stern feeling for duty and persistence in following through great tasks. This semi-political activity is based overall on serious scientific prior study. In particular e2 See in Ackerknecht (1953).

6 the organization of city sanitation has almost wholly been achieved from communal initiative, and I am proud that I was able to collaborate in this and that now, the general legislation can advance based on our achievements. Perhaps a better “system” will still be found, but what has been achieved will certainly remain – in spite of everything – an ideal model. Here indeed, one may recall

262 Pages in thanks for my friends another very familiar example. I refer to meat inspection. A violent and contin- uing opposition was evoked by our proofs of Trichina in pig meat; and how long did it take before legislation supported the proposal to prescribe an increas- ingly effective meat inspection system! The City of Berlin very early introduced its laws for this, without any pressure from the State government. But even now, it has not been possible to bring international legislation into accord with the demands of science, and sometimes, because of this discordance, we were close to dangerous disputes with North America.The resolution ofe3 so-frequent conflict between practice and investigative (not merely theoretical) science, presupposes (voraussetzen) not only great cold bloodedness (Kaltblütigkeit) and care, but also great honesty and reliability, such as is scarcely ever been achieved for daily life without the controls of science.Worst of all here, are the half-informed, who in the arrogance of the common laymen, believe that they can ignore the stern demands of the learned researcher. Berlin is not the only city to have made me a Freeman, but the only one which did this on the basis of actual practical scientific work. There are other cities which have conferred the same honour on me.The first was Bologna (1867), the oldest university town in Italy, and the most enduring in its support of scientific work. With its city authorities – as the recent days have also shown – I have enjoyed continuous friendly relations. The greatest and most flourishing cities of my later home in beautiful Franconiae4 – Würzburg and Nürnberg – have in addition recently e3 this sentence seems unintelligible without this. e4 northern Bavaria. named a street after me, as Berlin had already done earlier. Here I must note 7 with great satisfaction that the Berlin city authorities have given my name to the largest hospital which has been built in our city. The communal authorities of the village of Virchow in Farther Pomerania (Hinterpommern), by means of an artistically-executed address, have even recalled the fact that they have not forgotten my visit years ago when I wanted to show the place to my sons. I mention these communal honours with particular joy. They are wholly without ulterior motive, have been accorded as a purely personal honour, and grant me great satisfaction. Along with this I gratefully acknowledge the many individual documents which have been sent to me principally in praise of my scientific works.Amongst them, in respect of the magnitude of the birthday gift and warmth of recognition takes pride of place the collective gift of the scientific and medical societies of Austria. In a large precious casket artistically made of onyx and bronze, there are eighty special – mostly decorated with splendid paintings – addresses, diplomas, etc, from the individual states (within Austria) and the learned bodies and societies constituted there, from the Vienna Academy right across to the Medical Societies of Siebenbürgen, Hungary and Bosnia, Abbazia and Zara. My much-

263 Appendix 1b

honoured friend Toldt delivered it personally. It will remain for me a personally valued memory of him and of so many dear and esteemed colleagues. Closest to this jewel comes a collective address from the Australian doctors sent via Professor Wilson in Sydney. It is a substantial volume whose dedication page is decorated with rich miniature paintings, and which contains for every state (including Tasmania and New Zealand) the addresses of the individual donors on special cards. It is almost certainly the first time that an entire continent has unified its homage in one single document and has regarded the occasion as sufficiently important to bear witness of its participation in universal science. Consonant with its smaller area, and thus its much fewer numbers – but all the warmer in actual expression – are the representatives of Switzerland. But they brought a present which will

8 always remain dear to me; a splendid oil painting of the Walensee. I am telling the story about this because of its not-insignificant interest. It was in the days when – commissioned by the German Anthropological Society – I directed the large school survey on the colour of hair, eyes and skin, which was first carried out in all Germany, and then in Austria and Switzerland too. When studying the statistical sheets, I discovered a surprising relationship: in the district of Kerenzen, on the southern bank of the Walensee – in an area which we were accustomed to ascrib- ing to Alemannic settlement – the brunette complexion was predominant in the school children. Since I assumed this to be a mistake, I informed Professor Koll- mann in Basel, who had the Swiss data, and asked for enlightenment. I soon received the suggestion that it would be better for me to see for myself; so I stayed with my family in the charming Suggen valley at the foot of the Black Forest, and in close contact with my Freiburg friends, the Eckers and my dear godchild, subsequently Professor Paul Langerhans Jnr.There I received the invitation to go first of all to Basel for the birthday celebration for W. His. From there I went to the meeting of the Swiss Natural Scientists at Stachelberg in the Canton Glarus. Everything went splendidly.At the conference, I met one of my oldest pupils, Dr Schuler von Mollis – who has become factory medical officer for the entire Swiss Federation – and the parish priests of the Müllerhorn and the places on the Walen- see. All agreed that the matter must be investigated on the spot. On the same evening, in spite of it being late at night, I set out with Kollmann, and we reached our next goal, the village of Obstalden, high above the lake. It may be said in advance, that the correctness of the school teachers’ data was proved, but we were simultaneously rewarded by the wonderful situation and view from Obstalden – which in the full light of the following morning – had such an enrapturing influence that I immediately concluded an agreement for a stay there with my family in the following Autumn. Thus there developed a relationship extending to the local people which since led my family and me there on repeated occasions.The wonderful atmosphere of Nature refreshed us, and later in difficult times, it has brought improvement and healing for my closest relatives. But within a few years,

264 Pages in thanks for my friends it has also made this lonely little village into such a sought-after rest-haven for 9 many tourists that Obstalden has become a well-known place. This memory was destined to be kept fresh in my mind by the painting (presented to me), and I cannot merely praise this good result, but even more, (I must praise) the gracious feelings of the donors which this picture specifically attests. From the bottom of my heart, I thank the Swiss medical men who presented it to me, and I will not conceal the fact that the thought for it, as I later discovered, originated in a spirited woman. Mr Schuler strengthened the gift by collecting a whole sequence of photographs of the lake and the various places in the Glarner countryside. Every time I look at this painting – which now hangs in my house – I am overjoyed and moved by the heartfelt sentiments which fill the donors. This feeling also emerges in the address of greeting from the Zurich Nature Research Society and the Bern Medical Faculty, the Board of the Bern Historical Museum, and of Professors in Basel and Bern. I was moved with particular pleasure by a letter from the celebrated Egyptologist Nabille whom I had visited years ago while he was working in Bubastis. Gifts which I receive with the sense of greatest honour are from England, Scotland and Ireland.At the peak – from all these countries, the oldest and most celebrated societies, personally represented by my great friend Lord Lister – I name only the Royal Society of London, the Royal College of Surgeons and the Royal Medical and Surgical Society of England e5; similar institutes in Edin- burgh, Glasgow and London; as well as the Universities of Birmingham and Aberdeen, the latter of which recently conferred on me in absentia the title of Doctor of Laws. From Italy, my much-proven benefactor, Minister Baccelli presented me personally – in the name of his government – with a double portrait of Morgagni and me, as also from my pupils there, a golden medal and a beautiful address. Also a similar one came from the Medical Faculty e5 originally the “Medical and Chirurgical Society of London”, became the “Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society of London” in 1834, and after merging with other medical societies, became the “Royal Society of Medicine” in 1909. in Rome, with the announcement of Honorary Doctorate. 10 Scandinavia sent a Gold Medal of the Swedish Doctors Society with an Ad- dress. In addition, there were addresses from the Swedish Academy in Stock- holm, the Medical Faculty of Upsala and Lund, the Norwegian Doctors of Christiana and Bergen, and the Medical Faculty in Copenhagen. From Helsingfors, I received a magnificent address distinguished by its original binding in birch tree bark, along with which may well be named, as rival pieces, gifts from the National Museum and the Medical Surgical Society of Rio de Janiero, and an address from Chile. From Paris, came a gold medal from the Anthropological Society with a head- and-shoulders portrait of Broca, and a bronze statuette of Hippocrates by Paul

265 Appendix 1b

Dubois, sent my Mr Languelonne, “Dedicated by French Friends and Scholars”. From Brussels, came a congratulatory address from the Belgian Royal Academy. From Holland, an address from the Amsterdam Doctors and Natural Scientists, with a large album of “Colleagues and Friends”, delivered in person by Professor Stokvis; from the Ethnographic Museum in Leyden the deluxe edition of “Wajang Proebwa” – (which is) the beginning of a deluxe work on Phillipine skulls – and a book “Modern Art in the Netherlands” by Mr Kleinmann in Haarlem. Finally there was an address from the Medical Faculty in Leiden. There were innumerable addresses from Russia, the country in which perhaps I have the greatest number of pupils in the medical profession. Right up to most recent days, new addresses arrived from the most distant citiese6 [Baku, Tiflis (Tibilsi), Kutais, Yalta, Odessa, Blagovestschensk, Charkow (Kharkov), Yaroslav, Yekaterinoslav (Ekaterinenburg), Lodz, Kazan, Kars, Kertsch, Kischinev, Kursk, Mohilew (Mogilev), Mitau, Omsk, Orel, Orenburg, Pensa, Polkowa, Nikolajew (Nikolaiev), Rjäsan, Riga, Rostov, Saratov, Simferopol, Stravropol, Tambov, Tomsk, Tula,Vilna (Wilnius), Warsaw, Vladikavkas, Voronezh, Zytomir (Zhito- mir), Kostroma, Moscow, Vologda, Dorpat, Jurjew, Kiew (Kiev)], as also from medical, anthropological, geographical and historical societies. The Tsar had already conferred a high e6 the alternative spellings in brackets are supplied by the editors.

11 Order on me, and permitted me to be nominated as honorary member of the medical council, and at the same time, initiated a collection of contributions for the Rudolph Virchow Foundation. Notices had arrived from various places to the effect that the collection of such contributions had begun. From Moscow,I count twenty- six addresses, from Petersburg, twenty-six, from Odessa, twelve; from Kiev and Kazan, six each; eight from Kharkov; five from Riga; eight from Jurjew and so on. As far as the participation from abroad is concerned, I must limit myself to this, in itself, so glittering compilation. It will certainly be added to later. But I will just note one additional thing: the participation of that country whose friendship to such a great extent we have gained only in recent years – I mean Japan. How numerous are our medical graduates there; how loyally they retain the memory of their German education and what great help they already have given to us in research into difficult scientific problems! News of the celebrations in Tokyo only reached us here in recent days.The German Ambassador, Count Arco, had gathered his compatriots with Japanese friends in the embassy (in Tokyo), and I received their collective greetings. But individual scholars too, sent festive greetings; even from Kyoto – the newest Japanese University – there came a warm address (signed by Fujinami and Nakarai). At the top of the list of men in Tokoyo, there was our much honoured compatriot Professor Baelz who had only recently returned from his visit home. Under his leadership, we may well hope that the medical schools of Japan will in the future, fulfill their great cul- tural mission of propagating modern scientific methods in East Asia, and to

266 Pages in thanks for my friends make it firm for a long time, just as has happened in brilliant fashion, in America, thanks to others of our pupils! I see that I must keep things short, so as not to appear overly conceited. Holding back is doubly difficult for me, because now I have to talk about Ger- many. The task is the more difficult because my gratitude is aroused most strongly. Because here I should not only have to speak of the scholars and learned societies, of the most numerous benefactors and 12 friends – in particular of the many friends in political, local governmental and commercial spheres – but also and especially, of the great and surprising recognition which has been accorded me in the most heartfelt form and unexpected degree. It is common knowledge that already before the celebration, his Majesty the Emperor and King, awarded me the highest “scientific” order of Prussia, and thereby gave the impetus to a general sympathy for me.An address of praise and the conferring of the great Golden Medal for science will keep this gracious recognition in permanent memory for me and my family.A dispatch from the Imperial Chancellor, at the Hubertusstocke7 of the 12th October, and an address from the State Secretary for the Ministry of the Interior confirmed my interpretation in the most friendly form. The Royal Prussian Ministry of Edu- cation presented a marble bust of me – executed by Hans Arnold – to the new Pathological Museum, the erection of which realized my earliest academic am- bitions. This bust was unveiled by his Excellency the Minister of Education himself, with a laudatory address at the beginning of the celebrations. Through its secretary, the Academy of Sciences delivered its most flattering congratulations, accompanied by a bronze medallion, which the Academy had commissioned from B. Kruse. The Silesian Museum for the Applied Arts and Antiquities in Breslau presented a gold plaquette by E. Kempfer. The Imperial Leopold- Caroline German Academy of Natural Scientists presented an address together with their Gold Medal. The committee of the German Doctors’ Association brought a splendidly-executed illuminated homage. Everything of precious gifts in my honour, and artistically-presented addresses which have reached me, I passed on to Professor Lessing for public exhibition at his request. This took place in the beautiful Lichthof e8 of the Museum of Applied Arts. It aroused general admiration. I cannot close without expressing my particular gratitude to some eminent royal persons e7 a Hunting lodge of the Emperor, on Lake Werbellin, about 50 km north-east of Berlin. e8 a naturally-lit courtyard; may refer to the building now part of the Technical University of Berlin. who have been friendly to me for a long time; and who have indicated the con- 13 tinuation of their interest by their telegrams at this celebration too. These were Princess Theresa of Bavaria, Dukes Johann Albrecht and Georg of Mecklen- burg, Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, and the Duke of Ratibor.

267 Appendix 1b

In the face of these really unusual honours accorded to me, I can do nothing more than repeat my warmest and most heartfelt thanks. The feeling of indebt- edness is too great for me to express in writing, with any words which would do justice to my feelings. I am also too old to envisage new achievements worthy enough to be regarded as a gift in return. I shall not tire of working as long as my powers are sufficient. But I cannot promise any more than that I will try to bring a series of larger projects – which I began in earlier years – to a conclusion which is also useful for the world at large. For the rest, I can only ask that my future works should receive the same benevolent and considerate judgment, which I have hitherto enjoyed in rich measure and far beyond all expec- tation. The benevolent – I may perhaps say the loving – reception which I have encountered at these celebrations strengthens me in the wish to carry on working still for some time with the same dedication and independence. If it were correct that the world is ungrateful, then it would certainly be the greatest ingratitude if I were to apply this experience to myself too, and wished accordingly to regard it as a general characteristic of humanity. No one could expect to find, or certainly to claim, greater friendly support than that which I have encountered in all circles of our people and even amongst those belong- ing to foreign nations. I did not demand such devotion – it was voluntarily accorded me – neither did I expect it, but I thereby become all the more pleasantly surprised and deeply indebted. Whoever of the comrades of my youth, in some cases even of my childhood, who are still alive; and whatever of those things which have remained to me from the manifold

14 campaigns of earlier years; – all those people and things have come back to me again on this occasion, personally or by letter. Compatriots from Pomerania – the memory of whom I was able to renew only with some effort – announced themselves; in particular my old Schivelbein friends, have, as always, come confidently in order to bear witness to the permanence of their feelings. The faculty of the Gymnasium at Köslin where once upon a time I, as a pupil, enjoyed my pre-education, assured me anew of their loyal memory. Every city in which I once lived was busy in doing something special and particularly pleasant. But that does not merely apply to the past. If I look around then, alongside acquain- tances from earlier times, I always see numerous friends from the present time, and it seems to me that specifically the sympathetic participation of present- day people, must signify for me a reliable indication of real loyalty and constancy. A small anecdote from the last few days has as I see, found wide and strikingly rapid circulation throughout the daily press. When I returned home from one of these celebrations late at night, I found to my greatest surprise that my little street, the Schellingstrasse, was brightly and completely illuminated. I had had no idea that my neighbours wished to receive me so kindly. But the street was also completely full of children, including quite small ones. I had to find my way to the door of my house through a real avenue of children, and the cries of

268 Pages in thanks for my friends jubilation from the little ones only ended when I had disappeared inside the house. But however often I now show myself in the street, the little ones come towards me with outstretched hands saying “Good morning Mr Virchow”! Thus from day to day, this feeling is passed on from child to child, and it should not surprise one if it stirs too, amongst the adults and even amongst the old people. The finest evening which I experienced at this time was a quite intimate celebration of our Manual Workers Society. Years ago, I myself had been a co-founder, and had followed its early stages with advice and deed. That was at a time when the then Crown Prince Friedrich still had leisure to concern himself with questions of the education of adults among the people at large.

How often did he – and sometimes accompanied by his wife, the recently- 15 deceased Empress Friedrich – come to our Manual Workers Society in order to see its progress for himself. And when finally we had got so far as to complete a building of its own for the Club, how he, much to our joy, participated in it! Then came the time when our Manual Workers Society became the model for such organizations; when our young members went out into the world as apos- tles and founded Manual Workers’ Societies everywhere.There were such groups from Riga to Lisbon, and for our traveling members, it was everywhere as if a home had been prepared for them. The vitally encroaching wave of Socialism has in large part annihilated these creations. In spite of this, the Berlin Manual Workers Society has remained alive, and when I appeared recently at the celebration offered to me; when the old songs sounded forth; when I myself again gave a speech, then all hands reached out towards me like those of the children from Schellingstrasse. That is the gratitude of the people, and therefore I may say to every one; trust the people and work for them; then your reward will not be lacking, even if the demolition of numerous institutions, the disappearance of many people, the complete re-shaping of public life, brings the thought of our mortality very close to us. That is my confession of faith, and I hope to get by with this as long as I live. The City authorities of Berlin, the committees of all our hospitals, the learned societies and corporations throughout Germany have filled my family archives with wonderful addresses and diplomas of honour. Not a few of these societies have taken me up into the ranks of their members whilst conferring special titles of honour on me. If I do not go here into further detail, I must ask that this not be regarded as any undervaluation or disrespect vis à vis those not named, but only to consider that a complete survey could not be given in this expression of thanks.

Berlin, 15th December 1901.

269 Appendix 1c

Some personal remiscences

By Sir Felix Semon

British Medical Journal ii, September 13th: 800–802 (1902)

Editors’ comments Felix Semon (1849–1921) was born and educated in Germany, but moved to Britain, where he became a very successful surgeon. He was a staunch admirer and friend of Virchow from the 1870s until the latter’s death. Semon’s autobiography was published in 1926.

Editors’ summary of points P 800, first meeting with Virchow; Virchow’s wide range of interests; his exactness tantamount to pedantry; feared by students as a teacher and examiner; 801, Semon’s own experience of this in a practical examination, Schiller quoted; nevertheless generally admired by students; genial at home, amiable at public gatherings, but caustic, ironic and sarcastic in argument; a friend of England; 802 English admirers; lack of recreations; unpunctuality; busy daily schedule; elements of his greatness.

Sir Felix Semon, C.V.O., who was a pupil and personal friend of Professor Virchow, has kindly contributed the following reminiscences of the great pathologist: – The Editor of the British Medical Journal has requested me to add to the tribute paid to the scientific life-work of Rudolf Virchow in these columns by contributing some personal reminiscences of my great master, and I willingly comply with his wish. It is now more than thirty years since I was presented to him, and I shall never forget the occasion of my introduction. Shortly after the end of the Franco-German war I was riding in the Thiergarten of Berlin, when I was hailed by a relative of mine, a member of the Berlin Town Council, returning from a meeting of that body in company with Professor Virchow, who then was, and indeed until a few years ago continued to be, one of the most energetic and influential members of the Berlin municipality. My relative presented me to the Professor, who directly pronounced the horse I rode a thoroughbred, and entered upon a disquisition on its qualities in a manner which fairly took my breath away. If he had authoritatively spoken about the latest phase of Prince Bismarck’s policy, about the canalization of Berlin, about some recent discoveries of lake-dwellers’ habitations, or of tumuli in Pomerania, or about a recent

270 Some personal remiscences attack on his cellular pathology – one would have thought it perfectly natural in view of his well-known universality; but that the Leader of the Radicals in the German Reichstag and the Prussian Parliament, the Berlin Town Councillor, the President of the German Anthropological Society, the Professor of Pathological Anatomy in the University of Berlin, and the member of innumerable learned societies, should be able to discuss with equal authority the points of a thoroughbred – was, indeed, more than I had expected. At any rate it filled me at once with profound respect for the universality of his information, and this feeling deepened as years rolled by, and as I had the privilege of more and more frequently and intimately coming into contact with him. Whilst his knowledge of medical literature of all times and all nations was simply phenomenal, his acquaintance with all events of the day, with the progress of general science, with history, geography, general literature, art, was equally astounding. And what was most impressive was that his knowledge in all these various branches – the complete mastery of any one of which usually is looked upon as a very creditable achievement – was as thorough as it was general. Virchow, in fact, was nothing if not exact, and it was one of his most characteristic features that he demanded the same exactness in thought and expression which distinguished him from everybody with whom he came in contact. His critical faculties were, so to say, instinctive and ever on the alert. He rarely allowed an inexact or random statement inadvertently made in his presence to pass without correcting it, and when his own work came into question he was positively inexorable in his demands concerning the absolutely exact rendering of his meaning. I have had some experience of this in connexion with the translation of a few of his addresses into English. As a rule, when invited to give an address in this country, he sent his German manuscript for translation some time before he arrived, and it need not be said that only first-rate men were entrusted with this responsible task. As a matter of fact all his English addresses known to me were magnificently translated, and the author himself, when first glancing over the translation, was delighted. But he then usually withdrew into his room (ever since 1881 when coming to London he did me the honour of staying with me), and shortly afterwards there was a little knock at my door. So as soon as I heard that knock I knew what was coming and my mis- givings were rarely falsified. He thought that such and such a phrase did not exactly enough render his meaning, and after he had once embarked upon that course there was no holding him. He grimly insisted on getting exactly what he wanted, and I remember at least two occasions when he was still actually correcting his manuscript whilst his audience was already assembling, and when I had the greatest difficulty in getting him on to the platform in proper time. Admirable as this was, it cannot be gainsaid, I am afraid, that his love of exactness occasionally amounted to a certain degree of pedantry.Thus, how often did he drive some unfortunate candidate whom he examined into sheer despair, because the youth did not exactly enough describe the colour of a specimen,

271 Appendix 1c

and called it “pink”, whilst he ought to have said “violet!” How often did he suddenly interrupt himself in the midst of a most interesting pathological lecture, in the course of which he had sent round among the audience some illus- trative specimens, and personally apostrophize an unsuspecting student in anything but complimentary terms, and at very considerable length, because he had noted that that unlucky individual held the glass containing the specimen somewhat obliquely, and because he feared that the spirit of wine in which it was preserved might touch and spoil the varnish by means of which the cover was sealed! In this connexion, I may say at once that my dear old master never was very gentle with his students, and that, particularly as an examiner, he was terribly feared. I have often wondered and never been able to understand why just on these occasions he should have so much departed from his usual quiet demeanour and have terrorized the innocents to such a degree that many of them actually forgot the little they knew. But whatever the explanation, the fact remains. The number of anecdotes known in connexion with this peculiarity of his is simply legion, and it may not be amiss in a memoir of this character if by way of illustration I related part of my own experiences with him when I passed my State examination. I ought to premise that on the last occasion on which I had seen him, namely, after passing my examination for the M.D. of Berlin, he had been kindness personified. Well, the day before I was up for the pathological “station” as it is called, of the State examination, I had to deliver a message from the clinic of the late Professor Traube, as one of whose clinical clerks I then acted, at the Pathological Institute.Virchow’s assistant was just engaged in making a necropsy, and, seeing me, asked whether he was mistaken in thinking that I was to be under examination next day. On my confirming his impression, he said, “Well, you had better look at this. It is a thing one does not see every day, namely, a melanotic sarcoma with numerous metastases. Who knows but that you may not be examined on that very subject.” I thanked my friend for

801 his kindness and asked for a little piece of the tumour. My request was willingly granted, and after my return home I examined the growth under the microscope and read up all I had put down on sarcoma in my memorandum book when listening to Virchow’s own lectures on the subject. Next morning the eight victims about to be immolated appeared at the appointed time – 8 a.m. punctually – in evening dress (such was, and possibly still may be, the ridiculous fashion) at the Pathological Institute. It was customary that two of the candidates should begin by making necropsies simultaneously, two should write the protocols of these examinations under their comrades’ dictation, two should prepare on the spot microscopic specimens, and the two remaining ones should be examined viva voce.After a while they all exchanged their occupations. In which order they were to begin was left entirely to the examiner’s decision, so that nobody knew beforehand what was first in store for him.

272 Some personal remiscences

Well, we waited and waited two mortal hours for the arbiter of our destinies. (I shall hereafter have something to say about Virchow’s general unpunctuality.) At last we espied him through the window, rushing up the little incline which led to the door of the old Pathological Institute. We grouped ourselves in a semicircle and received him with a deep bow. Without deigning to explain by a single word his late appearance, he immediately and not in the gentlest tone either, addressed me personally: “I suppose you are waiting for the permission of a magistrate (obrigkeitliche Erlaubniss) to open your microscope?” Seeing that I could not have the remotest idea that I should have first to use the microscope this was certainly a stunner. I, of course, did not reply, and made my microscope ready, whilst he ordered the other candidates about. “The two gen- tlemen who are to make a microscopic examination, to come here! There, sir (addressing me), is something for you.” Oh joy! It was the melanotic sarcoma! I turned round to look for a wooden tray on which to place the piece of tumour held out to me by the Professor, when I again heard his voice in its most caustic tones: “That is quite like your own dear self! Why look afar, when what you desire is near?” (In German he quoted Schiller: Warum in die Ferne schweifen? Sieh’ das Gute liegt so nah’!) “If you had only condescended to look in front of you, you would have seen a tray on the table before you.” This was true enough, but certainly not very en- couraging. However, I received my piece of tumour and withdrew to the window, where I had placed my microscope. There I prepared as characteristic a slide of the growth as I could and waited for the dreaded moment of his coming to me. Meanwhile he raged about amongst my unfortunate comrades, like furious Ajax amongst the herds of the Achaeans. At last I heard his voice behind me: “What have you got there?” The accumulated experience of many generations had taught candidates, under no circumstances to begin by giving a diagnosis, and merely to describe appearances. This I did whilst he was attentively exam- ining the preparation under the microscope. When I had finished he looked up, pushed his spectacles up, looked at me straight with his piercing eyes, and asked: “You see that?” Greatly surprised, I answered, “Yes, sir.” “I don’t,” was the reply; and next moment he was far away, scolding another candidate. I remained behind, much bewildered. Surely it was a sarcoma; surely I had given him a correct description? At last it dawned upon me that perhaps my preparation, although I had considered it a beauty, was not good enough for him. So I sat down again and laboriously fitted up another, which really was most characteristic. After about an hour, I heard his voice again behind me: “What have you got there?”“The same, sir, that I reported when first you asked me.”“What was that?” I repeated my description. He again looked up when I had finished, again pushed his spectacles up, looked at me again, and said: “You appear to possess an excellent memory, and to have learned by heart the pages of your

273 Appendix 1c memorandum book.”With this shrewd but enigmatic remark, he ran away again, leaving me this time absolutely nonplussed. I looked at the preparation under the microscope as he had left it. Surely there was all I had described. What to do now? After some deliberation I decided to do nothing, and simply to wait for the development of events.After another hour he came up again with the same question he had twice before addressed to me. I replied that I could only repeat what I had said before, “What do you think it is?” “A melanotic sarcoma, sir.” “You may go home.” And thus ended the first day of my examination in pathological anatomy, leaving me absolutely uncertain whether I had passed this part satisfactorily or whether I had been ploughed in it.After some very tempestuous occurrences on the second day I ultimately found that I had passed, and very satisfactorily, too, but I cannot honestly say that these two days were amongst the happiest of my life. Although experiences of that kind were for nearly half a century the rule, not the exception, amongst the candidates who presented themselves for examination at Berlin, Virchow, particularly during the last twenty years of his life, when the historical halo had begun to form which so happily surrounded his last phase of life, was very popular amongst his students.They had sense enough to see in him one of the greatest personalities of our times, they were happy and proud to be his pupils, and they came to look upon the examination as an un- pleasant but unavoidable elementary necessity.The Festkommerse in his honour on the occasion of his 70th and 80th birthdays eloquently testified to his popu- larity amongst the youngest generations of students; whilst his older pupils came to be devoted to him with truly filial love. Nothing, for instance could be more touching than to hear the late Dr.Wilson Fox speak of Virchow. He looked up to him, fine man though he was himself, as to a superior being.Virchow himself was very fond and, as he well might be, very proud of his former assistants. To very few men it is given, as it was to him, to educate such a “school” of brilliant men, as he did; and whenever he spoke of them, it was with paternal pride and affection. And how could it be otherwise when such men as Cohnheim, von Recklinghausen, Waldeyer, Ponfick, and Grawitz – to mention but a few – were amongst them. Altogether, to see my dear old master in his most gentle and most genial mood, one had to see him in the circle of his family and friends.At great public gatherings, such as the International Medical Congresses, of which he was a regular visitor and at which he naturally formed the centre of attraction, he was amiable and kind enough, although occasionally, when people who had no earthly claim upon his time and attention bothered him overmuch, he disposed of them in very curt and peremptory fashion. In the course of political or medical discussions, when his ire had been roused, he was a truly formidable opponent, de- molishing his antagonists whilst hardly ever raising his voice, by the force of inexorable logic, accurate information, and icy irony; whilst at other occasions, when he disdained to descend into the arena, the mere half amused, half sar-

274 Some personal remiscences castic expression of his face was enough to confound his adversaries. But the most charming side of his character – his love for his family, his indulgence for his friends, his chivalrous kindliness towards women, were only revealed to a favourite few. His family simply adored him – his wife, his faithful companion for more than fifty years, had no other thought beside him, and those whom he honoured by his friendship vied with one another in making his path as smooth as they could. Of England he was ever a staunch friend. Various circumstances concurred to confirm this predilection. In the first place the liberal institutions of this country appealed to his own political instincts. He was reared at a time when the whole Continent of Europe suffered from that reaction which followed the Napo- leonic wars, and when England alone was the bulwark of political freedom. He, himself the protagonist of the claims of the educated middle classes towards a very different position and appreciation in the body politic from what was accorded to them by the bureaucratic and feudal régime dominant in Prussia before 1848; himself a martyr to the convictions he fearlessly expressed after having witnessed the Silesian typhus epidemic of 1846, saw his own ideas of civil liberty realized in England, and admired it for this reason. Secondly, familiar as he was with medical literature of all countries and all times, he found much in the writings of various British medical worthies that was congenial to his own mode of thought. Thus I well remember how he always held up to his students John Goodsir as a model of keen and accurate observation; thus many of the readers of this will remember the eloquent tribute he paid in his Croonian lec- 802 ture to the achievements of Glisson. Thirdly, he had many devoted English friends, whose feeling of personal attachment he warmly reciprocated. I have already mentioned Wilson Fox; I may further mention Professor Huxley,Sir James Paget, Lord Lister, Dr. Pye-Smith. He also had the highest opinion of poor Kanth- ack, whom we have lost much too early, and of Mr. Shattock, whose preparations at St. Thomas’s Hospital Museum he was in the habit of praising very enthusiastically.With Sir James Paget and his family an almost life-long friendship united him, and it was extremely touching when Sir James, who had long retired from all participation in social functions, drove up, shortly before his death to call on Virchow, and when the latter descended into the street to ex- change a few kindly words with his old friend. Equally touching it was when, on the occasion of the small dinner given by Virchow on the occasion of his 80th birthday to his family and a few intimate friends, he did such eloquent homage to the greatness of Lord Lister’s work that the latter could hardly restrain his emotion. Nothing could have been more elevating, more stirring, than this tribute of genuine admiration paid by one great man to another. Finally, as explaining his particular liking of England, I can testify to the gratitude which Virchow felt, and more than once freely expressed to me, for the warmth of the receptions he always met with when visiting our shores. It will be in the recollection of many

275 Appendix 1c readers of this, that his two last visits to this country, namely, when he delivered the Croonian and the Huxley lectures, were a real sort of triumphal progress. He cherished the memory of the goodwill and enthusiasm then bestowed upon him amongst his most valued recollections. His recreations were few. He never indulged in any form of sport, and he worked hard even during his so-called holidays. Altogether the feeling of duty was uppermost in him; and even when he had attained the zenith of fame, he considered no form of work connected with his duties beneath him.A most characteristic fact in this connexion is that for more than fifty years he personally, and most attentively too, read the proofs of every single article published in his Archiv für pathologische Anatomie. How many editors, I wonder, can say thus much for themselves? I have incidentally mentioned his habitual unpunctuality. At the time when I was a student at Berlin this used to be made a subject of great complaint, particularly with regard to his professorial duties, and it cannot be denied that it was very aggravating, when the lecture to which one looked forward most eagerly in one’s day’s work was often unduly curtailed through the lecturer’s late appearance, or even omitted altogether. But how could it be otherwise with that unique man’s unique activity? His day was not an ordinary man’s day; he compressed into it the work of several industrious men! Let me sketch one such day. He would conduct an examination from 8 to 10, would superintend a microscopic class from 10 to 12, would lecture from 12 to 1, would be in the Reichstag from 2 to 5, in the Town Council from 5 to 6, in some committee meeting of the Prussian Parliament from 6 to 7, and preside at the meeting of the Berlin Medical Society or at the Anthropological Society, or deliver some popular address, or again do committee work from 7 to 9.Well may I be asked, But where did his meals come in? Where did all his enormous original and editorial literary work, his correspondence, his family life come in? Well, that is the wonder of all who had the privilege of coming near him. One of the explanations of his superhuman activity is that he required infinitely less sleep than most mortals. When I was a student at Berlin there was a sort of legend that he never slept more than five hours.When later on I had the great good for- tune of being admitted into his family circle, I asked, whether there was any truth in that legend, and to my surprise learned that often it fell far behind the truth, and that more than once he had, when under – what was for him – exceptional pressure of work, not gone to bed at all, but worked through the whole night! Honour to a man who thus sacrifices himself for the public weal, and every allow- ance for his unavoidable unpunctuality! Strait-laced people may object that a man ought not to undertake more work than he could punctually fulfil, but whilst this in the case of ordinary mortals is true enough, the reply in Virchow’s case is that the world in many respects would have been much poorer had this wonderful man limited himself to the ordinary professor’s work and not shed the lustre of his personality, of his lofty mind, of his inexorable logic upon politics,

276 Some personal remiscences municipal work, anthropology, ethnology, and a hundred other branches of human thought. If a few details of his routine work necessarily suffered from physical inability to be in several places at once, the whole human race benefited from the application of this master mind to so many different human interests. In the description which I gave last year in these columns of the celebration of his eightieth birthday particular attention was drawn to the fact that nothing had been more impressive in the homage done by representatives of all civilized nations to this “grand old man of science” than the universality of interests in which they agreed that humanity had been benefited by him. He was so fresh, so indefatigable on that occasion, that we all confidently hoped he would be spared to us for many years to come in all the wonderful freshness of his mind, in the no less wonderful elasticity of his body. The ease with which this octogenarian undertook, during what he was pleased to call his “holiday,” scientific journeys, which took him from Berlin to London and Edin- burgh, from Edinburgh to Transsylvania, from Transsylvania to Breslau, from Breslau to Switzerland, was no less astounding than the fact that on the occasion of his 80th birthday he delivered, without any notes whatever, an address lasting nearly two hours, brimful of historical dates, in which he gave his views of the development of medicine and of his relationship to the last phases of this development. And now, so soon afterwards, he has been taken from us. We shall not see him any more in the flesh, as “Spy” has luckily preserved him for us in one of Vanity Fair’s most brilliant and characteristic cartoons: the little, slightly bent, lithe man with the parchment-like, somewhat yellowish, much wrinkled face and the slightly grizzled hair, which remained practically unchanged during the thirty years I have known him; with the small, piercing eyes covered by spectacles, which he always pushed up when reading or when about to make one of his caustic remarks; with his dry,sarcastic, somewhat monotonous voice; with his rapid gait, with his quiet, unostentatious demeanour – in every respect the best type of a German professor. To the world he was a genius and a model; to his science one of the greatest pathfinders; to his country a patriot who fearlessly did what he conceived to be his duty; to his family, his friends, and his pupils the kindest, most considerate, most beloved counsellor and friend.With the deepest sorrow we see him depart, but our consolation is that his work remains behind him, and that his fame, great as it is amongst his contemporaries, will increase as time goes on to legendary greatness, his name being ranked, as it deserves to be, with the greatest encyclo- paedic minds the human race has produced. Requiescat in pace, magna anima!

277 Appendix 1c

Figure A.1 (above) Virchow’s funeral cortege.

Figure A.2 (below left) Virchow’s grave (photographed 2006 by Dr Peterson).

Figure A.3 (below right) Grave plaque (photographed 2006 by Dr Peterson).

278 Some personal remiscences

Figure A.4 Virchow memorial at the Charité Hospital in Berlin (photographed 2006 by Dr Peterson).

279 Appendix 1d

Obituary

Professor Rudolph Ludwig Karl Virchow

The Lancet ii, September 13th: 762–765 (1902)

GERMANY, and with her the entire scientific world, mourns the loss of Pro- fessor Rudolph Virchow who passed away on Friday last (Sept. 5th, 1902) in the eighty-first year of his age. As a man of science he was world-famous, and justly so, even if his reputation depended on his “Cellular Pathology” alone, for by this epoch-making work, indebted though he was, in part at least, to the researches of previous observers, such as Schwann and his former teacher, Müller, he rescued the science of treatment from the stigma of empiricism and established it firmly upon the basis of a scientific appreciation of ultimate causes. As a democratic politician he represented to his countrymen the very spirit of progress and social reform, and as such his name will remain a cherished memory. So strenuous was his advocacy of his principles and so uncompromising was his language in the opposition to what he considered retrograde measures as to provoke a challenge from Count von Bismarck on the occasion of the defeat of the Government on a navy vote – a challenge which he happily possessed the courage to decline. Although over 80 years of age Professor Virchow was in the habit of jumping on and off the tram-cars whilst they were in motion and on the occasion of the accident, which occurred to him on Jan. 5th, he slipped on getting down and fell heavily in the road. He lost consciousness for a certain time but on recovering was enabled to give his name and address to a policeman by whom he was removed to his house. Professor Körte of the Urban Hospital was called in and found that Professor Virchow had fractured the neck of his femur.There was a great amount of shock present and for the first few days after the accident a fatal issue was expected, but Professor Virchow’s constitution proved to be so excellent that he was soon in a fair way to recovery.Although advised to abstain from all mental work he was not a very tractable patient, and it is reported that he took so much interest in his own case that he declared that no osseous union would take place and that skiagrams which were taken proved the correctness of his opinion.After a time, however, he was able to get about on crutches and early in May he was removed to Teplitz with a view to try the effects of the hot springs which exist here. He improved so rapidly that after a few weeks’ stay he was able to go to Hartzburg.A very inclement summer, however, prevented him from taking due advantage of the mountain air. He was nearly always compelled to keep his

280 Obituary rooms and by-and-by symptoms of bodily and mental debility supervened. He became more and more apathetic, slept for the greater part of the day, and was unable to leave his chair.About three weeks ago his friends decided to take him home and although the journey from Hartzburg to Berlin takes only four hours it had a very bad effect upon him. He became unconscious and never really re- covered from the coma, but expired on the afternoon of the Sept. 5th. The news was received with the deepest sorrow by every class of the population of Berlin, and the Municipal Council, to which Professor Virchow had belonged since he went to live in Berlin, held an extraordinary meeting and decided that the funeral should be of a public character. Rudolph Ludwig Karl Virchow was born on Oct. 13th, 1821, at the small town of Schivelbein, near Stettin, in Farther Pomerania. Of his early years there is but scant record; he appears to have received his education in the gymnasium at Cöslin, where he distinguished himself by his linguistic abilities. In addition to his knowledge of Latin, Greek, English, and French he was a good Hebrew scholar and selected that language as an optional subject for his Abiturienten examination at the age of 18 years. He entered at the Friedrich-Wilhelm Institut,a training college for army surgeons now known as the Kaiser Wilhelm Academie, in 1839, where during the next five years he studied under, amongst others, Müller, Dieffenbach, and Caspar. In 1843 he proceeded to the degree of Unter- arzt (Berlin University), presenting for his inaugural dissertation a thesis entitled, De Rheumate Praesertim Corneae.Although the students of the Friedrich-Wilhelm Institut received their education on the condition of serving in the army,Virchow, during his career there, showed so much skill and intelligence that by order of the General Staff Surgeon he was released from active service and was given the place of assistant at the Charité Hospital. Selecting the scientific rather than the practical side of his profession he obtained the following year the post of prosector of anatomy to the Charité Hospital, acting as assistant to Robert Froriep whom he eventually succeeded in 1846. Early in 1847 he became external lecturer in pathology at the University of Berlin, and shortly afterwards founded the well-known Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie, und für klinische Medicin in collaboration with Benno Reinhardt. From the time of his colleague’s death in 1852 onward he continued to edit the journal alone and enjoyed the satisfaction of celebrating its jubilee, together with that of himself as a teacher, at a banquet held in the Kaiserhof in December, 1897. In 1848, an incident occurred which would have proved the undoing of a weaker man. Selected to accompany the medical officer entrusted with the investigation of a severe epidemic of relapsing fever (‘hunger-typhus’) in Silesia, the actual investigation and the preparation of the report thereon devolved upon Virchow, and these duties were carried out in the masterly style characteristic of the man. In his Mittheilungen über die in Oberschlesien herrschende Typhus- epidemie he denounced the evils from which the disease resulted, demanded extensive reforms, and concluded by stating that nothing short of the extension

281 Appendix 1d of the benefits of civilisation to one and a half million living souls would success- fully cope with the epidemic. Such reflections upon the ineptitude of the then administration, coupled with the fact that Virchow on his return had allied himself with the ultra-Radical party and had founded in association with Leu- buscher a medico-political journal, Die Medicinischen Reformen (a paper that ceased to exist when Virchow was appointed to Würzburg), were amply sufficient to ensure his dismissal from all his professional posts in Berlin. His fame as a pathologist had, however, already spread beyond the confines of the capital and the University of Würzburg at once seized the opportunity and offered Virchow the professorship of pathology and the directorship of the newly-founded Patho- logical Institute.These posts were accepted and for the next seven years Virchow devoted himself almost completely to research work, contributing many valuable memoirs to the pages of his Archives and founding a school of workers and thinkers the results of whose observations cannot be too fully appreciated. In 1855 he commenced the publication of his best-known work, Die Cellularpathologie in ihrer Begründung auf Physiologische und Pathologische Gewebelehre, propounding therein, as the basis of his theories, the now familiar dictum, “Omnis cellula e cellula.” On the death of Professor Hemsbach the Faculty of the University of Berlin petitioned the Minister of Public Instruction to offer a chair of pathology to Virchow, and in spite of strong and bitter political opposition the appeal was successful and Virchow returned to Berlin. He accepted his appointment on the condition that a pathological institute should be founded, and the Government agreed to his wishes. Soon after his return to Berlin the first complete edition of his Die Cellular Pathologie appeared in 1858. His great work on new growths, unfortunately never completed, also dates from this period. Under his direction the pathological department, formerly the dissecting-room, of the Charité Hos- pital became a model for similar institutions.With indefatigable zeal he collected specimens of pathological conditions and arranged and classified them till he had got together a collection only to be equalled by the Hunterian Museum in London. One of his greatest satisfactions was when two years ago, on the occasion of the rebuilding of the Charité Hospital, he was able to open the Pathological Museum where his collection had finally found adequate room and was therefore made accessible to students and to the public. Besides this pathological museum he had made a large anthropological collection of his own, consisting mainly of crania of the different human races. Notwithstanding his manifold occupations he delivered his lectures regularly, and his assistants were only allowed to replace him for the practical work in microscopic anatomy and in making dissections. His lectures were attended not only by students but by medical men from every part of the world. He was not an orator in the usual sense of the word; his voice was weak and his speech was simple and without that power of carrying away an audience which is so common among French speakers, but when he was once upon the platform of the lecture-room everybody felt that the little man with

282 Obituary the sharp grey eyes was one to be listened to with the utmost attention. After a few years spent in quiet work Virchow again entered public life as a member of the Berlin Municipal Council, with which body he was connected as an active member for a period of over 40 years. In this capacity his powers of organisation and his conception of the duties of the State with regard to the well-being of the people are evidenced by the establishment of the hospitals of Moabit and Friedrichshain and the lunatic asylums of Dalldorf and Lichtenberg. His greatest work, however, in practical hygiene was concerned with the introduction of drainage and in the erection of sewage-farms, hygienic improvements which he was enabled to carry out despite the opposition and the want of judgment displayed by a great part of the population and even by the authorities. Some doubts were expressed whether the soil of Berlin and its neighbourhood were fitted for a system of sewerage and a sewage farm. Experience, however, has shown that Virchow’s genius was right in insisting upon it, as since the establishment of the system Berlin has become one of the healthiest towns on the continent, enteric fever scarcely ever prevailing.Virchow’s hygienic work is closely connected with his political career. He was, as we have already stated, early elected a member of the Municipal Council and this position enabled him to carry out in a practical manner what he had found by theoretical and statistical studies to be the best for the health of the town. In 1862 he took his seat in the Prussian Diet and by sheer ability was soon recognised as the leader of the Radical party.This position he resigned, however, in 1878 and in 1880 he became a deputy of the Imperial Reichsrath. As leader of the Opposition he did yeoman service for his country, though his frequent conflicts with the Government prevented any of those decorations which are occasionally bestowed even upon scientific men falling to his lot. In 1866 his untiring energy found another outlet in the organisation of the ambulance service for the army, both in that campaign and in the succeeding one of 1870–7l. Pathology and politics, however, were insufficient to fill the life of this remarkable man. He was President of the German Geographical Society and the Society of Anthropology and Ethnology (of which he was one of the founders), and of many others.Archaeology and Egyptology also claimed place in his multitudinous interests, and it may truly be said that in whatever branch of science he worked he became an acknowledged authority. Honours of all kinds were showered upon him. In 1874 he became a member of the Royal Academy of Science in Berlin. On the occasion of the centenary of the Institut de France Virchow was made a Commander of the Legion of Honour and in the following year he became a Foreign Associate of the French Academy of Sciences. In 1893 Virchow visited England and delivered the Croonian Lecture of the Royal Society, a full report of which will be found in The Lancet of March 18th, 1893, p. 571; it was delivered in English, the subject being, “The Position of Pathology among the Biological Sciences.” The discourse, which shortly showed the steps by which Virchow had felt himself able to give utterance to his famous dictum, Omnis cellula e cellula, was a masterly exposition of the

283 Appendix 1d progress of pathology from the time of Harvey. Some six months previously the Royal Society had honoured both itself and Virchow by awarding him the Copley medal, a distinction of which he himself said, “Its significance far ex- ceeds the distinctions which the changing favour of political powers is accustomed to bestow.” It was awarded for his investigations in Pathology, Path- ological Anatomy, and Prehistoric Archaeology. He visited London again in 1898 and gave the Huxley Lecture at the Charing Cross Medical School on the “Recent Advances in Science and their bearing on Medicine and Surgery,” a lecture that impressed his hearers with the fact that advancing years had not blunted either his keen enthusiasm or his comprehensive grasp of detail.The lecture was delivered on Oct. 3rd and on the 5th Virchow was entertained at dinner at the Hôtel Métropole by the members of the medical profession of Great Britain and Ireland. Lord Lister presided, but Sir John Simon, Sir James Paget, and Sir Thomas Grainger Stewart were unavoidably absent. Of these three Sir John Simon alone remains to us, the other two having passed away. It was upon this occasion that Sir Samuel Wilks, the President of the Royal College of Physicians of London, said that he remembered the time somewhere about 40 years before when he was beginning to study the subjects which Pro- fessor Virchow had so advantageously taken up. He and his contemporaries were groping their way in the dark when a light came upon them suddenly from afar – a light which illuminated everything and penetrated into the interior and gave them a new insight into physiology and pathology. Virchow came to generalise like another Newton and gave them the Principia of medical science. With advancing years every occasion was taken of expressing to the Alt- meister the affection and appreciation of contemporaries and pupils alike. Thus in 1891 his seventieth birthday was celebrated and a gold medal was presented to him by his Emperor in recognition of the immense services which he had ren- dered to science; in 1893, the fiftieth anniversary of his doctorate, and again in 1897, the jubilees of his first teaching appointment and of the foundation of the Archiv were made the subjects of sincere and hearty rejoicings; whilst on the occasion of his eightieth birthday – only last year – delegates from practically all the civilised countries of the world assembled in Berlin to do him honour. In the space at our disposal it is utterly impossible to attempt anything like a list of Virchow’s contributions to scientific literature or of the various honours of which he was the recipient. Suffice it to say that his active work ceased only with his death – the world’s appreciation of his worth remains. We hope next week to refer to the influence of Virchow as a pathologist upon that science which he has made his own, but we may say here that by his researches into the nature and causes of death he has let into the secret chambers of life a certain amount of light. It is to the patient work of men like Virchow and Pasteur among the dead, and of Lister, Ehrlich, and Van t’Hof among the living, that we may apply the words of Crookes: “In old Egyptian days a well-known inscription was carved over the portal of the temple of Isis:‘I am whatever hath

284 Obituary been, is, or ever will be; and my veil no man hath yet lifted’. Not thus do modern seekers after truth confront nature – the word that stands for the baffling mys- teries of the universe. Steadily, unflinchingly, we strive to pierce the inmost heart of nature, from what she is to reconstruct what she has been and to prophesy what she yet shall be. Veil after veil we have, lifted and her face grows more beautiful, august, and wonderful with every barrier that is withdrawn.” On Tuesday, Sept. 9th, the body of Virchow was laid to rest in the cemetery of St. Matthew. The first portion of the burial service was said in the Rathhaus where the remains had lain overnight.The hall was draped in mourning and over the platform for the speakers hung a crucifix.The Prussian Ministers of Education and of Finance were present, together with Professor Mommsen, Professor Har- nack, and Professor von Bergmann. Professor Waldeyer and others delivered orations and the procession, which was over a mile long, then started on its journey to the cemetery.

285 Appendix 1e

Obituary

Rudolf Virchow

The British Medical Journal, ii, September 13th: 803 (1902)

RUDOLF VIRCHOW is dead.The hero who for the past twenty years has held undisputed pre-eminence in the realm of science is now translated to the Valhalla of his peers. His was the last great figure remaining to us of those who carried the torch of honest inquiry into the dark places of traditional dogma and mediaeval superstition.The universal reverence of mankind was his reward.This universality of recognition is the highest of all testimonies to the greatness of the man, for the ordinary layman is ignorant of the very meaning of the word pathology, one of the few branches of science which has not been made accessible to him by the facile effusions, so beloved in England, of the untrained amateur. It is hard indeed for a medical man, or even an expert pathologist of today, to realize to the full Virchow’s services to pathology.We owe to him not alone the direction which his study has taken during the last half century, but the very symbols in which its language is written.The first names which the student of the science of medicine has to learn were coined by Virchow to designate appearances which he either discovered or was the first to appreciate correctly. But this was only a small part of his work. He it was who recognized that the great laws of biology apply in disease as well as in health. Science is the knowledge of or the attempt to know the causes of things; it was Rudolf Virchow’s life-work to show that the causes of disease are, equally with the functions of the normal animal, accessible to rigid inquiry. What qualifications did this great man bring to his work? What qualities enabled him, alone and unaided, save by the pupils whom he had trained to carry the banner of pathology from the slough of academical speculation, of “free-cell formation” and the study of “humours” to the firm ground of Science and the base of the mountain of Truth? First of all absolute honesty.The very truth was the primary and the ultimate object of his search. Unprejudiced by the authority of his predecessors or the doubts of his contemporaries, free in himself from all cramping preconceptions, he set out resolutely to observe and frankly to record the biological phenomena of disease.The industry and singlemindedness by which he obtained his results was crowned by the definiteness, even the audacity, with which he announced them. Virchow was, like so many of the truly great, a simple-minded man, and the unadorned clearness of his literary style reflects his

286 Obituary character.Add to all these endowments a mind which was to the highest degree both capacious and flexible, and a truly indomitable will, and the sources of his admitted supremacy will be evident. The appearance in 1847 of the first number of Virchow’s Archiv marked a new era in pathology, and for fifty-five years their editor and inspiring power “kept the crown of the causeway” in this branch of science.As he grew older he naturally became rather more cautious in the acceptance of new theories, but on the whole his brain continued to be marvellously elastic, and never led him into any of those lamentable displays of prejudice which are unfortunately only too familiar. The freshness of his Huxley lecture three years ago was not the least of its striking qualities. But it would ill beseem us to devote even this brief appreciation solely to his achievements in pure science. Virchow was above all one who loved his fellow- men. His political views, which, as is well known, were ardently democratic, do not concern us except that we are bound to record that they were the direct outcome of his experience among the famine and disease-stricken weavers of Silesia. But it is not too much to say that modern Berlin is a splendid monument of his zeal in the service of humanity. For three-and-forty years he was the consistent advocate of sanitary reform in that city, of the Municipal Council of which he was by far the most conspicuous figure. Water supply, disposal of sewage, hospitals and asylums, all were remodelled at his instigation and under this watch- ful eye, and an unhealthy metropolis standing upon an open sewer has, thanks to his consistent energy, become one of the most salubrious among the great cities of the world. In 1892 Virchow’s Berlin was able calmly and proudly to defy the challenge of cholera knocking at her very gates. These were his greatest works; but had he not undertaken any of them he had left behind him sufficient contributions to anthropology, to natural history, and to a score of other branches of knowledge to ensure an imperishable renown.We in England will ever remember with gratitude his affection for our island, his admiration for many of our institutions, and his generous recognition of our scientific workers. As the countrymen of Harvey, of Darwin, and of Francis Balfour, we are proud to share in the universal mourning, and to lay a wreath upon the bier of our departed master.

287 Appendix 1f

Virchow as Pathologist

The Lancet, ii, September 20th: 819–20 (1902)

In estimating the influence of VIRCHOW’S work on the evolution of contemporary pathology and in appraising the practical value of his labours in the interpretation of disease it would be unjust to his genius to enumerate merely the roll of his positive achievements. His victories lay rather in his fearless exposure of the many false premises and conceptions which obscured and paralysed the progress of medical knowledge, in redeeming from all suggestion of mysticism our understanding of the essential processes of disease, and in establishing for all time on the firm basis of truth the principles which should guide us in every biological inquiry. In organic evolution it is ever interesting to hazard a speculation as to what might have been the ultimate term of any particular series had any one of the factors in the chain of events which produced such a series been different in kind or in degree.What, for instance, would have eventuated in the evolution of the animal series had there been no glacial period? Or what would have been the ultimate effect on the development of man had some great upheaval of nature destroyed our first vertebrate ancestor without giving him an opportunity of stamping his individuality upon succeeding generations? And in like manner the speculation is not without interest to consider what would have been the trend of evolution in pathology had not VIRCHOW arisen with almost superhuman omniscience to knit together the tangled threads of divergent opinion into a homogeneous fabric of rational medicine? Would progress have advanced along the discordant lines of humoral pathology? Would the embittered strife of oppos- ing schools still sap the energy of giants and direct the stream of genius into profitless and barren channels? Should we still be seeking for the essence of disease in the Archaeus of PARACELSUS? And would the grosser problems of pathology still remain unsolved, tarrying for the unfolding of the secrets of life? However, without indulging further in vain speculations as to the possible fate of present- day pathology had not the genius of VIRCHOW indicated the path which leads to the haven of truth, we will proceed at once to a consideration of the positive results of his investigations and arguments and of his influence in the determination of the universal theory of disease which today is accepted in every quarter of the civilised world. Concisely stated, this theory is that all disease presupposes life and that life is the property of the cell.The activities of the cell are the expression of this life, and they are evoked by stimuli of various kinds which reach the cell from without. The activities of cells individually or collectively are called physiological or

288 Virchow as Pathologist normal as long as the general equilibrium of the organism is not disturbed. They become pathological when they overstep this limit. The conception of the identity in kind of these two vital processes – physiology and pathology – we owe largely to VIRCHOW. His discovery that all animal tissues which gave physiological or pathological evidences of life were composed of individual cells which responded to stimulation made it possible to apply this universal law of disease to every organ or structure in the body. He proved with the inadequate means at his disposal that bones and cartilage and connective tissue were anatomically constructed on the same cellular plan which applied in the case of muscles or secretory glands. He further showed that under the influence of appropriate stimuli each individual cell was capable of dividing and becoming two, and thus he not only explained growth, regeneration of tissue, and tumour formation, but, to use his own words, he was in a position to give utterance to the dictum, Omnis cellula e cellulâ, and to close the great gap which HARVEY’S Ovistic theory had left in the history of animal organisation. The far-reaching applications of this great truth were probably hardly realised by VIRCHOW at the time when he formulated his immortal aphorism, and it is possibly no hyperbole of speech to say that even today its significance to a considerable number of minds is little more than a denial of the possibility of spontaneous generation. The conception of disease as a process and not as an entity is founded on a recognition of the law that cells respond to stimuli by the mani- festation and transformation of energy, and there is no branch of medicine or pathology which has not been profoundly affected by the application of this general principle. We can recognise in the protean symptoms of syphilis the consequences of cell excitation due to the circulation of some intangible poison which we cannot isolate and which we have never seen, but which by the particular application of VIRCHOW’S teaching we know must exist. We can recognise in tuberculosis the effects of constitutional poisoning and the formation of granulations and cells of distinct morphological structure due to the presence of living and organised stimuli which indirectly he has enabled us to isolate, recognise, and define. The insistence on the part of VIRCHOW that specific stimuli produced specific results, that the characters of the pathological lesions are dependent on the specificity of the stimuli – that is to say, on the qualitative rather than on the quantitative properties of the irritant – brought him into direct antagonism with HUEPPE and his school and exposed him to the satirical eloquence of that philosopher and bacteriologist. The study of the life-history of bacteria as occasional causative agents in the production of disease is a comparatively new, albeit a highly fruitful, line of research which in the light of VIRCHOW’S cellular pathology has been opened up and placed upon a rational basis. It is perhaps not too much to say that the development of our knowledge with regard to immunity to the formation of toxins and antitoxins is founded on principles which have been directly evolved from the fundamental conception that the cells in the animal body react mechanically and chemically to for-

289 Appendix 1f eign stimuli. On no other physiological basis could their significance be intelli- gible or the part which they play in the determination of disease be logically explained. In 1858, when VIRCHOW published his “Cellular Pathology,” the work, for which his memory will be for ever immortal, was in a sense complete, and it is a curious coincidence that another work, which won its author everlasting fame and was also in itself almost a complete system of biology – namely, DARWIN’S “Origin of Species” – was likewise published about the same time. VIRCHOW, like DARWIN, sprang into fame with startling suddenness; both of them commenced their illustrious careers by propounding a unitary theory of life which revolutionised their respective departments of biology, and both of them spent the rest of their lives in substantiating details which, though of individual value and interest, were almost entirely of secondary and subsidiary importance in comparison to the limitless possibilities of the great arguments which were out- lined and unfolded in these monumental volumes. The record of VIRCHOW’S published writings has probably never been equalled by any other scientific investigator. The mere titles of his contributions to pathology, quite apart from other subjects, fill more than 20 pages of SCHWALBE’S closely written bibliography, a volume which was published to commemorate the veteran pathologist’s eightieth birthday and which was a complete record of all his published works. Among the more important results of these prolific labours must be included his early investigations into the conditions of vascular inflammation and the refutation of the then accepted theory of phlebitis, while our knowledge of embolism owes its origin and a large measure of its further development to his histological and experimental researches. In this connexion it is interesting to note that PAGET, to whom VIRCHOW undoubtedly owed certain inspirations for his “Cellular Pathology,” should have noticed the same morbid changes in various forms of embolism which VIRCHOW subsequently described and to which he attached a true pathological significance. He further indicated the difference between leukaemia and pyaemia and paved the way for the brilliant results which have more recently been achieved in the differential diagnosis of kindred conditions by the finer methods of haematology. We further enjoy the fruits of his labours in a better understanding of the puerperal condition, of animal pig- ments, of lardaceous disease, of trichiniasis, of syphilis, of leprosy, of cholera, of diphtheria, and of tuberculosis; in fact, there is no branch of pathology which has not benefited by his labours and by his research, and for the most part that favour series of volumes, VIRCHOW’S “Archive,” keeps the record. Like other great men, VIRCHOW made his mistakes, but as often as not it was his own hand that led to his own undoing. His view that the cells of connective tissue were able to take part in the pathological new growth of epithelial cells was based on erroneous observations and his explanation of the deformities and symptoms in cases of cretinism is founded on a pathology which is peculiarly narrow, while his opinion that the pathology of chlorosis could be explained on anatomical

290 Virchow as Pathologist defects in the circulatory system and blood-forming organs is clearly at vari- ance with ascertained facts. RUDOLF VIRCHOW is destined for ever to be remembered as the father of rational pathology and the first initiator of a philosophic system of medicine. Although his conception of disease has in no way elucidated the secrets of life or of protoplastic activities it has nailed the interpretation of the grosser phenomena of disease to the mast of cellular physiology.

291 Appendix 2a

Bibliographies of Virchow’s writings

Andree C. (ed.) (1991) On Greece and Troy, Old and Young Scholars, Wives and Children. Letters of Rudolf Virchow and Heinrich Schliemann 1877–1885 / Über Griechenland und Troja, alte und junge Gelehrte, Ehefrauen und Kinder: Briefe von Rudolf Virchow und Heinrich Schliemann aus den Jahren 1877–1885 / With an Introduction by the editor. / herausgegeben und eingeleitet von Christian Andree. Böhlau, Cologne. (In German). Andree C. (ed.) (1992) Virchow R. Complete Works / Virchow R. Sämtliche Werke.: Peter Lang. 4. Abteilung I. Medizin. – Bern. (In German). Groeben C. and Wenig K. (eds) (1992) Anton Dohrn and Rudolf Virchow, Correspondence 1864–1902 / Anton Dohrn und Rudolf Virchow: Briefwechsel: 1864–1902. With a historical-scientific Introduction by the editors / mit einer wissenschaftshistorischen Einleitung von Christiane Groeben und Klaus Wenig. Akademie Verlag, Berlin. (In German). Hermann J. and Maass E. (1990) (eds), in collaboration with Andree C. and Hallof L. (1990) Correspondence between Heinrich Schliemann and Rudolf Virchow 1876–1890 / Korrespondenz zwischen Heinrich Schliemann und Rudolf Virchow: 1876–1890 / bearbeitet und herausgegeben von Joachim Herrmann und Evelin Maass; in Zusammenarbeit mit Christian Andree und Luise Hallof. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin. (In German). Jahns, C-M. (ed.) (1983). Rudolf Virchow, 1821–1902: Select Bibiography / Auswahlbibliographie. Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin. (In German). Morton L.T. (1993) Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow (1821–1902): Bibliography. J Med Biogr. 1: 46–7. Rabl M. (ed.) (1907) Virchow’s Letters to his Parents 1839–1864 / Rudolf Virchow Briefe an Seine Eltern, 1839 bis 1864. Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig. Translated by L.J. Rather and published in 1990; Science History Publications, Canton, MA. Rather L.J. (1990) A Commentary on the Medical Writings of Rudolph Virchow. Norman Publish- ing, San Francisco. Schwalbe J. (ed.) (1901) Virchow Bibliography / Virchow Bibliographie 1843–1901. Reimer, Berlin. (In German). Wenig K. (ed.) (1995) Rudolf Virchow and Emil du Bois-Reymond: Letters 1864–1894 / Rudolf Virchow und Emil du Bois-Reymond: Briefe, 1864–1894. Basilisken-Presse, Marburg/Lahn. (In German).

293 Appendix 2b

A bibliography of writings about Virchow

This list includes items listed on the website of the Institute for Medical History, University of Würzburg, with additions, especially of English-language material, from various other sources. It also includes works which, although not primarily about Virchow, contain significant material referring to him. Translations of all non-English titles are supplied. A brief English language bibliography is to be found at the website “whonamedit.com”. The reference lists in Schipperges (1983),Andree (2002) and Goschler (2002), and the websiteorganised by Axel W.Bauer “http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/institute/fak5/igm/g47/bauerpa2.htm” provide additional bibliographies of writings about Virchow. However, no English translations of the German language titles are provided in any of these sources. In the following list, all items with a non-English title printed immediately after the English version of that title are written in that non-English language.

Ackerknecht E.H. (1953) Rudolf Virchow: Doctor, Statesman, Politician. Published in German by Enke, Stuttgart; in English by the University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI. Ackerknecht E.H. (1956/57) Virchow in Würzburg. Reports of the Physical-Medical Society of Würzburg / Virchow in Würzburg. Berichte der Physikalisch-Medizinischen Gesellschaft zu Würz- burg. Neue Folge 68: 163–165. Altmann H.W. (1992) Virchow in Würzburg / Virchow in Würzburg. Verhandlungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Pathologie 76: XLV–LXVI. Andree C. (1988) Virchow and the Trias / Virchow und die Trias. Symposium Nürnberg. pp 10–11. Andree C. (2004) Rokitansky and Virchow: the giants of pathology in disputation. Wien med. Wo- chenschr. 154: 458–66. Anon. (1888) Otto von Bismarck and Rudolf Virchow / Otto von Bismarck und Rudolf Virchow. In: Kohut, Adolph: The book of famous duels / Das Buch berühmter Duelle. Repr. D. Originalausg. Berlin, 1888. pp. 127–134. Anon. (1891) Collected essays to mark Virchow’s 70th birthday were published in the Johns Hopkins University Circular No xi. Authors included Welch, Chew and Osler. Some essays were republished in the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal in the same year. Anon. (1893) Rudolf Virchow: impact on general pathology and pathological anatomy on the occasion of the 50th jubilee of his doctorate 1893. Rudolf Virchow: sein Wirken für allgemeine Pathologie und pathologische Anatomie; zu seinem 50 jährigen Doctorjubläum am 21. Oct. 1893 Enth.: Rindfleisch, E. von: Allgemeine Pathologie und pathologische Anatomie. Anon. (1901) Report on the celebration of Rudolf Virchow’s birthday on the 13th October 1901 / Bericht über die Feier von Rudolf Virchows 80. Geburtstag: am 13. Okt. 1901. Schumacher, Berlin. Anon. (1901) Honouring Rudolf Virchow on his 80th birthday / Ehrung Rudolf Virchows zu seinem 80. Geburtstage: am 13. Okt. 1901. Berlin.

294 Appendix 2b: A bibliography of writings about Virchow

Anon. (1902) Obituary: Rudolf Virchow, M.D. British Medical Journal 13. Sept. ii: 795–802. see Appendix 1e. Anon. (1902) “Ceremony in Memory of Rudolf Virchow / Gedächtniss-Feier f. Rudolf Virchow. Extraordinary sitting on the 13th October 1902. Verhandl. d. Berliner Ges. f. Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte. Verl. A. Asher, Berlin. Anon. (1903) Committee for the erection of a memorial for Rudolf Virchow: an invitation / Komitee zur Errichtung eines Denkmals für Rudolf Virchow: Aufruf. Berlin. Anon. (1921) Virchow for his 100th birthday: memorial supplement of the Vossichen Zeitung / Virchow zum 100. Geburtstag : Erinnerungsblatt der Vossischen Zeitung. Vossische Zeitung 482: 1. Anon. (1922) Virchow Rudolf: Professor of pathological anatomy. / Virchow Rudolf: Professor der pathologischen Anatomie 1821–1902. In “Biographies of Franconia” /. In: Lebensläufe aus Fran- ken; 2. Kabitzsch und Mönnich, Würzburg. Anon. (1921) Berlin Medical Society, session on 26th October 1921, on the occasion of Rudolf Virchow’s Centenary / Berliner Medizinische Gesellschaft: Sitzung vom 26. Okt. 1921: z. 100. Geburtstag von Rudolf Virchow. Berlin. klin. Wochenschr. 58: 1364–1365. Anon. (1936) Rudolf Virchow. In: Pommeranian biographies / Rudolf Virchow. In: Pommersche Lebensbilder. Hrsg. von der Landesgeschichtlichen Forschungsstelle für Pommern. 2. Bd. Stettin, pp 198–236. Anon. (1956) 50 years:The Rudolf Virchow Hospital / 50 Jahre Rudolf-Vichow-Krankenhaus. Berlin. Anon. (1974) Virchow’s Egyptian journey 1888. Letters to his wife / Virchow R.Aegyptenreise 1888. Rudolf Virchows Briefe an seine Frau. Die Waage 13: 1–20. Anon. (1962) Troublesome doctor and politician.Rudolf Virchow, the great pathologist and hygien- ist died 60 years ago. Without source / Unbequemer Arzt und Politiker. Rudolf Virchow, der große Pathologe und Hygieniker, starb vor 60 Jahren. Ohne Quelle. (held by the Institute for Medical History, University of Würzburg). Anon. (1966) Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow (1821–1902) Omnis cellula e cellula. Minn. Med. 49: 359–60 contd. Anon. (2003) Billroth T. Pathology and therapeutics, in fifty lectures. 1871. Clin. Orthop. Rel. Res. 408: 4–11. Anon. (1986) Rudolf Virchow: precept and initiator for the DMW / Rudolf Virchow: Vorbild und Anreger für die DMW. In: Staehr, Christian, u.a.: “Looking for Traces” / Spurensuche. Thieme, Stuttgart pp 7–8. Anon. (1986) Sensitivity to Irritation (Rudolf Virchow and the paradigm shift) / Gereizte Empfind- lichkeit (Rudolf Virchow und der Paradigmenwandel) in: Staehr, Christian: “Looking for Traces” / Spurensuche. Thieme, Stuttgart u.a. pp 30–33. Anon. (1986) DMW: For and against Virchow / DMW: Pro und contra Virchow. In: Staehr, Christian u.a. “Looking for Traces” / Spurensuche. Thieme, Stuttgart. pp. 13–15. Anon. (2002) Death day: medical man and politician in one person / Todestag: Mediziner und Politiker in einer Person. Ostpreußenblatt 7. Sept. Anon. (undated) Press reports on the death of Rudolf Virchow / Presseberichte zum Tode Rudolf Virchows. (Institute for Medical History, University of Würzburg). Anon. (undated) From the history of the Institute for pathology at the Charité and the history of the pathological museum, with pictorial material, e.g. cigar advertisement with Virchow’s picture / Aus der Geschichte des Instituts für Pathologie der Charité und des Pathologischen Museums. Incl. Bildmaterial, z.B. Zigarrenwerbung mit Konterfei Virchows. (Held by the Institute for Medical History, University of Würzburg). Anon. (undated) German Pathological Society on 13th October 1901; congratulations on his 80th birthday / Deutsche Pathologische Gesellschaft: Rudolf Virchow zum 13. Oktober 1901: Glück- wunsch zum 80. Geburtstag. (Held by the Institute for Medical History, University of Würzburg). Aschoff L. (1921) Rudolf Virchow: a retrospect / Rudolf Virchow: ein Rückblick. Deut. Medizin. Wochensch. 47: 1185–1188.

295 Appendix 2b: A bibliography of writings about Virchow

Aschoff L. (1921) Virchow’s teaching of the degenerations (passive processes) and their further development / Virchows Lehre von den Degenerationen (passiven Vorgängen) und ihre Weiter- entwicklung. Virchow’s Archiv 235: 152–185. Aschoff L. (1940) Rudolf Virchow. Science and Reputation throughout the World. Rudolf Virchow. Wissenschaft und Weltgeltung. Hoffmann und Campe Verl., Hamburg. Azar H.A. (1997) Rudolph Virchow: not just a pathologist. A re-examination of the report on the hunger-typhus in Upper Silesia. Ann. Diag. Pathol. 1: 65–71. Baccelli G. (1921) Rudolf Virchow, eighty years, anatomical principles celebrated throughout the world / Rudolpho Virchowio, octuagesimo anno nato, Anatomes Principi per Orbem celebratis- simo. Berlin. klin. Wochenschr. 38: 1033–1034. In Italian. Bankl H. (2002) Revolution in the professorial chair / Revolutionär auf dem Lehrstuhl. Mainpost 31. 8. Bauer A. (1982) Virchow in Würzburg / Virchow in Würzburg. In: Bauer, Arnold: Rudolf Virchow. Stapp, Berlin, pp 41–51. Bauer A. (2000) “Politics are nothing more than medicine on a large scale”: Rudolf Virchow as pathologist, reformer and visionary / „Die Politik ist weiter nichts als Medicin im Grossen“: Rudolf Virchow als Pathologe, Reformer und Visionär. Immunologie Aktuell 1: 40–48. Becher W. (1891) “Rudolf Virchow: a biographical study” / Rudolf Virchow: eine biographische Studie. Karger, Berlin. Behr H. (1989) Then the fleas jumped at the Professor’s face / Da sprangen dem Professor die Flöhe ins Gesicht. Mainpost 2/3: 9. Beneke R. (1903) Rudolf Virchow: Memorial address / Rudolf Virchow: Gedächtnisrede. Natur- wissenschaftliche Rundschau 18: 25–27; 35–39; 49–50. Beneke R. (1921) On Virchow’s importance for public health care and welfare / Von Virchows Bedeutung für die öffentliche Gesundheitspflege und Wohlfahrt. Deut. medizin. Wochenschr. 47: 1192–1195. Beneke R. (1940) Rudolf Virchow in the Robert Koch film / Rudolf Virchow im Robert-Koch-Film. Die Medizinische Welt 14: 584 ff. Beneke R. (1942) On ‘saving the honour’ of Rudolf Virchow and the German cell researchers: a notice about the work of Paul Diepgens and Erwin Rosner in Virchow’s Arch 307, 1941 / Zur „Ehrenrettung“ Rudolf Virchows und der deutschen Zellforscher: Anzeige der Arbeit Paul Diepgens u. Erwin Rosners in Virchows Archiv 307. 1941. Die medizin. Welt 16: 779 ff. Bignold, L.P., Coghlan B.L.D. and Jersmann H.P.A. (2007) David Paul Hansemann, Contributions to Oncology. Birkhäuser, Basel. Billroth T. (1924) Medical Sciences in the German Universities. (Translator not stated). Macmillan, New York. Boenheim F. (1957) Virchow: works and impact / Werk und Wirkung. Rütten & Loenig, Berlin. Braun G. (1926) Rudolf Virchow and the chair of pathological anatomy at the University of Zurich / Rudolf Virchow und der Lehrstuhl für pathologische Anatomie an der Universität Zürich. – 68 S. Züricher Medizingeschichtliche Abhandlungen 8. Breathnach C.S. (2002) Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902) and Die Cellularpathologie (1858). J. Ir. Coll. Physicians Surg. 31: 43–6. Brinkhous K.M. et al. (1968) Why Virchow became a physician. Arch. Pathol. 85: 331–334. Chiari H. (1902) Memorial address for Rudolf Virchow: Gedenkrede auf Rudolf Virchow. Prager medizin. Wochenschr. Jg. 27, Nr. 43. Cornil-Paris V.(1901) Memoirs of former times / Souvenirs d’autrefois. Berlin. klin. Wochenschr. 38: 1036. David, Heinz (1931) Rudolf Virchow and the Medicine of the Twentieth Century / Rudolf Virchow und die Medizin des 20. Jahrhunderts. Eds H. David, W. Selberg und H. Hamm, München: Quintessenz, 1993. Dettelbacher W.(1999) Transition from the barricades to the Professorial Chair / Von der Barrikade auf den Lehrstuhl gewechselt. Volksblatt 13. Jan.

296 Appendix 2b: A bibliography of writings about Virchow

Dhom G. (2001) “History of Histopathology” / Geschichte der Histopathologie. Chapters 7 and 8. Springer, Berlin. Dhom G. (2003) Traces of Rudolf Virchow’s contribution to medicine one hundred years on. Rudolf Virchows Spuren in der Medizin nach 100 Jahren. Pathologe 24: 1–8. Diepgen P.(1932) Virchow and Romanticism / Virchow und die Romantik. Deut. medizin. Wochen- schr. 58: 1256–1258. Diepgen P. (1952) The Universality of Rudolf Virchow’s life work / Die Universalität von Rudolf Virchows Lebenswerk. Virchows Archiv 322: 221–232. Diepgen P.and Rosner E. (1941) On saving the honour of Rudolf Virchow and of the German cell researchers / Zur Ehrenrettung Rudolf Virchows und der deutschen Zellforscher. Virchows Archiv 307: 458–489. Dietrich A. (1921) The development of the theory of thrombosis and embolism since Virchow / Die Entwicklung der Lehre von der Thrombose und Embolie seit Virchow. Virchows Archiv 235: 212–224. Doerr W. (1978) Jean Cruveilhier, Carl v. Rokitansky, Rudolf Virchow.Virchows Archiv A 378: 1–16. Doerr W. (1958) Rudolf Virchow’s pathology and medicine of our time / Die Pathologie Rudolf Virchows und die Medizin unserer Zeit. Deut. medizin. Wochenschr. 83: 370–377. Doerr W., Altmann H.-W. and Götze H. (1971) On Rudolf Virchow’s 150th birthday / Zum 150. Geburtstag von Rudolf Virchow. Virchows Archiv Abt. B: Zellpathologie 8: I–VIII. Eckart W.U. (2002) I am limping badly and my courage has gone / Es hinkt sich schlecht und mein Mut ist klein geworden. Süddeutsche Zeitung Nr. 240. 17. October. Eppinger H. (1902) In memory of Rudolf Virchow: speech given at the session of the Styrian Doctors Society of 17th October 1902 / Erinnerung an Rudolf Virchow: Rede gehalten in der Sit- zung des Vereins der Ärzte der Steiermark am 27. Oct. 1902. Mittheilungen des Vereins der Ärzte der Steiermark, Nr. 11. Ernst P. (1921) Virchow’s cellular pathology, in the past and in the present / Virchows Cellular- pathologie einst und jetzt. Virchows Archiv 235: 52–151. Ewing J. (1921) Virchow’s influence on medical science in America / Der Einfluß Virchows auf die medizinische Wissenschaft in Amerika. Virchows Archiv 235: 444–452. Falk G. (1921) On the planned summons of Virchow to Giessen, 1849 / Über Virchows geplante Berufung nach Gießen 1849. Virchows Archiv 235: 31–44. Fischer B. (1922) What remains in Rudolf Virchow’s life work: on the hundredth anniversary of his birthday on the 13th October 1921 / Das Bleibende in Rudolf Virchows Lebenswerk: z. Jahrhun- dertfeier s. Geburtstages am 13. Okt. 1921. Frankfurter Zeitschrift für Pathologie 27: 1–20. Foa P. (1921) Virchow in Italy / Virchow in Italien. Virchows Archiv 235: 379–384. Froboese K. (1953) Rudolf Virchow, d. 5 9. 1902, a memorial and a word of warning to the present generation of doctors 50 years after his death / Rudolf Virchow d. 5. 9. 1902: e. Gedenk-und Mahn- wort an die heutige Ärztegeneration 50 Jahre nach seinem Tod. Fischer, Stuttgart. Gortvay G. and Zoltan I. (1968) Semmelweiss, His Life and Work (chapter 6). Translated by Éva Róna, Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest. Gruber G.B. (1939) Robert Koch and Rudolf Virchow / Robert Koch und Rudolf Virchow. Mittei- lungen des Universitätsbundes Göttingen, vol. 20, Heft 1. Hauptmann S. and Schnalke, T. (2001) Rudolf Virchow’s view of malignant tumours / Rudolf Vir- chows Sicht der malignen Geschwülste. Pathologe 22: 291–295. Heidland A., Klassen, A., Rutkowski P. and Bahner U. (2006) The contribution of Rudolf Virchow to the concept of inflammation. J. Nephrol. 19 (Suppl 10): 102–109. Heim W. (1956) In the spirit of Virchow / Im Geiste Virchows. In: 50 Jahre Rudolf-Virchow-Kran- kenhaus 1906–1956. Berlin. pp 24–28. Heischkel E. (1947) Rudolf Virchow as publicist / Rudolf Virchow als Publizist. Medizinische Rund- schau 1: 230–233. Hesse E. (1921) Rudolf Virchow and the public health / Rudolf Virchow und die öffentliche Gesund- heitspflege. Virchows Archiv 325: 399–417. Hiltner G. (1970) Rudolf Virchow / Rudolf Virchow. Freies Geistesleben Verlag, Stuttgart.

297 Appendix 2b: A bibliography of writings about Virchow

Israel O. (1901) On Rudolf Virchow’s 80th birthday / Zu Rudolf Virchows 80. Geburtstage. Ärztliche Monatsschrift, Heft 10. Israel O. (1903) Rudolf Virchow. Annual Rpt of the Smithsonian Institute for the Year 1902. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C. Istel W. (2002) Revolutionary and ‘Medical Pope’: on the hundredth anniversary of his death / Re- volutionär und Medizinpapst: zum 100.Todestag von Rudolf Virchow. Gesundheit im Beruf 3: 22–24. Ivanhoe F. (1970) Was Virchow right about Neandertal? Nature 227: 577–578. Jacob W. (1972) Rudolf Virchow’s contribution to a theory of medicine / Der Beitrag Rudolf Vir- chows zu einer Theorie der Medizin. Berichte der Physikalisch-Medizinischen Gesellschaft zu Würzburg. Neue Folge 80: 137–142. Jacob W. (1967) Virchow’s contribution to the “Handbook of Special Pathology and Therapy” / Virchows Beitrag zum Handbuch der speziellen Pathologie und Therapie. In: Jacob W. Medical Anthropology in the Nineteenth Century / Medizinische Anthropologie im 19. Jahrhundert. Enke, Stuttgart. pp 107–142. Jacoby A. (1901) Rudolf Virchow and American medicine / Rudolf Virchow und die amerikanische Medizin. Berlin. klin. Wochenschr. 38: 1046–1047. Jonecko A., Keil G. and Schmitt E. (1991) A little-known copy of the Berlin portrait of Rudolf Vir- chow / Eine wenig bekannte Kopie des Berliner Portraits von Rudolf Virchow. Medizinhistorisches Journal 26: 161–164. Jores L. (1921) The development of the theory of arteriosclerosis since Virchow / Die Entwicklung der Lehre von der Arteriosklerose seit Virchow. Virchows Archiv 235: 262–272. Kajita A. (1983) Rudolf Virchow and his successors / Rudolf Virchow und seine Nachfolger. Vortrag, gehalten bei der Herbsttagung der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Pathologie. Kaiserling C. (1921) Virchow’s importance for the theory of tumours / Virchows Bedeutung für die Lehre von den Geschwülsten. Deut. medizin. Wochenschr. 47: 1191–1192. Karamitzas G. (1901) Rudolf Virchow and Greek medicine / Rudolf Virchow und die griechische Medizin. Berlin. klin. Wochenschr. 38: 1046. Keil G. (2003) Rudolf Virchow. Würzburger medizinhistorische Mitteilungen 22: 524–525. Keil G. (1980) On the handing-on of the dissection records of Virchow when in Würzburg / Zur Überlieferung von Virchows Sektionsprotokollen. Sudhoff’s Archiv 64: 287–297. Klebs E. (1891) Rudolf Virchow: memorial pages for his 70th birthday, dedicated by an old pupil / Rudolf Virchow: Gedenkblätter zu seinem 70sten Geburtstage, gewidmet von einem alten Schüler. Deut. medicin. Wochenschr. 17: 1165–1168. Kleine H.O. (undated) Semmelweis and Virchow. A medical study, source unknown / Semmelweis und Virchow. Eine medizinhistorische Studie. Source unknown / Ohne Quelle (Held by the Instit- ute of Medical History, University of Würzburg). Kölliker A. (1902) In memory of Rudolf Virchow / Zur Erinnerung an Rudolf Virchow. Anatomi- scher Anzeiger 22: 59–62. Kohl E.W. (1976) Virchow in Würzburg / Virchow in Würzburg.Wellm, Hannover. zugl.:Würzburg, Univ. Diss. (Held by the Institute of Medical History, University of Würzburg). Kraus Fr. (1921) R. Virchow and the present-day clinic / R. Virchow und die heutige Klinik. Vir- chows Archiv 235: 298–328. Krietsch P.(1991) The history of the prosector’s department of the Charité Berlin. 3. Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow, prosector of Charité, 1846 to 1849. Zentralbl. Pathol. 137: 531–41. Krietsch P. and Dietel M. (1996) Pathological-Anatomical Collection of the Virchow Museum in the Berlin Medical-Historical Museum at the Charité / Pathologisch-Anatomisches Cabinet. Vom Virchow-Museum zum Berliner Medizinhistorischen Museum in der Charité. Blackwell, Oxford, UK. Löhlein M. (1921) Rudolf Virchow and the development of aetiological research / Rudolf Virchow und die Entwicklung der ätiologischen Forschung. Virchows Archiv 235: 225–234. Lohse M. (2002) Rudolf Virchow: No duel with Otto von Bismarck (with a reader’s letter) / Rudolf Virchow: Kein Duell mit Otto von Bismarck (mit Leserbrief). Mainpost 18. January.

298 Appendix 2b: A bibliography of writings about Virchow

Lubarsch O. (1921) Biographical introduction / Biographische Einleitung. Virchows Archiv 235 (Gedenkband zum 100. Geburtstag Rud. Virchows): 1–30. Lubarsch O. (1921) Rudolf Virchow and his opus / Rudolf Virchow und sein Werk. Berlin. klin. Wochenschr. 58: 1345–1349. Lubarsch O. (1921) Virchow’s theory of inflammation and its subsequent development up to the present / Virchows Entzündungslehre und ihre Weiterentwicklung bis zur Gegenwart. Virchows Archiv 235: 186–211. Lubarsch O. (1921) Virchow’s theory of tumour and its subsequent development / Die Virchowsche Geschwülstlehre und ihre Weiterentwicklung. Virchows Archiv 235: 235–261. v. Luschan (no forenames given) (1921) Rudolf Virchow as anthropologist / Rudolf Virchow als Anthropologe. Virchows Archiv 325: 418–443. Mackenzie M. (1888) The illness of his Imperial Majesty, the Crown Prince / Die Krankheit Seiner Kaiserlichen Hoheit des deutschen Kronprinzen. Berlin. klin. Wochenschr. 25: 138. McManus J.F.A. (1958) Rudolf Virchow in 1858. Lab. Invest. 7: 549–553. McNeely I. F.(2002) “Medicine on a grand scale: Rudolf Virchow, liberalism, and the public health”. Wellcome Trust Centre for the History of Medicine at UCL, London. Malkin H.M. (1990) Rudolph Virchow and the durability of cellular pathology. Perspect. Biol. Med. 33: 431–443. Mamlock G. (1921) Virchow in the light of his contemporaries. Virchow im Lichte der Zeitgenossen. Deut. medizin. Wochenschr. 47: 1195. Mann G. (1991) Rudolf Virchow / Rudolf Virchow. In: Klassiker der Medizin II. Eds D. von Engel- hardt and others. Beck, München, pp. 203–215. Marchand F. (1921) On the hundredth birthday of Rudolf Virchow / Zum hundertsten Geburtstag von Rudolf Virchow. Münchener medizin. Wochenschr. 68: 1271–1274. Marchand F (1902) Rudolf Virchow as pathologist: memorial address given on 21st October 1902 to the Medical Society in Leipzig / Rudolf Virchow als Pathologe: Gedächtnisrede gehalten am 21. Okt. 1902 in der Medizinischen Gesellschaft zu Leipzig. Lehmann, München. Merhof J. (2002) No day without (specimen) preparations: the Museum of the Charité remembers Rudolf Virchow. Kein Tag ohne Präparate. Museum der Charité erinnert an Rudolf Virchow. Ber- liner Morgenpost 29. Aug. Mettenleiter A. (1999) One hundred years ago, Rudolf Virchow came to Würzburg / Vor 150 Jahren kam Rudolf Virchow nach Würzburg. BLICK issue 2. Mettenleiter A. (2000) Rejection of Romantic Naturphilosophie: 150 years ago Virchow (1821–1902) came to Würzburg / Absage an romantische Naturphilosophie: vor 150 Jahren kam Virchow (1821–1902) nach Würzburg. Mainpost 11.February. Meyer E. (1956) Rudolf Virchow / Rudolf Virchow. Limes-Verl., Wiesbaden. Müller M. (1941) Rudolf Virchow as historian / Rudolf Virchow als Historiker. Sudhoff’s Archiv 34: 137–145. Orth J. (1893) Works in the Pathological Institute in Göttingen. Dedicated to Rudolf Virchow at the Golden Jubilee of his Doctorate. / Arbeiten aus dem pathologischen Institut in Göttingen. Herrn Rudolf Virchow zur Feier seines fünfzigjährigen Doctor-Jubiläums gewidmet. Verlag von August Hirschwald, Berlin. Orth J. (1902) Rudolf Virchow: memorial address given at the meeting of the Berlin Medical Society on the 29th October 1902 / Rudolf Virchow: Gedächtnisrede, gehalten in der Sitzung der Berliner Medicinischen Gesellschaft am 29. Oct. 1902. Berlin. klin. Wochenschr. 39: 1021–1027. Orth J. (1910) Virchow and bacteriology / Virchow und die Bakteriologie. Deut. medizin. Wochen- schr. 36: 1937–1939. Orth J. (1921) R. Virchow half a century ago / R. Virchow vor einem halben Jahrhundert. Virchows Archiv 235: 31–44. Orth W.(1969) Rudolf Virchow, Practitioner and Politician / Rudolf Virchow,Arzt und Politiker.VVB Pharmazeutische Industrie, Inseldruck Rügen, Berlin.

299 Appendix 2b: A bibliography of writings about Virchow

Osler W. (1891) Virchow, the man and the student. Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ. xi, 17–19. See also: Boston M. & S. J., 1891, cxxv, 425–427. Otremba H. (2002) Thick skull and great anatomist. Dickschädel und großer Anatom. Volksblatt 2. September. Pagel W. (1931) Virchow and the foundations of nineteenth century medicine / Virchow und die Grundlagen der Medizin des XIX. Jahrhunderts. Jenaer medizin-historische Beiträge 14: 1–44. Panne K. (1967) “The Scientific Theory of Rudolf Virchow”. Die Wissenschaftstheorie von Rudolf Virchow. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Düsseldorf. Pearse J.M.S. (2002) Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow (1821–1902). J. Neurol. 249: 492–493. Pye-Smith P.H.(1901) The Influence of Virchow on Pathology in England. Berlin. klin.Wochenschr. 38: 1036–1038. Rath G. (1957) The struggle between Cellular Pathology and Neural Pathology in the nineteenth century / Der Kampf zwischen Zellularpathologie und Neuralpathologie im neunzehnten Jahr- hundert. Deut. medizin. Wochenschr. 82: 740–743. Rather L.J. (1962) Harvey, Virchow, Bernard, and the Methodology of Science. Introduction to “Disease, Life and Man: Translations of selected articles by R. Virchow”, Collier edition, New York, pp 13–38. Rather L.J. (1966) Rudolf Virchow’s views on pathology, pathological anatomy, and cellular pathology. Archives of Pathology 82: 197–204. Rather L.J. (1968) Virchow’s review of Rokitansky’s “Handbuch” in the Preussische Medizinal- Zeitung. Clio Medica 4: 127–140. Rather L.J. (1971) The place of Virchow’s “Cellular Pathology” in Medical Thought. (Introduction to Dover edition of Virchow’s “Cellular Pathology” – see Virchow, 1858) pp v–xxvii. Rather L.J. (1985) Collected essays on public health and epidemiology, translated, edited and with a foreword by L.J. Rather / Rudolf Virchow; Gesammelte Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete der öffentlichen Medicin und der Seuchenlehre. Science History Publications, U.S.A, Canton, MA. Rathgeb E. (2002) Cell, shard and method (on the hundredth anniversary of the death of Rudolf Virchow) / Zelle, Scherbe und Methode (zum 100. Todestag von Rudolf Virchow). Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung Nr. 206. 5. September. Recklinghausen F. von (1903) Obituary for Rudolf Virchow / Nachruf auf Rudolf Virchow. Virchows Archiv 171: 2–7. Rieger C. (1901) On Virchow’s Jubilees: 1881, 1891, 1901 (manuscript) / Über Rudolf Virchows Ju- biläen: 1881, 1891, 1901. (Handschrift). (Held by the Institute of Medical History, University of Würzburg). Ringert R. (1972) Virchow, doctor in social and scientific responsibility / Virchow, Arzt in sozialer und wissenschaftlicher Verantwortung. Berichte der Physikalisch-Medizinischen Gesellschaft zu Würzburg. Neue Folge 80: 121–136. Rössle R. (1934) Karl von Rokitansky and Rudolf Virchow / Karl von Rokitansky und Rudolf Virchow. Wiener medizin. Wochenschr. 47: 405–407. Rössle R. (1921) Rudolf Virchow and the pathology of the constitution / Rudolf Virchow und die Konstitutionspathologie. Münchener medizin. Wochenschr. 68: 1274–1277. Rössle R (1952) Rudolf Virchow’s lecture on general pathological anatomy and general pathology in the year 1852 / Rudolf Virchows Vorlesung über Allgemeine Pathologische Anatomie und All- gemeine Pathologie im Jahre 1852. Virchows Archiv 322: 233–239. Rössle R. (1937) Foreword to the 300th volume of Virchow’s Archive for Pathological Anatomy and Clinical Medicine / Vorwort zum 300. Bande von Virchows Archiv für Pathologische Anatomie und für klinische Medizin. Virchows Archiv 300: 1–3. Rössle R. (1937) Rudolf Virchow’s Würzburg lectures on pathology / Die Würzburger Vorlesungen Rudolf Virchows über Pathologie. Virchows Archiv 300: 4–30 Sacharoff G.P. (1921) Rudolf Virchow and Russian medicine / Rudolf Virchow und die russische Medizin. Virchows Archiv 235: 329–378.

300 Appendix 2b: A bibliography of writings about Virchow

Saherwala G., Schnalke T., Vanja K,Veigel H-J. (2002) Rudolf Virchow. Doctor, Collector, Politician / Rudolf Virchow. Mediziner, Sammler, Politiker. Berliner medizinhistorisches Museum der Cha- rité, Berlin. Salomonsen C. J. (1901) Rudolf Virchow and Danish medicine / Rudolf Virchow und die dänische Medizin. Berlin. klin. Wochenschr. 38: 1045–1046. Schadewaldt H. (1972) Politics is nothing other than medicine on a large scale: the scientific theory of Rudolf Virchow / Die Politik ist nichts weiter als die Medizin im Großen : die Wissenschafts- theorie bei Rudolf Virchow. In: Gedenkfeier d. Dtsch. Ges. f. Pathol. aus Anlaß des 150. Geburts- tages von Rudolf Virchow am 2. Okt. 1971 in Darmstadt. aus: Deutsches Ärzteblatt – Ärztliche Mitteilungen 69: 2251–2254; 2298–2303; 2364–2367; 2432–2436 (1972) Schattenfroh S. (2002) “Charité Guide Book”. Charité University Hospital, Berlin. Schervinsky W. (1901) Rudolf Virchow and Russian medicine / Rudolf Virchow und die russische Medizin. Berlin. klin. Wochenschr. 38: 1042–1044. Schipperges H. (1994) Rudolf Virchow. Rudolf Virchow. Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg. Schlüter H. (1938) Virchow as biologist / Virchow als Biologe. Hippokrates-Verl., Marquardt und Cie, Stuttgart and Leipzig. Schmidt M.B. (1903) Words in remembrance of Rudolf Virchow / Worte der Erinnerung an Rudolf Virchow. Archiv für Öffentliche Gesundheitspflege in Elsaß-Lothringen 22. Schmidt M.B. (1921) Virchow’s pathological-anatomical research on diseases of the osseous system / Virchows pathologisch-anatomische Forschungen über die Erkrankungen des Knochensystems. Virchows Archiv 235: 273–297. Schmidt M.B. (1922) Virchow, Rudolf, Professor of Pathological Anatomy 1821–1902 / Virchow, Rudolf, Professor der pathologischen Anatomie 1821–1902. In: Lebensläufe aus Franken. Hrsg. i.A. d. Ges. für Fränkische Geschichte von Anton Chroust. 2. Band. Kabitzsch und Mönnich, Würzburg, pp 465–475. Schrenk M. (1971) On Rudolf Virchow’s 150th birthday / Zu Rudolf Virchows 150. Geburtstag. (no further details). Institute for the History of Medicine, University of Würzburg. Schrenk M. (1972) Anthropological concepts in pathology since Rudolf Virchow / Anthropologi- sche Konzepte in der Pathologie seit Rudolf Virchow. Berichte der Physikalisch-Medizinischen Gesellschaft zu Würzburg. Neue Folge 80: 143–147. Schröder H. (1921) Virchow: (on his 100th birthday 13th October 1920) / Virchow : (zu seinem 100. Geburtstag am 13. Oktober 1921). Münchener medizin. Wochenschr. 68: 1277–1278. Schweers H.F. (1974) Notes taken down from Virchow’s lectures during the Würzburg period / Nachschriften Virchowscher Vorlesungen aus der Würzburger Zeit. Mainz, Mainz Univ., Diss. Semon F. (1902a) Notes on the celebrations of Virchow’s eightieth birthday. Br. Med. J. Oct. 19: 1180–1182 (see Appendix 1 in this book). Semon F. (1902b) Rudolf Virchow - some personal reminiscences. Br. Med. J. Sept. 13: 800–802 (see Appendix 1 in this book). Sˇ imon F. (1991) Rudolf Virchow as terminologist / Rudolf Virchow als Terminologe. Medizin- historisches Journal 26: 329–336. Simon H. and Krietsch P.(1985) Rudolf Virchow and Berlin / Rudolf Virchow und Berlin: Patholog. Inst. d. Humboldt-Universität. Stäber P.(1987) Rudolf Virchow: from then on the lecture theatre became a political place / Rudolf Virchow: Die Aula wurde von da an ein politischer Ort. Urania 4: 68–69. Stein F. (1986) Rudolf Virchow and the striving for unity in scientific medicine / Rudolf Virchow und die Einheitsbestrebungen in der wissenschaftlichen Medizin. Bayerisches Ärzteblatt 40: 220–226. Stiefelhagen P.(2002) On the 100th anniversary of the death of Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902) / Zum 100. Todestag von Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902). Hamburger Ärzteblatt 10: 478–481. Stokvis B.J. (1901) Virchow and medicine in the Netherlands / Virchow und die niederländische Medizin. Berlin. klin. Wochenschr. 38: 1038–1042.

301 Appendix 1. Virchow’s last year

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308 Index

Academy of Art 229 Banks 30 Academy of Sciences 20, 168 Bardeleben 227 Achorion Schönleinii 111 Barmen 202 achromatic lens 16 Bartels 113 Actinomyces 222 Basel 108 Administration for the Poor 146 Bassi 111 Agassiz 29, 39 Bauer 131 Agricultural Institute 222 Baum 145, 186 albuminuria 188 Bay of Muggia 41 alchemy 163 Bayle 172 Alsace and Lorraine 13 Becker 212, 214 Altenstein 35, 120, 132 Beckmann 1 Althoff 253 Beer 93 Amphibiae 35 Behr 81, 82, 109 amyloid 48, 189 Bell 34 anatomicalism 158, 172 Bellermann 138 Ancient Greek terminology 158 Berends 113, 140 Andral 16 Berlin 257, 263 animal magnetism 29, 96, 163 Berlin City Council Vii, 8 animism 70 Berlin Entomological Museum 103 Anthrax 223 Berlin Medical Society 225, 229, 257 Anthropology 8 Berlin School 67 Anwers 236 Berlin Work House 244 aorta, ligation of 188 Bernstorff 140 Arabs 162 Bertele 71, 92, 94 Aranzi 168 Berthold 198 Archiv für physiologische Heilkunde 122 Bethesda Institution 194 Aristotle 19, 28, 31, 45, 49 Beyme 26 Arndt 26 Bichat 16, 172 Arnim 149 Biermer 212 Asklepiads 161 biogenic law 19 asthenie 70 biological view 229 Aufsee Seminary 125 Bischoff 27, 198 Australian Doctors, collective address from Bishop Julius 72 264 Bismarck Vii, 8, 267 Autenrieth 78, 101, 104, 105, 130 Bismarck’s anti-Catholic Policies 8 autopsy 170 blastema theory 40, 111 Axolotl 211 blood 34, 105 Blumenbach 29, 91 Baccelli 252 bodies, disposal of 224 Bacon 28, 31 Boerhaave 25, 28, 70, 168 Baelz 266 Bologna 263 Bamberg 67, 125, 133 Bolongaro 108 Bamberg coins 127 Bonet 170 Bamberg Library 69, 90, 100, 119, 128 Bonn 30, 31

309 Index

Boyen 26 chondrin 35 Brandis 27 chorda dorsalis 38 Brendel 81,109 Christianity 121 Brentano 92 Cicero 161 Bright’s disease 116, 181 citizens Corps 52 Broussais 16 cleanliness 143 Brown 16, 28, 70, 102 Clemens 92 Brownian System 92 Clement II 68 Brownianism 70, 71, 91 coarseness 119 Brücke 179 Coblenz 22 Brüggemann 150 comparative anatomy 40 Bruno 31 “Comparative physiology of vision” 49 Bulls, Papal 121 comparative physiology 33 Burckhardt 189 Conference of Natural Scientists in Danzig Burdach 98 237 Burschenschaft 26, 80, 81, 109 Congress of Vienna 12 Busch 152, 199, 226 connective tissue 219, 244 Buschke-Lowenstein tumour 147 Conradi 123, 124 Constantinus Africanus 164 caesarean (section) 203 constitution of 1850 8 calcific deposits 188 Cook, James 31 Calker 27 Cornil 255 Canstatt’s Annual Reports Vii, 186, 239, 249 cretinism 102, 290 Capuchin preachers 122 Croonian Lecture 275 carcinoma, verrucous 147 Cruveilhier 16 cardiac hypertrophy 188 crystallization 218, 235 Carlsbad Decrees 26 Cucumus 81 Carlsschule 22 Cullen, William 28, 91 caseation 222 Cuvier 16, 22, 25, 35, 80 casket theft 208 cypress trees 196 Caspar 281 cytoblastema 218 casts, urinary 188 cytoblasts 218 Catholic Church 10, 12, 13, 24, 106, 121, 164 Catholic Hospital 115 D’Alton 29, 76 Catholic movement 215 D’Outrepont 76 Catholic University in Louvain 217 Däge 145 cattle plagues 223 Danzig 237 cauliflower growth 147, 154 Darwin 234, 290 cell formation, hour-glass theory 218 Darwinian Evolution 19 cells, free formation of 218 de Gruyter 246 cells, generatio aequivoca 218 De Sedibus et Causis Morborum 168, 170 cell theory 1, 9, 17, 218 Delbrück 27 “Cellular Pathology“ (1858) Vii, 1 Demme 102 Celsus 161 Descartes 28, 230 Charité Annals 181 Die Medicinischen Reformen 282 Charité Hospital Vii, 1, 9, 48, 73, 113, 147, Dieffenbach 84, 113, 132, 142, 147, 150, 281 152, 181, 199, 209, 253, 256, 261, 281 Diepenbrock 89 Charles of Anjou 169 digitalis 116 Chauliac 173 diphtheria 290 chlorosis 290 diphtheritic angina 204 cholera 8, 118, 181, 182, 201, 290, Doctor for the Debtor’s Prison 194

310 Index

Doctor for the Poor 149, 193 Fraenkel 254 dogmatics 121 Franco-Prussian War 225, 245 Döllinger 29, 74, 76, 87, 91, 95, 96, 109, 115 Frank 78, 79 Dömling 95 Frankfurt Parliament 53 Dorn 69 Franklin 28 Du Bois-Reymond 19, 179 Franks 93 duel 8 Fredrick II 169 Dümmler 182 French Academy of Sciences 283 Dupuytren 75, 172 French Revolution 12, 16 Dürkheim 260 Frerichs 118 Dutrochet 16 Friedreich 1, 75, 190, 210 dyscrasia 166 Friedrich III 57 Friedrich Wilhelm III 114, 132 Echinodermata 41 Friedrich Wilhelm IV 89, 114 Eckard 150 Friedrichshain 52 Eckers 264 Friedrichs-Wilhelm-Institut 1, 281 Ehrenberg 39, 147 Frommann 247 Eisenmann 67, 68, 80, 81, 104, 105, 109, 239, Froriep 1, 40, 117, 281 249 Fuchs 100, 103, 198 Ekbert 90 furuncles 204 Elberfeld 202 “electors” 10 Galen 28, 161 electrotherapy 234 Galen’s infallibility 165 Elementa Medicinae 70 galvanism 28 elephantiasis 116 Ganoidea 39 Elizabeth Hospital 193 Gedicke 145 Empress of Russia 114 Gegenbaur 211 enchondroma 39 Geheimer Sanitätsrath 149 England, Virchow friend of 275 generational (alternating) change 41 epidemics 237, 238 genitalia 35 epigenesis 14 Gerhardt 185, 212, 252 Ermann 140 Gerlach 107, 223 Escher 107 German Anthropological Society 264 Esenbeck 27, 45 German clinic 77, 113 Etlinger 103, 104 German Confederation (Deutscher Bund) 26 Eustachius 97, 167 German Empire 11, 13 German Geographical Society 283 Faber 127 German Romantic Movement 10 Fabricius 167 German Society for Natural Scientists and facial expression 49 Doctors 260 Faust 49 German Society for Surgery 227, 249 Favus 51 Germaniabund 81 Febronianism 12 glands 35 Felix 247 Glion 215 Feuerbach 92 Glisson 275 Finkelmann 138 Gluge 40 Forlì 174 Gmelin 116 Formey 145 Goethe 14, 24, 26, 29, 32, 34, 45, 47, 84, 87, 97, Forster 28, 31 105, 134, 216 Fortschrittspartei 13 Goethe’s father 42 fossil fishes 41 Goethe’s mother 90

311 Index goitre 128 Heller 98, 116 Goldfuss 27, 198 Helmholtz 236 Göller 88, 99 hematoses 79 Goodsir 275 Hemsbach 282 Görres 23, 26, 86, 106, 121, 124, Henle 39, 181 Görres Gymnasium 24 Henry III 68 Göschen 119 Hensler 95 Gotthard 69 Herborn 198 Göttingen Seven 106 Herczegy 119 Graf 123 Herder 10 Griesinger 57, 82, 83, 110 Hernandez 127 Grohe 244 Hernbstädt 140 Grossbendtner 103 Herwegh 84, 114 Grossi 109 Herz 118 Gruby 16 Hesselbach 98 Guggenbühl 102 Heusinger 95 Gurlt, Ernst Friedrich 249 Hewson 34 Güterbock 57, 85, 115 Hippocrates 161, 162 Guyana 150 Hirschfeld 236 Gymnasium of the Graues Kloster 138 His 264 Gymnastic Association 194 histological substitution 14 historical method 116 Haeckel 1, 185 Historical-geographical pathology 240 haemato-pathology 167 Hoffmann 70, 81, 96, 210 halitus 163 Hohenlohe 108 Hall 34 Holothuria 41, 42, 92, 234 Haller 28, 35, 37, 234 Holstein 53 Hambach Festival 81 Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation 10 “Handbook of Historical-Geographical Holy Roman Empire 169 Medicine” 238 Homeopathic Society 101 “Handbook of Physiology” 37 Hoppe-Seyler 8 “Handbook of Special Pathology and Therapy” Horace 196 214 Hormer 107 Hansemann 9 Horn 140, 145 Harless 27 Horsch 98 “Harmonie” 128 Hospitale S. spiritus in Sassia 164 Harnack 257, 285 hospitals of Moabit and Friedrichshain 283 Hartnack 252 hospitals of the Middle Ages 164 Harvey 14, 167, 284 Hottinger 107 Harvey’s ovistic theory 289 Hueppe 289 Häser 103, 105 Hueter 226 Hasse 189, 190 Hufeland 71, 91, 92, 94, 132, 140 Hauser 92 Humboldt 29, 32, 114, 235, Health Office 223 Humer 88 Hecker 52 humor cardinalis 167 Heffner 108, 118, 124 humoral pathology 161 Hegel 10, 31 humoral theory 14 Heidenhain 236 Hunter 73, 75 “Heimia Society” 145, 195 Huschke 247 Hein 145, 182 Hüter 210 Heintz 117 Huxley 275

312 Index

Huxley Lecture 284 Königsberg, Natural Scientists Conference 155 Hygiene 238 Körte 253 hypnotism 163 Köslin 268 Kottmeier 189 ichorös 196 Krukenberg 77, 152, 179, 192 idea of the organism 98 Kühne 245 Ignorabimus 236 Kultur 194 Illaire 145 Kulturkampf 8, 13 imagination images 32, 48 impetigines 111 Lachmann 185, 190 infusoria 147 ladder of nature 19, 48 Innerlichkeit 10 Ladenberg’s Ministry 181 inoculation 223 Laennec 16, 70, 71, 75, 77, 172, 206 Institut de France 283 Landtag (Prussian House of Assembly) 8, 12 “Introduction to Medical Chemistry” 245 Langenbeck 198, 202, 226, 253 irritability 71 Landshut 92 Isis 27, 84 Lassalle 208 Israel 255 Latin clinic 85 Istituto delle Scienze 168 Latin 84 Lauck 81 Jäck 58, 101, 109, 111 Lebert 57, 82, 110 Jacobs 89, 99 Legallois 36 Jacoby 255 Lehrs 58, 123, 124 Jäger 110 Leibnitz 28 Jahn 103, 195 Leopold-Caroline Academy 97 Jesuit Order 12, 80 leprosy 290 Jewish doctors 162 Lessing 10, 267 Jolly 236 leucin 118 Jordan 235 leukaemia 290 Julius Hospital 72, 75, 80, 92, 131, 213, Leutzinger 23 Jung 201 Levret 142 Jüngken 199 Leydig 186 Junker Administration 12 Lichtenstein 140 Lichtenthaler 89 Kant 10, 28, 69, 87, 90, 96 Liebreich 258 Karamitzas 255 life force 15, 231, 234 Kastner 27 Lindner 112 Kauffmann 146 Link 140 Kempfer 267 Linnaeus 94 kidney fluids 188 Linth 107 Kielmeyer 44, 80, 105 Lister 227, 249, 252, 254, 258, 265, 275, 284 Kieser 99 Lister’s methods of antisepsis 225 Kiewisch 154 Lohndorf 95 Kilian 91 Louise Lateau 220 Kirschner 256, 257 Löwig 116 Kiwisch 118 Lücke 245 Klotzsch 125 Ludwig, Crown Prince 106 Knape 140 Ludwig I of Bavaria 80 Koch 262 Ludwig’s Order 112 Kölliker 186, 211 lunatic asylums of Dalldorf and Lichtenberg 283 Kollmann 264 lung plague 222

313 Index

Maass 226 Müller School 37 Magendie 36, 208 Müller, shipwreck 43 Magnus 104 Müllerian duct 19 malaria 149 Müller-Strübing 150 Malpighi 35, 167 Munich Academy 98 Malpighian bodies 48 Musardines 111 Manual of Human Physiology 35 Museum of Applied Arts 267 Manual Workers’ Society 179, 269 Myxinidae 38 Marcus 69, 71, 81, 88, 91, 93, 99, 109, 130, 212, 247, Nabille 265 Martins 144 Napoleon 12 Marx 189, 198 Nasse 26 Mayer 26, 105, 132, 181, 185, 194, 198 Natural Historical School 14, 77, 78, 82, 103, Meckel 14, 19, 29, 35, 39, 47, 73, 140, 169, 234 110, 122 medical fees 146 Natural Historical Society 112 Medical Reform 1, 261 natural philosophical school 31, 57, 73, 77, 97, Medici 173 99, 234, 235 Medieval “Restoration” 106 Natural Scientists Conference at Königsberg 155 Megner 130 Nematode parasites 42 Melanömia 189 nephritis 188 Mendelssohn 208 nerve 105 Mesmerism 73 Nesse 45 Mesopotamia 162 neuroses 79 “Metamorphosis of Plants” 97 Neuthor Tower 109 Meyer 57, 85, 253 Nöggerath 27, 198 Meyerbeer 115 nosological systematist 110 microbiology 9 microscopy 16 Obermeyer 9, 261 Middeldorp 226 Obstetric Society 152, 154 Miescher 40 Oken 112 Military Academy 39 Oken 14, 19, 26, 29, 84, 99 Millenariarism 12 omnis cellula e cellula 16, 218 Mineralogical Museum 102 “On Imagination Images” 33 Minister naturae 83, 194 “On the concordance of the theories of miracles 220 Hippocrates and Brown” 106 Mohr 100, 118 “On the Revolutionary Spirit in German Möller 256 Universities” 106 Mommsen 285 “ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny” 19 Mondino 166, 173 ontology 122 Monte Cassino 164 Order of the Red Eagle 149 Montez 80 Orelli 107, 112 morbus maculosus Werlhofii et peliosis 117 Ossan 140 Morgagni 17 ossuary of Iphofen 102 Morgagni, method of 170 osteomalacia 203, 222 morphs 79 Most 58 Pagenstecher 8, 189 Mühler 239 Paget 275, 290 Müller 1, 14, 49, 71, 83, 94, 114, 118, 130, 179, Pallas 30 208, 216, 217, 220, 234, 281 Pander 29, 76, 97 Müller as no politician 43 Papal Bull of 1302 13 Müller, oracular manner 49 Papal Bulls 121

314 Index

Papal Infallibility 13 Rapp 129 Paracelsus 28, 166, 288 Raptschewski 252 Paré 93 Raspail 16, 17, 18 Parisian School 16, 172 Raumer 244 Parliamentary Assembly in Frankfurt 200 Rauschenbusch 204 Passow 185 Rauschenplatt 108 Pathological Museum 282 “Reaction“ 107 “Pathology and Therapy“ 104 Recchus 127 Patronus Germanorum 168 Red Republican 150 Pätsch 150 reflex-actions 34 Paul Langerhans Jnr. 264 Reichert 19 Pauli 123 Reichstag 210 Pentacrinites 41 Reil 39, 78, 79, 91, 113 Pfeufer 75, 82, 98, 99, 100, 101, 118 Reimer, Siegfried 146, 152 Phasmids 45 Reimer, Georg 193, 246 phlebitis 290 Reimer Company 1 phlogiston doctrine 91 Reinhard 105, 146, 153, 281 physiology 32 relapsing (“recurrent”) fever 262 Pickel 94, 115 Remak 57, 58, 85, 111, 116, 117, pigs, consumption (TB) in 223 Remak, “Diagnostic and Pathogenetic Invest- Pindar 14, 19 igations”, Berlin 1845 116 Pinel 58 renal cysts 187 Plagiostomata 39 Retzius 51 plague 240 Reuss 90 plastic exudate 218 Revolution of 1848 Vii, 43 plastic materials 219 Rhenish Yearbooks 200 Plücker 198 Ribcke 140, 142 Pneumomycosis aspergillia 214 Richter 124 Poland 12 rickets 249 Polycystines 41 Riese 179 Pomerania 263, 268 Rindfleisch 102 Pope Innocent III 164 Ringseis “A System of Medicine” 120 Pope Pius IX 13 Ringseis 13, 57, 58, 80, 86, 92, 93, 95, 105, 109, Porrigo lupinosa 111 110, 118, 120, 121, 124, Porrio fungus 111 Ritter 29 Posadawsky 256 Rockwitz 146 Posner 119, 250, 252, 256, 260 Rokitansky 99 Preformationism 14 Röschlaub 69, 71, 72, 79, 92, 94, 106, 120 Priestleyish 74 Rosenberg, fortress 67 primum motum 74 Rosenthal 236 primum movens 74 Roser 110, 226 Prince of Prussia’s Palace 52 Rothlauf 89 Prince Wittgenstein 108 Rothschild 108 Prochasca 96 Rotteck 107 Prochaska 34 Royal Academy of Science in Berlin 283 psychology 33 Royal Society of London 258 Ptolemies 165 Royal Society of Medicine 265 Purkinje 34, 39 Rp. Spiritus Sancti q.s. detur 119 Purkinje’s discoveries 40 Rudolph Virchow Foundation 266 pyaemia 290 Rudolphi 27, 30, 34-36, 39, 48, 140, 141, Pye-Smith 255, 275 Rudolphi senior 141

315 Index

Ruge 146, 152 School of Organicism 172 Rühle 207 Schuler 265 Rumph 88 Schultes 94 Rust 114, 140 Schultze 23, 32, 36 Rüttinger 112 Schulze 130, 132 Ruysch 35 Schütz 150, 156 Schwalbe 290 Salerno 164 Schwann 1, 17, 18, 40, 235 Salomonsen 255 Schwann’s “Microscopic Investigations” 217 sanitary improvements 261, 262 Schwerin 52 Sans Souci 132 sea cucumbers 41 Sars 41 sedes morbi 171 Scarpa 96 Seiler 92 Schäfer 253 seminal corpuscles 52 Schaper 256 seminium morbi 52 Scharlau 58, 123, 124 Semon Vii, 258 Schelling 15, 29, 71, 91, 92 Sensburg 102 Schenck 102, 170 sensory perceptions 230 Schenk 186 Seufert 80, 81, 107–109, 132 Scherer 239 Seydel 150 Schervinsky 255 Shattock 275 Schiek 147 Sickingen 22 Schiller 15 Siebert 86, 100, 115, 119, 122, 123 Schivelbein 1 Siebold 69, 91, 92, 94, 140, 141, 152, 153, 198 Schjerning 256 Siebold school 142 Schlegel 27 Siegmundin 140 Schleiden 40, 216 Simon 40, 85, 116, 226 Schleiden’s “Fundamental Principles of Skoda 206, 209 Scientific Botany” 180, 217 Skulls 102 Schlemm 36v “smooth-shark” of Aristotle 39 Schleswig-Holstein 52 snails, in Holothuria 41, 42 Schliemann 8 Sniadetzky 47 Schmidt 127, 152 Social Democrats 8 Schöller 199 social relations to the organs 33 Schomburgk 150 socialism 52, 269 Schönlein 1, 13, 77, 128, 199, 209 Society for Anthropology, Ethnology and Schönlein as “Dalai Llama of medicine” 85 Prehistory 8 Schönlein as “medical Caesar” 121 Society for German Anthropologists 260 Schönlein as medical Pope” 121 Society for Hygiene 239 Schönlein, Frau 118 Society for Obstetrics 1 Schönlein, paleo-ontological collection 102 Society for Scientific Medicine 1, 182, 193, 195 Schönlein, Philipp 124, 133 Society of Anthropology and Ethnology 283 Schönlein, posthumous papers 130 Society of Berlin Doctors 195 Schönlein’s Assistenten 99 Sokoljskenny 104 Schönlein’s “Clinical Lectures in the Charité Solbrig 121, 122, 124 Hospital in Berlin” 115 Sömmering 29, 92 Schönlein’s donations 102 soul 49 Schönlein’s father 68 spas 131, 149 Schönlein’s father-in-law 108 Spessart 261 Schönlein’s favourite diseases 116 Spiegelberg 190 Schönlein’s way of life 126 Spindler 96

316 Index

Spinoza 28, 34 tubercle bacillus 261 Spirillum 261 tuberculosis 184, 290 “Spy” 277 tuberculosis, bovine 262 St Francis of Assisi 90 tuberculosis, human 262 St Gangolf 58, 130 tumours 39 Stahl 70, 102, 157, 256, typhus abdominalis 110 star-fish 41 typhus crystals 83, 110 Stark 99 typhus 8, 52, 79, 213, 260, 281 Steenstrup 41 typhuses 79, 104 Steffens 91 tyrosin 118 Stein 27 Steinbrück 145 Ubi est Morbus? Where is the disease? 171 Steinbuch 34 ultramontanism 13, 68, 80, 85, 86, 106, 118, 120 Stenglein 58, 90 Unger 111 Sternberg 102 University Library in Würzburg 128 stethoscope 57, 85 University of Berlin 281 sthenie 70 University of Bonn 27, 198 Stiebel 124 University of Halle 222 Stokvis 255 University of Würzburg 72, 96, 134 Stolliana 145 University of Zürich 81 Stosch 113 Upper Silesia 260 student corps 52 student societies 198 Valentin 16 Studt 256 Valhalla 224 Sundberg 255 Valsalva 169 Sunderlin 113, 145 van der Heydt 200 supernatural forces 163 van Helmont 28 surgery 227 Van Swietenia 145 Swammerdam 17 “Vanity Fair” 277 Swiss data 264 Varoli 168 syphilis 290 vertebral theory of the skull 97 Vesalius 28, 166 Textor 70, 76, 81, 91 Veterinary School 222, 249 The Science of Motion of Animals/De Veterinary Studies 223 Phoronomia Animalium 27 Vierordt 110 thermometer 116 views of nature 32 Thirty Years War 12 Villa Frankenhäuser 247 Thomann 92 Virchow 57 Thuerheim 91 Virchow and pedantry 271 Transsylvania 277 Virchow and students 272 transudates 244 Virchow as examiner 272 Traube 57, 58, 85, 116, 132, 188, 202, 272, Virchow’s Archive 177, 287 Traube’s Beiträge 178 Virchow, gifts on 80th birthday 263 Treaty of Lunéville 22 Virchow, Grand Old Man of Science 252 Trefurt 198 Virchow-Hirsch Yearbooks 239 Treviranus 29, 39, 47, 198 Virchow on politeness 144, 214 trichinosis 256, 263, 290 Virchow-Stiftung 257 Troschel 199 vita propria 168 Troxler 107 vitalism 28, 157, 220, 235 Troy 8 vivisection 36 Trüstedt 199 Vogel 179

317 Index

Volkmann’s ischaemic contracture 225 Wartburg Festival 26 Voltaism 73 Weber 27, 198 von Aschhausen 90 Wegscheider 152 von Baer 14, 19, 29, 45, 76, 97 Weichselbaum 255 von Bergmann 257, 285 Welckers 26 von Bülow 257 “Whence and Whither?” (Schönlein’s favourite von Dalberg 69 question) 116 von Erthal 69, 90 Wiebel 132 von Graefe 202 Wilks 284 von Grafenberg 170 Wilms 226 von Haller 73 Wilson 264 von Humboldt 26 Wittgenstein 132 von Langenbeck 154 Wöhler 48, 186 von Leuthold 256 Wolff 14, 19, 47, 73, 119, 199 von Leyden 252 Wunderlich 86, 101, 110, 116, 118, 122, 123 von Mollis 264 Würzburg 29 von Nadherny 118 Würzburg clinic 100 von Oettingen-Wallerstein 108 Würzburg Physical-Medical Society 242 von Recklinghausen 245, 258 Würzburg Proceedings 181 von Rogenbach 245 von Savigny 92 Zander 204 von Siebold 73 Zell 131 von Thielen 256 Ziegelstrasse Clinic 181 von Walther 26, 71 Ziemssen 212 Zimmermann 111 Wagner 99, 100, 198, 226 zoogen 105 Waldeyer 236, 252, 255, 257, 260, 285 zoological material 103 Walther 29, 32, 72, 87, 91, 93, 94, 97, 106, 107, Zuckerkandl 255 123, 130 Zürich 57, 82, 107, 113 War of Liberation 139, 150, 192 Zürich Hochschule 82

318