Design After Disaster

DESIGN AFTER DISASTER

Rhea A. Bundrant

DESIGN AFTER DISASTER Rhea A. Bundrant

Massachusetts College of Art and Design Department of Architectural Design

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the requirements of Master of Architecture May, 2011

DESIGN AFTER DISASTER Master of Architecture 2011 Massachusetts College of Art and Design Department of Architectural Design Rhea Bundrant

ABSTRACT “Natural disasters” have intensified in recent years highlighting the need to address the root causes of these events in order to mitigate future suffering. This thesis discusses the definition of “disaster”, links vulnerability to disaster, and proposes a framework for long-term, sustainable reconstruction. This framework draws from existing theory and established guidelines to create a community-based assessment process for building professionals responding to disasters. To test the validity of the framework, I suppose an event has taken place in Tornabe, Honduras. Using semi-structured interviews, mapping, photo-documentation, observation, statistical research and analysis, I developed a reconstruction strategy for the village that responds to community priorities, engages vernacular materials, forms and capacities and is designed to resist the physical hazards of the site.

2 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Architecture school is not for the faint of heart. I would not have made it through without a legion of supporters. I must thank, firstly, my thesis advisor, Eugenia Magann. A friend and mentor for the past 4 years she has been my personal cheering squad. At the sight of a sketch she would rifle through her personal library to find me a precedent. A query about a detail would end in an email to a colleague who would have just the answer I needed. One mention of model building would bring offers of every tool imaginable. For your endless support and enthusiasm, thank you. I owe Jamie Drysdale something big for getting me into this mess. I owe him something bigger for making sure I made it out. Dr. Clare Batty deserves special commendation for answering her phone at all hours, for holding my hand through the first years and for forgiving me for never calling during the last. Thanks are also owed to Hadley Smith who forever offered to cook me food, attempted to understand what I was talking about, humoured me while I gawked at buildings and peered into windows and who read every draft of this thesis. Of course, I must also thank my mum who surely wonders why I haven’t called in almost five years.

RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 3 4 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER DESIGN AFTER DISASTER TABLE OF CONTENTS

Signature Page 1

Abstract 2

Acknowledgments 3

1.0 Introduction 7 1.1 Disaster and the Scope and Limits of this Thesis 11 1.2 What I Want to Do 12 1.3 Why I Want to do it. 12

2.0 Disaster, Vulnerability and Reconstruction: A conceptual Framework 14

3.0 Questions I ask Myself 15

4.0 Bananas and Disasters: Choosing Honduras 22 4.1 Tornabe or Bust 25

5.0 Framework as Method 29

6.0 Design After Disaster 31

7.0 Conclusions 48

8.0 Bibliography 50

RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 5 2004 - Asia Tsunami 1.69 million displaced 1999 - Kosovo War 1 million displaced 1995 - Kobe Earthquake 300,000 without homes 2005 - Hurricane Katrina 700,000 apply for housing relief 2009 - Australian Wildfires 7,562 people displaced 2008 - China Earthquake 5 million without homes 2006 - Lebanese War 1 million displaced 1998 - Hurricane Mitch 1.5 million without homes 2007 - Kansas Tornado 1,500 homes destroyed 1991-2002 - Sierra Leone War 2 million displaced 2010 - Chile Earthquake 379,00 homes destroyed 1994 - Rwandan War 2 million displaced 2010 - Torrential Rains 11,000 homes destroyed 2007 - Peru Earthquake 58,000 without homes

Figure 1.0 The state of things. This map only begins to locate recent disasters. There is no part of the world not affected, in some way, by humanitarian emergencies.

6 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER 1.0 INTRODUCTION

The seed of this thesis is a paper tube church. Built in the months following the 1995 Kobe, Japan earthquake, the church became a gathering place for the marginalized Vietnamese community it served. The architect, Shigeru Ban, has responded to disasters and humanitarian crises with an eye toward materials, vernacular forms and prefabrication. Ban’s work, for me, was an early example of the role designers could play in humanitarian crises and of the social responsibility of architects. Eventually, this thesis evolved to ask different questions and to take a different approach than Ban did; the paper tube church, however, always provided a touchstone. This thesis is also born out of my reaction to Hurricane Katrina and the emergency response of the city, state and federal authorities. In 1976, Ben Wisner, Ken Westgate and Phil O’Keefe published “Taking the Naturalness out of Natural Disasters.”1 Katrina blatantly confirmed the unnaturalness of disasters. Along the Gulf Coast, the unnatural disaster was caused by apathy toward the plight of impoverished communities in the United States, and neglect by the Army Corps of Engineers that resulted in the breaching of the levees. The scale of the disaster in the aftermath of the storm was compounded by the Federal Emergency Management Administration’s (FEMA) lack of preparedness and inability to adequately respond, and by insurance companies’ unwillingness to compromise profit margins by paying out hundreds of thousands of claims. Had any one of these pieces not been true, the disaster could have been lessened. A reconstruction process that directly addresses the issues that render a community vulnerable can mitigate future disaster. This thesis is a reaction to some marvelous moments and devastating observations. In the Lower 9th Ward of New Orleans, where the levees failed, swathes of the neighborhood remain leveled. A few Make It Right houses are built and are literal designs in a field.2 Across town, architects have taken the opportunity to experiment with the shotgun form that is so iconically New Orleans (Figure 1.1). I could not help but appreciate the experiment and be chilled by the implications. Is architectural exploration appropriate in a post-disaster context? Who is this formal exploration

1 “Taking the Naturalness Out of Natural Disasters” was published in Nature magazine (Volume 260, Issue 5552, pp. 566-567 (1976).). The article took the lead in suggesting that disasters are caused by factors more complex than natural events. 2 The Make It Right Foundation was established in reaction to the lack of response and rebuilding in the Lower 9th Ward in New Or- leans. Architects donated designs for hurricane resistant, energy efficient homes. In parts of the Lower 9th, the Make It Right houses were the only ones rebuilt. A rich neighbourhood of traditional houses before the storm, the area is now dotted with architects’ renditions of New Orleans typology. RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 7 serving? Everett Ressler suggests that often response intervention is based on criteria other than victim needs.3 In New Orleans, I could not help but think designers with the best of intentions were serving their own needs rather than addressing those of the community they were intending to aid. Disaster theory posits an intrinsic connection between vulnerability and disaster. Ben Wisner, Piers Blaikie, Ian Davis et al developed a “pressure and release model” explaining dynamic pressures (caused by social, economic, environmental, political factors) faced by communities impact their ability to withstand and recover from hazards.4 Disaster management theorists and practitioners accept the positioning of disaster and vulnerability as bedfellows, as will be discussed. However, despite this accepted link between vulnerability Figure 1.1 An experimental single shotgun. Formally and disaster, few guidelines directed at architects exist demonstrating exciting, the design does not engage the context. how vulnerability can be incorporated into disaster response planning Photo: Rhea Bundrant and the relief, recovery and reconstruction effort. The design profession has, in recent years, become reengaged with social responsibility.5 Perhaps designers were inspired by the work of Samuel Mockbee and the Rural Studio or by Shigeru Ban and his paper tubes. Perhaps the combination of gut wrenching images of disaster and formal training in problem solving proved too irresistible for designers to let go. Whichever is the case, designers have taken up the challenge of solving humanitarian issues with, most often, clever, ingenious designs. Existing post-disaster reconstruction projects appear to have either been approached as issues of economy of scale or the destroyed area is viewed as a blank slate upon which designers can flex their ingenuity muscles. Rebuilt communities are either Levittown-esque (Figure 1.2) rows upon rows of cinder block houses or designs are novelties

3 Everett M. Ressler, “Accountability as a Programme Philosophy.” Disasters and the Small Dwelling (Oxford; Pergammon Press, 1981) 147. 4 Gonzalo Lizzaralde, Rebuilding After Disasters: From Emergency to Sustainability (New York; Spon Press, 2010) 3. 5 During the last decade, there has been considerable public attention paid to the social responsibility of designers. Several books (De- sign Like you Give a Dam; Expanding Architecture; Good Deeds, Good Design), and exhibits at the Cooper-Hewitt National Design Museum (Design for the other 90%) and MOMA (Small Scale Big Change), and an annual conference now in its twelfth year (Structures for Inclusion) are all evidence of the more public focus of design and social responsibility. 8 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER that can be dropped from planes, worn as a back pack or assem- bled with nothing but a screwdriver (Figure 1.3). These approaches do not address the long-term needs of the victims of disaster. They ignore existing theory regarding reconstruction ad fail to foster resiliency within the community. Herein lies the crux of this thesis. As building professionals more actively engage in disaster response and, beyond disaster response, in ‘humanitarian design,’ how can they contribute to long-term, sustainable development? This simple yet involved question is the background to this thesis: how can designers participate in sustainable post-disaster reconstruction? The question explores theoretical notions of disaster, definitions of sustainability in post-disaster conditions, and goals of reconstruction. However, there are many aspects of this issue that Figure 1.2 An aerial view of Levittown, PA, 1950’s Photo: Public Domain_Wikimedia Commons are beyond the reach of the designer and this thesis. It follows that part of this exploration is determining and understanding just what design can address. Ultimately, this work aims to define a framework that guides the designer in developing a community-based reconstruction strategy. The framework draws from a theoretical background and provides a step-by-step action plan for work on the ground. The framework is a process by which the designer can understand the hazards, vulnerabilities and priorities of the community in order to develop a re- sponsive reconstruction plan. The design solution becomes rooted in the community and its development. The goal is not to devise a universal structure that can be built after any disaster in any location. These solutions already exist. Of critical importance is rec- ognizing that each community requires an individualized response that reflects their own strengths, values, desires, and vulnerabilities. Figure 1.3 I-Beam’s Pallet House. The Pallet House is The goal is to develop a contextual, situation-based strategy that an excellent example of universal strategy response. It responds directly to the particular events and crises that affects a is ingenious but not viable in the long-term. Photo: Courtesy of I-Beam Design given community and that fosters long-term reconstruction and resil- RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 9 iency. With this framework in hand, I traveled to Tornabe, Honduras. A Garifuna6 village on the north coast of Hondu- ras, Tornabe is situated on a finger of beach lined with palms and low dunes. Waves lap at human-powered fishing boats and the occasional horse can be seen trotting down the shore. It is also culturally marginalized, economically at risk, lacking political power, and its physical location places it in harms way. During a visit to Honduras several months before, in search of a site, I traveled along the coast and into the mountains observing building techniques, assessing hazards and attempting to get a feel for each location. I selected Tornabe for its idyllic and utterly precarious location and because the village faced a complex set of challenges. Eventually, these challenges would bog me down, force me to question what I was doing and cause me to focus the scope of my work. On my second visit, moving through my proposed assessment criteria, I sought to develop a response strategy that is respectful of vernacular and social traditions, grounded in community development priorities and mindful of the physical hazards of the particular site. The framework proved useful in developing disaster reconstruction strategy. Through it, I was able to assess the physical vulnerabilities of the community, understand what hazards were of greatest threat and determine the built environment needs of the community. The strategy that was developed in response to these issues is also a reflection of the pride the community takes in their village, the forms that already exist, the construction skills of the community, and vernacular materials and traditions. Where the framework falls short is in its ability to address the more systemic vulnerabilities of the village. Tornabe residents are aware of the precariousness of their location, and are skilled enough builders to incorporate hurricane resistant measures into their buildings - yet, frequently, they don’t. What factors prevent builders from universally employing these techniques? What considerations take precedence over the built environment? What measures can be introduced into the community to encourage universal adoption of safer building practices? The framework is not designed to change perceptions of vulnerability or to implore a community to behave differently. The framework is designed to take into consideration those vulnerabilities that have an impact on the built environment and those which the built environment can address.

6 A description of the Garifuna and their origins can be found in the section titled “Tornabe or Bust” (P. 25) 10 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER 1.1 DISASTER AND THE SCOPE AND LIMITS OF THIS THESIS

Within humanitarian practice, the term “disaster” refers to the impact of natural, social, economic, political, and complex hazards on at-risk communities. This definition includes disasters caused by conflict, war, displacement due to political violence or development projects, and those caused by extreme natural events.7 For the scope of this thesis, I concentrate on those disasters caused by extreme natural events such as earthquakes, hurricanes and tsunamis. This more narrow focus allows for a deeper examination of the role reconstruction can play in mitigating future disasters of these kinds. Shelter provision for displaced populations involves more complex considerations of sovereignty, harboring foreign populations, national policy, and potentially hostile conditions; this poses a different set of questions for the designer. Housing refugee populations is a complicated condition of necessarily temporary shelter being oc- cupied for an inherently unknown period. In post-conflict conditions, housing returning populations involves issues of loss, memorial, emotional reconciliation, and physical reconstruction. Reconstruction strategies must engage with healing after violence as well as physical rebuilding. These are, essentially, two different theses in their own rights. After my second visit to Tornabe, I created a diagram of the vulnerabilities faced by the community: chronic food insecurity, unemployment, health epidemics (cholera, dengue fever, HIV/AIDS), drought, earthquakes, cyclones, and flooding. Each vulnerability had an impact on the village and each contributed to its risk profile.To truly develop resiliency within the village, each vulnerability would need to be confronted and lessened. Feeling the task to be insurmountable, I had to realistically assess the potential of the built environment to address these issues. Despite a desire to believe the built environment can have that widespread an impact, architecture cannot prevent the transmission of HIV or prevent drought. There is only so much architecture can achieve. This thesis, then, explicitly acknowledges that sustainable reconstruction, in its most holistic sense, necessarily involves addressing food security, health risks and other complex vulnerabilities. Simultaneously, there is a limit to what can be addressed by architecture. The framework is designed to assess how vulnerabilities impact built environment needs and to incorporate those needs into the response strategy.

7 Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors, Building Professions in Disaster Risk Reduction and Response, (Westminster: MLC Press, 2009), 10. RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 11 1.2 WHAT I WANT TO DO

Drawing on existing disaster theory and best practices guides, I seek to develop a framework or action-plan for building professionals responding to disaster stricken communities. The framework addresses the need for shelter and infrastructure rebuilding while also encouraging strategies that foster economic and social recovery as a means for long-term development. This framework acts as the design process and allows the designer to methodically engage the community, gain an understanding of their unique vulnerabilities, strengths and social and cultural needs, and assess skills, capacity, and access to construction materials. The framework is inherently flexible. It does not prioritize the immediate reconstruction of shelter or suppose the priorities of the community. Using the framework, I will develop a post-disaster reconstruction strategy for the village of Tornabe. The thesis focuses primarily on phase one, the design phase of the framework. It presupposes that my hypothetical organization has gained the necessary permission to be engaged in post-disaster reconstruction, the people of Tornabe are shel- tered in emergency housing, and the community has consented to international aid. I approach Tornabe as a designer responding to a disaster. This involves assessing what kind of damage could be inflicted to which parts of the village, what areas are most at risk, and what natural features of their environment could act as buffers to damage caused by natural events. To gain an understanding of the priorities of the village, their needs in terms of reconstruction, building material preferences, and construction skills, I want to speak with members of the community. Visual analysis and cataloguing of building materials and forms will inform the pallet and formal language adopted by the strategy. Using these methods, I anticipate developing a reconstruction strategy that is unique to Tornabe, is sensitive to the community and its context, and will be easily adopted by the community.

1.3 WHY I WANT TO DO IT

As a young designer with an educational background in international development, I feel strongly that there is a place for architects and designers within humanitarian response. Designers are equipped with a broad range of skills that can be used for social impact work. The task for designers is to understand how to use those skills in partnership with communities in crisis in order to foster rebuilding and development. I have had the immense privilege to travel extensively. My travels have taken me to Asia, Southeast Asia, Cen- tral America, Europe, North Africa, and Australia. During those travels, I visited and observed countries in all states of 12 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER development. I have seen villages in the Western Desert of Egypt built by the government to relieve population-related stress on the Nile Valley that are now abandoned and en- gulfed in sand. Visiting Beijing, I saw razed and remnant Hutongs. Throughout these travels, I asked myself questions about the role of the built environment in development. Frequently, the built environment serves as a symbol of development. All too often, the built environment is imposed upon populations and communities. Following a disaster, this is even more true. In 2009, I had the opportunity to work with a community- based design studio in Biloxi, MS. Through that experience, I was introduced first-hand to the work of Architecture for Humanity and the Gulf Coast Community Design Studio and saw the lasting devastation of Hurricane Katrina (Figure 1.4). Both design organizations responded to the disaster Figure 1.4 178 Pine St., Biloxi, MS. Four years after Hurricane Katrina all that stands is a mailbox. The area was dominated and have worked with the community to rebuild. Yet, I took by rental properties. Residents who would return have no legal away from this experience a feeling there was something rights to the land. more that could be done, something that could address why Photo: Rhea Bundrant these communities were so hard hit and were so far from full recovery. Despite the efforts of the GCCDS to work with homeowners to design their own homes, I felt there needed to be greater community engagement in the rebuilding process. This thesis is also born out of those days in the South.

RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 13 2.0 DISASTER, VULNERABILITY & RECONSTRUCTION A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

We are frequently confronted by the media with harrowing images of cities torn apart by earthquakes, coastal areas ravaged by hurricanes, and villages buried by lava flows. The entire scene played out before us is a disaster. There is no separation of the natural event and the destruction that is a result. Seldom is the suffering brought on by the event equated with systemic poverty or rapid urbanization. A flood is an act of nature and the destruction is not preventable. This understanding does not explain why or how a hurricane or a flood becomes a disaster. There is a deeper understanding to be had. Disasters occur when natural events interface with human settlements. An earthquake or tsunami that hits an uninhabited area is not considered a disaster; it is simply a natural event. On the other hand, many communities have readily adapted to the hazards they face as evidenced by stilt houses in flood-prone regions or the rigorous hurricane- resistant building codes implemented and enforced in the coastal regions of the United States.8 Disasters, it follows, occur when an event strikes a human settlement that is not prepared for or cannot resist the impact of the event. Ian Davis offers the definition of disaster as the interface between a natural or man-made hazard and a vulnerable condition.9 This definition unequivocally pairs disaster with vulnerability; however, vulnerability is an ambiguous term. In this context, it is used to describe complex and varied conditions but at the core is the “potential for disruption or harm.”10 In this paper, the term “vulnerability” includes the not exhaustive prefixes structural-, infrastructure-, social-, economic-, political-, and medical-. The inclusion of “access” pushes the definition of disaster forward. Gonzalo Lizzaralde suggests that the lack of access to resources, pre- and post-disaster is integral to understanding why an event becomes a disaster. “…(Inher- ently) unsafe conditions and dynamic pressures in the social and physical environments also correspond to inappropri-

8 Throughout the coastal regions of the United States, state administered building codes require the use of various measures to mitigate storm related damage. Hurricane ties (metal straps that are nailed to framing members) flood-proof construction up to a specified height, elevation requirements for houses in flood-prone regions are all building code measures enforced to ensure safety and reduce the risk of damage to property in hurricane regions. 9 Ian Davis. Shelter After Disaster (Oxford: Oxford Polytechnic Press, 1978) 2. 10 Ben Wisner. “Assessment of Capability and Vulnerability,” Mapping Vulnerability (London: Earthscan, 2004) 183. 14 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER ate or insufficient access to the resources that permit a community to deal with the effects of hazards.”11 In this way, access importantly connects reconstruction and resiliency to hazards and disasters. The inclusion of vulnerability and access in the definition of disaster paves the way for a consideration of the role of reconstruction.12 Viewing reconstruction and rebuilding through the lenses of vulnerability and access challenges architects to think about the conditions in which people live, and how the social, political and economic forces at play affect peoples’ ability to resist, survive and recover from events and disasters. The challenge of rebuilding is creating access to the resources necessary for reconstruction and long-term resiliency.13 The principal difficulty of reconstruction is not so much that of building houses (which in most contexts is relatively easy to solve from the technical point of view) but of creating – through the built environment – the conditions for economic recovery, wellbeing and long-term sustainable development. 13

Simply put “the ultimate goal of post-disaster reconstruction is to attain a standard of living that is even better than what existed before the disaster.”14

3.0 QUESTIONS I ASK MYSELF

WHAT IS MEANT BY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT?

Accepting Gonzalo Lizzaralde’s assertion that the role of reconstruction is to create the conditions for economic recovery, wellbeing and long-term sustainable development we can suppose that development involves economic security, socio-cultural stability, and political agency. “Development” is an ambiguous umbrella term that carries stigma

11 Lizzaralde, Rebuilding After Disasters, 4. 12 IBID, 4. 13 IBID, 23. 14 Environmental Planning Collaborative. Participatory Planing Guide for Post-Disaster Reconstruction (Ahmedabad: En- vironmental Planning Collaborative, 2004) 6. RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 15 and doctrinal prejudice.15 However, at its most broad meaning, “development” suggests access to the financial means to support the basic necessities of life such as food, water and shelter; incorporates the notion of self-determination at the individual, community and national levels; and provides the ability to advocate for change without the fear of re- course. This definition is intentionally broad so as to allow communities to describe their own development goals and meaning. Incorporating sustainability into development involves several principle dimensions. Turning again to Lizzaral- de, in terms of rebuilding it is critical to discuss social responsibility, economic responsibility and environmental sustainability.16 Social responsibility “concerns the important relations between the built environment and the consolidation of social values.”17 The architect’s goal is to identify solutions for social problems and vulnerabilities. Sustainable interventions in the built environment incorporate social development, the development of autonomy, social integration, transparency in decision-making and the preservation of values and cultural heritage. The designer’s role, then, is not to simply create form but to respond to social issues and link ethical, functional and esthetic considerations.18 Economic responsibility implies a careful consideration of the long-term economic implications of reconstruction strategies. The economic implication of any intervention extends beyond the capital outlay required for construction, operation and maintenance. Recalling that the goal of reconstruction is to leave a community in a better state than it was pre-disaster, built environment interventions must be flexible enough to allow for economic development. This may mean spatial integration of home-based businesses in residential buildings or it could suggest that reconstruction

15 Development is often negatively associated with a western, industrialized agenda. Development programs introduced throughout the 1980’s and 1990’s focused on infrastructure, financial, political and market goals imposed by the industrialized world on developing nations to their social and fiscal detriment. Much of development policy did not honor or respect the socio- cultural values or priorities of the recipient countries. There has been significant backlash in humanitarian response circles that has prompted aid organizations to focus on grass-roots projects and bottom-up strategies. 16 Lizzaralde, Rebuilding After Disasters, 20. 17 IBID, 20. 18 IBID, 20. 16 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER prioritizes rebuilding commercial and economic infrastructure.19 Economic development, reduction of maintenance costs, reduction of costs related to later modifications, use of locally available resources and reduction of waste all contribute to a sustainable approach.20 The third principle concern is environmental sustainability. This dimension must be considered in relation to both social and economic considerations. The objectives of environmental sustainability are to optimize the use of resources, to minimize the risk to the natural environment over the built environment, to reduce harm to the natural environment, and to preserve and restore natural resources and ecosystems.21 Sustainable development creates pathways to social cohesion, and stability and economic security while re- specting the limits of the physical environment and preserving natural resources.

WHAT IS THE GOAL OF RECONSTRUCTION?

The goal of reconstruction is to attain a standard of living better than what existed before the disaster. This goal accords with the notion of reconnecting communities with resources or creating access that did not previously exist. For architects and designers, this means developing a design process that can address conditions of vulnerability, incorporate opportunities for economic development, respond to economic and environmental limitations and preserve ecosystems. Additionally, this process should identify the capabilities and skill set embedded in the community to develop a reconstruction plan that is within the abilities of the community. This allows the community to be directly engaged in rebuilding and supports long-term resiliency by developing a reconstruction strategy that the community can implement without external, “expert” involvement.

19 Following an earthquake in Colombia in 1999, reconstruction in the coffee growing region was administered by the coffee- growers guild. The guild decided on a strategy that allowed those affected to determine what they would rebuild. This strategy allowed victims to rebuild based on their own priorities, needs and expectations. Knowing that the connection to economic resources was of top priority, many recipients elected to rebuild coffee production facilities. This decision enabled quake victims to regain financial stability first and allow permanent housing to follow. A more detailed account can be read in Rebuilding After Disasters or at http://www.iadb.org/features-and-web-stories/2003-04/english/reconstruction-of-the-coffeegrowing-region-in- colombia-1970.html. 20 Lizzaralde, Rebuilding After Disasters, 21-22. 21 IBID, 22-23

RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 17 WHAT GUIDELINES CURRENTLY EXIST IN SUPPORT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT?

There is an inextricable link between development and disasters.22 “The study of disasters is almost by definition a study of poverty within the developing world.”23 Humanitarian aid organizations, development agen- cies and disaster response practitioners are integrating disaster risk reduction, poverty reduction and development work; these organizations have published guidelines and protocols for those working with affected populations.24 Locating these publications, I was excited by the volume of work done and the clear link that was being made between the need to address and reduce vulnerability with the damage caused by events. In each guideline I looked for recommendations specifically for building professionals, for steps that focused on long-term reconstruction and for explicit connections between the built environment and sustainable reconstruction. I wanted to find specific actions building professionals should take when responding to disasters. How could the guidelines be used as a design process? Ultimately, the various guides I read gave similar recommendations but few offered steps specific to building professionals. The Sphere Handbook is, according to their website, “a compilation of best practice in the sector and a practical expression of [their] core principles.”25 This best practice emphasizes maintaining human dignity in emergency response and management; the provision of clean water, the means to maintain hygienic practices, and the security of a roof overhead are addressed in the handbook. The Handbook is not intended to provide

22 Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors. Mind the Gap: Post-Disaster Reconstruction and the Transition From Humanitarian Relief. (Westminster; Max Locke Centre, 2006) 7. 23 Davis. Shelter After Disaster. 11. 24 In my research, I identified innumerable guides published by all manner of organizations. The United Nations Development Program, the World Bank, UNHABITAT, the Red Cross, UNHCR, International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery and the Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors have all published reports and guidelines linking disaster mitigation and poverty reduction. 25 The Sphere Project is a group of NGO’s and the Red Cross and the Red Crescent movement. The group releases The Sphere Handbook: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response as the cornerstone of their work. The handbook includes their Humanitarian Charter and outlines standards in various areas of disaster relief such as Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion; Food Security, Nutrition and Food Aid; and Shelter Settlement and Non- Food Items. More about the Sphere Project and an online edition of the Handbook can be found at http://www.sphereproject.org/content/view/91/58/lang,english/ 18 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER guidance in long-term reconstruction, and so provided no salient best practices for long-term work. Released in 2010 by The World Bank, Safer Homes, Stronger Communities (SHSC) provides a detailed best-practice guide for reconstruction. SHSC emphasizes the value of local input, calls for the use of local labor and technology, names the importance of considering social and cultural needs in housing design, and touches upon environmental and climate considerations; yet, the SHSC suggests “as part of reconstruction policy, government must decide the degree to which reconstruction will be used to accomplish longer-term development objectives.”26 This suggestion is confounding in light of the obvious connection between vulnerability, development and disaster and characterizes the tone of the entire publication. Developed by the Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) in 2009, The Built Environment Profes- sions in Disaster Risk Reduction and Response is one of the few documents that details the potential role of architects.27 In it, the RICS lays out several stages of disaster response and recovery activities associated with those phases and actions architects, surveyors, planners, and engineers can take to support those activities. The document readily acknowledges the need for sustainable development and puts forward the idea that building professionals can make a valuable contribution toward that goal. The Tsunami Design Initiative (TDI) was formed by students at Harvard University Graduate School of Design (GSD) responding to design competition hosted by Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) for post- tsunami housing. In their award-winning proposal, TDI incorporated vulnerability reduction, economic development, resiliency, and the built environment. Their work was the first example of the role architecture could play in supporting these long-term goals. Though their associated publications provided no explicit actions, they could be extrapolated from their process.28 TDI is a glimpse at what is possible.

WHAT ARE THE COMMON THREADS IN EXISTING GUIDELINES?

“Build back better” is the catch phrase frequently used. Existing guidelines, supported by current trends in

26 Abhas K. Jha et al. Safer Homes, Stronger Communities: A Handbook for Reconstructing After Natural Disasters. (Washington: The World Bank, 2010) 61 27 The report can be accessed through the RICS website at http://www.rics.org/site/scripts/download_info. aspx?downloadID=829&fileID=991 28 TDI’s work can be found at http://projects.gsd.harvard.edu/tsunami/index2.htm RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 19 disaster management theory, support community participation, emphasize the importance of using local materials and technology, value incorporating the priorities of the stakeholders in reconstruction programs, stress the importance of permanent versus temporary solutions, and recognize the need to mitigate future disaster.

Community Engagement/Participatory Design Process This principle explicitly requires community participation in the reconstruction process. The community should be engaged to determine their priorities, their vulnerabilities, and their capacities. Identifying stakeholders from individual citizens to local government to national government, working with their needs, and including them in the process is paramount to the success of the project and the long-term rehabilitation of the village.

Design For Resiliency The goal of long-term reconstruction is to leave the community better off than it was before the storm. This means decreasing dependency on foreign involvement. The reconstruction strategy should provide the community with the skills, knowledge and resources required to rebuild after the next event. Economically, this means creating opportunities for income generation. In terms of the built environment, this means selecting construction methods that are readily learned or already present in the community and construction materials should be readily available. Struc- tures should be built to withstand physical hazards.

Local Capacity Building The reconstruction plan should provide training for builders where needed, supervise income-generation programs until the community is prepared to take over implementation and develop the ability of the community to plan collectively; prepare proposals; manage funds; and implement community projects.29

Vernacular Materials and Forms Local materials and forms should guide the design strategy. Housing should not be “a product of provision” for

29 EPC, Participartory Planning Guide, 15.

20 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER “shelter is not typically contrived but is resolved by cultures over time.”30 Using local materials can stimulate the local economy. Similarly, the use of familiar materials allows community members to be engaged in the building process.

Local Skills and Technologies Engaging local skills and technologies is critical to ensuring long-term reconstruction and resiliency. By working within the local skill set, builders can return to work and others can be trained in methods they are familiar with. “It helps to restart the local economy and creates jobs, education and training opportunities for disaster victims (particularly women and children) seeking to restart their lives.”31

Local Sustainability Practices Apply local practices where appropriate to minimize impact on the environment and increase comfort or residents. The vernacular structures and materials of many regions show an inherent sensitivity to climate and the environment. The building methods and materials should be incorporated into the reconstruction strategy.

Armed with the knowledge that building professionals should play a key role in disaster recovery, I could not find an existing guide that spelled out how. What steps are involved? How can the built environment address and reduce vulnerability? As an architect, what experience do I possess that can assist communities? How should that experience be applied to a post-disaster context?

30 Paul Oliver, “The Cultural Context of Shelter Provision,” Disasters and the Small Dwelling (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981) 41. 31 Sustainable Buildings Canada, Designing for Post-Disaster Reconstruction: A Canadian Response (available online at http://www.sbcanada.org/charrettes.asp accessed February 22, 2010) 12. RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 21 4.0 BANANAS AND DISASTERS CHOOSING HONDURAS

Late in the 1998 hurricane season, Hurricane Mitch struck the Latin American nation of Honduras. The eye of the storm passed over the island of Guanaja and then stalled over the country for 3 days. The storm was classified as a Category 5.32 Official estimates count 5,657 dead, 12,272 injured, 8,058 unaccounted for and 441,150 homeless.33 In Honduras, the scope and breadth of damage was previously unseen. Coastal areas were devastated by wind and storm surge while, inland, flooding and landslides caused massive destruction in mountainous regions. irtuallyV no part of the country was left untouched by Mitch. My interest in Honduras was also piqued by the history of the banana and the country’s distinction as one of the original banana republics. My travels in Panama introduced me to the legacy of banana plantations in Central Amer- ica, but it was the near 100-year involvement of the United States in Honduras installing, dismantling and supporting governments all for bananas that grabbed my attention.34 This kind of foreign involvement has resulted in Honduras being the second poorest nation in Central America.35 The country remains underdeveloped, dependent upon foreign investment and is politically unstable.36 Honduras seemed to be a regional site that experienced frequent storms and exhibited enormous potential for catastrophic damage in the wake of another event. I made two visits to Honduras in 2010. Having never traveled to the country before, the initial visit was intended

32 The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale is used to describe storms originating in the Atlantic Ocean and Northern Pa- cific Ocean east of the International Date Line. The scale contains five categories and hurricanes are graded based on wind speed and storm surge. A Category 1 storm is the weakest and exhibits wind speeds from 74-95 miles per hour. Category 5 is the highest ranking and is defined by wind speeds excess of 155 miles per hour. The National Weather Service website provides a com- plete table of wind speeds and associated expected damage. (http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutsshws.shtml ) 33 Marisa O. Ensor, ed. The Legacy of Hurricane Mitch: Lessons from Post-Disaster Reconstruction in Honduras. (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 2009) 27. 34 For a rollicking read on the history of the banana, read Banana: The Fate of the Fruit that Changed the World (Dan Koeppel. London: Plume, 2009) 35 Central Intelligence Agency World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html 36 Most recently, a 2009 coup d’etat ousted sitting president Manuel Zelaya. 22 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER CYCLONE people affected: 2,389,159 number of events: 8

FLOOD people affected: 1,016,732 number of events: 15

EARTHQUAKE people affected: 53,739 number of events: 3

EPIDEMIC (does not include HIV) people affected: 34,751 number of events: 5

DROUGHT Figure 1.5 Natural Disasters in Honduras from 1990-2009 people affected: 665,625 Data Source: EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database – www.emdat.be, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels (Belgium) number of events: 5

Figure 1.6 Natural Disasters by Region

RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 23 to be an introductory survey. Having researched the vernacular architecture of the primary indigenous groups37, study Honduras’ risk profile (Figures 1.5, 1.6) and gathered information on the effects of Hurricane Mitch prior to departure, I created an itinerary that would introduce me to coastal and mountainous regions. This itinerary would afford me the opportunity to encounter various vernacular typologies, to experience the topography and the associated challenges and to observe the state of development. My second goal was to identify a site where I could apply the framework for reconstruction. Along the north coast, I visited towns and cities where Honduras’ complex history was readily evident. Descen- dants of pirates still live on Utila. In Tela, the shell of a train station and a row of colonial mansions stand as a re- minder of the importance of the banana industry. Remnants of a Spanish fort and rusted canons stand guard over the bay at Trujillo. As I plied the coast, I observed the colonial, clapboard architecture of Honduras’ past and the adobe, bamboo, thatch, and bahareque38 of its indigenous groups; however, the most prevalent material in use was, by far, concrete block. In Trujillo, I met Marco and Rachel. Marco’s family owns a small guesthouse outside of La Ceiba. His wife, Rachel, is Swiss and Marco has spent several years in Switzerland. This international experience gave him a unique perspective. Marco lamented the loss of traditional materials, such as adobe, for their place in Honduran culture, but also aesthetically and environmentally. Adobe is well suited to the heat of Honduras and mud is readily available and affordable. Marco talked of building a second guesthouse using adobe and bahareque with the intention of demonstrating the value of the materials. Marco also expressed frustration with how quickly people had forgotten the lessons of Hurricane Mitch. Citing communities along rivers in particular, he told me that people had stopped elevating their houses, the memory of Mitch too foggy to feel imminent danger. I asked him what would motivate people to practice safer building techniques. It was a question I would ask continually and one that could never really be answered. From the coast, I traveled into the western highlands to Gracias en Lempira and Copan Ruinas. Rivers cut through steep mountain valleys and the humid, tropical heat of the coast gave way to cloud forest. Concrete block gave way to brick, adobe, clay tile roofs. Hurricane Mitch had dropped up to four inches of rain an hour in the mountains. In this region, the only evidence I saw was a passing glimpse of a relocated village high above a river. The houses were uniform cinder block houses in neat rows. The people who got off the bus descended steps into the val-

37 Arquitectura de los Grupos Etnicos de Honduras (Iris Milady Salinas. Tegucigalpa: Editorial Guaymuras, 1991) was an invaluable resource. 38 Bahareque is a type of wattle and daub construction. A stick frame is in-filled with stones, reed and mud. 24 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER ley to another village. After two weeks in Honduras, I observed a range of architectural styles and materials and was able to observe construction sites. There is no lack of construction skill and not all traditional materials have been eclipsed by the ubiquitous concrete block. The country is similar to other developing nations: wealth is concentrated in cities, urbanization is expanding as farmers make their way towards the wealth, city infrastructure is inadequate to support this growing population while those in the countryside exist on subsistence income generation and farming. Many of the banana plantations that provided needed employment were destroyed by Mitch and are still struggling to return. Maquiladoras provided manufacturing jobs but experienced significant Figure 1.7 Central America contraction following the economic crisis in 2008. Economic opportunities are limited. In terms of vulnerability, Honduras ranks highly. I also determined my site (Figures 1.7, 1.8 and 1.9).

4.1 TORNABE OR BUST Figure 1.8 Honduras

The north coast of Honduras is populated by the Garifuna, an Afro-Ca- ribbean group who arrived on Honduras’ Bay Islands in the 1797. The Garifu- na are believed to be descendants of slaves being delivered to the New World by the Spanish and Carib Indians who had settled on the island of St. Vincent. Eventually, the British gained dominance over Garifuna lands and, fearing the majority group would disrupt British control, relocated the population to the Bay Islands off the coast of Honduras. The Garifuna arrived on the mainland, with the help of the Spanish, shortly after. The language, also called Garifuna, is of the Arawakan family and was Figure 1.9 Tela Bay RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 25 declared a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 2009. The Garifuna in Tornabe speak both their language and Spanish flu- ently. English is spoken by a few members of the village. Dance, song, performance and religion all play an important part of Garifuna culture. (While in Tornabe, I was invited to a dance performance to be held on the beach. Unfortunately for me, it was cancelled.) The religious system is a mix of African and Amerindian traditions with certain aspects of Catholicism incorporated. Their is a deep belief in the spiritual presence of ancestors and so rituals are geared toward getting their attention and appeasing them. The Garifuna were heavily involved in the banana industry from its inception working as labourers on plantations and loading the fruit for transport. The fall in importance of the industry in Honduras has resulted in high unemployment among Garifuna communities. Additionally, the lack of development in many Garifuna towns means men must travel away from their community to locate work. The population also experiences high illiteracy rates which further exacerbates their economic condition.39 It had been raining for two days, the result of a hurricane passing through Guatemala to the northwest. The school bus to Tornabe, population about 2000, took the road to the edge of Tela where the paving stopped and dropped off to a gravel road. The bus bounced over the precipice and the rest of the 30-minute trip was spent driving at 10 miles an hour over pock-marked roads. The closer the road got to the coast the worse the conditions became until it deteriorated into shin deep mud. Past San Juan, the bus arrived at a lagoon. From my vantage point, I saw a shimmering, asphalt road on the other side of the water but there was nothing that connected to it. The bus turned, rounded the edge of the lagoon, crossed a narrow sand bar, turned again and drove onto the shimmering pavement. During my first visit to Tornabe, I was immediately struck the precariousness of the site. The main route into town is often not passable, a condition dependent on the lagoon being low enough and a mud road being dry enough. Houses are built of a mixture of traditional bamboo and thatch, wood and concrete block. Low sand dunes line the beach but many houses breach them. A lagoon snakes behind the village. My initial assessment was that there is a potential perfect storm here. The village is located on a sliver of land bounded by a lagoon on one side and Tela Bay on the other. In a major event, storm surge would easily overtake the dunes while simultaneously flooding the lagoon. The village would be inundated from both sides. My second trip to Honduras was a focused research trip. I arrived with blank maps, a framework for reconstruction and an action plan. My intention was to conduct semi-structured information-gathering interviews, to create

39 There is excellent information about the Garifuna on the internet, however, I was able to find no published literature docu- menting them specifically. I read http://www.garifuna.com and http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/afburns/afrotrop/Garifuna.htm 26 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER Figure 2.0 A cross section through Tornabe. The low elevation of the village puts it at risk for flooding and storm surge.

Houses built on the lagoon side of the The last direct-hit storm, Hurricane Mitch, brought a storm surge of 16’ village are especially vulnerable to chronic, inundating the town and destroying the majority of buildings. Storms of seasonal flooding due their near sea-level this magnitude occur on average every 15 years. Buildings along the elevation. coast are particularly susceptible to damage caused by storm surge.

Figure 2.1 A cross section through Tornabe. Many structures sit near or encroach upon the low dunes lining the beach. The reconstruction strategy must include a set-back behind the dunes. RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 27 Figure 2.2 A sampling of buildings across Tornabe. Photos: All Rhea Bundrant Figure 2.3 A sampling of sites across Tornabe. 28 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER a hazard map for the town, to gain an understanding of the complex pressures at work in the village, to document architectural housing forms and materials, and to gain an understanding of the capacity of the village. This second trip allowed me to more deeply assess vulnerability in the village, to speak with residents about their experiences during Hurricane Mitch, to interview others about construction methods and preferences, and to engage the framework itself.

5.0 FRAMEWORK AS METHOD

PHASE 0 FOUNDATION PHASE 1 ASSESSMENT & DESIGN PHASE 2 ASSISTED RECONSTRUCTION PHASE 3 RECONSTRUCTION ENGAGE INSTITUTIONAL ACTORS: government, DAMAGE ASSESSMENT DEVISE BUILDING SCHEDULE: identify order of COMMUNITY REBUILDING: phased withdrawal local & international ngo’s HAZARD/VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT: reconstruction based on community priorities of organizations IDENTIFY/ENGAGE COMMUNITY LEADERS engage community in identifying areas of risk, DEVELOP WORK MODEL: assign work teams MONITORING: community/local ngo LOGISTICS PLANNING: timeframe for speak with elders to understand frequency and with entire village participating in construction monitoring reconstruction; source materials, assets, pattern of past events of each home; individual families responsible for IDENTIFY COMMUNITY PRIORITIES: is housing own home POLICY PLANNING/IMPLEMENTATION reconstruction primary priority vs. rebuilding COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION: engage entire MOBILIZE RESOURCES economic infrastructure community in reconstruction eg: assign BUILDING MATERIALS ASSESSMENT: identify childcare and provision of meals to those who materials appropriate to local skills, tradition can’t build and climate; identify new materials that can TRAINING WORKSHOPS - partner w/national/ international organizations, local builders to CONSTRUCTION SKILLS ASSESSMENT: identify train village in reconstruction techniques skills of local builders and assess capacity to MONITOR: continued involvement of designers/ learn and practice new skills construction professionals/organizations in IDENTIFY HOUSING NEEDS: workshop with monitoring capacity the community to identify ideal square footage, allocation of space, socio-cultural needs DESIGN STRATEGY FOR RESILIENCY: using above information, design an adaptable, sustainable reconstruction strategy

community

government

aid organizations

architects/designers

construction professionals

YR 0 YR 1 YR 2 YR 3 YR 4 & BEYOND

Figure 2.4 The multi-phase Framework. This thesis focuses on Phase One, the design phase.

RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 29 The framework (Figure 2.4) acts as the research method and the design process. Each step of the framework requires active engagement with community members and observation and analysis of existing conditions. Prior to ar- rival in Honduras, I collected data on the frequency of storm events in Honduras and along the north coast specifically. In Tornabe, I interviewed community members, photo-documented housing typologies, created a catalogue of building materials, and developed hazard maps that identify the most vulnerable parts of Tornabe. Interviews, visual assessment, analysis and statistics research were the primary methods used to gather the necessary information.

HAZARD/VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT To assess the physical vulnerability of the Tornabe, I gathered data on the frequency of storms in the region and spoke with community members about previous events. Additionally, I mapped the village to document the natural environment, the proximity of dwellings to physical hazards and the quality of construction. To understand the social vulnerability of the community, I gathered information regarding existing initiatives in the community and questioned residents about social conditions experienced in the village.

IDENTIFY COMMUNITY PRIORITIES Critical to understanding community priorities is the direct interviewing of residents. I spoke with members of the community who had experienced disaster. While many expressed the need for income and stable employment, when placed in the context of disaster, their priorities shifted to reestablishing “normal housing.”40

BUILDING MATERIALS ASSESSMENT A visual survey of the buildings in Tornabe gave me great insight into the most prevalent materials used. Re- search of vernacular architecture in Honduras provided context to the visual assessment. Interviews with residents elicited local preferences and knowledge about cost-effective materials.

CONSTRUCTION SKILLS ASSESSMENT While in Tornabe, I observed active construction sites. These observations allowed me to analyze construction methods first hand. Additional research revealed training programs for builders in storm-resistant construction tech-

40 Davis, Shelter After Disaster, 33. Davis discusses the research of Dr. Fred Krimgold who described 3 scenarios of housing after a event. Krimgold refers to pre-disaster and post-reconstruction housing as “normal.” 30 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER niques.

IDENTIFY HOUSING NEEDS To identify the needs of residents I employed three methods: I researched traditional and modern Garifuna architecture; I documented houses in the village, taking note of their sizes; and I spoke with community members about household size and about their spatial needs.

6.0 DESIGN AFTER Figure 2.5 The village of Tornabe. On the coastal edge of town, houses are vulnerable to hurricane winds and storm surge. The lagoon-side of town is DISASTER vulnerable to flooding during rain storms and during hurricanes.

IDENTIFY COMMUNITY PRIORITIES

Community members agreed that the priority following a storm was housing. While there was a great need for economic reconstruction, residents were more concerned about the need for permanent shelter. Additionally, because the Garifuna are traditionally a matrifocal society, women would need to play a central role in the reconstruction process from designing a strategy to construction. Though women are not typically trained as builders (Honduran culture is patrifocal), village residents felt engaging women in the process was critical to the long-term success of the project. This stated position was echoed by my own research findings: many Garifuna women are involved in grassroots proj-

RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 31 ects aimed at building resiliency within Garifuna communities.41

HAZARD AND VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT

HURRICANE Tornabe is particularly vulnerable to passing cyclones; half of the village is built on the beach while the other half is built at sea level adjacent to a lagoon. Sand dunes are disrupted and, therefore, provide little protection. Palms lining the beach offer some protection from wind. House foundations are built slab-on-grade rendering the slab vulnerable to subsidence and undermining as the sand is both blown and washed away. In 1998, Hurricane Mitch hit Hon- duras. The storm stalled over Honduras for three days. Winds and storm surge caused damage to the entire town. Additionally, heavy rainfall overwhelmed the lagoon, destroyed the only road into town and resulted in the village being cut off for four days.

FLOOD Flooding occurs on a regular basis in Tornabe. Half of the village is especially susceptible to flooding caused by heavy rains due to the high water table, near sea-level elevation and proximity to the lagoon. In major cyclone events, storm surge easily breaches the sand dunes and rains overwhelm the lagoon causing the village to flood from both sides.

HEALTH Health epidemics are of immediate concern to the Garifuna. The greatest health epidemic faced by the residents of Tornabe is HIV/AIDS. The Garifuna population in Honduras, as a whole, has a much higher rate of infection compared to their Latino counterparts. Importantly, this epidemic is affecting the Garifuna family structure. As many parents are becoming ill and/or dying, other family members are being relied upon to care for the children. For many households, this is altering the spatial needs of the home. Grandparents and extended family are caring for children which creates need for more space and flexibility.

41 La Comite de Emergencia Garifuna is one such example of a women-lead project. They are engaged in food security projects, vulnerability mapping in communities and political advocacy. http://www.groots.org/members/honduras.htm 32 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER DROUGHT The coast is also susceptible to drought. Similar to many Hondurans, the Garifuna are reliant on subsistence farming to feed their families. The community is vulnerable to shifts in rainfall patterns and soil salinization.

EARTHQUAKE A fault line lies off the northern coast of Honduras falling just north of the bay islands of Roatan and Utila. The latest seismic activity that caused damage occurred in 2009. However, residents do perceive earthquakes to be an immediate hazard. The communities most frequently affected are the offshore islands to the east.

DETERMINATION The siting of Tornabe puts the village and its residents at risk. As currently built, the buildings are vulnerable to the physical hazards that plague the region. However, the Garifuna are a coastal people and are reliant on the sea for survival. Relocating the village inland is not a viable option; therefore, the reconstruction strategy needs to incorporate storm-resistant construction, provide protection against chronic flooding, be flexible to the dynamic family structures and be mindful of community development goals.

CONSTRUCTION STRATEGIES IN RESPONSE TO EVENT HAZARDS

CHRONIC FLOODING Based on observations during my visit to the site, flooding occurs at lower elevations in the village and there is not adequate drainage in the village. Additionally, the high water table compounds the problem. An elevated platform will protect buildings against damage caused by chronic flooding. Pile construction versus raised slab construction is recommended as it encourages natural ventilation making it more climate-appropriate to the tropical environment.

HURRICANE PROTECTION Cyclone events are characterized by high winds, heavy rains and storm surge. In Tornabe, the building stock is susceptible to damage caused by all of these characteristics. Hurricane resistant construction methods emphasize reinforced connections between top and bottom plates with wall and rafters, the rafters and ridge board and rafters, sleep- ers and roofing. The proposed reconstruction strategy employs these methods while acknowledging that in massive Category 5 events, little can be done to prevent damage. The strategy proposes a structural frame that can withstand RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 33 cyclone protection to protect against cyclone winds, buildings should be oriented with chronic flooding strategy their short sides facing the bay. roofs should be designed to resist an elevated platform protects buildings from uplift or should be designed release chronic flooding. a pile construction versus an under wind pressure without elevated slab construction encourages natural damaging the rest of the building. ventilation providing more climate-appropriate surge waters around be able to flow conditions. flood resistent construction should freely around foundations without be employed to a minimum of 8’ to protect compromising structural integrity. against surge during severe events.

main road: +4’ sand dune: +12’ sea level

a shallow ocean shelf makes high storm surges possible. waves created by high winds are not impeded geo-physically by an off-shore trench, nor by barrier islands or natural breaks. even storms that do not hit honduras directly can still bring damaging waves.

flexibility of response the hiv/aids epidemic continues to affect the garifuna communities. this epidemic has a direct impact on housing needs. reconstruction strategies need to be felxible and easily adaptable to rapidly changing family sizes and structures.

sand dune set back sand dunes line the beach and offer path of cyclone natural protection from storm surge. at their highest, the dunes reach an elevation of 12’ above sea level.

Figure 2.6 Hazards and strategic responses

34 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER these major events. Future rebuilding will entail a process of in-filling the frame rather than total reconstruction. The elevated platform strategy proposed above provides protection against flooding caused during cyclone events. The adoption of a piling foundation provides further protection from storm surge as water is able to flow unim- peded under structures. It is further proposed that all construction be water-resistant up to eight feet (8’) from grade. These elements combined provide ample protection from water damage. Sand dunes line the beach and offer natural protection from storm surge. At their highest, the dunes reach an elevation of twelve feet (12’) above sea level. Storm surge created by Hurricane Mitch reached an estimated sixteen (16’) in Tornabe. Unfortunately, many houses are built on the dunes rendering the dunes ineffective in protecting the village. All buildings should be built behind the dunes to take advantage of their capacity to block surge (Figure 2.6).

HEALTH CRISIS The HIV/AIDS epidemic seriously affects the Garifuna communities. Honduran health authorities have released data suggesting the rate of infection in Garifuna communities is equivalent to the rate of transmission in heterosexual populations in Africa.42 This epidemic has a direct impact on housing needs. Infected adults and orphaned children must be housed. This often means residing with extended family. The reconstruction strategy needs to be flexible and easily adaptable to rapidly changing family sizes and structures.

Figure 2.7 Current slab on Figure 2.8 An Elevated slab Figure 2.9 Pile foundation can Figure 3.0 The proposed strategy grade construction method. can protect houses from light protect houses from flooding is a structural frame that protects flooding. and storm surge. from surge, flooding and can resist damage in future events.

42 CHF International, Garifuna – A Holistic Approach to Fight HIV/AIDS in Honduras. (http://chfinternational.org/ node/34617 first accessed July 27, 2010.) RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 35 PROPOSED STRATEGY Analyzing the physical and social hazards, the proposed building strategy is a concrete post and beam skeleton. The floor deck is suggested at four feet (4’) off grade in response to the cultural context of Tornabe. In Tornabe, social interac- tions occur on the porch; when not working, the residents were on their porches. A four foot (4’) high concrete block knee-wall is proposed to provide water-resistant construction. This system is designed to withstand storm surge and flooding and allows for the additional benefit of natural ventilation. The skeleton is intended to survive all events, lessening the burden on residents. In the event of a Figure 3.1 A house in Tela. Photo: Rhea Bundrant hurricane the magnitude of Mitch, the skeleton will survive and families may need to replace walls or roof (Figures 2.7 - 3.0).

LOCAL PRECEDENT Elevated houses are not foreign to the region. In Tela (Figure 3.1), on Utila (Figure 3.2) and in San Pedro Sula, I observed a tradition of elevated houses. These houses are common in tropical climates as they provide natural ventilation. There are examples of elevated buildings in Tornabe (Figure 3.3); however, they are not common. In conversation with Marcel, a Tornabe resident, he acknowl- Figure 3.2 A house in Utila Town edged that elevated houses allow water to flow under and around the house. He Photo: Rhea Bundrant called the elevated style “old,” suggesting that more examples of elevated buildings once existed in town, and explained the cost of building the foundation is prohibitive.

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION SKILLS ASSESSMENT

MATERIALS AND FORM Figure 3.3 A house in Tornabe Photo: Rhea Bundrant When I arrived in Tornabe, I was not expecting to discover a village of tradi- 36 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER Figure 3.4 Material and form classification. Houses are pre- dominantly concrete block in construction, though there are wood, traditional and mixed material examples. RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 37 tional bamboo and thatch huts nor was I expecting a near universal adoption of the concrete block. However, In Tor- nabe, the block reigns supreme. I documented houses constructed of block and bamboo and block and board and batten. A few houses were constructed of clapboard, including the guesthouse where I stayed, but the paint was peeling and the clapboards were deteriorating (Figure 3.4). I interviewed a local man, Marcel, about construction materials to gain an understanding of why the block was used Figure 3.5 The Materials Menu for Tornabe so universally. Block is the most affordable, he explained, though, not initially but because it lasts fifteen years while clapboard requires maintenance and replacement every 5 years. Traditional materials were no longer available locally and so were not convenient or cost effective for many people. Marcel acknowledged that clapboard is more aesthetically pleasing, especially for tourists, yet the preference among local residents is for concrete block. There is bloqueria, a block fabricator, about one mile from Tornabe, in San Juan. In terms of long-term reconstruction goals, selecting a material that is fabricated in the neighbouring village is an obvious choice as it will stimulate the local by providing income generating opportunities shortly after the storm.

Figure 3.6 Structural frame Figure 3.7 Structural frame Figure 3.8 Structural frame De- Figure 3.9 Structural frame with bamboo in-fill. with clapboard in-fill. with block in-fill. with block in-fill.

38 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER spite the prevalence of block construction, throughout the village homes exhibit a pride in personalization and individu- ality. Columns and arches decorated entryways, homes were painted in bright colours, ceramic tiles announcing the family who resided there were embedded in the stucco finish, and some houses had gardens planted. Any reconstruction strategy needs to allow for this personalization and self-expression. Formally, most houses were single-story with a simple gable roof. However, larger houses had cross gables or hip roofs. Several homes had simple shed roofs. The proposed form must fit within this context.

PROPOSED STRATEGY The materials strategy takes inspiration from the materials, forms and variety found in Tornabe. A strategy using in-fill panels encourages residents to rebuild according to their preferences and means. The structural skeleton provides a frame residents can in-fill with bamboo, clapboard, concrete block or another material as may be available (Figures 3.6 - 3.9). This flexible system gives agency to each family to determine the design of their own home lending a sense of ownership and pride. As the situation in the village stabilizes and families can reestablish income earning activities, households are able to upgrade their in-fill panel material. The goal is to allow residents to create as varied a landscape as existed prior to the event. The form is inspired by the forms currently found in the village. A simple gable roof is split at the ridge to allow for increased ventilation while structural grid sizing allows for a shed roof for smaller dwellings. The design was gener- ated out of a respect for the vernacular language and the observed preferences of the village.

MATERIALS AS MEANS FOR DEVELOPMENT For most families in Tornabe, financial stability is a primary concern. There is little work in the village itself. Men must leave the community, often for extended periods, to work in other parts of Honduras. There is a great need for economic advancement. With little help from the government, the community must identify other opportunities. Train- ing Garifuna in specialized building systems would give workers a sought after skill. A similar technique was used in Rwanda by MASS Group for the construction of a local hospital. The training the builders received has made them sought-after experts in their field.43

43 Michael Murphy, a founder of MASS Group, gave a lecture at Structures For Inclusion 10 at Howard University. In his presentation, he spoke about a hospital he had designed and was built in Rwanda. Murphy described the construction process as an opportunity to improve the skills of local craftspeople and builders and spoke of the success of the projects’ stonemasons. For more information about MASS Group: http://www.massdesigngroup.org/ RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 39 The Covintec Panel is a building material and system made up of an extruded polystyrene (EPS) core wrapped in a light gauge, structural steel cage that is finished in concrete. The panel can withstand winds up to 180 km/ hour and offers greater insulation values than block. It is currently being used in Mexico, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. The Tridipanel is a similar system and has tested to have similar structural strength. Buildings using this system have withstood earthquakes, wildfires and hurricanes. Neither system is used in Honduras; however, both are within the skill set of Garifuna builders and could provide the Garifuna with the specialized skill set needed to keep them employed. While solar panels are not appropriate at this time, they provide an opportunity for advanced training for the community. The tourism industry is emerging in Honduras and the government is actively promoting Honduras as a luxury destination. The Garifuna are resisting these ventures which put their community at risk for unwanted development. Tourism will come to the areas surrounding Tornabe. Developing higher technology skills could allow the community to participate in the tourism industry in a beneficial way through partnerships with developers to outfit resorts with solar power. As tourists become more savvy about their travel options, this could allow Honduras to tap into the lucrative eco-travel market and could ensure the Garifuna a critical role in the industry.

CONSTRUCTION SKILLS In Honduras, I observed buildings being built without hurricane ties, without bond beams and without door and window headers (Figure 4.1, 4.2). I Figure 4.0 Examples of construction skills also observed workers tying rebar for concrete with skill and precision, noted and methods in Tornabe that many homes used a u-shape block at the top course that allows for a bond Photos: Rhea Bundrant beam and observed rebar being bent over rafters to act as hurricane strapping (Figure 4.0). There was no consistency in methods but it was evident that throughout Honduras the skills needed to construct a resilient house were present if not always applied. There is no building code in Honduras. Following Hurricane Mitch, the United States Department of Housing 40 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER and Urban Development (HUD) and the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) developed a training seminar for construction workers in Honduras, the Dominican Republic and El Salvador. The program taught builders hurricane- resistant techniques that could readily be applied using materials available to them and adopting modifications to methods in use. Mock-ups were created for builders to see and documents with diagrams showing correct methods were published.44 Many residents of Tornabe have construction experience. Existing projects show a familiarity and skill building with reinforced concrete, masonry and framing, and with incorporating wind-resistant construction techniques. Both Figure 4.1 A window without a header or bond course. Garifuna men and women will be able to actively participate in reconstruction Photos: All Rhea Bundrant efforts. The proposed concrete skeleton was selected because it is within the existing skill set of the community. Construction efforts, beyond the involvement of the international community, can be managed by the residents of Torn- abe. In light of the operational realities of construction in Tornabe, it is recommended that block walls be limited to eight to twelve feet in length before a vertical column be required. This will increase the stability of the wall itself while also working within the limits of the material and builders.

Figure 4.2 A free-pour concrete corner IDENTIFY HOUSING NEEDS post. All corners should be framed and reinforced. The traditional Garifuna house consisted of one great room. A screen Photos: All Rhea Bundrant divided the room into sleeping areas at night. Today, a family house usually contains, at minimum, two dedicated bedrooms. In Garifuna culture, the kitchen is the centre of the family’s social life. Guests are entertained in the kitchen. Traditionally, the kitchen has been separate from the living quarters. Today, it is increasingly common to find kitchens

44 A Spanish language version of the guide can be found at http://www.toolbase.org/Home-Building-Topics/Natural-Disasters/spanish- construction-training RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 41 Most houses in Tornabe are equipped with a outdoor spigot with running water. Traditionally, bathroom facilities were external to the home. As homes moder- ize, I observed bathroom facilities moving into the house despite the fact that there is no running water inside the house.

Plan of a traditional Garifuna dwelling. Though not always integrated into the construction of the house, all houses in the village have a shaded, outdoor space from which to watch the goings on of the town.

The kitchen is the heart of the Garifuna home. Guests are received and entertained in the kitchen. In modern houses, the kitchen is internal to the home and should be located Plan of a modified traditional Garifuna dwelling. at the front of the house. Figure 4.3 Vernacular housing transformed into current housing needs. Drawn from descriptions in Arquitectura de los Grupos Etnicos de Honduras 42 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER located inside the main house. The kitchen should be the first space entered into so guests only enter as far as this space (Figure 4.3).45 Though not always integrated into the construction of the house, all houses in the village have a shaded outdoor space from which to watch the goings on of the town.

45 Salinas, Arquitectura de los Grupos Etnicos, 30-31

+ + + + CONSTRUCTION HOUSING STRUCTURAL IN-FILL PANEL SKILLS & LIMITATIONS NEEDS SKELETON LOCAL FORM

Figure 4.4 The final equation.

RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 43 Figure 4.5 The Final Design. 44 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER AA 1 2 3

8' - 0" 10' - 0"

A CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE COLUMN

10' - 0" CONTINUOUS FOOTER CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE

B 10' - 0"

AA 1 2 3 1 2 3

8' - 0" 10' - 0"

A CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE COLUMN A CAST-IN-PLACE BB CONCRETE COLUMN

BB CONTINUOUS FOOTER CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE 10' - 0"

10' - 0" CONTINUOUS FOOTER WATER RESISTANT CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE HARDWOOD JOIST @ 24” o.c. B B LEDGER BOLTED TO BEAM 10' - 0" 10' - 0"

C C

AA AA AA 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

8' - 0" 10' - 0" 8' - 0" 10' - 0" 8' - 0" 10' - 0"

CAST-IN-PLACE CAST-IN-PLACE A A A CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE COLUMN CONCRETE COLUMN CONCRETE COLUMN

BB BB BB

CONTINUOUS FOOTER CONCRETE BLOCK CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE 10' - 0" 10' - 0" 10' - 10' - 0" CONTINUOUS FOOTER KNEE WALL CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE d2 WATER RESISTANT IN-FILL PANEL HARDWOOD JOIST @ 24” o.c. B d1 B B LEDGER BOLTED EDGE OF ROOF ABOVE TO BEAM 10' - 0" 10' - 10' - 0" 10' - 0"

C C C

Figure 4.6 First Floor Plan Figure 4.7 Framing Plan Figure 4.8 Foundation Plan

AA AA 1 2 3 1 2 3

8' - 0" 10' - 0"

A CAST-IN-PLACE A CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE COLUMN CONCRETE COLUMN BB

BB CONTINUOUS FOOTER CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE 10' - 0" CONCRETE BLOCK 10' - 0" 10' - KNEE WALL WATER RESISTANT d2 HARDWOOD JOIST Figure 4.9 Plan variations using the 8’ x 10’ grid. Grid orientation and house size can be easily adapted depending on need, location and desire.IN-FILL PANEL @ 24” o.c. B B d1 RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 45 LEDGER BOLTED TO BEAM EDGE OF ROOF ABOVE 10' - 0" 10' - 0" 10' -

C C

1 2 3

8' - 0" 10' - 0"

A CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE COLUMN

CONCRETE BLOCK 10' - 0" 10' - KNEE WALL d2 IN-FILL PANEL

B d1

EDGE OF ROOF ABOVE 10' - 0" 10' -

C T/ROOF UPPER T/ROOF UPPER 20’ - 0” 20’ - 0” CLERESTORY T/ROOF LOWER ROOFING T/ROOF LOWER 16’ - 0” (METAL/OTHER MATERIAL) 16’ - 0” ROOF PURLIN 24”o.c. T/BOND BEAM ROOF RAFTER 24”o.c. T/BOND BEAM 13’ - 0” CAST IN PLACE BOND BEAM 13’ - 0” BAMBOO INFILL PANEL (INDEPENDANT STUD FRAME FIXED TO CONCRETE STRUCTURAL SKELETON)

T/BLOCK T/BLOCK 8’ - 0” CONCRETE BLOCK 8’ - 0” FLOORING WATER RESISTANT HARDWOOD/TILE) CAST IN PLACE CONCRETE BEAM T/BEAM FLOOR JOIST 16” o.c. T/BEAM 4’ - 0” WATER RESISTANT HARDWOOD 4’ - 0” LEDGER BOLTED TO BEAM

GRADE CAST IN PLACE CONCRETE GRADE 0’ - 0” COLUMN 0’ - 0”

T/FOOTER T/FOOTER -4’ - 0” CAST IN PLACE -4’ - 0” CONCRETE FOOTER

Figure 5.0 Building sections 46 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER REBAR RAFTER TIE Figure 5.1 Detailed Wall Section EXTEND REBAR FROM BOND BEAM TO STRAP RAFTERS BLOCKING AT RAFTERS

ROOFING ROOFING (METAL/OTHER MATERIAL) (METAL/OTHER MATERIAL) ROOF PURLIN 24”o.c. ROOF PURLIN 24”o.c. ROOF RAFTER 24”o.c. BLOCKING AT RAFTER ENDS TOP PLATE BOLTED TO BEAM T/BOND BEAM 13’ - 0” ROOF RAFTER 24”o.c. STEEL REINFORCING CAST IN PLACE BOND BEAM CAST IN PLACE BOND BEAM BAMBOO INFILL PANEL STEEL REINFORCING AS REQ’D INDEPENDENT WOOD FRAME BOLTED TO CONCRETE SKELETON

BAMBOO INFILL PANEL TOP PLATE BOLTED TO BOND (INDEPENDANT STUD FRAME FIXED TO CONCRETE STRUCTURAL SKELETON) COURSE CAST IN PLACE CONCRETE COLUMN U-BLOCK TOP COURSE T/BLOCK U-BLOCK USED AS TOP COURSE IN 8’ - 0” TOP PLATE BOLTED TO BLOCK ALL INSTANCES OF BLOCK WALL U-BLOCK TOP COURSE BLOCK KNEE WALL U-BLOCK USED AS TOP COURSE IN WATER RESISTANT BLOCK ALL INSTANCES OF BLOCK WALL CONSTRUCTION TO 8’ MIN. BLOCK KNEE WALL VERTICAL REINFORCING WATER RESISTANT BLOCK FLOORING CONSTRUCTION TO 8’ MIN. WATER RESISTANT HARDWOOD/TILE) T/BEAM FLOOR JOIST 16” o.c. 4’ - 0” WATER RESISTANT HARDWOOD CAST IN PLACE LEDGER CONCRETE BEAM BOLTED TO BEAM CAST IN PLACE CONCRETE BEAM STEEL REINFORCING AS REQ’D CONCRETE COMLUMN BEYOND CAST IN PLACE GRADE 0’ - 0” CONCRETE COLUMN

T/FOOTER CAST IN PLACE -4’ - 0” CONCRETE FOOTER CAST IN PLACE CONCRETE FOOTER FOOTER IS CONTINUOUS AND IS TIED INTO ALL COLUMNS/PILES

RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 47 7.0 CONCLUSIONS

Tornabe has running water, though the typical house does not have water piped inside. Each house is equipped with an outdoor spigot. Water is collected outdoors and brought inside for use. As houses modernize, bathroom facilities are moving indoors despite the lack of indoor plumbing.

The final strategy employs a concrete structural skeleton, local building form, locally available and preferred materials, and responds to the cultural needs and traditions of the Garifuna (Figure 4.4). The framework for reconstruction provides a series of criteria by which to understand the specific context of a disaster affected community. It requires an examination of complex influences on housing and the built environment. Importantly, the emphasis is on process, on exploration and on analysis not on the development of a singular design. The framework does not impose a design strategy or presume priorities. Adaptation and improvisation are valued over static strategies. Tornabe is, as is Honduras, vulnerable to complex, dynamic hazards social, cultural, political, economic and physical in nature. The framework provided a platform from which to gain an in depth understanding of the myriad forces that affect the community. The design that resulted is not the only possible solution but is one that is rooted in the social, cultural, formal and physical conditions of Tornabe. The difficulty of this thesis and all disaster relief and development work is planning for unknown realities and happenings on the ground. This thesis is able to exist in a sort of ideal state one where there is no disaster, no operational agendas and no government priorities to accommodate or to incorporate. Additionally, all site observations suggested, in the case of Tornabe, the skills exist to build resilient homes despite that fact many structures seemed to be at-risk. This suggests that there are additional factors that hinder long-term reconstruction and resiliency. This is where it becomes critically important for response teams to collaborate and partner. Built environment professionals and humanitarian response specialists must rely on each other to develop a reconstruction strategy. Understanding the social or cultural constraints or obstacles that a community faces in imple- menting a strategy may require a level of analysis that goes beyond the scope of the framework just as incorporating built environment strategies that overcome these obstacles may be beyond the scope of aid workers. Essentially, this framework cannot and is not intended to operate in isolation or without the input of other organizations.

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52 DESIGN AFTER DISASTER RHEA BUNDRANT, M. ARCH THESIS 53