Learning Styles and Pedagogy in Post-16 Learning a Systematic and Critical Review LSRC Reference Ws E
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LSRC reference Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning A systematic and critical review Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning learning and in post-16 pedagogy styles Learning This report critically reviews the literature on learning styles and examines in detail 13 of the most influential models. The report concludes that it matters fundamentally which instrument is chosen. The implications for teaching and learning in post-16 learning A systematic and critical review are serious and should be of concern to learners, teachers and trainers, managers, researchers and inspectors. LSRC reference LSRC reference Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning A systematic and critical review Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning learning and in post-16 pedagogy styles Learning This report critically reviews the literature on learning styles and examines in detail 13 of the most influential models. The report concludes that it matters fundamentally which instrument is chosen. The implications for teaching and learning in post-16 learning A systematic and critical review are serious and should be of concern to learners, teachers and trainers, managers, researchers and inspectors. LSRC reference LSRC reference Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning A systematic and critical review Frank Coffield Institute of Education University of London David Moseley University of Newcastle Elaine Hall University of Newcastle Kathryn Ecclestone University of Exeter The Learning and Skills Research Centre is supported by the Learning and Skills Council and the Department for Education and Skills The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Learning and Skills Research Centre or the Learning and Skills Development Agency Published by the Learning and Skills Research Centre www.LSRC.ac.uk Feedback should be sent to: Sally Faraday Research Manager Learning and Skills Development Agency Regent Arcade House 19–25 Argyll Street London W1F 7LS Tel 020 7297 9098 Fax 020 7297 9190 [email protected] Copyedited by Helen Lund Designed by sans+baum Printed by Cromwell Press Ltd Trowbridge, Wiltshire 1543/06/04/500 ISBN 1 85338 918 8 © Learning and Skills Research Centre 2004 All rights reserved LSRC reference Contents Acknowledgements 1 Section 1 A systematic review of learning-styles models Introduction Aims of the project Approaches to the literature review 9 Section 2 Introduction to Sections 3–7 A continuum of learning styles Families of learning styles 13 Section 3 Genetic and other constitutionally based factors Introduction 3.1 Gregorc’s Mind Styles Model and Style Delineator 3.2The Dunn and Dunn model and instruments of learning styles 37 Section 4 The cognitive structure family Introduction 4.1 Riding’s model of cognitive style and his Cognitive Styles Analysis (CSA) 47 Section 5 Stable personality type Introduction 5.1The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) 5.2 Apter’s reversal theory of motivational styles, the Motivational Style Profile (MSP) and related assessment tools 5.3Jackson’s Learning Styles Profiler (LSP) 61 Section 6 Flexibly stable learning preferences Introduction 6.1 Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory (LSI) 6.2Honey and Mumford’s Learning Styles Questionnaire (LSQ) 6.3 The Herrmann ‘whole brain’ model and the Herrmann Brain Dominance Instrument (HBDI) 6.4 Allinson and Hayes’ Cognitive Style Index (CSI) 91 Section 7 Learning approaches and strategies Introduction 7. 1Entwistle’s Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST) 7. 2 Ve r munt’s framework for classifying learning styles and his Inventory of Learning Styles (ILS) 7. 3 Sternberg’s theory of thinking styles and his Thinking Styles Inventory (TSI) 119 Section 8 Implications for pedagogy What advice for practitioners? The appeal of learning styles The objections to learning styles Still no pedagogy in the UK 133 Section 9 Recommendations and conclusions Positive recommendations Continuing problems with the research field of learning styles Gaps in knowledge and possible future research projects Final comments 147 References 166 Appendix 1 List of learning-styles instruments and theories 170 Appendix 2 List of search terms used in the literature review 171 Appendix 3 Glossary of terms LSRC reference LSRC reference Section ? page ?/? Figures and tables Figures 6 1 Selection of literature for review 9 2 Curry’s ‘onion’ model of learning styles 10 3 Vermunt’s model of learning styles (1998) 10 4 Families of learning styles 16 5 Gregorc’s four-channel learning-style model 42 6 The two dimensions of the CSA 48 7 The four bipolar discontinuous scales of the MBTI 55 8 Possible motivational style reversals in four experiential domains 63 9 Kolb’s four learning styles 63 10 The experiential learning theory of growth and development 73 11 Dimensions of Honey and Mumford’s learning cycle 96 12 Conceptual map of components of effective studying from ASSIST 124 13 The 4MAT system Tables 20 1 Gregorc’s Mind Styles Model and Style Delineator (GSD) 22 2 Variables and factors in the Dunn and Dunn learning-styles model 23 3 Elements of learning style from the Dunn and Dunn model 26 4 Percentages of respondents preferring a specific time of day 31 5 Studies of the learning-style preferences of able students 36 6 Dunn and Dunn’s model and instruments of learning styles 37 7 Learning-styles instruments in the cognitive structure family 39 8 Kogan’s classification of learning styles 40 9 Studies of the interaction of field independence and attainment with learners aged 14+ years 45 10 Riding’s Cognitive Styles Analysis (CSA) 48 11 The 16 MBTI personality types 48 12 Summary of the 10 most common MBTI types 48 13 Authors’ report of test–retest reliability of the MBTI Form G 52 14 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) 56 15 Apter’s Motivational Style Profile (MSP) 58 16 Key characteristics of each style 58 17 Strengths and weaknesses of the different preferences 58 18 The extent to which corresponding scales – Jackson (LSP) and Honey and Mumford (LSQ) – measure the same constructs 60 19 Jackson’s Learning Styles Profiler (LSP) 71 20 Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory (LSI) 73 21 Strengths and weaknesses 73 22 LSQ retest correlations, by learning style 76 23 Activities and preferences 77 24 Honey and Mumford’s Learning Styles Questionnaire (LSQ) 79 25 ‘Whole brain’ learning and design considerations 81 26 Summary of positive and negative loading items on two HBDI factors 81 27 Item loadings on the four main HBDI factors 83 28 Illustrative occupational group norms 85 29 Herrmann’s Brain Dominance Instrument (HBDI) 87 30 Items which best characterise analysis and intuition 90 31 Allinson and Hayes’ Cognitive Styles Index (CSI) 95 32 Defining features of approaches to learning and studying 97 33 Reliability of ASI sub-scales 103 34 Entwistle’s Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST) 105 35 Vermunt’s learning styles with illustrations of their components 105 36 Areas and sub-scales of the ILS 107 37 Exemplar vignettes of Vermunt’s four learning styles using ILS items 110 38 Vermunt’s Inventory of Learning Styles (ILS) 111 39 Summary of styles of thinking 116 40 Thinking styles and methods of instruction 116 41 Thinking styles and methods of assessment 118 42 Sternberg’s Thinking Styles Inventory (TSI) 135 43 Effect sizes for different types of intervention 140 44 13 learning-styles models matched against minimal criteria LSRC reference Acknowledgements The project team would like to extend thanks to the authors of the models reviewed in this report for their comments and reactions to our work which enabled us to improve the quality of the final version. We also wish to acknowledge the steady and sensitive support of John Vorhaus of the Learning and Skills Development Agency (LSDA) and the administrative skills of Louise Wilson of the University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Eugene Sadler-Smith read an earlier version of this report and made some useful comments for which we are also grateful. LSRC reference Foreword The theory and practice of learning styles has generated great interest and controversy over the past 20 years and more. The Learning and Skills Research Centre would like to express its appreciation to the authors of two complementary reports, for the time and effort that went into their production and for providing a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners in the learning and skills sector. These reports serve two key purposes: first, they contribute to what we know about models of learning styles and to our knowledge of what these offer to teachers and learners. Second, the reports identify an agenda for further research: to evaluate rigorously key models in a variety of learning environments in order to better understand their merits and deficiencies. We publish these reports in the spirit of stimulating debate and enabling knowledge of learning styles to be developed for the benefit of practice and policy. The complementary report Should we be using learning styles? explores what research has to say to practice. Final sections are common to both reports: these draw out the implications for pedagogy and offer recommendations and conclusions for practitioners, policy-makers and the research community. LSDA would also like to thank the steering committee for incisive commentary and support throughout the project. Dr John Vorhaus Research Manager Learning and Skills Development Agency Steering committee members: Professor Charles Desforges Professor Noel Entwistle Professor Phil Hodkinson Dr John Vorhaus LSRC reference page 1 Section 1 A systematic review of learning-styles models Introduction A complex research field How can we teach students if we do not know how Yet beneath the apparently unproblematic appeal they learn? How can we improve the performance of learning styles lies a host of conceptual and empirical of our employees if we do not know how we ourselves problems.