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N76 11 0 23 Preceding Page Blank https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19760003935 2020-03-20T01:23:55+00:00Z View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by NASA Technical Reports Server N76 11 0 23 8.2(][) Drag of the Complete Configuration Aerodynamic Conslderat ions Jan Roskam University of Kansas Introduct ion The purpose of this part of the paper is to focus on a number of drag items and relate them to the performance of the complete configuration. First, the effect of fuselage camber, wing and nacelle incidence are discussed from a viewpoint of design decision making. Second, the effect of overall cruise drag on the design gross and empty weight of the airplane is discussed. Examples show that cruise drag can have a very important influence on total airplane weight. Third, the effects of usable cruise lift-to-drag ratio and wing-loading are shown to be important. Finally several research needs relating to design of the complete configuration are reviewed. Effect of Fuselage Camber, Wing and Nacelle Incidence in putting together a new airplane1 a number of fundamental geometric choices must be made. Typical examples of such choices are: - extent of fuselage camber; - wing incidence on fuselage; and - nacelle incidence and position relative to the wing. In determ;ning the extent of wind tunnel testing required to "optimize" the configuration, the aerodynamiclst is confronted with a large number of variables. For example, if it is assumed, that two camber shapes, two wing-fuselage incidence angles and two wing-nacelle incidence angles are to be investigated, this alone leads to eight combinations to be tested. Under the economic constraints of the general aviation industry it is usually not feasible to do this much testing. Major aircraft manufacturers, on fighter, bomber and even on some tTans- port programs, obtain significant inputs from NASA in terms of systematic wind tunnel configuration testing. How does the general aviation designer choose the best configuration ? Well, very often he ends up guessin_ or, the shaping decision (for lack of definitive aerodynamic input) is made for him by engineers or managers outside of aerodynamics. Preceding Page Blank Inputs such as tooling costs and marketing opinions outweigh the aerodynamlcist in the decislon making process, primarily because the aerodynamlclst does not have convlnclng arguments one way or the other. To illustrate these points and to point once more to the need for systematic tunnel testing of general aviation research models, the following examples are given. Note from Figure 1 that three different vertical nacelle installations are being used for turbopropeller airplanes. Note also, that all three use rather differing aft fairing shapes. The question arises: can they all be right? Observe from Figure 2 that one manufacturer employs two quite different piston engine nacelle configurations. Figure 3 illustrates two more and again different nacelle shapes. The questions arises again: can they all be rlght? Possible pay-offs of such research are illustrated in Figure 4 taken from Reference 1 (1942). Figure 4 shows a range of wing-body-nacelle drag coefficients of .1250 to .1050, (.0078 to .0066 based on wing areal) dependlng on vertical nacelle location alone. In other words, there are 12 drag counts to be galned by selecting the vertical nacelle location. It would seem that the industry could derive significant beneflts from a series of systematic wind tunnel test to determine the best (lowest drag) shape of such wing-nacelle installations. Such research should also account for the effect of thrustline location and orientation, as well as for the possible beneficial effect of forward propeller shaft extensions, such as used on the hlavajo. Drag Effect on Airplane Weight and Airplane Market Price Aerodynamic drag is not generally thought of in general aviation airplane design as an important factor affecting airplane weight. The reason may be the fact that usually new airplane "designs" consist of adaptations of components which are already in production, to a new alrplane. The term "tinker toying", although not a kind description probably applies to much of general aviation airplane design. However, every now and then a truly new design evolves and then the effect of drag on weight can be important as will be illustrated in the following simplified analysls. Assume that total airplane weight is broken down as follows: W = WpL + W F + W E (1) 338 whe re: WpL - payload weight W F = fuel weight (including reserves) W E = empty weight Fuel weight and empty weight are assumed to be broken down as follows: W F = A + TxSFC x _ and: (2) R W E = B" +'CT + D'WF (3) whe re: A = weight of reserve fuel T = cruise thrust SFC = cruise fuel consumption Ibs/lbs/hr V = cruise speed R = cruise range B = empty weight without power plant and fuel system = weight of power plant per Ibs of cruise thrust D = weight of fuel system per Ibs of cruise fuel In cruise flight: T = W and L = D (4) I ift drag so that T = W(D) (5) Substituting equations (2) through (5) into equation (1) yields: Upon solving for W it is found that: VU_,t. +-A, t !_ .,,. "_ W _ ,,, or 339 By introducing: it is possibleto rewrite equation (7) as: _kJ_ o_ - b//%.j_ D To determine the effect of drag on airplane weight, the differential can be found from equation (10) as: bk_J --4 b = CV=- 0 0 Table 1 presents data from which ;>_/'J_ can be calculated for a typical general aviation piston engine driven twin. So using equation (11): "_ Ud = OI- z L 32- _ - Itq This means that per unit L/D, the airplane gross weight can be lowered by about 120 Ibs, a significant saving when compared to ff_e empty weight, W E- Figures 5 and 6 illustrate similar results obtained in Reference 2 on small two-place turbofan (1200 Ibs max thrust) airplanes. Table 1 and Figure 5 and 6 all show the importance of designing to the maximum possible cruise lift-to-drag ratio, if the lowest possible airplane weight is to be achieved. It should be noted, that lower empty weight, achieved by better aerodynamic design has a very significant effect on the marketing price of an airplane. Table 2 shows typical market prices related to gross and empty weights for general aviation twins. For the example twin of Table 1 the typical market price per pound of empty weight would be about 34 $/Ibs. Attaining a 120 Ibs saving would cut the market price by $4,080, a rather significant competitive advantage l 340 Table 1. Data for Calculation of_/_(,LIzI)_ for a Typical Twin. WE = 3700 Ibs Engines 2 x 300 hp. at 450 Ibs each WF = lO00 Ibs WpL = 1600 Ibs SFChp = .45 Ibs/hp/hrs W = 6300 Ibs Assume propeller and engine weight =llO0 Ibs Assume fuel system weight = lO0 Ibs Assuming a cruise L/D = II and Wave = 5,800 Ibs cruise T cruise = 527 Ibs Assume Vcruise = 216 mph, then HPcruise = 303 Fuel flow in cruise then is 136 Ibs/hr. This yields a range of (1000-200 (reserves)) 216 = 1270 miles The value of SFC is 136 136 5-,27= .26 lbs/Ibs/hr I So, A = 200 Ibs B = 3700-1200 = 2500 Ibs - IlO0 - 1O0 C - 527-" = 2.1 D = 1,000-200 = .13 From equations (8) and (9): a = 1600 + 200 (l + .13) + 2500 = 4326 Ibs b ,26 x T_ (l + .13) + 2.1 = .05 + 2.1 = 2.15 Lift-to-Drag Ratio and Wing Loading Effects Revisited Light airplanes, such as the Cessna 172 typically cruise at lift coefficients in the range of. C. _ .3 -Eo ._-- Figure 7 shows that the corresponding L/D value varies from 10.0 to 13.2. This compares with a maximum L/D value of 13.8 indicating that significant improvements must be attainable by increasing wing loading. Increasing wing loading not only will bring the cruise C L closer to I/D/max on the polar but it will also shift the polar to 341 Table 2. Typical General Aviation Light Twin Airframe Prices, (1975 Flying Annual Data) GrossWeight Empty Weight Price Price Price T Type w (Ibs) wE (Ibs] $/lbs i' $/Ibs Cessna Skymaster 4,630 2,710 63,300 13.7 23.4 Piper Seneca 4,570 2,770 63,995 14.0 23.1 Piper Aztec E 5,200 3,042 88,200 17.0 29.0 Beech Baron B55 5,100 3,155 89,000 17.5 28.2 Cessna 310 5,500 3,251 89,950 16.4 27.7 _J Averages 5,000 2,986 78,889 15.7 26.3 Rockwell Shrike Commander 6,750 4,608 128,150 19.0 27.8 Cessna 402 B 6,300 3,741 138,500 22.0 37.0 Piper Navajo B 6,500 3,930 13g,100 21.4 35.4 Cessna 414 6,350 4,042 17 4,950 27.6 43.3 Beech Duke 6,775 4,265 219,450 32.4 51.5 Averages 6,535 ! 4,117 160,030 24.5 i 39.0 342 the left in the higher C L range (note that CDo actually will increase because it is based on a smaller wing areal). This fact has been previously demonstrated also in such papers as References 3, 4, and 5. Figure 8 illustrates some typical results. Cutting wing area in the chordwlse direction by 30 percent results in a 10 percent reduction in thrust required and therefore _n fuel flow. F_gure 9, shows the relative aerodynamic "cleanness" of 1975 general aviation single engine airplanes compared to what is felt feasible in the future.
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