Advances in Global Change Research 66

Vishwambhar Prasad Sati Himalaya on the Threshold of Change Advances in Global Change Research

Volume 66

Series Editor Markus Stoffel, Institute of Geological Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland

Advisory Editors Wolfgang Cramer, IMEP, Bâtiment Villemin, Europole de l’Arbois, Aix-en-Provence, France Urs Luterbacher, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland F. Toth, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Laxanburg, Austria More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/5588 Vishwambhar Prasad Sati

Himalaya on the Threshold of Change

123 Vishwambhar Prasad Sati Department of Geography and Resource Management, School of Earth Sciences Mizoram University (A Central University) Aizawl,

ISSN 1574-0919 ISSN 2215-1621 (electronic) Advances in Global Change Research ISBN 978-3-030-14179-0 ISBN 978-3-030-14180-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14180-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019932821

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Preface

The seeds of the book, Himalaya on the Threshold of Change were sown in the early days of 2014. I had a long discussion on academic pursuance, mainly on changing Himalayan Environment and Development with Prof. Kamlesh Kumar at his residence—42 Nalapani Road, . He wanted my academic presence in the Central Himalayan region through initiating out-standing academics and thus, we decided to pursue two academic ventures—start publishing a Journal on Himalayan Sciences and composing a book on the changing aspects that have been occurring in the Himalaya. The idea was to review the book ‘The Himalaya: Aspects of Change’, edited by J. S. Lall during the 1980s. However, it was difficult for me to invite quality papers from the academicians, working on the aspects of the Himalaya, because of my limited accessibility, and I, therefore, decided to compose a reference book and be its sole author. Further, the Himalaya, as a whole, is so vast to conduct empirical study (observational); thus, I chose the Indian Central Himalayan region (ICHR), i.e. the Himalaya for my study. I have been working on the Uttarakhand Himalaya since 1989 when I first got registered to pursue Doctor of Philosophy (D.Phil.) from the HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal, Uttarakhand. Although I could not receive sub- stantial research training during the commencement of the doctoral degree yet, my incessant research on the Himalaya has enhanced inside knowledge to understand the changing Himalayan Environment and Development. My overall focus has always been on the several aspects of the Himalaya, both natural and cultural, that include natural resources and their management, sustainable livelihoods, socio- economic development, farming systems, and environment and development. I have contributed to substantial research on many of the above-mentioned burning issues about the Himalaya and my research findings have been published and well documented. Meanwhile, there has existed a huge gap in terms of a comprehensive study on change pattern in the Himalaya. The present study has been conducted in such a way that certainly bridges the gap and strengthens substantial knowledge about the Himalaya and the aspects of change.

v vi Preface

The term ‘Himalaya’ is derived from the two words ‘Him’ and ‘Alaya’, literary meaning ‘the abode of snow’. It is a common belief that the folk deities and saints have their dwellings in the Himalaya, where they perform penance. The people symbolize the Himalaya as Lord and worship it. The Himalaya has a number of pilgrimages, where exodus pilgrims visit every year. Therefore, the cultural significance of the Himalaya is immense. On the importance of the Himalaya, the Hindu scripture, ‘The Purana’ says that during the submergence of the Earth into ocean, only the Himalaya existed. Lord Vishnu took the incarnation of Fish, called the ‘Matsyavatara’, to save the Himalaya. In Bhagwat Geeta (Chap. 10), while preaching to Arjuna about his various forms, Lord said that ‘Sthironam Cha Himalaya’, which means that among the stable objects, I am the Himalaya. The Himalaya has enormous natural and cultural significance, as it provides livelihoods to the hundreds of thousands of people, living in the upstream and downstream regions of the , Sind and the Brahmaputra rivers’ systems. The rivers, panoramic landscapes, forests, climate and land resources are abundant in the Himalaya that provide sufficient bases for economic development and sus- taining livelihoods. Besides, the Himalaya protects the Indian sub-continent/ territory from the cold waves of the north and from the intruders of the neigh- bouring countries. In spite of having such huge quantity of natural resources, people of the Himalayan regions are economically underdeveloped and socially backward. They suffer a lot and struggle even for having meal two times a day. The Himalayan region is highly sensitive to climate related phenomena because of its verticality, angularity and seasonality. Further, geological events such as tectonic movements and earthquakes are very active, as the region has received several earthquakes’ tremors of high magnitude and it falls in zones IV and V of the earthquake zoning map. Landscape fragility/vulnerability is very high, which leads to severe catastrophes, such as landslides and mass movements, mainly during the season. Weather induced natural hazards like debris-flow and flashfloods are very common. The Himalaya receives heavy downpour called cloudburst during the monsoon season, causing for landscape degradation and huge losses to prop- erties and lives. Change is the law of nature. Every object on the Earth is moving and changing. is not new. After the origin of the Earth, it was fully covered by snow during the eight geological timescales (four times after Pleistocene era) which are called ‘snow ages’. Scientists observed that there was a ‘little ice age’ that occurred between 1400 and 1800 century A.D. Owing to the vast impact of climate change on bio-diversity and landscape, many species have become extinct and many are on the verge of extinction. On the other hand, new species have origi- nated. However, the recent change in all the aspects on the Earth is unique however, not uniform. The Himalaya has also been facing enormous changes. Change in natural systems—climate, water, forests and extreme events—and cultural aspects—agrarian system, migration, population structure, social systems, econ- omy, and culture and customs—have become very common during the recent past and are continuously increasing on a day to day basis. Several scientific reports on Preface vii the Himalaya indicated that the Himalayan are melting. Erratic rainfall, warming of the valleys and the mid-altitudes and increasing events of cloudbursts are the other dimensions of change in the Himalaya. The very idea of composing this book was to evaluate the present situation of change and its future severity. I have reviewed a large number of literatures on the Himalaya, mainly on the Uttarakhand Himalaya, and noted that still there is a need to conduct studies on several aspects. Lack in availability of data on natural and cultural aspects has impeded to conduct a precise study. Because, a few meteoro- logical stations have been recording climate data in Uttarakhand and the data availability is minimal, a comprehensive climate change study is still not possible. However, I have collected climate data from the two meteorological stations of Uttarakhand, i.e., Dehradun and Mukteshwar, both representing the tropical and temperate climate of the region. Keeping all these impediments in mind, I made this study observational, based on my long experience about the region, although, time series data of the last fifteen years was collected and interpreted. I conducted this study on two aspects—natural and cultural and then divided the book into two parts. Lord Shiva is the deity I adore. My body and mind is always indebted of him. The Himalaya itself for me has been a godly feature, an embodiment of Lord Shiva. It has inspired me in such a way that I could compose this volume and now it is in your hands. Further, my long journey from unreal to real and from darkness to knowledge was possible only due to the nourishment/Samaskara that was provided by my beloved mother. Her everlasting dreams on my success and perfection brought me upto the level where I stand today. She ever lives within me. Although her mortal remains no more exist, yet, her true legacy has been enlightening me, my pathways. So, I dedicate this piece of work to my beloved mother Smt. Saradi Devi Sati. Ms. Vishwani Sati, CSE undergraduate at Amity University, Noida, India has edited the whole manuscript. I acknowledge my gratitude towards her for her patience, dedication and this incredible work. I am also thankful to Mr. Lalrinpuia and Mr. Remlalruata, Department of Geography and Resource Management, Mizoram University, for their assistance.

Rome, Italy Vishwambhar Prasad Sati June 2018 About This Book

The Himalaya has been passing through the transitional phase in terms of changes in natural and cultural aspects, which have greater implications on nature, society and economy. The book Himalaya on the Threshold of Change is unique and comprehensive because of no substantial works have been conducted on this theme so far. It precisely describes all the changes—natural and cultural, their implications and suggests policy measures to cope with them. The book has been divided into two parts keeping change in natural and cultural aspects in mind. There are total 11 chapters—six are related to change in natural aspects, four are related to change in cultural aspects and conclusions. Besides, a separate chapter has been devoted for introduction. A case study of eight villages was conducted. The study has been carried out using participatory observation method and time series data were also gathered from the secondary sources to analyze change. Data were presented constructing colour graphs, models, maps and photographs (total 71 in numbers) and 19 tables have been incorporated to further understand these changes in the Himalaya. The book is useful for the policy makers, who are involved in framing policies and implementing them in the mountainous region, particularly in the Himalaya. It is equally useful to all the stakeholders such as academicians, researchers, students and the agents of development.

ix Contents

Part I Natural Aspects 1 Geography and Geology ...... 3 1.1 The Himalaya ...... 3 1.2 The Uttarakhand Himalaya ...... 4 1.2.1 Location and Extension ...... 4 1.2.2 Administrative Divisions ...... 5 1.2.3 Physiographic Divisions ...... 7 1.3 Major Landforms of Uttarakhand ...... 10 1.3.1 The River Systems ...... 12 1.4 Glaciers ...... 16 1.4.1 Lakes and Water Bodies: Highlands and Valleys .... 17 1.4.2 Geology and Its Features ...... 17 References ...... 19 2 The Climate of the Uttarakhand Himalaya ...... 21 2.1 Analysis of Climate Data ...... 24 2.1.1 Analysis of Rainfall Data ...... 24 2.2 Analysis of Temperature Data ...... 26 2.3 Analysis of Data ...... 30 2.4 Annual Mean Value of Temperature, Rainfall and Humidity ...... 30 2.5 Correlation Between Temperature, Rainfall and Humidity .... 31 2.6 Climate Variability and Change in the Himalaya ...... 31 2.7 Impact of Climate Change ...... 34 References ...... 36 3 Glaciers of the Uttarakhand Himalaya ...... 39 3.1 Inventory of Uttarakhand Glaciers ...... 40 3.2 Receding Glaciers of Uttarakhand ...... 42

xi xii Contents

3.3 Climate Change Impact on the Himalayan Glaciers ...... 43 References ...... 44 4 Water Resources and Change ...... 47 4.1 Surface Water Resource Potential ...... 48 4.2 Hydroelectricity Projects ...... 49 4.3 Projects ...... 51 4.4 Groundwater Potentials ...... 54 4.5 Water Scarcity in Plenties ...... 55 4.6 Sustainable Development of Water Resource ...... 58 References ...... 60 5 Forests of Uttarakhand Himalaya ...... 63 5.1 Diversity and Distribution Pattern of Forests ...... 64 5.2 Area Under Tree Species ...... 67 5.3 Forest Area Change in Uttarakhand ...... 67 5.4 District Wise Forest Cover and Change ...... 69 5.5 Impact of Climate Change on Forests ...... 69 5.6 Ecosystem Services and Livelihoods ...... 72 References ...... 75 6 Increasing Events of Disasters ...... 79 6.1 Major Disasters in the Himalaya ...... 80 6.2 Terrestrial Disasters ...... 80 6.2.1 Earthquakes ...... 80 6.3 Atmospheric Disasters ...... 83 6.3.1 Cloudburst Triggered Flashfloods and Debris Flow ...... 83 6.4 Heavy Rainfall in Uttarakhand ...... 84 6.5 Landslides and Mass-Movements ...... 84 6.6 Avalanches and GLOF ...... 87 6.7 Droughts ...... 88 6.8 Thunder/Wind/Hailstorms ...... 88 6.9 Manmade Disasters ...... 88 6.9.1 Forest Fires ...... 88 6.10 Forest Fires Sensitive Zones ...... 90 6.11 District Wise Forest Fires Incidences ...... 91 6.12 Forest Fires Affected Areas and Rainfall ...... 92 6.13 Increasing Trends of Disasters ...... 95 6.14 Major Causes and Implications of Disasters ...... 96 6.15 Prevention and Mitigation Measures ...... 97 References ...... 98 Contents xiii

Part II Cultural Aspects 7 Change in Culture and Custom ...... 103 7.1 Worshiping Nature and Folk Deities ...... 104 7.2 Celebrating Fairs and Festivals ...... 106 7.3 Performing Samskaras ...... 107 7.4 Cultural Processions ...... 108 7.5 Folklores and Folkdances ...... 108 7.6 Changing Cultural Space and Boundaries ...... 109 References ...... 111 8 Population, Social and Economic Change ...... 113 8.1 Change in Population Profile ...... 114 8.2 Change in Population Distribution at District Level ...... 116 8.3 Change in Decadal Growth Rate at District Level ...... 117 8.4 Change in Literacy/Education at District Level ...... 117 8.5 Change in Sex Ratio and Population Density at District Level ...... 118 8.6 Rural-Urban Population ...... 120 8.7 Social Structure and Change ...... 121 8.8 Caste Systems ...... 123 8.9 Brahmins ...... 124 8.10 Rajputs ...... 126 8.11 Scheduled Castes ...... 127 8.12 Scheduled Tribes...... 128 8.13 Economic Disparity and Change ...... 133 8.14 Change in Population, Social Structure and Economy ...... 135 References ...... 137 9 Migration and Agrarian Change ...... 139 9.1 Migration: Characteristics, Causes and Implications ...... 140 9.2 Characteristics of Migration ...... 141 9.3 Migration Pattern and Types ...... 142 9.4 Virtually Uninhabited (Ghost) Villages and Land Abandonment ...... 144 9.5 Causes of Migration ...... 147 9.6 Implications of Migration in Sending and Receiving Areas ... 149 9.7 Agrarian Change ...... 150 9.7.1 Land Use Pattern ...... 150 9.8 Agro-Ecological Zones and Farming Systems ...... 151 9.9 Change in Livestock Farming ...... 158 9.10 Climate and Agrarian Change ...... 159 References ...... 167 xiv Contents

10 Sustainable Development Under Changing Environment ...... 171 10.1 Current Trends of Development ...... 171 10.2 Economic Development ...... 172 10.3 Industrial Development ...... 172 10.4 Tourism Development ...... 174 10.5 Infrastructural Development ...... 176 10.5.1 Transportation ...... 176 10.5.2 Electrification ...... 177 10.6 Human Resource Development ...... 177 10.6.1 Educational Development ...... 177 10.6.2 Medical Facilities ...... 178 10.6.3 Policy Initiatives for Sustainable Development ...... 178 10.6.4 Key Policy Initiatives ...... 179 10.6.5 Major Policy Perspectives ...... 179 10.6.6 Social Inclusion ...... 179 10.6.7 Sectoral Development ...... 180 References ...... 183 11 Conclusions ...... 185 11.1 Major Drivers of Change ...... 185 11.2 Drivers of Change in Natural Aspects ...... 186 11.3 Drivers of Change in Cultural Aspects ...... 187 11.4 Resilience and Adaptation ...... 189 11.5 Climate Smart /Horticulture ...... 189 11.6 Crop Suitability Analysis ...... 189 11.7 Cultivation of Cash Crops ...... 190 11.8 Restoring Traditional Livestock Farming ...... 190 11.9 Adequate Irrigation Facilities ...... 191 11.10 Market Accessibility ...... 191 11.11 Cold Storages ...... 191 11.12 Transportation Facilities...... 191 11.13 Co-operative Farming ...... 192 11.14 Employment Opportunity...... 192 11.15 Good Governance ...... 192 About the Author

Vishwambhar Prasad Sati (b. 1966), Doctor of Letters (2011) and Ph.D. (1992), is a Professor of Geography and Resource Management, Mizoram University, Aizawl, India. He, having a teaching and research experience of above 28 years, has devoted almost all his career years in the development of mountain geography/studies. He has served many national and international educational and scientific institutions in various capacities, such as Associate Professor at ‘Eritrea Institute of Technology’ Asmara, Eritrea, NE Africa (2005–2007) and Professor in ‘Madhya Pradesh Higher Education’ (1994–2005 and 2007–2012). He has been a CAS-PIFI Fellow (2016), Visiting Scholar of CAS (2014), Visiting Scholar of TWAS (2010), worked at IMHE, Chengdu, China; Visiting Scholar of INSA (1012), General Fellow of ICSSR (2008–2009), worked at HNBGU, Srinagar Garhwal, an Associate at IIAS, Shimla (2008) and Research Fellow of GBPIHED (1993). He has com- pleted 11 research projects; composed 26 text and ref- erence books; published 110 research papers in journals of international and national repute and a number of articles in magazines and newspapers, presented research papers (85) in 24 countries and in all over India, received fellowships from 37 research organi- zations to participate in various international events; supervised Ph.D. thesis; organized conferences; chaired

xv xvi About the Author

a number of academic sessions; served as Resource Person in several national and international confer- ences; and serving many international professional bodies as member, editor and reviewer. Abbreviations

CNP Corbett National Park COI Census of India DMMC Disaster Mitigation and Management Center DMR Dudhatoli Mountain Range DST Department of Science and Technology FSI Forest Survey of India GBPNIHESD Govind Ballabh Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development GDP Gross Domestic Products GIS Geographical Information System GLOF Glacial Lake Outburst Floods GMVN Garhwal Mandal Vikas Nigam GSDP Gross State Domestic Products ICHR Indian Central Himalayan Region ICIMOD International Centre of Integrated Mountain Development IPCC Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change ISRO Indian Space Research Organization KMVN Kumaon Mandal Vikas Nigam MBT Main Boundary Thrust MCT Main Central Thrust MGNREGA Mahatma Gandhi Rural Employment Guarantee Act MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forest MSMEP Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Policies NAPCC National Action Plan on Climate Change NDMA National Disaster Management Authority NIDM National Institute of Disaster Management NRSC National Remote Sensing Centre PA Protected Areas RNP Rajaji National Park SEP Solar Energy Policy

xvii xviii Abbreviations

SESD State Economic and Statistical Directorate SFD State Forest Department SFRI State Forest Report of India USN Udham Singh Nagar VP Van Panchayats WMDU Watershed Management Directorate of Uttarakhand Acronyms

Barahnaza Twelve grain, grown in a single cropland, mainly in the highlands Bhabhar Hot and humid plain part of the Kumaon and , characterised by infertile soil, stony and forestland Bugyals The highland pasturelands, covered by snow during the winter season Chaumas Four months of the rainy season Crore A unit measuring numbers. Ten million is equal to one Crore Danda The highland forestlands Doon Plain valley, located in the Garhwal Himalaya, mainly in Dehradun district Dwar Hot plain region of Garhwal, including Haridwar and Kotdwar regions Gad/Gadhera Seasonal/perennial small streams Gagar Water vessel, mainly made of copper/bronze Gangar The river valley regions Ghost villages Virtually uninhabited villages in the Uttarakhand Himalaya Gondwana The southern part of India. It is a tectonic plate, moving towards the north Gool Traditional water canal, used for irrigating land Jada Cold season, takes place from the month of November to the month of February Jhaud It takes place during the winter season. Snow falls continue for several days and cold waves blow Kedarkhand The ancient name of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The name is derived from ‘’ pilgrimage

xix xx Acronyms

Khal-Chal Traditional manmade water bodies, constructed in the forest areas to keep climate cool and to restore water for drought period Kund/Taal Lakes, natural water bodies Leesa Resin extract from the pine trees Naula/Mangyaura Water bodies, supply water in the rural areas Pirul Pine litter, very explosive, causes forest fires during summer season Prayag Meeting point of the two rivers. Uttarakhand has numerous prayags, among them eight are well known Ringal Small variety of Bamboo, used for making agricultural tools and handicrafts Ritu Seasons. Uttarakhand characterises six seasons Ruri The hot and dry season, takes place during the summer season Sagain Rain occurs continue for several days during the monsoon season Seela North facing sloppy area, where sun rays do not reach. During the winter season, these areas are very cold Tailla Sun facing sloppy area Tarai Marshy land, found in the plain regions of the Kumaon Himalaya. The area is fertile and suitable for cultivation of paddy, wheat and sugarcane Tethys geosynclines It was a long, narrow and shallow water body, surrounded by the two land masses—Sino-Siberian plate in the north and Indian plate in the south. It gave birth to the mighty Himalaya List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Location map of the Indian Himalayan Region showing the study area ‘Uttarakhand’. Source By author ...... 5 Fig. 1.2 Location map of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source By author ...... 6 Fig. 1.3 Paddy crop ready to get harvested in a village Harbhajwala surrounded by Raja Ji National Park, Doon Valley. Photo By author ...... 8 Fig. 1.4 Vertical and horizontal extension of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source By author ...... 9 Fig. 1.5 a The Mount Trishul facing to Gwaldom town in b Bedni Bugyal in Chamoli district c Salan cultural realms of district and d the flowing near Srinagar town. Photo By author ...... 11 Fig. 1.6 Major rivers of Garhwal Himalaya—a Alaknanda River at Srinagar b at c River flowing in the upper-middle catchment area c flowing in its middle catchment. Photo By author ...... 13 Fig. 1.7 The river systems in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source By author ...... 14 Fig. 1.8 a The Kali River between Jauljibi and Tanakpur b the Gomti River near Baijnath c the (W) near Chaukhutiya and d the Saryu River in Bageshwar. Photo By author ...... 15 Fig. 1.9 Geological map of Uttarakhand. Source Digitalized by author ...... 18 Fig. 2.1 Annual average rainfall. Source Indian Meteorological Department, Govt. of India (Statistical Year Book, India 2016), http://utrenvis.nic.in/data/climate%20mukteshwar.pdf, http://utrenvis.nic.in/data/climate%20ddun.pdf ...... 25

xxi xxii List of Figures

Fig. 2.2 Variation in monthly rainfall in Dehradun. Source Indian Meteorological Department, Govt. of India (Statistical Year Book, India 2016), http://utrenvis.nic.in/data/climate% 20ddun.pdf ...... 25 Fig. 2.3 Variation in monthly rainfall in Mukteshwar. Source Indian Meteorological Department, Govt. of India (Statistical Year Book, India 2016), http://utrenvis.nic.in/data/climate% 20mukteshwar.pdf...... 26 Fig. 2.4 Annual average of minimum and maximum temperature in Dehradun. Source Indian Meteorological Department, Govt. of India (Statistical Year Book, India 2016), http://utrenvis.nic. in/data/climate%20ddun.pdf ...... 27 Fig. 2.5 Annual average of minimum and maximum temperature in Mukteshwar. Source Indian Meteorological Department, Govt. of India (Statistical Year Book, India 2016), http:// utrenvis.nic.in/data/climate%20mukteshwar.pdf...... 28 Fig. 2.6 Mean value of annual temperature in Dehradun and Mukteshwar. Source Indian Meteorological Department, Govt. of India (Statistical Year Book, India 2016), http://utrenvis.nic. in/data/climate%20mukteshwar.pdf, http://utrenvis.nic.in/data/ climate%20ddun.pdf ...... 28 Fig. 2.7 Average monthly temperature in Dehradun. Source Indian Meteorological Department, Govt. of India (Statistical Year Book, India 2016), http://utrenvis.nic.in/data/climate% 20ddun.pdf ...... 29 Fig. 2.8 Average monthly temperature in Mukteshwar. Source Indian Meteorological Department, Govt. of India (Statistical Year Book, India 2016), http://utrenvis.nic.in/data/climate% 20mukteshwar.pdf...... 29 Fig. 2.9 Annual average humidity in Dehradun and Mukteshwar. Source Indian Meteorological Department, Govt. of India (Statistical Year Book, India 2016)...... 30 Fig. 3.1 Map showing the major glaciers of Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source By author ...... 41 Fig. 3.2 a Satopanth Lake below Swargarohini peak in Chamoli district of the Garhwal Himalaya b Pindari in Kapkot district of the Kumaon Himalaya. Source By author...... 41 Fig. 4.1 Hydroelectricity projects in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source By author ...... 50 Fig. 4.2 a Asia’s highest Tehri high dam b Vishnuprayag hydroelectricity project. Photos By author ...... 50 List of Figures xxiii

Fig. 4.3 Clockwise a Natural springs in the highlands of the basin b Abundant unused pure water of the upper Mandakini River c People are waiting for their turn in a hand pump to filling their water vessels at Khirsu town d A girl carrying filled water vessel (Gagar) near Gairsain town. Photos By author ...... 56 Fig. 5.1 Horizontal and vertical distribution of forests in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source By author ...... 65 Fig. 5.2 Forest types—a Sub-tropical deciduous forests in Doon valley b Dense pine forests in Jaharikhal, Pauri district c Mixed-oak forest in the lower altitude of Khirsu and d Coniferous forests in the higher altitude of Khirsu (Pauri district). Photo By author ...... 66 Fig. 5.3 Area under tree species. Source SFRI (2015) ...... 68 Fig. 5.4 Forest map of Uttarakhand showing types and distribution. Source By author ...... 68 Fig. 5.5 Forest area change (1980–2015). Source SESD, Dehradun..... 69 Fig. 5.6 Forest cover and change (2001–2015). Source Land Use Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, GOI 2001 and 2015 ...... 70 Fig. 5.7 a Fragile alpine pastureland in Kedarnath valley b Pine forests are invading mixed-oak forests in Gwaldom forest area. Photo By author ...... 71 Fig. 5.8 Environmental services a Kedarnath peak in the Indian Central Himalayan Region b Alpine Bugyal located in downstream of the Kedarnath Dham c Dense oak and coniferous forests in the Mandakini River Basin d The Alaknanda River flowing near Kirtinagar. Photo By author ...... 72 Fig. 6.1 The major disasters in the Himalayan region ...... 80 Fig. 6.2 Earthquake zoning map of Uttarakhand. Source By author..... 82 Fig. 6.3 A & B Massive landslides near Kaliasaur along the river Alaknanda. Photo By author...... 85 Fig. 6.4 Death toll due to landslides in the Gangotri National High way, District. Source Compiled by author ...... 87 Fig. 6.5 Forest fire zones in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source By author ...... 90 Fig. 6.6 Forest fires sensitive zones of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source Re-digitalized by author, basic source FSI 2016 ...... 91 Fig. 6.7 District wise forest fires incidences based on FSI fire monitoring system (2005–2015). Source SFD, 2017...... 92 Fig. 6.8 Forest fires affected areas (ha) and rainfall (mm) in Uttarakhand (2000–2017). Source SFD and meteorological department ...... 93 xxiv List of Figures

Fig. 6.9 A regression model (curve estimation) correlating intensity of rainfall and forest fires incidences. Source By author...... 93 Fig. 6.10 a Massive landslide between Narainbagar and Tharalibagar b Flashflood in the at Narainbagar town. Photo By author ...... 96 Fig. 7.1 a A priest offering sari (a colourful cloth) to Lord Shiva at Panti (Pindar valley) b A Peepal tree is worshiped by local people at Narainbagar (Pindar valley) ...... 105 Fig. 7.2 a Doli and Naishan of Kobeshwar Mahadev dancing at Panti, Narainbagar b Pilgrims waiting for the welcoming procession of Shri Raj Jat. Photo By author...... 107 Fig. 8.1 Population, literacy, sex ratio and urban population (1951–2011). Source Census of India, 2011 ...... 115 Fig. 8.2 District wise change in population 2001–2011 ...... 117 Fig. 8.3 Change in the decadal growth rate at district level (1991–2011) ...... 118 Fig. 8.4 Literacy rate (2011) and change in literacy rate (2001–2011) ...... 118 Fig. 8.5 Sex ratio at district level (2001–2011) ...... 119 Fig. 8.6 Change in population density (2001–2012)...... 120 Fig. 8.7 Population by religion in Uttarakhand. Source Census of India (2011) ...... 122 Fig. 8.8 Caste system in Uttarakhand. Source By author ...... 124 Fig. 8.9 Population, population change and change (%) of tribal people. Source Censuses of India 2001–2011 ...... 129 Fig. 9.1 Number of people out-migrated from districts of Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source Economic and Statistical Directorate, Statistical Diary, 2013, Dehradun. Note Original data on migration was gathered at household level. I multiplied it by five to get number of out-migrants (Five is an average family size in Uttarakhand 2011) ...... 141 Fig. 9.2 Migration hotspots in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source By author ...... 142 Fig. 9.3 (Left): Ruined settlement (inset): an abandoned house and (right): land abandonment (village Prethi). Photo By author ...... 144 Fig. 9.4 Virtually uninhabited (ghost) villages and land abandonment in the districts of Garhwal region. Source Economic and Statistical Directorate, Statistical Diary, 2015, Dehradun ...... 145 Fig. 9.5 Correlation between the ghost villages and land abandonment...... 146 Fig. 9.6 Causes and implications of out-migration in Uttarakhand. Source By author ...... 149 List of Figures xxv

Fig. 9.7 Slums emerging along the Rispana: A dying river in Dehradun. Photo By author ...... 150 Fig. 9.8 Agro-ecological zones and the major crop races/cultivars. Source By author ...... 152 Fig. 9.9 Yield of crops under Kharif and Rabi crops. Source National Horticultural Board, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India (Indian Horticulture Database 2014) ...... 154 Fig. 9.10 Wheat is grown in the cluster of villages (Kaub) in the middle Pindar Basin. Photo By author ...... 157 Fig. 9.11 Change in livestock farming 2001–2002 to 2013–2014. Source Livestock Census 2015 ...... 158 Fig. 9.12 a Calves are grazing in the temperate grassland in Bharadisain b Goats, lambs and sheep are grazing in the alpine pastureland of Dayara Bugyal c Paddy straw for stall feeding in Prethi village and d Cows and buffaloes in the cowsheds in Prethi village. Photo By author...... 160 Fig. 9.13 Changing cropping pattern a Traditional cropland in Takorigarh b Paddy field in Narainbagar village c Off-season vegetables in Khandagarh and d Tea cultivation near Gairsain. Photo By author ...... 162 Fig. 9.14 Changing cropping pattern in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source By author ...... 163 Fig. 10.1 GSDP at current price (% billion USD). Source Statistical Diary Uttarakhand (2014) ...... 172 Fig. 10.2 Growth rate of GSDP in industrial sector. Source Statistical Diary Uttarakhand (2014) ...... 173 Fig. 10.3 Dimensions of social inclusion. Source By author ...... 180 Fig. 10.4 Policy perspective for sectoral development. Source By author ...... 182 Fig. 11.1 Major drivers of changes and adaptation in Uttarakhand. Source By author ...... 186 List of Tables

Table 2.1 Annual mean value of temperature, rainfall and humidity in Dehradun and Mukteshwar ...... 31 Table 2.2 Correlation between temperature, rainfall and humidity (Dehradun and Mukteshwar) ...... 32 Table 3.1 Inventory of glaciers in the Uttarakhand Himalaya ...... 40 Table 3.2 Receding glaciers in the Uttarakhand Himalaya ...... 43 Table 4.1 The major river systems and water potential in the Uttarakhand Himalaya ...... 49 Table 4.2 Details of case study hydropower projects in Garhwal region...... 52 Table 5.1 Vertical distribution of forest cover in Uttarakhand (Area in Km2) ...... 67 Table 6.1 Earthquakes of Uttarakhand (Since 1803) ...... 81 Table 6.2 Major flashfloods/debris-flow events in the Uttarakhand Himalaya ...... 84 Table 6.3 Heavy rainfall in Dehradun, Uttarakhand Himalaya 2000–2013 ...... 85 Table 6.4 Major landslides and mass-movements in the Uttarakhand Himalaya ...... 86 Table 8.1 Levels of urban population...... 121 Table 8.2 Gross state domestic products (GSDP) from agriculture and allied sectors at constant prices (2004–2005)...... 135 Table 9.1 Reasons for migrating ...... 144 Table 9.2 Factors affecting migration n = 170 HHs ...... 145 Table 9.3 Land use/cover change in Uttarakhand...... 151 Table 9.4 Correlation between climate and yield of crops (Kharif and Rabi) ...... 163 Table 10.1 Industrial units, capital investments and employment creation from industrial sector ...... 173 Table 10.2 Tourist flow in the major tourist places of Uttarakhand ...... 175

xxvii Introduction

Abstract Mountains of the world have been facing enormous natural and cultural changes, as they are the most vulnerable to climate change. The Himalaya, the new folded mountain system in the world and the home of rich biodiversity resources, is in the transitional phase. Change in farming system, population structure, faunal and floral resources, water resources, glaciers and climate has become a very common phenomenon during the recent past. This chapter describes the statement and scope of the study, objectives and methodology, and chapterisation of the book. Mountains cover a total land area of 16.5 million km2, which is 27% of the earth’s terrestrial surface. They inhabit about 511 million people of the world, representing 7% of the global human population (Korner et al. 2011; Schild 2008). In the meantime, >50% of the global human population draws benefits, directly or indi- rectly, from resources and services emanating from the mountain ecosystems (Messerli and Ives 1997), which include forests, water, fresh air and fertile soil. Livelihood of the rural people, constituting above 70% population, is fully dependent on the output of the ecosystem services, provided by mountains. Mountain regions also support tourism and pilgrimages services to people of lowland. Here, human habitats are mostly concentrated in the lower montane zone (Korner et al. 2017). However, human habitats are located upto the height of 4,200 m in the Andes and 3,300 m in the Himalaya. Mountains are the most dynamic, sensitive and vulnerable landscapes world- wide. They characterise steep, precipitous, rough and rugged terrain. Altitude, slope aspects and latitude change the climate—vertically and horizontally. Diversity in all the aspects—natural and cultural—is the characteristic features of the mountains. The formation mechanism of the mountains is different, whereas the new folded mountains are formed by the similar tectonic movements. Although mountains are the tough features on the earth’s surface yet, they provide livelihoods to a large number of people living in the downstream areas (Sati 2014). The mountains are the home to nearly half of the global biodiversity hotspots. They are the major tourist hotspots, centre for highland pilgrimages, and the hub of cultural diversity (Sati 2013a, b). They are also called the World Water Tower as their glaciers, snow,

xxix xxx Introduction wetlands and lakes provide two-thirds of the Earth’s freshwater. Further, the mountains provide 40% of the global ecosystem services. The Mountain communities are hard working, optimistic and the keepers of the valuable traditional ecological knowledge. However, they are innocent with diverse socio-economic and cultural identities, and the most vulnerable to change. The socio-ecological treasures of mountain diversity have been facing threats during the recent pasts. Recently, the societies are transforming the mountains more pro- foundly then even before (Steffen et al. 2007; Ellis 2015, 2018a, b). Mountains have always been the place of challenging environments and the most rugged landscape on the Earth (Korner 2018) and thus, species and habitats have long struggled to adapt them. Lives in mountain regions have always faced the challenges of these environments/landscapes. Through millions of years of glacial and interglacial cycles, mountain species and habitats have thrived, descending and ascending, towards the warmer and cooler climates that have suited them. In the Anthropocene, mountain species and habitats seem to have nowhere to go but up and away. In mountain regions, habitats and ecosystems have faced profound environmental challenges from droughts, flooding, pests and diseases and many have collapsed (Tainter 1990; Butzer and Endfield 2012). Some species have thrived and many others have adapted the changing environment due to climate change in mountain regions (Hobbs et al. 2013; Thomas 2017). The species in the cooler region are overwhelmed by climate change in some regions they cannot exist if they do not move to much more cooler regions (Thomas 2011). Under the unprecedented pressure of the Earth’s newest ‘great force of nature’, the mountain regions have much to teach and much to learn (Ellis 2018a, b). The Himalaya, the ‘King of the Mountains’ is a unique feature on earth. The Hindus believe it to be the abode of Lord Shiva—the God of destruction. Kenneth Mason called it the greatest physical feature of the earth. The Greater Himalayan region, the ‘Roof of the World’, the largest snow and ice cover and one of the most important mountain systems, is referred to as the ‘Third Pole’ (Schild 2008) and the ‘Water Tower of Asia’ (Xu et al. 2009). The Himalayan landscape is fragile and highly susceptible to natural hazards, leading to current and future climate change impacts in the region (Cruz et al. 2007). However, it affects lives and livelihoods of over 300 million people (Schild 2008). The entire Himalaya is ecologically fragile, geographically remote, geologically sensitive, tectonically and seismically active, economically underdeveloped and socially backward (Sati 2008). Tectonic moments are still active. The mountain peaks of the Himalaya are escalating and river valleys are deepening due to active internal and external forces. As a result, the landforms are transforming largely. This is also having a changing impact on the natural and cultural aspects. The Sage Nagasena, answering a question put to him by the King Milinda, states, ‘The Himalaya, the king of the mountains, five and three thousand leagues in extent at the circumference, with its ranges of eight and forty thousand peaks, the source of five hundred rivers, the dwelling place of multitudes of mighty creatures, the producer of manifold perfumes. Enriched with hundreds of magical drugs, it is seen to rise aloft, like a cloud from the centre of the earth’ (Lal 1981, p. xiii). Introduction xxxi

Various geomorphologic features of the Himalaya, which includes snow clad mountain peaks, cliffs, rocky slopes, waterfalls, major and minor ridges, river valleys, river terraces, alpine meadows and mid-altitude hills, make the Himalaya unique. India’s biggest river system, the Ganges system—the Bhagirathi, the Alaknanda, the Yamuna, the Kali, the Saryu, the Ramganga and their numerous , originates from the largest glaciers of the Indian Central Himalayan region (ICHR) and flow through the mainland of Uttarakhand. The river system supports the most densely populated areas of the Ganges plain. The Himalaya has an extremely active geodynamic condition, even small tampering with the geo-ecological balance can initiate environmental changes that may eventually lead to an alarming proportion (Valdiya 2001; Gaur 1998). Its topography is diverse that makes Himalaya as one amongst the most fragile ecosystems in the world. Different geological orogenies have vast impacts on the distribution pattern of the biotic elements (Singh 2004). Climate of the Himalaya is highly variable and it changes according to the altitude and seasons (Singh et al. 2010; Mishra 2014; Bhatt et al. 2000; Dash et al. 2007). However, no substantial study has been carried out on it (Mani 1981; Kumar et al. 2010 and Duan et al. 2006). The Himalaya protects the Indian subcontinents from the cold waves of the Mongolian cold desert. It has been observed that if there were no Himalaya, the northern parts of India would have been converted into cold deserts. Further, the Himalaya regulates the climate of the central India and the Ganges valley. The author noticed high climate variability and change in the entire Himalayan region. On one hand, temperature has increased by 0.4 °C and rainfall has decreased by 1.4% in the eastern extension of the Himalaya (Sati 2017), while on the other hand, in the ICHR, temperature has remained unchanged and rainfall has increased with high intensity and frequency during the last two decades. Climate scientists have stated that the climate change impacts on the floral diversity and its distribution in the Himalaya have been significant (Gaur 1999; Negi and Hajra 2007; Bisht et al. 2010; Holm et al. 1977). Further, they have a considerable impact on farming systems and natural resources. The Himalayan glaciers have been receding, impeding water resources and livelihoods (Krishna 2005; Lee et al. 2008; Kulkarni et al. 2002, 2007). Warming of the Himalayan region has changed snow cover mass balance (Kulkarni and Bahuguna 2002; Ageta and Kadota 1992; Kripalani et al. 2003). In the Himalayan region, the valleys and the mid-altitudes are warming and therefore, the warming has implications on the highlands and glaciers although the impact of climate variability and seasonality is high. In Uttarakhand, the rivers are the major sources of surface water, however, quality of water in these rivers has been deteriorating. Increasing population, urbanization along the river valleys and deforestation are the matters of serious concern today, which have been influencing water quality and quantity. Findings of research depict that river water is depleting in both quantity and quality (Sati and Paliwal 2008; Desai and Tank 2010; Shrivastava et al. 2013). The river (Ganges) systems such as the Yamuna-Tons Systems, the Bhagirathi-Alaknanda System and the Kali System are the largest river systems in the world. These rivers are fed by xxxii Introduction the Himalayan glaciers and their volume and velocity are high in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Natural springs, which are the major sources of drinking water in the rural areas, have been depleting and some of them have been dried up thus, water scarcity has been increasing in rural areas of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Forests vary from the monsoon deciduous to pine, mixed-oak and coniferous. Shrubs, bushes and grasslands—subtropical and alpine—also obtain substantial areas. Diversity is high in monsoon deciduous forests and mixed-oak forests. It is also high in coniferous forests and alpine grasslands. Meanwhile, pine forests are growing independently. These forests are economically viable, whereas they are largely unused because of their inaccessibility (Sati 2006). Uttarakhand is among the few states of India where forest land has increased, as about 23 km2 green cover in Uttarakhand has increased in 2017 (FSI 2017). In the meantime, area under different forests is changing. For instance, pine forests have invaded mixed-oak forests because of warming of the mid-altitudes and temperate region. As a result, oak forests have disappeared from many locations in temperate region (Sati 2004), mainly from the east-south slopes. Forest fire has become the major threats for forest diversity in the Shivaliks, river valleys and the mid-altitudes. Dense forests and large temperate and alpine grasslands enrich the ecology of the region (Sati 2018). Some of the rarest faunal and floral species of the world are found here. The state has diversity in topography, climate, vegetation, people and culture, which depicts varied and complex characteristics of the region and thus, it is rich in cultural, physical and favourable ecological supports to lives and livelihoods. Tectonic activities, lithological, structural and ecological settings, topography and changing landscape, because of anthropogenic and nature led phenomena, cause severe natural disasters in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Among the major natural disasters, earthquakes, landslides, land subsidence, slope failure, rockfall, avalanches, cloudbursts, hailstorms, Glacial Lake Outbursts Flow (GLOF), flash- floods, lightning and forest fires are prominent, intense and frequent, causing major loss to life and property from time to time. An increasing trend in atmospheric disasters has been observed (Sati 2013a, b). Cloudburst triggered disasters such as flashfloods and debris flow are common. High intensity and variability in rainfall have been resulting in occurrences of huge disasters. During the recent past, rainfall frequency and intensity have increased, leading to devastating flashfloods and mass movements, affecting human settlements, agricultural and forestland, and landscape largely. Forest fires, during the summer, are catastrophic. More than 95% of the forest fires are anthropogenic and the rest (5%) are caused by natural reasons (Satendra and Kaushik 2014; Dobriyal and Bijalwan, 2016; Kinnaird and O’Brien 1998; Butry et al. 2001). They have caused adverse impacts on the environment as fire produces a large amount of trace gases and aerosol particles, and impacts the floral and faunal species, severely (Hao et al. 1996; Fearnside 2000; Crutzen and Andreae 1990; Sugihara et al. 2006). In Uttarakhand, forest fire is the most catastrophic disaster, which occurs mainly during the summer season, called the fire season, resulting in huge biodiversity loss. Here, forest fire occurs mainly in the Shivalik Introduction xxxiii hills, the river valleys and mid-altitudes. Pine forests are the most susceptive to forest fires. The author has observed that forest fires’ intensity and frequency have been increasing during the recent pasts. Development oriented activities such as the construction of roads and buildings and setting up of hydro-electricity projects have gotten fast paced after the for- mation of the State (Sati 2014). On the other hand, agricultural and horticultural practices are facing challenges from several internal and external forces. Tourism, projected as the major source of livelihood in the hills, has gained boom. Side effects of construction activities have considerably amplified the intensity of nat- urally occurring disasters and their impacts. A sectoral approach for sustainable development is the key that can mitigate the changes being faced by the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Agriculture, horticulture and livestock intricate mixed farming system in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, upon which livelihood of the people is dependent (Sati 2016). Along with growing population and further fragmentation of small terraced and fragile landholdings, production from traditionally grown crops is not suffi- cient. High variability in climate has decreased crop yield during the recent pasts. The whole land has been facing changes in the cropping pattern, from subsistence cereals to cultivation of cash crops including medicinal plants, whereas the pace of change is slow and only a small proportion of arable land is devoted to cultivation of cash crops (Sati 2017). In the meantime, agro-climate is highly suitable for growing all varieties of crop races/cultivars, from subsistence cereals to cash crops (Sati 2012). One of the major obstacles, which has been influencing farming sys- tems in the Uttarakhand Himalaya is lake in infrastructural facilities, which include market accessibility, transportation facilities, cold storages and modern innovation in the farming field. Although, the Uttarakhand Himalaya has abundant natural and human resources in the forms of valuable forests, ample and pure water, spectacular landforms, aesthetic and touristic destinations, healthy air, huge ecosystem services and innocent and highly educated people yet, the natural resources are largely unused and educated youth have been out-migrated. The inaccessibility and remoteness of the forest areas and human settlements impede optimal use of abundant natural resources. Lack in market facilities, transportation, institutions, industrial devel- opment and high rate of unemployment are other major problems that have man- ifested several changes in natural and cultural aspects. Further, educated youth have out-migrated to urban centres and big cities in search of jobs (Sati 2016). This altogether has led to depopulation in rural areas and over population in urban areas. The Uttarakhand Himalaya is devoid of a detailed and systematic study on all these given aspects, mainly on climate, forest and water. The Himalaya has been passing through changes in several socio-ecological aspects. Changes in population size, culture, social structure, landscapes, glaciers, water resources, forests, agrarian systems and land use have become very common, mainly during the recent past. The present study looks into the natural and cultural aspects of the Himalaya and focuses on the major changes that the Himalayan region has been facing. The scope of the study is limited to ‘Uttarakhand xxxiv Introduction

Himalaya’, an integral part of the Himalaya, lying almost in its centre and known as the ICHR. The main thrust of the study is to examine the change—natural and cultural—in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. It further studies the major drivers of these changes and suggests mitigation measures to cope with them. This study is purely empirical and observational. I have research experience of about 30 years on the Uttarakhand Himalaya. During this period, I have visited the entire Uttarakhand a number of times and published significant number of research papers and books. In this book, a case study of eight villages has been carried out. I have mainly described the changes in all aspects—natural and cultural—and drivers of these changes. Besides, data on climate, water, forests, agriculture, migration, population, social change, natural disasters and culture were gathered from the secondary sources— State Statistical Diaries (2013–14), Census of India (2001–2011), Meteorological Centre, Dehradun, State Forest Department, Uttarakhand Tourism Corporation and literature review (books, research papers and newspapers). I have used statistical tools to analyze and describe data. Correlation method and regression model were used to describe the change and its implications. Mapping and graphic presentation of data have appropriately been carried out. There are total 10 maps, constructed using Geographical Information System (GIS), and 61 graphs, photo plates and graphic models showing information on natural and cultural aspects of change (total number of figures are 71). Data have also been analyzed through tabulations, as a total 19 tables have been presented to strengthen the study. The book Himalaya on the Threshold of Change presents a holistic and com- prehensive view of the Himalaya in terms of recent changes that have been observed in both natural and cultural aspects. I have divided the book into two parts—describing natural and cultural aspects. There are total 11 chapters in the book, of which, the first six chapters are devoted to natural aspects, the rest four chapters are associated with cultural aspects, and conclusions. In addition, Introduction is given separately. Introduction presents a review on change—natural and cultural in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. It briefly discusses the objectives of the study and methodology adopted to conduct the study. Chapter 1 specifically describes geography and geology of Uttarakhand, which includes a brief note on the Himalaya, location and extension of Uttarakhand, administrative divisions, physical features, landforms, river systems, glaciers and water bodies in the forms of highlands and the valleys lakes. It also illustrates the geology of Uttarakhand and its features. Chapter 2 elaborates the climate of the Himalaya. The author gathered climate data (2000–2014) of the two meteorological stations of Uttarakhand— Dehradun and Mukteshwar, and analyzed data on temperature, rainfall and humidity. Climate change impacts on natural and cultural aspects have been elaborated. Glaciers of the Uttarakhand Himalaya are described in Chap. 3.An inventory of glaciers of the Uttarakhand Himalaya has been prepared and a dis- cussion on ‘climate change and its impact on the Himalayan glaciers’ has been made. A note on receding glaciers has also been carried out. Chapter 4 discusses water resources and change. A detailed description of water resource potential as surface and ground water, hydroelectricity projects, irrigation projects and water Introduction xxxv scarcity has been carried out. Sustainable water resources development has also been illustrated in the chapter. Forests of the Uttarakhand Himalaya are described in Chap. 5. Forests diversity and distribution, area under tree species, forest cover change and climate change impact on forests, ecosystems and livelihoods are widely elucidated herewith. Chapter 6 studies increasing events of disasters. The chapter comprises types of disasters, causes and implications of disasters, and mitigation and prevention measures. Cultural aspects of change comprise four chapters—from seventh to tenth. Chapter 7 explicates changes in culture and customs, including worshiping nature and folk deities, celebrating fairs and festivals, performing Samskaras, cultural processions, folklore and dances, and changing cultural space and boundaries. Population, social and economic changes have been elucidated in Chap. 8 where a detailed description on population profile and change, change in social structure, and economic disparity and change has been given. Chapter 9 discusses migration and agrarian change. The major drivers that influence out-migration from the rural areas and the impact of out-migration in sending and receiving areas have been described. Similarly, agrarian change, and its causes and implications have been discussed in the same chapter. Chapter 10 deals with sustainable development under changing environment. In this chapter, current trends and policy initiatives of sustainable development have been discussed. Along with describing chapters on natural and cultural aspects of change, case studies of the six villages have been conducted by the author. The last chapter is conclusions, in which the author has illustrated the major drivers of change and suggested measures for resilience and adaptation to change.

References

Bhatt ID, Rawal RS, Dhar U (2000) The availability, fruit yield, and harvest of Myrica esculenta in Kumaun (West Himalaya), India. Mt Res Dev 20:146–153 Bisht MS, Kukreti M, Dobriyal AK Bisht SS (2010) Diversity, distribution and similarity of invasive vegetation in Garhwal Himalaya, India. Adv Plant Sci 23(1):129–142 Butry DT, Mercer DE, Prestemon JP (2001) J For 99(11):9–17 Butzer J, Endfield GH (2012) Critical perspectives on historical collapse. Proc Nat Acad Sci 109:3628–3631 Crutzen PJ, Andreae MO (1990) Science 250:1669–1678 Cruz RV, Harasawa H, Lal M, Wu S, Anokhin Y, Punsalmaa B, Honda Y, Safari M, Li C, Huu Ninh N (2007) Asia. Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. In: Parry ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP, Van Der Linden PJ, Hanson CE (eds) Contribution of working group II to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 469–506 Dash SK, Jenamani RK, Kalsi SR, Panda SK (2007) Some evidence of climate change in twentieth-century India. Climatic Chang 85:299–321 Desai J, Tank SK (2010) Deterioration of water quality due to immersion of Ganesh idols in the river Tapti at Sural, India. J Environ Res Devel 4(4):999–1007 Dobriyal MJR, Bijalwan A (2016) Why cutting down Chirpine is not a solution to Uttarakhand forest fires. Down to Earth Blog xxxvi Introduction

Duan K, Yao T, Thompson LG (2006) Response of monsoon precipitation in the to global warming. J Geophys Res 111:D19110. https://doi.org/10.1029/2006jd007084 Ellis CE (2015) Ecology of an anthropocene biosphere. Ecol Monogr 85:287–331 Ellis CE (2018a) Anthropocene. A very short introduction. Oxford University Press, Oxford Ellis CE (2018b) Ascending the anthropocene, mountain futures on an increasingly human planet. In: Proceeding of ‘Mountain Future 2018’ conference, Kunming University, Kunming, China, 3–8 June 2018 Fearnside PM (2000) Clim Change 46:115–158 FSI (2017) Forest Survey of India Report 2017. A government publication, New Delhi Gaur VK (1998) Mitigating disasters in the Himalaya—a basic agenda for development. Pt. G.B. Pant memorial lecture: VIII, GBPIHED, Kosi-Katarmal, Almora Gaur RD (1999) Flora of the District Garhwal-North West Himalaya with Ethno-botanical Notes. Transmedia, Srinagar (Garhwal) Hao WM, Ward DW, Olbu G, Baker SP (1996) J Geophys Res 101:23577–23584 Hobbs RJ, Higgs ES, Hall CM (eds) (2013) Novel ecosystems: intervening in the new ecological world order. Willey, Oxford Holm LG, Plucknett DL, Pancho JV, Herberger JP (1977) The world’s worst weeds. University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu Kinnaird MF, O’Brien TG (1998) Conserv Biol 12(5):954–956 Korner C (2018) Less is more: defining global mountains. In: Proceeding of ‘Mountain Future 2018’ conference, Kunming University, Kunming, China, 3–8 June 2018. Korner C, Paulsen J, Spehn EM (2011) A definition of mountains and their bioclimatic belts for global comparison of biodiversity data. Alp Bot 121:73–78 Korner C, Jetz W, Paulsen J, Payne D, Rudmann K, Spehn EM (2017) A global inventory of mountains for bio-geographic applications. Alp Bot 127:1–15 Krishna AP (2005) Snow and glacier cover assessment in the high mountains of Sikkim Himalaya. Hydrol Process 19(12):2375–2383 Kulkarni AV, Bahuguna IM (2002) Glacial retreat in the Baspa basin, Himalayas, monitored with satellite stereo data. J Glaciol 48:171–172 Kulkarni AV, Mathur P, Rathore BP, Alex S, Thakur N, Kumar M (2002) Effect of global warming on snow ablation pattern in the Himalayas. Curr Sci 83:120–123 Kulkarni AV, Bahuguna IM, Rathore BP, Singh SK, Randhawa SS et al (2007) Glacial retreat in Himalaya using Indian remote sensing satellite data. Curr Sci 92:69–74 Kumar V, Jain SK, Singh Y (2010) Analysis of long-term rainfall trends in India. Hydrol Sci J 55:484–496. As a result, trends and mechanism of monsoon precipitation in Himalaya could not established (Fowler and Archer 2006) Lal JS (1981) The Himalaya: Aspects of Change (ed). Oxford University Press, New Delhi, p 14 Lee K, Do HS, Hou SG, Hong SM, Qin X, Ren JW, Liu YP, Rosman KJR, Barbante C, Boutron CF (2008) Atmospheric pollution for trace elements in the remote high altitude atmosphere in central Asia as recorded in snow from Mt. Qomolangma (Everest) of the Himalayas. Sci Total Environ 404(1):171–181 Mani A (1981) The climate of the Himalaya. In: Lall JS (ed) The Himalaya—aspects of change. Oxford University Press, New Delhi, pp 3–15 Messerli B, Ives JD (1997) Mountains of the world: a global priority. Parthenon Publishing Group, 495 p Mishra A (2014) Changing climate of Uttarakhand, India. J Geol Geosci 3:163. https://doi.org/10. 4172/2329-6755.1000163 Negi PS, Hajra PK (2007) Alien flora of Doon valley, North West Himalaya. Curr Sci 92 (7):968–978 Satendra, Kaushik AD (2014) Forest fire disaster management. National Institute of Disaster Management, Ministry of Home Affairs, New Delhi, 2014 Sati VP (2006) Forest resource management in mountain regions: a case for the Pindar Basin of Uttaranchal Himalaya. Lyonia: J Ecol Appl 11(1):75–84 Introduction xxxvii

Sati VP (2008) Natural resource management and food security in the Garhwal Himalaya. ENVIS Bull Himalayan Ecol 16(2):6–16 Sati VP (2012) Agricultural diversification in the Garhwal Himalaya: a spatio-temporal analysis. Sustain Agric Res 1(1):77–85 Sati VP (2013a) Tourism practices and approaches for its development in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, India. J Tourism Challenges Trends 6(1):97–112 Sati VP (2013b) Extreme weather related disasters: a case study of two flashfloods hit areas of and Kedarnath Valleys, Uttarakhand Himalaya, India. J Earth Sci Eng 3:562–568 Sati VP (2014a) Landscape vulnerability and rehabilitation issues: a study of hydropower projects in the Garhwal region, Himalaya. Nat Hazards 75(3):2265–2278 Sati VP (2014b) Towards sustainable livelihoods and ecosystems in mountain regions. Springer International Publishers, Cham Sati VP (2016a) Livestock farming in the Uttarakhand Himalaya: use pattern and potentiality. Curr Sci 111(12). https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v111/i12/1955-1960 Sati VP (2016b) Patterns and implications of rural-urban migration in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, India. Ann Nat Sci 2(1):26–37 Sati VP (2017a) A sustainable livelihood approach to poverty reduction: an empirical analysis of Mizoram, the eastern extension of the Himalaya. Springer Publications, Cham Sati VP (2017b) Enhancing food security through sustainable agriculture in Uttarakhand Himalaya. Productivity 58(2):187–196 Sati VP (2018) An assessment of forest cover changes in the Indian Himalayan region. ENVIS Bull Himalayan Ecol 25:66–74 Sati VP, Kumar K (2004) Uttaranchal: dilemma of plenties and scarcities. Mittal Publications, New Delhi Sati SC, Paliwal PC (2008) Physio-chemical and bacteriological analysis of Kosi River water in Central Himalaya. Pollut Res 27(1):179–183 Schild A (2008) ICIMOD’s position on climate change and mountain systems. Mt Res Dev 28:328–331 Shrivastava N, Mishra DD, Mishra PK, Bajpai A (2013) Water quality deterioration of Machna River due to sewage disposal, Betul Madhya Pradesh, India. J Environ Earth Sci 3(6):1–5 Singh JS (2004) Sustainable development of Indian Himalayan region: linking ecological and economic concerns. G.B. Pant Memorial Lecture—X, GBPIHED. Kosi-Katarmal, Almora Singh SP, Singh V, Skutsch M (2010) Rapid warming in the Himalayas: ecosystem responses and development options. Clim Dev. 2:221–232 Steffen W, Crutzen PJ, McNeill JR (2007) The anthropocene: are humans now overwhelming the great forces of nature. AMBIO: J Hum Environ 36:614–621 Sugihara NG, Van Wagtendonk JW, Fites-Kaufman J (2006) Fire in California’s ecosystems. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA, pp 58–74 Tainter J (1990) The collapse of complex societies. Cambridge University Press Thomas CD (2011) Translocation of species, climate change, and the end of trying to recreate past ecological communities. Trends Ecol Evol 26:216–221 Thomas CD (2017) Inheritors of the earth: how nature is thriving in an age of extinction. Penguin Valdiya KS (1998) Dynamic Himalaya. University Press, Hyderabad, 178 p Valdiya KS (2001) Himalaya: emergence and evolution. University Press Publ., Hyderabad, p 139 Xu J, Grumbine RE, Shrestha A, Eriksson M, Yang X, Wang Y, Wilkes A (2009) The melting Himalayas: cascading effects of climate change on water, biodiversity, and livelihoods. Conserv Biol 23:520–530 Part I Natural Aspects Chapter 1 Geography and Geology

Abstract The Uttarakhand Himalaya is an integral part of the Himalaya, located almost in the centre of the Indian Himalayan Region. It has diverse topography, ranging from the river valleys terraces to the Middle Himalaya, the highlands, the alpine meadows and the Greater Himalaya. Altitudes vary from less than 300 m to above 8,000 m. Its geology is varied, characterised by its orogeny. Because, the Himalaya is the youngest mountain system in the world therefore, it is ecologically fragile and highly vulnerable to the geo-hydrological disasters. This chapter deals with geography and geology of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The physical divisions, river systems and water bodies including the glaciers are elaborated widely.

Keywords Geological timescale · Geosyncline · Tectonic movement · Shivaliks · Middle Himalaya · Greater Himalaya

The geography and geology of the Uttarakhand Himalaya is very distinct from other parts of the country. It has three dimensional vertical landscapes. Aspects of geogra- phy and geology vary according to the changes in these landscapes. Further, vertical and horizontal dimensions of the landscapes bring changes in the climate, flora, fauna and soil, and human activities. Geological formation of the region is related to the Himalayan orogeny, which is very sensitive. In this chapter, I have illustrated a detailed description of the Himalaya, the Uttarakhand Himalaya, its geography and geology incorporating location and extension, physical divisions, river systems and geological formation.

1.1 The Himalaya

Himalaya, the youngest, the tallest and a new folded mountain system of the world, is a boon to the Indian economy as it supports about 50% livelihoods in the highlands and the lowlands areas. A home to the world famous three river systems namely the Sind, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra, and their numerous perennial tributaries, the Himalaya possesses abundant natural resources—land, water and forests.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 3 V. P. Sati, Himalaya on the Threshold of Change, Advances in Global Change Research 66, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14180-6_1 4 1 Geography and Geology

The Himalaya Mountain originated during the tertiary period of geological time- scale, about 10 million years ago, due to tectonic movements. Dezes (1999) describes that the immense mountain range of the Himalaya was formed by the huge tectonic forces. The theory of origin and evolution of the Himalaya reveals that there was the Tethys geosynclines, which was characterized by a long, shallow and narrow water body and surrounded by the two rigid land masses/tectonic plates—the Sino- Siberian/Eurasian plate in the north and the Indian/Gondwana Plate in the south. It has also been described that the Sino-Siberian/Eurasian Plate was moving towards the south and the Indian/Gondwana plate was stable. The Tethys geosyncline was fed by the three big rivers—the Sind, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra and there was large-scale sedimentations on them. Due to sedimentations in the Tethys geosyncline and collision in these two plates, the middle part of it uplifted and it became the Himalaya (folded mountain) in the different evolution stages. Evolution process of the Himalaya is still active, as the mountain peaks are uplifting and the river valleys are deepening. The Himalayan region is the fifth most seismically active regions of the world after Mexico, Taiwan, California, Japan and Turkey. The high seismicity in the region is attributed to the collision tectonics between the Indian/Gondwana Plate in the south and the Sino-Siberian/Eurasian Plate in the north and the seduction tectonics along the Indo-Myanmar range in the east (Kayal 1998). It has an extremely active geodynamic condition, even small tampering with the geo-ecological balance can initiate environmental changes that may eventually lead to an alarming proportion (Valdiya 2001; Gaur 1998). The topography of the Himalaya is diverse and rough, rugged and undulating that makes Himalaya as one amongst the most fragile ecosystems in the world. It is due to the different geological orogenies and it has a vast impact on the distribution pattern of the biotic elements (Singh 2004). The Himalaya Mountain is located in the South Asian countries, extending from the Pamir’s knot in the northwest to the Arakan Yoma mountain ranges of Myanmar (Fig. 1.1). The countries that fall in the Himalayan region are Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, China, Nepal, Bhutan and Myanmar. In the Indian Himalayan region, total 11 states are located. They are Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh (Western Himalaya), Uttarakhand (Central Himalaya), Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh (Eastern Himalaya), and Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya and Tripura (East- ern Extension of the Himalaya). Uttarakhand Himalaya, which falls in the centre of the Indian Himalaya, is known as the ICHR.

1.2 The Uttarakhand Himalaya

1.2.1 Location and Extension

The Uttarakhand Himalaya stretches between 28° 53 24–31° 27 50 N and 77° 34 27–81° 02 22 E, and about 325 km between the Kali Ganga in the east and the 1.2 The Uttarakhand Himalaya 5

Fig. 1.1 Location map of the Indian Himalayan Region showing the study area ‘Uttarakhand’. Source By author

Tons-Yamuna valley in the west (Fig. 1.2). Obtaining 53,483 km2 areas, it comprises two distinct landscapes i.e. the mountainous mainland (about 93.7% areas) and the plain areas—Doon valley and Tarai and Bhabhar plains, about 6.3% areas. Further, out of its total mountainous area, about 16% area is snow clad. Altitude ranges from 300 m to above 7,817 m and accordingly, climate, fauna, flora and soils vary. Landscape is highly vulnerable. It is ecologically fragile, geologically sensitive and tectonically and seismically unstable. It lies in the northwestern part of India. Tibet in the north and northeast, Nepal in the east and southeast, Uttar Pradesh in the south and southwest and Himachal Pradesh in the northwest delimit its international and national boundaries, respectively. A tiny segment of the Haryana state borders it from the west.

1.2.2 Administrative Divisions

The Uttarakhand Himalaya is divided into two administrative divisions—Garhwal and Kumaon, horizontally. It has 13 districts—seven in the and six in the (Fig. 1.2). Its geography and socio-economic attributes vary in both divisions. Chamoli, Pauri, Haridwar, Dehradun, Uttarkashi, Tehri and 6 1 Geography and Geology

Fig. 1.2 Location map of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source By author

Rudraprayag districts comprise the Garhwal division and Pithoragarh, Bageshwar, Champawat, Almora, Nainital and Udham Singh Nagar (USN) comprise the Kumaon division. Further, these 13 districts have 95 development blocks. The highest number of blocks is in the Pauri district (15) and the lowest is in the and Bageshwar districts (3 each). USN, Haridwar and parts of Nainital and Dehradun districts possess fertile alluvial plains. However, arable land is only 18.5% and a large part of it is mountainous, where crop production and productivity is low although, climate supports high diversity and productivity of crops. The state of Uttarakhand was carved out of Uttar Pradesh on November 9, 2000, after a long lasting peaceful agitation for a separate state by the Uttarakhandies. The objective of its formation was the overall development of the mountainous mainland in terms of economic, infrastructural and institutional development, as it has dis- tinct geographical and socio-economic entities. Its interim capital is Dehradun and proposed capital is Gairsain. 1.2 The Uttarakhand Himalaya 7

1.2.3 Physiographic Divisions

Uttarakhand Himalaya can be divided into five physiographic divisions—the Tarai- Bhabhar and Doon valley, the Shivalik ranges and the river valley regions, the Mid- dle/Lesser Himalaya, the Great Himalaya and the Trans Himalaya, in ascending order. Detailed descriptions of them are given below (Figs. 1.4 and 1.5):

Tarai-Bhabhar and Doon Valley

Tarai and Bhabhar region lies between the Shivalik ranges in the north and the Ganges plain in the south, forming a very narrow belt. Tarai is a marshy land however, it is fertile where paddy, wheat and sugarcane grow with substantial yield of crops. A part of Nainital and USN districts comprise Tarai plain. Stony soil composes Bhabhar, which is a 35–40 km wide belt located in the north part of Tarai. A part of Nainital and Pauri districts falls under Bhabhar. It is mostly infertile. Temperature during the summer remains high in Bhabhar region. In the meantime, it obtains dense monsoon broad leaves deciduous forests. Doon valley stretches 24–32 km wide and 75 km long, with altitude ranges between 350 and 750 m between -Haridwar and Ponta Sahib in a triangular shape. It comprises of Pachuadoon, Poorvidoon, Patlidoon, Dhandidoon, Harkidoon and Chaukhamdoon. The Ganga River in the east and the Yamuna River in the west delimit its boundary. Asan and Suswa rivers flow here, depositing huge sediments in the valley. Many longitudinal valleys are also located here. It is very fertile valley for agricultural production, where a number of crops grow. The valley is world famous for Basmati rice, cultivation of sugarcane, litchi and mango. Further, a wide and long tea garden stretches from Telpur to Kalsi in Doon valley. It is surrounded by the hills of Mussoorie and Raja Ji National Park, which make the landscape beau- tiful. Climate is feasible. Several evergreen and seasonal streams flow through the valley. Among them, the main streams are Rispana (derived its name from the sage Rishiparna, who meditated in Doon valley during the ancient period), Bindal and Song. A number of tourist destinations are located here. In addition, several Shiva and Shakti temples lie in the valley. Dehradun city is the major centre of education in Uttarakhand. Doon valley has received exodus in-migration from the rural areas of Uttarakhand, resulting in high density of population and shrinking agricultural land. Production of Basmati rice has tremendously decreased. The whole Doon valley has been converted into a concrete jungle. However, Doon valley is still rich in forest and mineral resources (Fig. 1.3).

Shivalik Ranges and Valley Regions

Shivalik hills comprise of area lying below 500 m. They are mainly located in Dehradun and Nainital districts. Southern parts of Almora, Pauri and Champawat 8 1 Geography and Geology

Fig. 1.3 Paddy crop ready to get harvested in a village Harbhajwala surrounded by Raja Ji National Park, Doon Valley. Photo By author districts also comprise it. Shivalik ranges are also called piedmont ranges of the Himalaya. They are formed due to deposition of debris, eroded and transported from the Great Himalayan ranges. Summer is hot, and cold waves blow during the winter season, across the Shivalik hills and the river valleys. Sub-tropical deciduous forests grow in the Shivalik hills, which are economically viable. This zone also comprises of the major river valleys, lying up to 1,100 m altitude, mostly in the mountainous mainland of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Mainly scrubs and bushes grow in the river valleys. Uttarakhand has a number of river valleys, which are densely populated. World famous pilgrimages—Rishikesh, Haridwar, , Rudraprayag, Karn- prayag, Nandprayag and Vishnuprayag are located in these river valleys (Fig. 1.4).

The Middle Himalaya

The middle Himalaya lies in the south of the Great Himalayan ranges with an altitude ranging from about 1,100 to 3,400 m and 75 km width. It is further divided into two parts—the upper middle Himalaya (highlands) and the lower middle Himalaya (mid- altitudes). The upper middle Himalaya is called the highlands. Population distribution in this part of the Himalaya is sparse and climate is very cold mainly during the winter season, when it is fully covered by snow. It is known for summer pasture when animal herders migrate with their animals during summer for about four months. Meanwhile, it receives heavy snow during winter. Although, agro-biodiversity is 1.2 The Uttarakhand Himalaya 9

Fig. 1.4 Vertical and horizontal extension of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source By author high yet, area under crops is less and production is low. In the meantime, this part of the Himalaya has rich and dense vegetation cover, mainly mixed oak forest and coniferous forests, which have comparatively high biodiversity. Several highlands pilgrimages are located in this part of the Himalaya. The middle Himalaya (mid- altitudes) has high population concentration (Sati 2004). Pine is the main forest that grows here. Arable land is available, as terraced agricultural fields and production and yield of crops is substantial. Climate is very conducive during summer and in winter, chilled cold waves blow, coming from the snow-clad mountains of the Himalaya. This region is the major tourist destination as the world famous hill resorts (Mussoorie, Chakrata, Gwaldom, , Chopta, Nainital, Almora, Ranikhet, Kosi, Kosani and Pithoragarh) are located in both Garhwal and Kumaon regions. A large number of people from the Ganges valley and other parts of the country visit here during the summer season, to escape from the heat strokes. Infrastructural facilities are comparatively adequate and population mobility is high in the service centres/cities lying in the plain region. All districts of mountainous mainland fall under the Middle Himalaya, mainly Pauri, Almora and Nainital. 10 1 Geography and Geology

The Great Himalaya

The Great Himalayan Ranges lie in the south of the Trans Himalaya, which remain snow-covered throughout the year. It spreads 15 to 30 km with height ranging from 4,000 m to about 7,817 m. Nanda Devi is the highest peak (7,817 m). Chaukhamba, Trishul, Kamet, Panchachuli, Poornagiri, Nandakot, Doonagiri, Gangotri, Kedarnath and are the main mountain peaks, lying above 6000 m in the Uttarak- hand Himalaya. Among glaciers, Milam, Kedarnath, Chaurabari, Alkapuri, Pindari, Yamunotri, Khatling and Gangotri are famous, which have evidences of Pleistocene snow age. The main rivers of the Ganges system, the Yamuna and the Bhagirathi originate from Yamunotri and Gangotri glaciers, respectively. The Great Himalaya is composed of broken rocks. Climate is frigid cold, as temperature remains −0°C. Just below the snowline, alpine grasslands are located at an altitude of 4,000 m which are called Bugyal/Payar. The main Bugyals are Bedni (in Chamoli district) and Dayara (in ). Alpine grasslands remain snow clad up to eight months, from September to April, and in the remaining four months of summer, flowers blossom and medicinal plants grow. The transhumance, mainly goat and sheepherders, migrate with their animals in these Bugyals. Chamoli, Uttarkashi and Pithoragarh have the highest area under snow-clad. Figure 1.5 shows landscapes of the Uttarakhand Himalaya at various altitudes.

The Trans Himalaya

The Trans Himalaya lies parallel to the northern boundary of Uttarakhand, elevat- ing from 2,400 to 8,000 m. It remains snow clad throughout the year and thus, no vegetation grows here. Zaskar range, lying in the north of Uttarakhand, makes water- dividing line between India and Tibet. There are a number of passes lying between Uttarakhand and Tibet and among them, the Mana Pass (Vishnu Ganga valley) and the Niti Pass (Dhauli Ganga valley), located in the Chamoli district, are prominent. Total passes are 32, of which, 13 are in Chamoli, 12 in Pithoragarh, 6 in Uttarkashi and 1 in (Survey of India Toposheets). They were the trade routes between India and Tibet before 1962 (the year of Chinese aggression in India). These passes strengthened cultural relation between the two countries during the past.

1.3 Major Landforms of Uttarakhand

The major landforms of Uttarakhand are snow clad mountain peaks, alpine pasture- land, terraced agricultural fields and the river valleys. Further, glacial and fluvial land- forms are prominent. Glacial landforms are hanging valleys, glacial terraces, cirques and moraine, which are found mainly in the Uttarkashi and the Chamoli districts. Cirques are mainly found at an altitude between 3,500 and 4,000 m. Badrinath town and Mana village are the examples of cirque made landforms, formed due to glacial 1.3 Major Landforms of Uttarakhand 11

Fig. 1.5 a The Mount Trishul facing to Gwaldom town in Chamoli district b Bedni Bugyal in Chamoli district c Salan cultural realms of Pauri district and d the Alaknanda River flowing near Srinagar town. Photo By author . Terraces in glaciated areas are situated at an elevation of 3,200–4,000 m, such as Karsaligram in the Yamuna valley, Tapovan below the Shivling peak in the Bhagirathi valley and Kedarnath in the Mandakini valley. Bugyals (Payar) are the major highland features of the Uttarakhand Himalaya, lying mainly between 3,000 and 4,000 m. These are temperate pasturelands, sum- mer camps of goat and sheepherders and are called the ‘heaven for herder’. These herders are locally known as Anwal. In Uttarakhand, 43 Bugyals are known of which, 30 in Chamoli, eight in Uttarkashi, three in Rudraprayag and one each in Tehri and Bageshwar districts are found. The Bugyals are very important as a number of high- land pilgrimages are located there. Out of 11 major pilgrimages of Uttarakhand, six are situated above 3,200 m, provide suitable conditions for spiritual attainment. Among fluvial landforms, river terraces, gorge/canyon, waterfall and cascades are prominent. Gorges/canyons are the suitable sites for construction of hydroelec- tricity projects. Koteshwar gorge on the river Alaknanda is the best example. River terraces are mostly located up to an altitude of 1,500 m. They are formed by alluvial soil and are very fertile, supporting intensive agriculture. A number of river terraces are found along the river courses such as along the Gomti and Saryu rivers—Bai- jnath and Bageshwar, along the Pindar river—Kulsari, Panti, Narainbagar, Nauli and Simali, along the Alaknanda river—Gaucher and Srinagar and along Bhagirathi 12 1 Geography and Geology river—Bhatwari and Badhaghat. Hot springs such as Yamunotri, Gangnadi, Gau- rikund, Badrinath and Tapovan, also found in many other places of Uttarakhand, are the major tourism attraction. Uttarakhand Himalaya has more than 30 mountain peaks, located above an altitude of 5,000 m, of which about 52% mountain peaks are situated in Chamoli district, 16% in Uttarkashi and 11% in . Rudraprayag and Bageshwar districts also possess few mountain peaks. They form spectacular landforms and support pilgrimage tourism. Glacial valleys, river valleys and terraces, depositional plain, formed by lakes and gentle slopes, are the suitable landforms for human settlements.

1.3.1 The River Systems

The river systems of the Uttarakhand Himalaya have been divided into three major divisions—the Bhagirathi-Alaknanda river system, the Yamuna-Tons river system and the Kali river system (Figs. 1.6, 1.7 and 1.8). Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers originate from the opposite slopes of the Chaukhamba Mountain. They form the drainage system of the whole Garhwal region, except the western part of the Uttarkashi district. Details on these river systems are as follows:

The Bhagirathi-Alaknanda River System

The Ganga, the most sacred river of India, originates from the () in Uttarkashi district, meets the Alaknanda River at Devprayag in Tehri district. Actually, before meeting with the Alaknanda, it is called the Bhagirathi River. The world famous and the Asia’s highest Tehri high dam, is constructed on the con- fluence of the rivers Bhagirathi and Bhilangana. It has five major tributaries—Kedar Ganga (originates from Kedar Tal 4,050 m), River Jahnvi (Jadganga, originates from Thamla glacier, joins Bhagirathi at Bhairogathi) Asiganga (originates from and meets Bhagirathi River near Gangotri), River Rudraganga (originates from the Rudragera glacier) and the river Bhilangana, the major of Bhagirathi (orig- inates from the Khatling glacier (3,684 m)—southwestern slope of the Gangotri glacier and meets the Bhagirathi in Old Tehri, which is now submerged). Bhagi- rathi is called the Ganga after meeting with the Alaknanda River at Devprayag. The Bhilangana River has the two major perennial streams—the Balganga and the Dharmaganga, which meet at Suryaprayag in Ghansali town of Tehri district. The Alaknanda River is known as the Vishnu Ganga in the ancient Indian scrip- tures. Originating from Alkapuri Bank/glacier (6,067 m), it forms a famous waterfall Vasudhara (112 m). Satopanth (Ksheersagar), an important lake mentioned in the scriptures, lies on the course of the Alaknanda River, about 25 km from Badrinath. The Alaknanda River is one amongst the major river systems of the Uttarakhand Himalaya, in terms of water volume and number of its tributaries. The famous seven prayags are located along the Alaknanda River. The Saraswati River originates from 1.3 Major Landforms of Uttarakhand 13

Fig. 1.6 Major rivers of Garhwal Himalaya—a Alaknanda River at Srinagar b Bhagirathi River at Gangotri c Yamuna River flowing in the upper-middle catchment area c Tons River flowing in its middle catchment. Photo By author

Devital in Rattakona, meets the Alaknanda River near Mana (Keshavprayag), the last village, about 3 km from the Badrinath Dham. The meets the Alak- nanda River at Badrinath Dham. The Dhauliganga, which originates from the Kunlug range of Dhauligiri Mountain near Niti Pass, confluences with the Alaknanda in Vish- nuprayag. From Vishnuprayag to Phaki River, the Alaknanda flows through a narrow and deep valley which is about 21 km long. A number of tributaries such as Balkhilya, Virahiganga, Patalganga and Garudganga confluence with the Alaknanda on the way before meeting with the Nandakini River. The Nandakini River, originating from the Trishul Mountain (), flows westward and meets the Alaknanda River in Nandprayag, a small town of the Chamoli District. The Pindar River, an important tributary of the Alaknanda River, originates from the , lying in the Bageshwar district (Kapkot) of Kumaon Himalaya, flows 20 km in Kumaon and 100 km in Chamoli district and then meets the Alak- nanda River at Karnprayag (Sati 2008). A number of perennial streams meet the Pindar River throughout its course. Among them, Kail Ganga, Pranmati, Meing Gadhera, Kewer Gadhera, Chopta Gad and Ata Gad are prominent. One of the most important tributaries of the Alaknanda River is the Mandakini River, originating from 14 1 Geography and Geology

Fig. 1.7 The river systems in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source By author the Chaurabari Glacier, lying in the , it flows through Kedarnath highland pilgrimage and meets the Alaknanda River at Rudraprayag. It has a num- ber of perennial tributaries such as Son Ganga, Kali Ganga and . At Sonprayag, the Son Ganga meets the Mandakini River. Other perennial streams of the Alaknanda River are Vasudhara, Kanchanganga, Ksheerganga, Pushpavati, Bhundarganga, Amritganga, Sondhara, Chandradhara and Himlo. Nayar River (Nadganga), which originates and flows through Pauri district, meets the Ganga at Fulchatti (420 m) near Vyasghat. The seven rivers of the Bhagirathi- Alaknanda systems are called ‘Sapt Samudrik Source/Teerth’, mentioned in the Kedarkhand.

The Yamuna-Tons River System

The Yamuna-TonsRiver system comprises of Yamuna, Tons,Hanuman Ganga, Rupin and Supin rivers. The Yamuna River originates from the Yamunotri glacier (Bank), lying in the southwestern slope of the third peak of the Bandarpunch Himalaya. A perennial stream called the ‘Hanuman Ganga’ merges into the Yamuna River near Karsali. The river Tons, having a length of 148 km, the largest tributary of the Yamuna River, outlets from the Bandarpunch mountain and inlets into the Yamuna River near Kalsi in Dehradun district. It has 2.5 times much more water volume than the Yamuna 1.3 Major Landforms of Uttarakhand 15

Fig. 1.8 a The Kali River between Jauljibi and Tanakpur b the Gomti River near Baijnath c the Ramganga (W) near Chaukhutiya and d the Saryu River in Bageshwar. Photo By author

River. Rupin, Supin and Pabbar Rivers are the major tributaries of the Tons River, which originate from the Swargarohini glacier at the head of Har-Ki-Doon valley. Other tributaries of the Yamuna River are Rishiganga, Bandgad, Kamalgad, Rikhgad, Khutnugad, Aglargad, Amlavagad, Krishnagad, Barnigad, Bhadrigad, Nagadgad, Gadoligad, Peyyargad and Mugragad. Asan River joins it near Rampur Mandi in Dehradun district. Total length of the Yamuna River is 175 km.

The Kali River System

The River Kali originates from the Trans-Himalayan zone of the Greater Himalaya—Kalapani at an altitude of 3,600 m (Fig. 1.8). The river, also called Mahakali and Sharda, flows between Kalapani and Tanakpur and makes natural boundary between India and Nepal. In Skandpurana, the river is called ‘Shyama’, which collects water of Pithoragarh, Champawat and Nainital districts. Kalapani Gad and Kuthiyanti River, originating from the eastern and western slopes of the Zaskar range, are the main sources of the Kali River. Sangchumna, Nirkut and Jhumka are the tributaries of the Kuthiyanti River. The Kali Ganga’s other tributaries are Dhauliganga (E), Goriganga, Saryu and Landhia. Dhauliganga (E) is also a major 16 1 Geography and Geology river of Kumaon and its two tributaries are Dhali (Darma) and Hissar. Dhauliganga meets the river Kali at Khela, near Syalpantha. Goriganga, a joint stream of Gori and Khunkalpa (Kalam), originates from the Milan glacier. Goriganga has numer- ous tributaries such as Ralamgad, Madnanai, Jimba Gadhera and Gonkhagad. The Dhauliganga (E) meets the Kali River near Tawaghat, Pithoragarh district. Similarly, the Goriganga inlets into the Kali River at Jauljibi, a famous place for trade fair in Pithoragarh. From Tanakpur, the Kali River enters the plain region. It flows through Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh and merges in the Ghaghra River (also known as Kar- nali), near Bahraich. A river rafting route of 117 km long spreads between Jauljibi and Tanakpur. The Kali River has the high potential to generate hydroelectricity and to provide ample water to irrigate land however, its use in the mountainous mainland is not substantial. Further, it is a flood prone river, inundates the plain regions of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh. The Saryu, the most sacred river of Kumaon, supplies a huge volume of water to the River Kali. It originates from the southwestern hills of Bageshwar district and flows though Bageshwar town, where it meets the river Gomati that originates from Debra range (2,080 m), opposite of Badhan Garhi. The meeting place of these two rivers, Bageshwar town, is a pilgrimage centre of Kumaon region. The rivers Khoh, Koshi, Gaula (Gargi), Ramganga (E), Saung and Siswa are the other rivers of Kumaon region. The Ramganga River (W), another sub-system of the Kumaon Himalaya, origi- nates from Lobha village in the Dudhatoli mountain range, lies in the border area of the Garhwal and Kumaon Himalayas, at an altitude of 3,110 m. It has spectacular val- leys with numerous rapids and waterfalls in its mountainous parts. It enters the plain region at Kalagarh, where a hydroelectricity dam is constructed with 2,190 million cubic meter capacity (198 mw power plant), also used for generating electricity and providing irrigation. It has two main tributaries—Bino and Gagas, which mainly flow in the mountainous regions. The river has a long course flowing through Moradabad, Badaun, Hardoi, Barreilly and Shahjahapur, and finally inlets into the Ganga River near Kanauj in Fategarh district. Other tributaries are Gangan, Khoj, Kosi, Deoha and Aril and total catchment area of the Ranganga River is 32,493 sq km.

1.4 Glaciers

Uttarakhand has total 17 main glaciers of which, nine lie in the Garhwal region and eight in the Kumaon region. They are located mainly in Uttarkashi, Chamoli and Pithoragarh districts. Few glaciers are found in Tehri, Rudraprayag and Bageshwar districts. Glaciers, the integral parts of Himalayan ecology and the landscape, are the sources of water to the India’s biggest river system i.e. the Ganges system. A detailed note on the glaciers of Uttarakhand is given in Chap. 3. 1.4 Glaciers 17

1.4.1 Lakes and Water Bodies: Highlands and Valleys

Lakes, locally known as Kund or Taal, are the major topographical features of the Uttarakhand Himalaya and are believed to be formed due to tectonic activities and glacial and fluvial erosion. In Uttarakhand, lakes are related to the Gods and God- desses, the centers of cultural believe. Lakes are estimated to be about 89 and most of them are located in the mountainous districts of the State, mainly in the Chamoli, Uttarkashi and Nainital districts. They are the suitable destinations for the tourism development. About 72 lakes (Kunds) lie near the pilgrimage centres in Uttarakhand. Among major kunds, Brahma Kund, Rudra Kund,RishiKund, Sati Kund, Gangayan Kund, Bhimgoda Kund and Gorikund, located in the highland pilgrimage centres, are famous in Uttarakhand. Saat Taals are found in the Nainital district, including Naini Taal,BhimTaal and Nokhuchiya Taal, and other numerous Taals are located in the districts of Uttarakhand. Glacial fed lakes are numerous in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, mainly found below the snow line due to melting of glaciers/snow. Uttarakhand is one amongst the states of the Himalaya, where glaciers are outnumbered and so are the glacial fed lakes. Due to melting of glaciers at an alarming rate, the risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) has increased in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, which is leading to future catastrophes. The magnitude of cloudburst triggered flashfloods and debris-flows in the Kedarnath valley has been accelerated by the GLOF.

1.4.2 Geology and Its Features

The geology and its features are distinguished in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, resem- bling the Himalayan orogeny. The whole region is geologically sensitive, and tecton- ically and seismically active, and it comes under the 4th and 5th zones of earthquake zoning map. Because, the Himalaya is the youngest mountain system of the world therefore, it is ecologically fragile and highly vulnerable to landscape degradation (Fig. 1.9). The Uttarakhand Himalaya can be divided into five morphological zones. Each zone has distinct physiographic features and geological history, with varying width. The outer Himalaya, lies between the north and the south, the Lesser Himalaya, the Greater Himalaya, the Tethys (Tibetan) Himalaya and the Trans Himalaya have distinguished features and characteristics. The Outer Himalaya comprises continen- tal molasses of the Middle Miocene to Upper Pleistocene age, delimited by the Himalayan Frontal Fault in the south and Main Boundary Thrust in the north. The Lesser Himalaya is the most tectonic zone, lying between the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and the Main Central Thrust (MCT). Precambrian sedimentary rocks, cov- ered by crystalline thrust sheets in the form of large klippen masses, comprise it. The Greater Himalaya obtains 15–20 km thick slab of crystalline rocks, southward of MCT, overriding the Lesser Himalaya. Trans Himalayan Fault marks the northern boundary of the Greater Himalaya. In the northern part of the Greater Himalaya, lies 18 1 Geography and Geology

Fig. 1.9 Geological map of Uttarakhand. Source Digitalized by author the Tethys Himalaya. A thrust—Indus-Tsangpo lies in the northern margins of the Tethys Himalaya, called the Trans-Himalayan zone (Paul 2010). The Uttarakhand Himalaya (Garhwal and Kumaon) is very active to earthquake hazards. Similarly, the MCT (Crystalline zone) represents intensive shearing zone (Gansser 1964). There are MBTs, which include Tons Thrust in the western part of Uttarakhand (Garhwal Himalaya) and Berinag and Ramgarh Thrusts in the eastern part of Uttarak- hand (Kumaon Himalaya); and MCTs that include Munsiari Thrust (MCT I, Kumaon region) and Vaikrita Thrust (MCT II, Garhwal region), are the potential threats to tectonic disasters. It means that MBTs and MCTs stretch in and surroundings of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Along with this, MBT hanging wall, Berinag Thrust foot- wall, Berinag thrust hanging wall, Ramgarh Thrust hanging wall, MCT zone and MCT hanging wall are found here. The internal and external forces, mainly climate induced disasters, have trans- formed the landscape of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The intensity of these disasters has increased during the recent past therefore, changes in landforms in all the alti- tudinal gradients have been noticed largely. Further, the geologists have observed that the Himalaya is moving towards the north at the rate of 0.4–0.6 mm/year. The mountain peaks of the Himalaya are uplifting and the river valleys are deepening due to tectonic movement. As a result, the landforms are transforming. References 19

References

Dezes P (1999) Tectonic and metamorphic evolution of the Central Himalayan domain in southeast zanskar (Kashmir, India). Mémoires de Géologie (Lausanne) No. 32 Gansser A (1964) Geology of the Himalayas. Willey Interscience, London Gaur VK (1998) Mitigating disasters in the Himalaya—a basic agenda for development. Pt. G.B. Pant memorial lecture: VIII, GBPIHED, Kosi-Katarmal, Almora Kayal JR (1998) Seismicity of north-east India and surrounding development over past 100 years. J Geophys 19(1):9–34 Paul A (2010) Evaluation and implications of seismic events in Garhwal-Kumaun region of Himalaya. J Geol Soc India 76:414–418 Sati VP (2008) Natural resources management and sustainable development in Pindar Valley, Himalayas. Dehradun, Bishen Singh Mahendrapal Singh Sati VP (2004) Uttaranchal: dilemma of plenties and scarsities, New Delhi, published by Mittal Publications Singh JS (2004) Sustainable development of Indian Himalayan region: linking ecological and economic concerns. G.B. Pant Memorial Lecture—X, GBPIHED, Kosi-Katarmal, Almora Valdiya KS (2001) Himalaya: emergence and evolution. University Press Publ., Hyderabad, pp. 139 Chapter 2 The Climate of the Uttarakhand Himalaya

Abstract The climate of the Himalaya is highly variable. Variability and seasonality of climate in the Himalaya is due to its verticality, angularity and mountainous land- scapes. Climate data—temperature, rainfall and humidity—of 15 years (2000–2015) was analyzed and climate variability and changed was noticed. It has been observed from the data that rainfall is increasing in the Uttarakhand Himalaya and it is higher in the plain region than to the mountain mainland. Meanwhile, temperature is almost stagnant in the highlands, although temperature variability is high. On the other hand, the Doon valley is receiving high climate change. In this chapter, all the three climate components—temperature, rainfall and humidity are analyzed at monthly and annual levels.

Keywords Climate change · Spatial variation · Temporal variation · Highlands · Western disturbances · Monsoon rain

The Himalaya has a profound impact on climate of the Indian sub-continent, as it greatly regulates its weather and climatic conditions. It acts as a barrier to the north and also acts as climate divider. Vast altitudinal and latitudinal differences (spatial variations) in the Himalaya regulate its climate largely. The five-dimensional landscapes—plain (Doon valley, Bhabhar and Tarai region), the Shivalik ranges (including the river valleys); the middle Himalaya, the highlands (including the Alpine pastures) and the Greater Himalaya form it. Landscape varies with increasing degree of altitudes and latitudes. Temporal variations and slope aspects further regulate the Himalayan climate. Thus, the landscape, seasons and slope aspects are the major drivers that regulate the climate and divide the whole land into several micro-climatic regions. The Himalaya has three major seasons—summer, monsoon and winter, and six minor seasons—spring, summer, rainy, autumn, pre-winter and winter. Climate varies along with changing seasons at micro level. Because of the high variations in the landscape, the impact of seasons is different at different altitudes. This chapter deals with the study of the climate of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. I have analyzed climate data—temperature, rainfall and humidity of the two meteorological stations—Dehradun and Mukteshwar and have presented them graphically. A large part of literature review is well documented/cited.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 21 V. P. Sati, Himalaya on the Threshold of Change, Advances in Global Change Research 66, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14180-6_2 22 2 The Climate of the Uttarakhand Himalaya

The Uttarakhand Himalaya has broadly five climatic regions—tropical, subtropi- cal, temperate, cold and frigid cold. The climatic conditions vary according to these regions. Plain regions—Doon, Tarai and Bhabhar (below 300 m) of the Uttarakhand Himalaya have tropical climate. Maximum temperature increases up to 35 °C during the summer season (Ruri). Often heat waves blow in the months of May and June. Monsoon rain outbreaks in the month of June and helps in decreasing temperature in the tropical region. Winters (Jada) are mild however, cold waves blow when the middle and higher reaches receive snow spells. Subtropical region comprises the river valleys (Gangar) and the Shivalik ranges (between 300 and 1,100 m). Climatic conditions are moderate. Average temperature remains 25 °C during the summer sea- son. Mid-altitude regions (between 1,100 and 1,800 m) have temperate climate, very feasible for health. In this region, several tourist places are located, where exodus tourists visit, mainly during the summer season. The plain regions of India, including the entire Ganges valley receive high temperature and heat waves. To escape from it, the people of plain regions spend time in the hills of the Middle Himalaya dur- ing the summer season. Hill resorts such as Mussoorie, Nainital, Almora, Ranikhet and many other service centres/towns provide shelter to a number of people during the season. Heavy monsoon rain causes to landscape degradation such as landslides, landslips and mass-movements. Debris-flows and flashfloods are common during the monsoon season. A large part of the Upper-Middle Himalaya receives several spells of snow during the winter. The presence of the Greater Himalaya further accentuates the intensity of cold, and cold waves, often, blow in the whole region. The north facing slopes, receiving low solar radiation, remain very cold during the winter sea- son and these areas are called ‘Seela’. However, the east-south facing slopes receive high solar radiation and are known as ‘Tailla’. The cold region (1,800 to 3,400 m), comprising the highlands (Danda) and the alpine pastures, are covered by snow for around three to six months, respectively during the winter (October to March). Alpine meadows remain open throughout four months of summer and they are the major destinations for summer pastures. Average temperature remains below 5 °C during the period. Monsoon rain occurs heavily in the highlands. The last climatic zone is frigid cold (above 3,400 m), which comprises the Greater Himalaya—the no man land. A number of the world’s highest snow clad mountain peaks are located here, with the Nanda Devi, Kamet, Trishul and Chaukhamba being the most famous ones. The summer-winter difference declines up to 1,000 m, and then stabilizes at about 10 °C along the remaining altitudinal transect (Singh et al. 1994). With increase in cloudiness, the sunshine duration decreases towards higher altitudes. The precipita- tion effectiveness increases with altitude because of temperature and sunshine decline (Muller 1982). Corresponding with the upper limit of forests, the absolute minimum temperatures at 3,600 m altitude are −15 and −20 °C, which are less severe than the temperatures reported for continental temperate mountains (Sakai and Malla 1981; Muller 1982). Rainfall occurs mainly by the monsoon winds (westerly) during the summer and by the western disturbances during the winter (Palazzi et al. 2013). The Uttarakhand Himalaya receives rain from southwest monsoon wind that rises from the Bay of Ben- gal and the Arabian Sea in the summer for about five months. Summer monsoon rain 2 The Climate of the Uttarakhand Himalaya 23 starts from the month of May and lasts until October. This period is called ‘Chaumas’. Rainstorms, wind/thunderstorms and cloudbursts are the major atmospheric events, which occur because of summer monsoon. The entire Uttarakhand Himalaya suffers from the consequences of these atmospheric events. Rivers flow above danger mark often resulting severe natural disasters. Owing to highly elevated mountains, undu- lating landscapes and slope aspects—windward and leeward—there are a number of rain-shadow regions where summer monsoon rain does not occur. These places char- acterise dry climate and therefore, farming systems and forest types vary here. Rain intensity varies within a short distance of 100 km between Karnprayag and Joshi- math towns, because of slop aspects. Karnprayag lies in the leeward direction. Thus, it receives less rain while, Joshimath is situated in the windward direction hence, heavy rain occurs. Rain also occurs during the winter season because of western disturbances, the wind blowing from the west (Mediterranean see) of the Himalaya. The highlands, even in the middle Himalaya, receive heavy snow that causes cold waves to blow in the Shivalik ranges and the river valleys. Snow falls continue up to a week, called ‘Jhaud’. It also regulates the climate of the Central India and the Ganges valley. The valleys and middle altitudes receive substantial rain. Average rain occurs about 1,200 mm, varying from 600 to 1,800 mm. The impact of northeast winds (easterlies) is negligible, as the Himalaya itself blocks the wind direction. Due to presence of the snow-clad peaks of the Himalaya, proportion of humidity in the atmosphere remains substantial, even during the dry seasons. It varies from the highlands and the mid-altitudes to the Shivalik ranges and the river valleys. However, it is comparatively low in the months of March and April (dry season). Rain begins generally from the month of May and it continues until October. Winters also remain wet. This results in high humidity in the atmosphere all the time, contributing to the healthy growth of crops and maintaining high crop diversity, mainly in the highlands. It has been observed that even during the drought period, the highlands of the Uttarakhand Himalaya enjoy substantial crop production (Sati 2004). Wind blows mainly from the southwest direction during the summer season and from the west direction during the winter season. Local wind direction varies from place to place, along with changing velocity. High temperature variation and micro- climate largely influence the direction and velocity of wind. Huge wind/thunderstorm blows during the months of April, May and June, which is cyclonic in nature and often leads felling of trees and damaging crops and settlements. It also causes for forest fire. Climate is very feasible for the development of tourism in the middle and higher Himalaya. A number of tourists and pilgrims visit the major tourist destinations and pilgrimages during the summer (Sati 2015a, b). Morning winds start blowing from the valleys to the highlands, and after sunset, they move back to valley regions. These winds are known as gravity/mountain winds usually, blowing in the southwest direction, during the daytime and in the northeast direction during nights, contributing in the formation of pre-monsoon clouds. Wind velocity is moderate across the state except in the southern areas, where it is high. Temperature, direction of winds and distance from the water bodies affect amount of humidity in the air. However, humidity is higher in the plain regions than in the 24 2 The Climate of the Uttarakhand Himalaya mountainous mainland. Further, humidity is higher in the valleys. As temperature has increased along the altitudinal slope gradient, humidity has decreased rather turning into dew drops.

2.1 Analysis of Climate Data

The author has gathered climate data on temperature, rainfall and humidity of both Dehradun and Mukteshwar meteorological stations. Dehradun stretches between 30°20 N and 78°01 E with average altitude of 437 m in the Garhwal region. However, Mukteshwar lies between 29°29 N and 79°38 E at an altitude of 2,236 m in Nainital district of Kumaon region. Both meteorological stations represent the western and eastern parts, the plain and mountainous regions, respectively and climate of the Uttarakhand Himalaya as a whole.

2.1.1 Analysis of Rainfall Data

Rainfall data of 2000–2014 shows that Dehradun received higher rainfall in all the months of the year than Mukteshwar (Fig. 2.1). It further shows that rainfall variability was high in both the stations. In 2013, Dehradun received the highest rainfall i.e. 3,265 mm whereas in 2009, it received only 1,624.7 mm rainfall, which is just half as in the year 2013. Average rain during this period was 2,299.9 mm. The high variability of rainfall has increased continuously at yearly basis. Similarly, average annual rainfall has increased substantially. This similar situation prevails with the rainfall data of Mukteshwar, although average rain that occurred during the same period was 1311 mm, quite less than Dehradun. The highest rain that occurred in Mukteshwar was in the year 2010 which was 1,701.3 mm, followed by the year 2000 when rainfall was 1,626. 8 mm and in 2013, it was 1,613.2 mm. On the other hand, the lowest rain occurred in the year 2002 (229 mm). In the corresponding years too, high variability in rainfall was noticed. It has been noticed from the fact that the plain region of the Uttarakhand Himalaya has received high rain than the mountainous mainland during the recorded period. Monthly rainfall data of both the stations also shows high variability (Fig. 2.2). Generally, Dehradun receives monsoon rain in the four months of June, July, August and September. Our data of the last fifteen years shows that in the months of July and August, Dehradun received the highest rain with high variability from year to year. In the month of June 2013, the highest rain occurred in Dehradun, which was unusual, causing havoc in both Kedarnath and Badrinath valleys and even in the entire Uttarakhand Himalaya. Heavy rainfall also occurred in the months of July, August and September in 2010 and in the month of August in 2007 and 2012. Dehradun also receives rain from the Western Disturbances mainly in the months of January, February and March. During the period of 2001–2014, average annual rainfall was 2.1 Analysis of Climate Data 25

Fig. 2.1 Annual average rainfall. Source Indian Meteorological Department, Govt. of India (Statis- tical Year Book, India 2016), http://utrenvis.nic.in/data/climate%20mukteshwar.pdf, http://utrenvis. nic.in/data/climate%20ddun.pdf

Fig. 2.2 Variation in monthly rainfall in Dehradun. Source Indian Meteorological Department, Govt. of India (Statistical Year Book, India 2016), http://utrenvis.nic.in/data/climate%20ddun.pdf the highest in the month of February while during November and December, rainfall was scanty in Dehradun. The months of April, May and October also received scanty rainfall. Although, rainfall in Mukteshwar is comparatively quite less than that of Dehradun yet, rain period is longer here. Monsoon rain starts from May and ends in October. Meanwhile, it receives rain from the Western Disturbances in the four months of December, January, February, and March. It also receives rain in the month of April however, it is scanty. Rainfall data shows (Fig. 2.3) that in Mukteshwar, the highest rain occurred in the month of July in 2014, followed by September 2005, June 2013 and September 2010. High rainfall in the month of June 2013 in Mukteshwar 26 2 The Climate of the Uttarakhand Himalaya

Fig. 2.3 Variation in monthly rainfall in Mukteshwar. Source Indian Meteorological Depart- ment, Govt. of India (Statistical Year Book, India 2016), http://utrenvis.nic.in/data/climate% 20mukteshwar.pdf increased the severity of flashfloods and debris-flows in Uttarakhand. The six months of summer (May to October) comprised of high rainfall variability. It has been further noticed that average rainfall in the month of February is higher during the winter, with high variability. Except the month of November, Mukteshwar receives rain throughout the year.

2.2 Analysis of Temperature Data

The author has analyzed temperature data—annual average of minimum, maximum and mean value—of Dehradun and Mukteshwar. Figure 2.4 shows annual average of minimum and maximum temperature in Dehradun. Average minimum tempera- ture was 16.18 °C during the recorded period. The highest minimum temperature was 16.79 °C in 2006 whereas the lowest minimum temperature was 15.51 °C in 2012. Maximum temperature varied from 27.18 to 29.48 °C, with maximum average temperature of 28.15 °C. Temperature variation was noticed the highest in terms of annual average minimum temperature during the period. In terms of annual average of maximum temperature, temperature was almost constant from 2001 to 2008, with little variations. However, temperature variation was noticed highest from 2008 to 2013. Annual average minimum temperature in Mukteshwar varied from 8.34 °C in 2011 to 12 °C in 2012 (Fig. 2.5) whereas, annual average maximum temperature varied from 18.12 °C in 2002 to 20.13 °C in 2009. Further, average temperature in annual average minimum temperature was 9.46 °C whereas; it was 19.12 °C in annual average maximum temperature. Annual average minimum temperature 2.2 Analysis of Temperature Data 27

Fig. 2.4 Annual average of minimum and maximum temperature in Dehradun. Source Indian Meteorological Department, Govt. of India (Statistical Year Book, India 2016), http://utrenvis.nic. in/data/climate%20ddun.pdf was noticed almost constant from 2000 to 2011, with little variations. However, high temperature variation was noticed between 2012 and 2013. In the meantime, temperature variation was high throughout the reporting period in terms of annual average maximum temperature in Mukteshwar. Figure 2.6 depicts the mean value of annual average temperature in Dehradun and Mukteshwar. In Dehradun, the mean value of annual average temperature varied from 21.34 °C in 2012 to 23.34 °C in 2010, with high variability from year to year. The similar situation prevails in Mukteshwar, where the mean value of average annual temperature varied from 13.59 °C in 2013 to 15.51 °C in 2013. Temperature variation has been recorded as the highest after 2008 in both Dehradun and Mukteshwar. Similarly, variability in the mean value of temperature has increased after 2007 in both the stations. High variation in average monthly temperature was noticed in Dehradun (Fig. 2.7), mainly in the months of Feb and June, as more than 5 °C. Mean- while, there has not been found any particular trend. In the month of February, the highest temperature was observed in 2006 and the lowest temperature was recorded in 2000, with more than 5 °C variability. On the other hand, in the month of June, the highest temperature was recorded in 2012 whereas the lowest temperature was noticed in 2001. Temperature variation is substantial from February to June, and December and January. In the months of July, August and November, temperature variability is minimal. Monthly average temperature data of the last 15 years was analyzed (Fig. 2.8). The data shows that temperature variability is higher between January and June 28 2 The Climate of the Uttarakhand Himalaya

Fig. 2.5 Annual average of minimum and maximum temperature in Mukteshwar. Source Indian Meteorological Department, Govt. of India (Statistical Year Book, India 2016), http://utrenvis.nic. in/data/climate%20mukteshwar.pdf

Fig. 2.6 Mean value of annual temperature in Dehradun and Mukteshwar. Source Indian Meteoro- logical Department, Govt. of India (Statistical Year Book, India 2016), http://utrenvis.nic.in/data/ climate%20mukteshwar.pdf, http://utrenvis.nic.in/data/climate%20ddun.pdf 2.2 Analysis of Temperature Data 29

Fig. 2.7 Average monthly temperature in Dehradun. Source Indian Meteorological Department, Govt. of India (Statistical Year Book, India 2016), http://utrenvis.nic.in/data/climate%20ddun.pdf

Fig. 2.8 Average monthly temperature in Mukteshwar. Source Indian Meteorological Depart- ment, Govt. of India (Statistical Year Book, India 2016), http://utrenvis.nic.in/data/climate% 20mukteshwar.pdf than between July and December. The highest variability was noticed in the month of February with about 10 °C temperature variation. The highest temperature was recorded in 2006 and the lowest temperature was recorded in 2000. The month of January also observed high temperature variation from 3 °C as lowest to 10 °C as highest. The other three months—March, April and June recorded substantial temperature variation. The highest average temperature was recorded in the month of June in 2012 while, in the same month, the lowest temperature was recorded in 2008. Temperature variation was 3 °C in the month of May. From July to December, temperature was constant during the reported period. 30 2 The Climate of the Uttarakhand Himalaya

Fig. 2.9 Annual average humidity in Dehradun and Mukteshwar. Source Indian Meteorological Department, Govt. of India (Statistical Year Book, India 2016)

2.3 Analysis of Humidity Data

Humidity data of Dehradun and Mukteshwar shows that humidity in atmosphere is above 58% in plain and mountainous districts (Fig. 2.9). It further shows that the plain districts have higher humidity than the mountainous districts. In Dehradun, humidity ranged from 65.8% in 2012 to 71.5% in 2013. In terms of Mukteshwar, humidity varied from 58% in 2009 to 68.9% in 2000. Variability in humidity was less between 2000 and 2008 whereas, it increased substantially higher after 2008.

2.4 Annual Mean Value of Temperature, Rainfall and Humidity

The author analyzed annual mean value of temperature, rainfall and humidity of both Dehradun and Mukteshwar meteorological centres (Table 2.1) and noticed high variability in all variables in both the centres. It was also noticed that temperature, rainfall and humidity are high in Dehradun in comparison to Mukteshwar. Tem- perature in Dehradun is comparatively higher, because of its location in the lower altitude. Mukteshwar’s height is above 2,200 m, where several snow spells occur during the winter season and consequently, it receives less rainfall than Dehradun. As temperature and rainfall is higher in Dehradun therefore, humidity remains high. Dehradun had average mean value of 22.16 °C temperature, 2,299.85 mm rainfall and 68.27% humidity between 2000 and 2014 whereas, Mukteshwar has 14.29 °C temperature, 1,377.81 mm rainfall and 64.22% humidity. 2.5 Correlation Between Temperature, Rainfall and Humidity 31

Table 2.1 Annual mean value of temperature, rainfall and humidity in Dehradun and Mukteshwar Year Dehradun Mukteshwar Temperature Rainfall Humidity Temperature Rainfall Humidity 2000 21.63 2562.8 70.1 13.81 1626.8 68.9 2001 22.23 2328.5 67.9 14.47 915.7 64.7 2002 22 1565.1 68.3 14.25 1229 66.5 2003 21.81 1861.1 66.3 14 1403.8 64.5 2004 22.13 2026.8 68.1 14.51 1071.4 63.5 2005 22.01 2169.2 66.9 13.91 1634.1 64.7 2006 22.63 1841.4 67.4 14.88 1011.7 62.9 2007 22.23 2631.7 69.3 14.05 1453.3 67.3 2008 22.04 2457.2 70.3 13.82 1513.8 64.6 2009 22.81 1624.7 65.9 14.74 1315.1 58 2010 23.11 3253.5 66.4 15.03 1701.3 61.6 2011 22.02 2688.5 71 13.77 1487 65.5 2012 21.34 2277.7 65.8 15.51 1114.9 59.7 2013 22.26 3265.2 71.5 13.59 1613.2 66.6 2014 22.17 1944.4 68.9 14.03 1576.1 64.4 Average 22.16 2299.85 68.27 14.29 1377.81 64.22 Source Indian Meteorological Department, Govt. of India (Statistical Year Book, India 2016), http:// utrenvis.nic.in/data/climate%20mukteshwar.pdf, http://utrenvis.nic.in/data/climate%20ddun.pdf

2.5 Correlation Between Temperature, Rainfall and Humidity

Temperature, rainfall and humidity of Dehradun and Mukteshwar were correlated (Table 2.2). It was noticed that except correlation between rainfall and humidity, which was nearly significant in Dehradun, correlation between the other variables was not much significant. On the other hand, in Mukteshwar, correlation between temperature and humidity was highly significant whereas, correlation between tem- perature and rainfall was nearly significant.

2.6 Climate Variability and Change in the Himalaya

The Himalaya is climatically least known area of the world (Mani 1981). Further, no substantial studies have been carried out on climate in the Himalayan region (Kumar et al. 2010 and Duan et al. 2006). However, there are a number of studies which show an enormous change in climate. A study reports that average temperature had increased by 0.6 °C over the period 1960–2000 in the high altitudes of Uttarakhand 32 2 The Climate of the Uttarakhand Himalaya

Table 2.2 Correlation between temperature, rainfall and humidity (Dehradun and Mukteshwar) Variables Correlation Temperature Rainfall Humidity Temperature Rainfall Humidity (D) (D) (D) (M) (M) (M) Temperature Pearson correlation 1 0.147 −0.176 (D) Sig. (2-tailed) 0.601 0.531 Rainfall Pearson correlation 1 0.471 (D) Sig. (2-tailed) 0.076 Humidity Pearson correlation 1 (D) Sig. (2-tailed) Temperature Pearson correlation 1 −0.538a −0.778b (M) Sig. (2-tailed) 0.039 0.001 Rainfall Pearson correlation 1 0.316 (M) Sig. (2-tailed) 0.251 Humidity Pearson correlation 1 (M) Sig. (2-tailed)

Source By author; Abb. D = Dehradun, M = Mukteshwar aCorrelation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) bCorrelation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

(Singh et al. 2010a, b). Another study on rainfall data of 100 years shows that the Uttarakhand Himalaya has recorded a declining trend. In the meantime, temperature has increased (Mishra 2014). During 1967–2007, annual maximum, minimum and mean temperature increased about 0.43 °C, 0.38 °C and 0.49 °C, respectively. It has been noticed that climate change implications on warming of the river valleys and the mid-altitudes, rainfall, glaciers, crops and natural disasters were large during the recent past (Kulkarni et al. 2007; Bhatt et al. 2000). Dash et al. 2007 reported that the western Indian Himalayas saw a 0.9 °C rise over 102 years (1901–2003). They reported that much of this observed trend is related to increases after 1972.

Case Study 2.1 High climate variability and change was observed in the villages of the Pin- dar river basin during the last four decades. The region, lying above 1600 m, received several spells of snow during the four months of winter, November to February. Similarly, the other region, lying below 1600 m, received rains due to western disturbances. Often, a continuous weeklong snow event occurred. Now, the scenario has changed. Many times, this region does not receive snow even in a single spell. However, I observed that seldom heavy snow occurred in the low–lying areas below 800 m, such as in 1992–93, 2003–04, 2008–09, 2015–16 and 2018–19. The high variability in snowfall and rainfall has influ- enced farming systems and water sources enormously. The Pindar river is known for its devastating nature. The severity has increased during the recent past. The author has observed that cloudburst triggered disasters have increased 2.6 Climate Variability and Change in the Himalaya 33

due to high climate variability and the people of the basin are suffering from atmospheric genesis catastrophes.

Bhutiyani et al. (2010) observed a statistically significantly decreasing trend in monsoon and average annual rainfall in the Himalaya during the period of 1866–2006. A similar trend has been noticed for the period 1960–2006 in the Himalayan region (Sontakke et al. 2009). Further Dimri and Dash (2011) noted significantly decreasing winter precipitation, decreased number of cold days and increased number of warm days in the region during the period of 1975–2006. Dimri and Kumar (2008) analyzed cold and warm events during the winters from 1975 to 2006 and observed increasing temperature and decreasing precipitation in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Arora et al. (2005) observed that annual mean temperature has increased by 0.92 °C during the last 100 years. It has become 1.1 °C for the winter season. In the middle altitude of the Himalayan region, temperature has increased from 0.068° to 0.128 °C during 1977–1994 (Shrestha et al. 1999). Shekhar et al. (2010) have observed that annual maximum temperature increased by 2.8 °C between 1984–1985 and 2007–2008 in the western Himalaya whereas annual minimum temperature has increased by about 1 °C during the same period. Climatologists observed that warming in the Himalaya is much higher than the global average of 0.74 °C over the last 100 years (IPCC 2007; Du et al. 2004). In the Alaknanda valley, mean annual temperature has increased by 0.15 °C between 1960 and 2000 (Kumar et al. 2008). According to the National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, the time period of rainfall and snowfall has been changing rapidly since the last 20 years and a number of western disturbances have reduced from 10–15 to 5–6 cycles. Formation of lakes from the Himalayan glaciers has been increasing (Kaul 1999). There has been decreasing amount and durability of snow. The timing of snowfall has shifted from December- January to February-March, the report stated. This situation has also led to a rapid increase in temperature in the mountainous mainland. Further, there has been a connection between the Himalaya, the Ganges plain and climatic regime of the entire region due to global warming. A report published by the State Forest Department (SFD) in the Amar Ujala News- paper, Dehradun edition (21 July 2018) indicates that the State’s flower ‘Brahma Kamal’ has been found blooming in the month of July at 12,000 feet in the Kedar- nath region. Generally, it blooms in the month of August at the height of 16,000 feet, indicating that the seasonality and altitude of blooming Brahma Kamal has changed. In plain districts, mainly in the Doon valley, population has increased multifold (114%) during the past three decades. Similarly, 362% vehicles have increased here, which have further resulted in high increase in carbon emission and thus, air pollution has also increased. As a result, Dehradun city has observed an increasing trend of temperature i.e. 0.38 °C (Murty et al. 2004). Further, over 100 years, 0.98 °C temper- ature has increased in Dehradun city. However, if this trend continues, temperature of Dehradun city will rise by 1.2 °C in the coming 100 years (Singh et al. n.a.). Forest fire seems one among the major drivers of climate change in the Uttarakhand 34 2 The Climate of the Uttarakhand Himalaya

Himalaya. It was noticed that in the summers of 2017 and 2018, temperature reached up to 40.2 °C in Dehradun because of forest fire, which is the highest in the history of Uttarakhand. Between 2006 and 2009, and in the months from November to March, no signif- icant rainfall occurred in Uttarakhand. During 2006–2008, scanty rainfall occurred in the high altitudes in February and March. Other places remained dry during the period. Occurrences of snow in the middle and higher reaches also showed high variability. Some new trends have emerged. Monsoon rain has become localized to a certain extent and intensive rain occurs within space and time. Long lasting rain, sometimes continuing for seven days (nomenclature: ‘Sagain’) has become a memory of the past. Findings from the present study depict that variability in temperature, rainfall and humidity is increasing every year. Further, climate data shows extremity in terms of high and low temperature and rainfall, and the trend of variability in climate varies from plain areas to mountainous mainland. The author has noticed that the month of February is much colder than December, sometimes even colder that January, both in Dehradun and Mukteshwar. The month of December has been observed warmer with substantial variability than November. It is obvious that temperature is higher in Dehradun because of its location in the low altitude. Further, Dehradun has also received higher rain than the mountainous mainland and as a result, humidity is higher here. It was also noticed that variability in humidity has been increasing after 2007, continuously. Although, humidity is higher throughout the year in Dehradun, its variability is higher in Mukteshwar. The author has noticed that variability in temperature in both meteorological stations is high in the first half of the year i.e. from January to June. Meanwhile, vari- ability in rainfall is higher between May to October. Rainfall variability in Dehradun has increased after 2008 whereas in Mukteshwar, it was high between 2000 and 2003. Further, variability in annual average maximum temperature in Dehradun has increased after 2008 whereas, annual average minimum temperature is highly vari- able throughout the reporting time. In Mukteshwar, variability in maximum temper- ature is higher in the reporting years whereas, variability in minimum temperature has increased after 2010. A significant value of correlation between temperature and rainfall has been found. The author has noticed that before the heavy rainfall in August, 2007, July, August and September, 2010 and in June, 2013, temperature had reached its highest level in the previous years.

2.7 Impact of Climate Change

Climate change has numerous impacts on floods, droughts, landslides (Barnett et al. 2005), human health, biodiversity, endangered species, agriculture, livelihoods and food security (Lee et al. 2008). The forth IPCC assessment report mentioned that the Himalayan ecosystem is in risk with a rise in global temperature. Seasonal tem- perature variation will result in a change in annual cycle and species distribution in 2.7 Impact of Climate Change 35 the Uttarakhand Himalaya (Singh et al. 2010a, b). The scientists noticed a trend of greater rise in temperature during the winter than summer in the Himalaya, during the recent past (Liu and Hou 1998). According to Cannone et al. (2007), climate change is very rapidly affecting the alpine vegetation of Indian Himalaya. Alpine areas are particularly vulnerable to hydrological disturbances. Here, indications of climate change have already begun to appear in the form of shift in the arrival of monsoon, long winter dry spells (MoEF 2010). This rise in temperature may affect the permafrost layer in the Himalaya and can have impacts on slope stability, erosion processes, hydrology and the ecology, with succeeding implications for people, depending on these areas for their liveli- hoods (Eriksson et al. 2009). The intense warming may have detrimental effects on the Himalayan environment in the form of rapid retreat of Himalayan glaciers and diminishing snowfields (Dyurgerov and Meier 2005; Singh et al. 2010a, b). The rain water is the source of groundwater recharge and as the rain has become so variable, the level of groundwater has decreased. Agriculture contributes 31% of the state’s gross domestic product (Planning Com- mission of India 2009) and about 70% population is dependent on agriculture for their livelihoods. Further, traditional cropping pattern dominates the farming sys- tems, which has declined by 60% because of social, economic and climatic influences and therefore, many cultivars are at the brink of extinction (Maikhuri et al. 2008). Inconsistent rainfall and temperature patterns have influenced agricultural produc- tion, types and distributional pattern. Many cultivars such as apple, Rajma, potato and carrot have shifted to the higher altitudes. There is a shift of hailstorm events in the high altitude areas from March to May, which has increased damage to various fruits, vegetables and food-grain crops, as it is the time of crop flowering. It was noticed that about 50–60% of the apple crop was destroyed in the year 2011 due to hailstorm (The Hindu 2011). Himalayan region practices rain-fed agriculture, which is extremely sensitive to climate variability and change. Inconsistent rainfall also increases sen- sibility in rainfed agriculture in the Himalayan region (Ramay et al. 2011). Changes in land use and cropping patterns are the recent trends. The author observed that these changes occurred largely due to climate variability and change, although, there are several other factors affecting them such as out-migration, mounting population and low production from agricultural sector (Sati 2015a, b). In the meantime, cli- mate variability does not have many implications on yield of traditional crops, as the author has observed that traditional crop productivity is continuously increasing in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, although, crop productivity is comparatively less. Climate variability has resulted in heavy loss (about 30%) to Rabi crops, mainly in the high altitude above 1,800 m. From October 2008 to June 2009, no single spell of rain occurred in the mid-altitude and the valley regions. Although, pre-monsoon rain occurred in the years 2006–2008 yet, heavy rain occurred in the year 2007, 2010 and 2013 due to western disturbances and pre-monsoon, which has resulted in heavy damage to crops mainly potatoes, pulses and vegetables. Crops were also damaged due to outburst of off-disease. Such situations clearly indicate the major shift in the climatic conditions in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Climate change has also severe implications on recharging of natural springs, which are the major sources of 36 2 The Climate of the Uttarakhand Himalaya drinking water in the rural areas. Data obtained from the Water Department/Institute Dehradun, Uttarakhand shows that about 221 natural springs spread in the district of Uttarakhand have dried up due to climate change. As climate change impact is higher in towns thus, the number of drier natural springs are found much more here. Extreme rainfall events during 2007, 2010 and 2013 have devastated the entire Uttarakhand Himalaya, mainly the rainfall of 2013, which was resulted in the loss of hundreds of thousands of population—human and animal, and a number of economic avenues were damaged. The enormous variability in climate has further enhanced severity of droughts and flash floods, and extremity in rainfall and temperature—the highest and the lowest. Climate change not only has implication in the Himalaya but, it also affects the Central India and the Ganges plain. Any meteorological event that occurs in the Himalaya has direct and indirect implications, such as droughts and floods in the Ganges plain (Ives and Messerli 1989). Our study revealed that climate variability is high in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Summers have become so hot, winters are extremely cold, rainfall during monsoon season is intensive, occurring within a short span of time and droughts are extreme. It has severe consequences on natural disasters, as they have become so intensive and frequent. There has been a large change in cropping pattern due to climate variability and change. Apple has disappeared from many locations of temperate belts. Similarly, production and yield of citrus fruits have decreased. Climate variability and change has enormous implications on all aspects of life in the Himalayan region.

References

Arora M, Goel NK, Singh P (2005) Evaluation of temperature trends over India. Hydrol Sci J 50(1):81–93 Barnett TP, Adam JC, Lettenmaier DP (2005) Potential impacts of a warming climate on water availability in snow-dominated regions. Nature 438:303–309 Bhatt ID, Rawal RS, Dhar U (2000) The availability, fruit yield, and harvest of myrica esculenta in Kumaun (West Himalaya), India. Mt Res Dev 20:146–153 Bhutiyani MR, Kale VS, Pawar NJ (2010) Climate change and the precipitation variations in the Northwestern Himalaya: 1866–2006. Int J Climatol 30:535–548 Cannone N, Sgrobati S, Guglielmin M (2007) Unexpected impacts of climate change on alpine vegetation. Front. Ecol. Env. 5(7):360–364 Climate Change and India: A 4x4 Assessment—A Sectoral and Regional Analysis for 2030s. Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India Dimri AP, Dash, SK (2011) Wintertime climatic trends in the Western Himalayas. Clim Change. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-011-0201-y Dash SK, Jenamani RK, Kalsi SR, Panda SK (2007) Some evidence of climate change in twentieth- century India. Clim Change 85:299–321 Dimri AP, Kumar A (2008) Climatic variability of weather parameters over the western Himalayas: a case study. In Satyawali PK, Ganju A (eds) Proceedings of the national snow science workshop, 11–12 January 2008, Chandigarh, India. Chandigarh, Snow and Avalanche Study Establishment, 167–173 References 37

Du MY, Kawashima S, Yonemura S, Zhang XZ, Chen SB (2004) Mutual influence between human activities and climate change in the tibetan plateau during recent years. Glob Planet Change 41:241–249 Duan K, Yao T, Thompson LG (2006) Response of monsoon precipitation in the Himalayas to global warming. J Geophys Res 111:D19110. https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007084 Dyurgerov MD, Meier MF (2005) Glaciers and changing earth system: a 2004 snapshot. Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado, Boulder (USA) Eriksson M, Jianchu X, Bhakta A, Shrestha Vaidya RA, Nepal S, Sandström K (2009) The chang- ing Himalayas—Impact of climate change on water resources and livelihoods in the Greater Himalayas. ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal IPCC (2007) Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Chen Z, Marquis M, Averyt KB, Tignor M, Miller HL (eds)], p 996. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York Ives JD, Messerli B (1989) The Himalayan dilemma: reconciling development and conservation. John Wiley and Sons, London Kaul MK (1999) Inventory of the Himalayan glaciers: geological survey of India special publication No. 34, 165 p Kulkarni AV, Bahuguna IM, Rathore BP, Singh SK, Randhawa SS et al (2007). Glacial retreat in Himalaya using Indian remote sensing satellite data. Curr Sci 92: 69–74 Kumar K, Joshi S, Joshi V (2008) Climate variability, vulnerability, and coping mechanism in Alaknanda catchment, Central Himalaya, India. AMBIO 37:286–291 Kumar V, Jain SK, Singh Y (2010) Analysis of long-term rainfall trends in India. Hydrol Sci J 55: 484–496. As a result, trends and mechanism of monsoon precipitation in Himalaya could not established (Fowler and Archer 2006) Lee K, Do HS, Hou SG, Hong SM, Qin X, Ren JW, Liu YP, Rosman KJR, Barbante C, Boutron CF (2008) Atmospheric pollution for trace elements in the remote high altitude atmosphere in central Asia as recorded in snow from Mt. Qomolangma (Everest) of the Himalayas, Sci Total Environ 404(1): 171–181 Liu X, Hou P (1998) Qingzang Gaoyuan jigi linjn diqu jin 30 nian qihou biannuan yuhaiba gaodu de guanxi [Pinyin trans.]. Gaoyuan Qixiang 17:245–249 Maikhuri RK, Rawat LS, Phondani P, Farooquee N (2008) Impact of climate change and coping strategies in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR), Central Himalaya, India- IMBC-Technical Working Group I: Climate Change Impacts on Biodiversity and Mountain Protected Areas www. icimod.org/resource.php?id=65 Mani Anna (1981) The climate of the Himalaya. In: Lall JS (Ed) The Himalaya—aspects of change. Oxford University Press, New Delhi, pp. 3–15 Mishra A (2014) Changing climate of Uttarakhand, India. J Geol Geosci 3:163. https://doi.org/10. 4172/2329-6755.1000163 Muller MJ (1982) Selected climatic data for a global set of standard stations for vegetation science. Dr. W. Junk, The Hague, The Netherlands Murty NS, Gaira KS, Singh RK (2004) Temperature variations at Ranichauri in the Mid Himalayan region of Uttaranchal. Journal of Agro-meteorology 6:227–232 Palazzi E, Hardenberg JV, Provenzale A (2013) Precipitation in the Hindu-Kush Karakoram Himalaya: observations and future scenarios. J Geophys Res Atmos 118:85–100 Planning Commission of India (2009) Uttarakhand Development Report, pp 54 Ramay S, Munawar Z, Ahmad M (2011) Climate change and food security in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region. Paper presented at the Authors’ Workshop for the regional report on climate change in Hindu Kush Himalaya: The State of current Knowledge, 18–19 August 2011, ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal Sakai A, Malla SB (1981) Winter hardiness of tree species at high altitudes in the east Himalaya, Nepal. Ecology 62:1288–1298 38 2 The Climate of the Uttarakhand Himalaya

Sati VP (2004) Uttaranchal: Dilemma of Plenties and Scarsities. published by Mittal Publications, New Delhi Sati VP (2015) Climate change and socio-ecological transformation in high mountains: an empirical study of Garhwal Himalaya. Change Adapt Socio-Ecol Syst 2(1): 45–56 Sati VP (2015) Pilgrimage tourism in mountain regions: socio-economic implications in the Garhwal Himalaya. South Asian J Tourism and Heritage 8(1): 164–182 Shekhar MS, Chand H, Kumar S, Srinivasan K, Ganju A (2010) Climate change studies in the Western Himalaya. Ann Glaciol 51(54):105–112 Shrestha AB, Wake CP, Mayewski PA et al (1999) Maximum temperature trends in the Himalaya and its vicinity: an analysis based on temperature records from Nepal for the period 1971–94. J Climate 12(9):2775–2786 Singh SP, Adhikari BS, Zobel DB (1994) Biomass, productivity, leaf longevity and forest structure in the central Himalaya. Ecol Monogr 64(4):401–421 Singh SP, Singh V, Skutsch M (2010a) Rapid warming in the Himalayas: ecosystem responses and development options. Clim Dev 2:221–232 Singh SP, Singh V, Skutch M (2010b) Rapid warming in the Himalayas: ecosystem responses and development options. Clim Devel 2:221–232 Sontakke NA, Singh HN, Singh N (2009) Monitoring physiographic rainfall variation for sustainable management of water bodies in India. In: Jha MK Springer (ed) Natural and anthropogenic disasters: vulnerability, preparedness and mitigation. The Netherlands. pp. 293–331 The Hindu (2011) http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/agribiz/ uttarakhand-to-install-antihail-guns-to-save-fruit-crops/article2414610.ece Singh O, Aryal P, Chaudhary BS (n.a.) On the rising temperature trends of Dehradun, India, unpub- lished work Chapter 3 Glaciers of the Uttarakhand Himalaya

Abstract Himalayan glaciers are melting. In this chapter, an inventory of the glaciers of the Uttarakhand Himalaya is prepared and a wide discussion on climate change impact on the Himalayan glaciers was carried out. The Himalaya possesses a number of glaciers, because of high snow volume. It has been observed that during the recent past, the high variability and change in climate has largely impacted the Himalayan glaciers and the trend is that the glaciers are melting and a number of them have already disappeared.

Keywords Glaciers · Geological Survey of India · Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology · Receding Himalayan glaciers · Glacial fed lakes

The Himalayan glaciers are the largest snow fields outside the polar region, regulating hydrological and climatic regime. They extend from the cold-arid regions to the humid monsoon climate and cover eight countries across Asia (Mani 1981; Kulkarni et al. 2005). These glaciers are the sources of the major river systems in South Asia (Indian sub-continent), which include the Indus, the Ganges and the Brahmaputra and provide water for over 800 million people. The river and ground water constitute a significant strategic resource in the region. The Himalaya has around 12,000 glaciers (Kaul 1999;ICIMOD2001) and 33,000 km2 glaciated area (Rai and Gurung 2005), of which, 9,575 glaciers are found in the Indian Himalayan Region (Singh and Jain 2009). The Indian Himalayan Glaciers are the third largest glacier system on the earth that hold the largest freshwater reserves (GSI 2001). Glaciers are distributed unevenly from east to west, ranging from 3,700 to 6,000 m. These glaciers vary from 1 to 72 km in length and snow line is found at an altitude of 4,100 m in Kashmir, 4,800 m in Himachal, 5,050 m in Garhwal and 5,300 m in Sikkim (GSI 2001). The major river systems of the Himalaya such as the Brahmaputra, the Ganges and the Indus, along with their numerous tributaries originate from the Himalayan glaciers. Geological Survey of India (GSI) states that the Bhagirathi sub-basin of the Garhwal Himalaya has the largest area under glaciers, accounting 755 km2 with 238 glaciers, including the Gangotri glacier (26–30 km). Meanwhile, the Brahmaputra basin has about 161 glaciers with 223 km2 area. Some of the glaciers of the Himalaya are Siachen (72 km), Zemu (26 km), Milam (19 km), Kedarnath (14.5 km) and Dokriani [(5.5 km), WWF (2005)].

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 39 V. P. Sati, Himalaya on the Threshold of Change, Advances in Global Change Research 66, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14180-6_3 40 3 Glaciers of the Uttarakhand Himalaya

Table 3.1 Inventory of glaciers in the Uttarakhand Himalaya S. no. River basin No. of glaciers Area (Km2) Volume (Km2) 1 Alaknanda 457 1,434.56 170.37 2 Bhagirathi 374 921.46 129.93 3 Dhauliganga 135 373.19 34.6 4 Goriganga 128 561.35 69.18 5 Kutiyanghi 112 236.24 18.64 6 Tons 102 162.58 17.43 7 Pindar 43 158.99 15.01 8 Mandakini 40 81.64 5.98 9 Yamuna 22 10.4 0.45 10 Bhilangana 19 112.84 13.48 11 Ramganga (E) 7 6.74 0.322 Total 1,439 4,060.04 475.43

Glaciers of the are amongst the largest ones in the world. Total area of the Ganges basin is 1,023,609 km2, of which 12,659 km2 (1.24%) is the glaciated area (NAP 2012). Dobhal et al. (2008) described that about 968 glaciers are found in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, which cover about 2,857 km2 area. Average size of the glaciers is 3.85 km2, which is higher than the other three states of the Himalayan region such as Himachal, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. It represents 18.1% of the Indian Himalayan glaciers. Figure 3.1 shows that mainly three districts of the Uttarakhand Himalaya: Uttarkashi and Chamoli of Garhwal region and Pithoragarh of Kumaon region have the maximum number of large glaciers. However, few glaciers are also found in Tehri, Rudraprayag and Bageshwar districts. Figure 3.2 further shows Satopanth Lake and Pindari glacier. Bhagirathi (originating from the Gangotri glacier), sub-basin of the Ganges sys- tem, has about 7,502 km2 area with 238 glaciers. Total glaciated area is 755 km2, which represents 10.06% area of the total glaciated area (Kaul 1999). Total ice vol- ume is 67.02 km2. The largest glacier has an area of 143.58 km2, with 30 km length (Dobhal et al. 2011b).

3.1 Inventory of Uttarakhand Glaciers

The Uttarakhand Himalaya has 1,439 glaciers, covering a total area of 4,060 km2 and volume of 475.43 km2. The glaciers are mainly found in mountain ranges such as Nanda Devi Group, Dhauliganga Group, Kamet Group, Gangotri Group, Satopanth Group and Bandarpunch Group. The Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology and ICIMOD have developed an inventory of Himalayan glaciers. Table 3.1 shows river basins (11), number of glaciers, area and volume (km2). The Alaknanda basin has the 3.1 Inventory of Uttarakhand Glaciers 41

Fig. 3.1 Map showing the major glaciers of Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source By author

Fig. 3.2 a Satopanth Lake below Swargarohini peak in Chamoli district of the Garhwal Himalaya b Pindari Glacier in Kapkot district of the Kumaon Himalaya. Source By author 42 3 Glaciers of the Uttarakhand Himalaya highest numbers of glaciers (457), followed by the Bhagirathi (374), Dhauliganga (135), Goriganga (128), Kutiyanghi (112) and Tons (102). Other river basins, having less than 100 glaciers, are Pindar (43), Mandakini (40), Yamuna (22), Bhilangana (19) and Ramganga E (7). Area of these glaciers varies from 1,434.56 km2 of the Alaknanda River Basin (highest) to 6.74 km2 of the Ramganga (E). The second highest glaciated area is under the Alaknanda River (1,434.56 km2), followed by the Bhagirathi River (921.46 km2) and the Goriganga (561.35 km2). These rivers originate from Uttarkashi, Chamoli and Pithoragarh districts, respectively. Other river basins have less glacier area. Water volume of these rivers varies according to their glacial area. Therefore, the Alaknanda River has the highest volume (170.37 km2), followed by the Bhagirathi (129.93 km2). The lowest volume is of the Ramganga (E) 0.322 km2 and Yamuna (0.45 km2). Total water volume is 475.43 km2. The rivers of the Uttarakhand Himalaya are glacial fed. Melting of glaciers help the river maintain a healthy level of stream flow all round the year.

3.2 Receding Glaciers of Uttarakhand

The Uttarakhand Himalaya has three river systems—the Ganges system (biggest), the Yamuna system and the Kali system. Further, these systems have numerous sub- systems, comprising a number of rivers. These rivers are fed by the major glaciers of Uttarakhand. Annual snow and glacier melt contributes 60% water to Bhakhara- Nagal Dam, constructed in the Satluj River (Singh and Jain 2009). Further, it con- tributes 49% water to Akhnoor dam (Chenab River) and 35% water to Pandoh dam, constructed in the Beas River (Kumar et al. 2007). A number of studies show that the Himalayan glaciers are receding since 1850’s (Mayewski and Jeschke 1979; Vohra 1981; Dobhal et al. 2004; Kulkarni et al. 2007a). In the meantime, glaciers in the Karakoram region are advancing (Hewitt 2005). Studies show that receding volume of the glaciers in the Uttarakhand Himalaya varies from one glacier to other, according to physiography and micro-climate. Out of the total glaciers in the Indian Himalaya, only 11 glaciers have been monitored for their mass balance and nearly 100 glaciers for shifting snout position. Table 3.2 shows receding glaciers in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. There are total eleven glaciers described herewith. The author has described period of observation, period in years, recession (in meter), average recession rate (m/yr) and their source. Period of obser- vation was before 2000. The Gangotri glacier has receded rapidly with a high rate (20 m/yr during the period 1962–1991). The other glaciers, which have high rate of recession, are Milam and Pindari. Bhrigupanth and Dokriani glaciers are also receding fast. A study carried out by the scientists of Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun and National Water Institute, Roorkee reported that the rate of receding Gangotri glacier has decreased from 20–22 m to 12 m/year. Other glaciers are receding fast (Amar Ujala Sept 2, 2018). 3.3 Climate Change Impact on the Himalayan Glaciers 43

Table 3.2 Receding glaciers in the Uttarakhand Himalaya Name of Period of Period (in Recession Average Source glacier observation years) (in m) recession rate (m/yr) Milam 1848–1996 148 2,472 16.7 Vohra Pindari 1845–1966 121 2,840 23.5 Vohra Gangotri 1935–1996 61 1,147 18.8 Vohra Tipra bank 1960–1987 27 100 3.7 Vohra Dokriani 1962–2000 29 480 16.5 Dobhal Chorabari 1992–1997 05 55 11 Swaroop et al. Shanklup 1881–1957 76 518 6.8 Vohra Poting 1906–1957 51 262 5.1 Vohra Dunagiri 1992–1997 05 15 3.0 Swaroop et al. Burphu 1966–1997 31 150 4.8 Srivastava et al. Bhrigupanth 1962–1995 33 550 16.7 Srivastava et al.

3.3 Climate Change Impact on the Himalayan Glaciers

Climate change has enormous implications on the receding Himalayan glaciers. Retreating of the glacier has a potentially huge impact on the available freshwater resources throughout the Himalayan region, which may cause major socio-economic problems (Krishna 2005). Recent climate change, influence of dust storm and anthro- pogenic activities has manifested retreating glaciers (Lee et al. 2008). Climate change has been observed as an important factor in the understanding of glacier variability in mountain regions during the recent past. Alarming effects such as glacier reces- sion (Kulkarni et al. 2007b), water scarcity in villages of upper Himalayas (Kulkarni et al. 2002), probability of mass movement activities and glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs) have increased in the Himalaya because of warming. Himalayan glaciers are the major sources of freshwater and hydroelectricity. Rapid reduction in glaciers has profound future implications for downstream water resources. Besides, climate change has a significant impact on environmental and social stress, many are rec- ognized as severe. Warming of the Himalayan region has changed snow cover mass balance and resulted in an overall 21% decline in the glacial area of 466 glaciers in the Himalayan basins (Kulkarni and Bahuguna 2002). A study was conducted using satellite data reported that about 67% of the glaciers in the Himalaya have retreated (Ageta and Kadota 1992). Further, Kripalani et al. (2003) noticed that spring snow has been declining and snow has been melting faster since 1993, which may be due to global warming. Scientists of the Wadia Institute of Himalaya Geology have prepared an inventory of glaciated lakes of the Uttarakhand Himalaya and found that out of the total glaciers (1,474), which are spread in 21,841 km2 area, there are 1,266 glaciated lakes. The downstream areas of the Garhwal region will be most affected in any future outburst of 44 3 Glaciers of the Uttarakhand Himalaya supra glacial lakes, which are 809 in number (Kumar et al. 2018). They observed that the glaciers of Garhwal region are the most vulnerable to climate change. Monsoon rain is affecting glaciers and it will have implications in the form of drying water sources and consequently, water scarcity in time to come. They pointed out that the numbers of glaciers in Himachal Pradesh are double than Garhwal region. However, Garhwal region has three times more glacial lakes than Himachal Pradesh. Satopanth, a glacial fed lake is located about 23 km from Badrinath Dham at an altitude of 4,600 m. Its water has receded recently. The author observed that there were total 20 glaciers, along the way to Satopanth Lake earlier, now only two glaciers exist with low volume.

References

Ageta Y,Kadota T (1992) Predictions of changes of glacier mass balance in the Nepal 36 K. Higuchi Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau: a case study of air temperature increase for three glaciers. Ann Glaciol 16:89–94 Amar Ujala daily published News epaper, Dehradun edition, 2/9/2018 Dobhal DP, Gergan JT, Thayyen RJ (2004) Recession and morphogeometrical changes 25 of Dokri- ani glacier (1962–1995), Gharwal Himalaya, India. Curr Sci India 86(5): 692–696 Dobhal DP, Gergan JT, Thayyen RJ (2008) Mass balance studies of the Dokriani Glacier from 1992 to 2000, Garhwal Himalaya, India Bull Glaciol Res 25: 9–17 GSI Special Publication No. 53. Proceedings (2001). Symposium on Snow, Ice, Glaciers- A Himalayan Perspective Hewitt K (2005) The Karakoram anomaly? Glacier expansion and the “Elevation effect” Karakoram Himalaya. Mt Res Dev 25:332–340 ICIMOD (2001) Inventory of glaciers, glacial lakes and glacial lake outburst floods, monitoring and early warning system in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region, Nepal, (UNEP/RC-AP)/ICIMOD, Kathmandu Kaul MK (1999) Inventory of the Himalayan glaciers: geological survey of India special publication No. 34, p. 165 Kripalani RH, Kulkarni A, Sabade SS (2003) Western Himalayan snow cover and Indian monsoon rainfall: a reexamination with INSAT and NCEP/NCAR data. Theor Appl Climatol 74(1–2): 1–18 Krishna AP (2005) Snow and glacier cover assessment in the high mountains of Sikkim Himalaya. Hydrol Process 19(12):2375–2383 Kulkarni AV, Bahuguna IM (2002) Glacial retreat in the Baspa basin, himalayas, monitored with satellite stereo data. J Glaciol 48:171–172 Kulkarni AV, Mathur P, Rathore BP, Alex S, Thakur N, Kumar M (2002) Effect of global warming on snow ablation pattern in the Himalayas. Curr Sci 83:120–123 Kulkarni AV, Rathore BP, Mahajan S, Mathur P (2005) Alarming retreat of Parbati Glacier, Beas basin, Himachal Pradesh. Curr Sci 88:1844–1850 Kulkarni AV,Bahuguna IM, Rathore BP,Singh SK, Randhawa SS, Sood RK, Dhar S (2007a) Glacial retreat in Himalaya using Indian remote sensing satellite data. Curr Sci India 92(1):69–74 Kulkarni AV, Bahuguna IM, Rathore BP, Singh SK, Randhawa SS et al. (2007b) Glacial retreat in Himalaya using Indian remote sensing satellite data. Curr Sci 92: 69–74 Kumar Amit, Gupta Anil, Verma Akshay, Tiwari SK (2018) Inventory of Himalaya Glacier. J Himalayan Geol: 23–30 Kumar V, Singh P, Singh V (2007) Snow and glacier melt contribution in the Beas River at Pandoh Dam, Himachal Pradesh. India Hydrol Sci J 52(2):376–388 References 45

Lee K, Do HS, Hou SG, Hong SM, Qin X, Ren JW, Liu YP, Rosman KJR, Barbante C, Boutron, CF (2008) Atmospheric pollution for trace elements in the remote high altitude atmosphere in central Asia as recorded in snow from Mt. Qomolangma (Everest) of the Himalayas. Sci Total Environ 404(1): 171–181 Mani A (1981) The climate of the Himalaya. In: Lall JS, Moddie AD (eds) The Himalaya—aspects of change. Oxford University press, Delhi, pp 3–15 Mayewski PA, Jeschke PA (1979) Himalayan and Trans-Himalayan glacier fluctuations since 25 AD 1812. Arctic Alpine Res 11(3):267–287 Rai SC, Gurung A (2005) Raising awareness of the impacts of climate changes. Mt Res Dev 25(4): 316–320 Singh P, Jain SK (2009) Snow and glacier melt in the Satluj River at Bakhra Dam in the Western Himalayan region. Hydrol Sci J 47:93–106 Vohra CP (1981) Himalayan glaciers. In: Lall JS, Moddie AD (eds) The Himalaya: aspects of change. Oxford University press, Delhi, pp 138–151 WWF (2005) An overview of glaciers, glacier retreat and its subsequent impacts in the Nepal, India and China, p 68 Chapter 4 Water Resources and Change

Abstract The Uttarakhand Himalaya has abundant water resources in the forms of rivers, perennial streams, lakes (highlands and the valleys) and ground water. India’s major river system, the Ganges system is located here, which supplies water to the large population of the downstream areas. It has high potential to generate hydroelectricity and construction of irrigation projects. Surface water in the forms of natural springs, lakes and ponds has depleted largely during the recent past, because of warming and climate change. Similarly, ground water is receding due to excessive use, the study reveals.

Keywords Water cycle · Precipitation · Surface water · Ground water · Water scarcity · Hydroelectricity

Water is the most crucial and vulnerable resource to climate change. Study says that shrinking water resources will have the largest impact on crop production, which will affect developing countries at a large-scale. Worldwide, climate variability and change has become one of the greatest threats to water cycle. In addition, it will have impacts on seasonality and its regional distribution. Scholars observed that the precip- itation is decreasing in most of the world’s countries, which are already dry regions, whereas, it is increasing in the wet regions. Drought is one amongst the most impor- tant impacts of climate, leading to lots of problems mainly in agricultural sector. As climate change has impacted on water cycle greatly, water unavailability will be one of the factors to reduce crop production and thus, it will have impact on food security. Water, a precious and prime natural asset, a basic human need, ranks high among the priorities of any human settlement (Bhavtosh 2016). In the Himalaya, the precious water resources are under threat due to several natural and anthropogenic environmental problems. Seasonality of precipitation causes water stress in the Himalaya. The Uttarakhand Himalaya is the home to several worlds’ biggest river systems, the Ganges and its 17 major tributaries, 31 lakes and several snows fed glaciers. The rivers of Uttarakhand are believed to be holy, playing an important role in India’s culture and tradition (Semwal and Akolkar 2006). Predominately the mountainous state, it has a varied hydro-geological setup and can broadly be divided into two distinct hydro-geological regimes—the Ganges alluvial plain and the Himalayan mountain belt (National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee). Groundwater

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 47 V. P. Sati, Himalaya on the Threshold of Change, Advances in Global Change Research 66, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14180-6_4 48 4 Water Resources and Change in the mountain mainland occurs mostly in fissures that emerge as springs. The springs are responsible for small-scale development of ground water in the region. The yield of tube-wells is higher in Bhabhar, followed by Ganges valley and Tarai belt. In Shivalik hills, the yield is very low. Per capita water availability in the Himalaya has decreased and the distance to water source has increased 10 folds in the past two decades. Pauri district is suffering from immense water stress causing health and nutrition problems in women. Piped water is not available in most of the areas in the Himalayan region and thus, people rely on public roadside taps from springs or catchments. This chapter aims at describing water resource potentials in the forms of glaciers, lakes, rivers and natural springs for the development of hydroelectricity and construction of irrigation projects. It further illustrates the drivers of receding water resources and its consequences as severe water scarcity.

4.1 Surface Water Resource Potential

There are numerous glaciers in the Himalaya, which have 213.74 km3 total ice volume, 31,449.3 km2 basin area and 2,883.37 km2 (i.e. 9.17%) glaciated area (Geo- logical Survey of India 2009). The major glaciers are Gangotri, Yamunotri, Alkapuri, Khatling, Chaurabari, Milan, Pindari and Nandaghunti. Among the highland and val- ley lakes, seven lakes in Kumaon region such as, Bhimtal, Naukuchiyatal, Nainital and Saat Taal and several lakes in Garhwal region—, Hemkund, Rupkund, Deoriyatal, Dodital and Vasukital—are the major sources of water. The high alti- tude wetland area in the state is 103,882 ha (ISRO 2011). Precipitation as snowfall occurs mainly between December and March whereas, monsoon rain occurs during June–October. Average annual rainfall in the state is 2,299.9 mm (Meteorological Station, Dehradun) however, 95% of the total precipitation runs off (Gupta 2006). Uttarakhand obtains a large forest cover area, estimated approximately 63.42% in 2017 (State Economic and Statistical Directorate 2017). It has 8 catchments, 26 watersheds, 116 sub watersheds and 1120 micro-watersheds (Rawat and Sah 2009). Data on inland water resources shows that the total length of rivers and canals is 2,686 km in Uttarakhand. Reservoirs’ capacity is 0.20 lakh ha whereas, capacity of tanks and ponds is 0.01 lakh ha (Water and related statistics 2015, Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India). Five major river systems—Yamuna, Kali, Bhagirathi, Alaknanda and Ramganga (W) constitute Uttarakhand and provide an enormous water resource potential (Table 4.1). A huge area (58,000 km2) of these rivers falls in mountainous main- land of Uttarakhand, which is 5.5% of the total basin area. About 3,437 km2 area is glaciated, which is 14.4% of the total area (Hasnain 1999; Nandi et al. 2006; Sati 2015). Among these rivers, the highest length is of the Yamuna (284 km), followed by the Kali (220 km). The Bhagirathi River has 205 km length and the Alaknanda River has 195 km length. The Ramganga flows about 155 km in the mountainous mainland of Uttarakhand. In terms of annual drainage flow/volume, the Kali River 4.1 Surface Water Resource Potential 49

Table 4.1 The major river systems and water potential in the Uttarakhand Himalaya Name Outlet Inlet Length in km Annual drainagea (Crore Cubic m/s) Yamuna Yamunotri Dhalipur 284 649.5 Kali Kalapani Ghagara River 220 730 (Nepal) (UP) Bhagirathi Gaumukh Devprayag 205 253.3 Alaknanda Alkapuri Bank Devprayag 195 534.2 Ramganga (W) Dudhatoli Ganga River 155 500 Mountain (UP) Source Data was gathered from the ‘Survey of India Toposheeds’ and athe Central Water Commis- sion of India, Report (2010), New Delhi; Sati (2015) has the highest flow/volume (730 crore cubic m/s), followed by Yamuna (649.5 crore cubic m/s) and Ramganga (500 crore cubic m/s). The Alaknanda River has a flow/volume of 534.2 crore cubic m/s and the Bhagirathi has a flow/volume of 253.3 crore cubic m/s (Central Water Commission 2010; Sati 2015). The Pindar River, one of the major tributaries of the Alaknanda River, a glacial fed perennial river, has high water resource potential (Sati 2006).

4.2 Hydroelectricity Projects

Uttarakhand has numerous hydroelectricity projects (Fig. 4.1) and power houses of above 3,920 mw capacity although, total hydroelectricity potential is estimated about 30,000 mw (Water Resource Department, Dehradun). Thus, rest of the potential is yet to be harnessed. Hydroelectricity projects are located in all the major rivers and their tributaries with micro, messo and macro capacities. The biggest hydroelec- tricity project is the Tehri high dam which is constructed on the confluence of the rivers Bhagirathi and Bhilangana at old Tehri town (now fully submerged), gen- erating 2,000-mw electricity (Fig. 4.2a). It is Asia’s highest hydroelectricity dam project, having generating capacity of 10,000-mw. Due to its construction, 114 vil- lages from Chhaam (Bhagirathi valley) to Pilkhi (Bhilangana valley) have fully or partially submerged. The Vishnuprayag hydroelectricity project, with 400-mw power capacity, is the second highest dam in Uttarakhand, which is constructed on the Vishnu Ganga, on the way to the highland pilgrimage Badrinath in Chamoli district (Fig. 4.2b). The Maneri Bhali (phase I and II) hydropower projects are constructed on the Bhagirathi River in Uttarkashi district, both having a 394-mw hydroelectric- ity generation capacity. On the Dhauli Ganga, a hydroelectricity power project has been constructed, which has 240-mw power capacity. Srinagar (200-mw) hydro- electricity project, constructed on the Alaknanda River (near Srinagar Garhwal) is 50 4 Water Resources and Change

Fig. 4.1 Hydroelectricity projects in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source By author

Fig. 4.2 a Asia’s highest Tehri high dam b Vishnuprayag hydroelectricity project. Photos By author 4.2 Hydroelectricity Projects 51 among the major hydropower projects of Uttarakhand. Galogi, Garhwal-Rishikesh Chilla, Khatima, Koteshwar, Mohammudpur (9.3), Patheri (20.4), Ramganga (198), Singoli-Bhatwari (99), Tanakpur (120) and Yamuna (51) are several other river val- leys projects, spread throughout the state (India-WRIS 2015). These projects have significant contribution in energy generating sectors (Directorate of Economics and Statistics 2016). Uttarakhand is known as the ‘Urja (energy) State’, as it has enormous potential to produce hydroelectricity. So far, it supplies electricity to the states of Northern India, mainly, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. In the meantime, the hydropower projects have severe adverse impact on the landscapes, economic activities and natural dis- asters and of course, on climate of the region. The landscapes of the Uttarakhand Himalaya are fragile and highly vulnerable to climate disasters. Further, Climate disasters are very frequent and intensive, which have devastating impacts on the hydropower projects. The Kedarnath tragedy of 2013 has severely influenced the hydroelectricity projects of Uttarakhand. The Vishnu Ganga hydroelectricity power project is an example, which was damaged badly due to climate disasters. The author has conducted a detailed case study of the major hydropower projects in Garhwal region (Table 4.2). The Asia’s highest-Tehri high dam and Vishnuprayag projects have started producing hydroelectricity however, a number of hydropower projects are still under construction. These projects have both positive and negative implications on economy and environment, respectively. A number of villages and large proportion of agricultural land have been submerged due to the construction of hydropower projects in Garhwal region, which has resulted in utterly discontent among the native population, as they have been rehabilitated in the other parts of the state. Further, the landscape has changed, as it has degraded due to construction activities. On the other hand, economic advancement through income generation and employment augmentation of these hydropower projects is significant to the region.

4.3 Irrigation Projects

Uttarakhand has several irrigation projects of medium to large capacities however, they are constructed mainly in the plain areas of the state or in the river val- leys to certain extent. After independence, multipurpose river valleys projects were started slowly but steadily in Uttarakhand. Dakpathar (1949), the Yamuna Valley Hydropower Project (1956), Koch Dam Project (1960) and others were constructed. Major irrigation projects of Uttarakhand (in the Ganges system) are east Baigul, Kosi, Nanaksagar, Sharda and Tumaria, rest—Baur, Doon canal, Haripur, Jamrani, Kha- tima, Lakhwar and Pili dam are medium level irrigation projects (India-WRIS 2015). Although, a number of huge canals have been constructed on the rivers—Ganga and Yamuna, yet, they irrigate the arable land of the plains of Uttar Pradesh. Uttarak- hand’s landscape is mainly mountainous, as it covers about 93.7% area and only 6.3% area lies in the plain region. Further, the landscape is fragile and vulnerable to landslides/mass-movements hazards and thus, construction of big canals is not feasible along the high slope gradient. The author has visited three small-watersheds 52 4 Water Resources and Change

Table 4.2 Details of case study hydropower projects in Garhwal region Hydropower River valley Capacity in MW Number of Current situation projects (Construction affected villages company) and impact on them due to construction activities Vishnuprayag Alaknanda 400 (JP) 5 villages, 16 km tunnel Perennial constructed, sources of water connecting are dried up and Lambagar and cracks are Chai village placed in the villages. 30 houses damaged in Chai village Tapovan- Dhauli Ganga 520 (JP) 5 villages, Construction Vishnuprayag agricultural work has been land, forestland started and grazing land has been affected Lata-Tapovan Dhauli Ganga 162 (JP) 5 villages, Construction agricultural work has been land, forestland started and grazing land has been affected Singoli- Mandakini 90 (L and T) 16 villages, Construction Bhatwadi agricultural, work has been grazing and started forestlands has been affected Srinagar Alaknanda 330 (JBK) 20 villages and Construction Dhari Devi work is on peak temple, individual and community land has been affected Danawa- Balganga 5 (Gunsaula) 6 villages, Power house has Churena irrigated been constructed agricultural land, grazing land, community land has been affected (continued) 4.3 Irrigation Projects 53

Table 4.2 (continued) Hydropower River valley Capacity in MW Number of Current situation projects (Construction affected villages company) and impact on them due to construction activities Bhilangana Bhilangana 22 (Gunsaula) 4 villages, Powerhouse has irrigated land been constructed and forestland and tunnel is has been under affected construction Devlang Bhilangana 24 (Gunsaula) 10 villages, Tunnel is being (Ghuttu) forestland, constructed community land and grazing land has been affected Maneri-Bhali Bhagirathi 304 (NHPC) 22 villages. Under Phase 2 Natural construction. perennial water Tunnel is likely resources are to be completed dried up. Cracks are appeared in the houses Pala-Maneri Bhagirathi 480 (NHPC) 2 villages, fertile Work was cultivable land started in 2007 and 6.8 ha but in 2008 the forestland has work was been affected rigorously stopped due to people’s agitation Lohari-Nag-Pala Bhagirathi 600 (NHPC) 6 villages, -Do- 112 ha fertile land has been affected Jakhol-Sankari Tons 33 (NHPC) 5 villages has Proposed, been affected Peoples’ agitation continued Netwad-Mori Yamuna 33 (NHPC) 5 villages has -Do- been affected Total 13 8 River valleys 3003 MW (5 101 villages 2 projects are companies) proposed and 11 are under construction Source Sati (2014) 54 4 Water Resources and Change along the Pindar and Mandakini river basins, where three canals—Jakholi, Kewer Gadhera and Atagarh were constructed to irrigate arable land during the 1970’s. These canals could not be maintained, because of landslides along their courses. However, traditional method of irrigating arable land through construction of Gools (small canals), made of mud and stone, is the most sustainable. The author has observed that in many areas, where slope is gentle, the farmers practice irrigating arable land through the traditional method. During the summer season, when the mid-altitude and the valley regions receive heat strokes, the farmers irrigate their croplands, mainly onion and garlic crops. In a number of places, farmers irrigate paddy using the traditional methods. The Uttarakhand Himalaya is bestowed with abundant water resources as perennial rivers, streams, lakes and springs. The rural settlements are mainly located along the streams and rivers. These small streams provide drinking water and further, they can irrigate arable land through constructing Gools.

4.4 Groundwater Potentials

The Uttarakhand Himalaya has substantial groundwater potentials. A large part of it is snow-clad and as a result, ice pores melt into the ground. It appears in the mid- slopes and the valleys as natural spring water. This is the reason that the Uttarakhand Himalaya has plenty of natural springs, which are used widely for drinking and irrigation purposes. Many of them are perennial in nature. Meanwhile, extracting groundwater is not feasible due to landscape vulnerability. Every village has more than two natural springs that supply drinking water to the inhabitants. Recently, the water department/institute, Dehradun, Uttarakhand (2015) has surveyed the springs of Uttarakhand and has found out that about 221 natural springs of 16 towns have been dried up during the recent pasts. Among them, maximum are from Almora district (68 springs), followed by Tehri (52 springs) and Pauri (35 springs). This also impedes the other districts of the state. Likewise, natural springs have been drying in the rural areas also. In terms of annual replenishable ground water resources, it is 2.27 BCM. Recently, annual ground water availability has reduced to 2.10 BCM while, annual ground water draft is 1.39 BCM and stage of ground water development is 66% (Central Ground Water Board 2011; Gopikrishna 2009). Zone wise yield of tube wells is as follows: Shivalik 50.4–79.2 m3, Bhabhar up to 332.4 m3, Tarai 36–144 m3 and Indo-Gangetic 90–198 m3. Groundwater potential is higher in the plain parts of Uttarakhand, where, it is easily available within a short distance, below the surface, and it is used for drinking and irrigation purposes largely. In the mountainous areas, groundwater extraction is almost impossible because of steep and stony terrain. Further, rainwater runs off directly to the main stream and it does not pour easily into the ground due to high slope gradient. As a result, number of tube-wells and hand pumps are extracted in the plain parts of the state while in the mountainous part, their number is just negligible. 4.5 Water Scarcity in Plenties 55

4.5 Water Scarcity in Plenties

The mainland of Uttarakhand, which comprises about 93.7% of the total geographical area, suffers from water scarcity during the summer season, mainly for drinking and irrigation purposes. Although, water is plenty and its potential is high yet, is has not been sustainably explored and developed. Landscape of the region is vulnerable to natural disasters, as the region is witnessed to be prone to severe natural disasters. As a result, landscape degradation in the forms of soil erosion and landslides is high, that also causes forestland degradation. Water scarcity in the region occurs due to drying up of the small streams and natural springs. This is also a driver of out-migration from the rural areas. The major reasons of water scarcity are high population growth, extensive deforestation, land use change and forest fire. People walk miles to fetch drinking water however, a number of natural springs and pure water streams are largely unused (Fig. 4.3). It is mainly due to location of water bodies and rural settlements. A number of villages are located on the hilly slopes whereas, perennial streams lie mostly in the valley regions therefore, these villages always suffer from water scarcity. Interference in the natural recharge system, mainly huge cutting of forest causes drying of natural springs. An intensive and systematic hydrological study can provide solutions to the problems that the region is facing. However, a number of areas are facing acute shortage of water. Here, a number of economic activities including, agriculture, energy, tourism and forestry consumed about 75% of the total available water. Uneven distribution and poor management of water leads to water scarcity. In the rural areas, frequent landslides damage water pipes and prevailing infrastructure and as a result, acute water shortage exists. Water quality is too poor. The rural people depend on the local springs, which generally dry during the summer season. Declining recharge of natural springs has resulted them vanishing from many localities. Land abandonment is one amongst the major drivers of drying up of these water sources. High variability in precipitation further accentuates the problem. The villages, where agriculture is rainfed, agricultural risk is high. High variability and change in the climatic conditions will affect water distribution and quality enormously in the near future. Surface water—streams and rainwater—is the major source for drinking and irri- gation purposes in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Rainwater runs off, because of absence of proper rainwater harvesting structures whereas, stream water is available only to the villages, located close to the streams. Due to scattered settlements and varied population density, the majority of people do not have access to stream water, and they are fully dependent on the local sources of water i.e. natural springs (Naula and Mangyaura). Groundwater availability/recharge is less, because of steep slopes and difficult terrain. One of the important solutions of water management is rainwater harvesting. Ground water use is not possible, mainly in the mainland of the Uttarakhand Himalaya, because of steep slopes and rough and rugged landscape. However, it is the major source of drinking water in the valleys and in the plain regions, which cover 56 4 Water Resources and Change

Fig. 4.3 Clockwise a Natural springs in the highlands of the Mandakini river basin b Abundant unused pure water of the upper Mandakini River c People are waiting for their turn in a hand pump to filling their water vessels at Khirsu town d A girl carrying filled water vessel (Gagar) near Gairsain town. Photos By author only 6.3% geographical area. Various development activities such as construction of roads, tunnels and quarrying have influenced the quantity and quality of groundwater. Study reveals that earthquake tremors have decreased the water in water sources by 70% to 90%. There are about 350 water supply projects, which are vanished due to water scarcity (Uttarakhand Space Application Centre 2016). In Uttarakhand, landscape has degraded in most of the areas, mainly in the temperate climate. Oak forest has disappeared, streams and springs have dried up, agricultural holdings are not able to sustain the local population, traditional occupations have sharply diminished and jobs are almost non-existent leading to out-migration (Goyal 1997). Until the mid of 20th century, there was no shortage of natural resources. The terrain of the Himalaya is rugged and precipitous. It is geologically young, having many fault zones, enhancing intensity and frequency of seismic events, denudation, landslide hazards and soil erosion. The soils are shallow and weakly developed, varying in texture and depth. 4.5 Water Scarcity in Plenties 57

Data obtained from the water department/institute Dehradun, Uttarakhand (2015) showed that a number of natural springs have dried up due to climate change in almost all the districts of Uttarakhand. The investigated natural springs are mostly located in the popular towns. Dehradun city is facing deficiency of about 28 million- litter (ml) water per day. It has only 172 ml/day water available at present whereas, it needs about 200 ml/day water. Three districts of Uttarakhand—Pauri (35), Almora (68) and Tehri (51) have the highest number of dried up springs, the report indicated. About 70% of the total number of dried up springs are located in these three districts. A correlation was established between migration and drying natural springs and it was found significant. The districts, where out-migration is high, rate of drying natural springs is also high. Other reported districts have comparatively fewer springs, which have dried up. The author has observed that an uncounted number of natural springs, located in the remote villages, also dried up due to climate variability and change. It was observed that agricultural land has been left abandoned due to outmigration and thus, ground water cannot be recharged. In Uttarakhand, rivers are the major sources of surface water however, quality of water in these rivers have been deteriorating. Increasing population, urbanization and deforestation, along the river valleys, is the matter of serious concern today. River water is depleting in both quantity and quality (Sati and Paliwal 2008; Desai and Tank 2010; Shrivastava et al. 2013). A report of UNEP showed that Gangotri glacier has been receding since 1780 and has been rapidly retreating after 1971, due to global warming and climate change. The retreat from 1996 to 1999 is more than 76 meters. Due to retreating of the Gangotri glacier, there will be nearly 37% shortage of water in the downstream basin, the report further indicated. Human activities—agricultural and infrastructural development—cause extensive land degradation, which has influ- enced water retention and recharge along the fragile zone of mountainous mainland of Uttarakhand. Extreme weather events—erratic rainfall, cloudbursts and warming lead to affect agriculture and forestry, adversely.

Case Study 4.1 Three wells, fed by natural spring, supplied fresh water to about 180 households of the village Prethi (Kaub) in Chamoli District during the 1970s. Water was sufficient almost for the whole year for drinking purposes. During the monsoon season, these wells were inundated due to sufficient recharge by rainwater whereas, during dry season, mainly before monsoon, their capacity of providing water lessened however, they met drinking water need of all the households. In due course of time, all three wells dried up and now they do not exist. I found out that land abandonment is one of the potential causes for drying up of these wells. The agricultural fields in surrounding of the wells are not ploughed and as a result, the rainwater does not percolate into the ground through soil pores and it directly runs off. A perennial stream, fed by the natural spring, which has been providing water to animals and gardens, has dried up due to erratic 58 4 Water Resources and Change

rainfall. It has led to acute pollution in the stream. Several natural springs have also dried up. The upper reaches of the village were predominated by oak forest. During the recent past, the author has observed that the oak forests have disappeared from these patches, which have been invaded by pine forests. Oak forests contain water in their routes while, pine forests absorb more water for their growth, and as pine forests invaded oak forests and area under pine forests is increasing, the natural springs have dried up. This situation implies with the perennial stream of the village. Due to large spread of pine forests and warming of environment, humidity in soil and atmosphere has decreased resulting in low production of crops. Now, the water scarcity is acute. Water is supplied by pipeline however, during the four months of monsoon, when the region receive heavy downpour,pipe water supply is disturbed due to landslides and line blockage. Water is supplied directly without purifying and thus, water quality is poor—muddy.

A report of Water Resource Department, Dehradun (2018) stated that water scarcity has been increasing in the whole Uttarakhand state. Every year, mainly dur- ing the dry season, a number of settlements face water scarcity. These settlements are nomenclature as slipped bank settlements. A number of slipped bank settlements are increasing year by year in Uttarakhand. In 2018, from January to April, the water resource department identified 212 villages where massive water scarcity was found. There are about 10.5% settlements facing acute water scarcity. Natural water sources are drying rapidly. The highest number of drying water sources are found in Pauri (185), followed by Tehri (89) and Champawat (54). There is always lacking data on natural water sources in Uttarakhand, because of remoteness and inaccessibility of the rural settlements and as a result, the places of water scarcity have not been identified so far (Amar Ujala 2018). On the other hand, data from the State Forest Survey of India 2017 showed that water bodies in the forest areas have been increasing. In 2005, % of water bodies to forest cover was 1.27, which has reached to 1.46% in 2015. The author has observed that increase in water bodies in forest areas is due to increase in forest cover (4.25% from 1980–2017) during the past decades.

4.6 Sustainable Development of Water Resource

To design and implement methodologies to ensure sustainable water supply at micro- watershed scales, we need to exploration of aquifers (natural springs) and develop- ment of methodologies to recharge springs through rainwater harvesting. Further, ensuring safe and quality water from aquifers and springs, revival of indigenous technology for rainwater harvesting and springs’ recharge, design and construction of appropriate hydrological structures for conservation of soil and water, and identi- 4.6 Sustainable Development of Water Resource 59

fication of suitable sites for location of these structures and ensuring people’s partic- ipation in conserving water, and imparting knowledge about hydrological conditions are the other measures. Several international organizations such as World Bank and UNDP are working in the field of improving rural water supply in three districts of Uttarakhand. The State Water Resources Board is assisting water conservation, technically. It looks into hydrological and hydro-meteorological aspects of water, besides having the respon- sibility of surface and groundwater assessment. Demarcation of small watersheds within agro-ecological regions and evolution of a system of monitoring and assess- ment of water, soil and land degradation will manifest to conservation of water and other natural resources. All the stakeholders should come forward and to be involved in conserving them through adopting the appropriate measures. Mapping aquifers, identification of recharge zones and establishment of ground- water sanctuaries near recharge zones, relevant hydro-meteorological data through stalling climate instruments, regular monitoring of data, collection, storage, pro- cessing and dissemination, identification of suitable soils and water conservation structures, hydrological modeling at micro-watershed scales, irrigation, forest and water resources departments jointly working to revive the rivers of state and devising water preservation schemes in villages located along the river banks, linking the rivers flowing through the state are the several significant measures of water conservation in the mountainous and fragile slopes of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Despite the multiple water reserves, glacially fed 17 major rivers, several snow fed glaciers and 31 lakes, the Uttarakhand Himalaya faces acute water scarcity. Water is used in agriculture, energy, tourism and forestry. Agriculture consumes 75% of the total demand. Further, mounting population and rising standard of living have led to a great demand for water. Scarcity in water is also linked with its unsystematic distribution and poor management of water resources. Rural water supply system is not enough to meet community needs, mainly when climate triggered natural dis- asters damage natural sources and water pipes. Water quality has been deteriorated in a large part of the state. Local people are dependent on spring water, which have periodically dried up due to lack of recharge during the summer season. Implemen- tation of pumping schemes are costly and energy incentive, because of location of settlements and difficult terrain. About 52% population of the state has access to safe drinking water (Confederation of Indian Industries 2009). Big cities of the state require much water (Bureau of Indian Standard 1993) and they suffer from lack of safe water (Urban Area Development 2009). During the monsoon season, drinking water is not safe, because of excessive sediments in the glacial fed water. A report of the State Climate Change wing has mentioned that Pauri and Dehradun districts are the most vulnerable to water, as availability of surface and groundwater is less and crop water stress is high in Rabi season (winter). Other districts such as Champawat, Bageshwar and Pithoragarh are less vulnerable due to ample availability of surface and groundwater (ISRO 2011). The report further stated that conservation of water through construction of water storages will increase climate resilience. Establishing and strengthening early warning systems will protect the water sources, which are destroyed due to extreme weather situation. Water quality of natural springs 60 4 Water Resources and Change has deteriorated during the monsoon season, because of heavy rainfall whereas, during summer, they dry up because of lack in recharge. Changing climatic conditions have impacted water availability in various ways. Traditional methods of water harvesting in rural areas of Uttarakhand are ponds, Naula, Gul, Dhara, Kund, Khal-Chal and Gharat (water mill) (Rawat and Sah 2009). Major water sources are rivers, lakes, springs, Gad/Gadhera, tube wells, dug wells and Koops. Khal-Chal (Uttarakhand Jal Sansthan 2009) is also a water-supplying source. Uttarakhand Jal Sansthan (water institute) has rejuvenated 1,804 Khals from 2000 to 2008, of which Pauri district has the minimum number of Khals. India’s National Water Policy 2012 aims at developing water management strategies, plans and interventions that will reduce the impact of climate change on water availability, quality and quantity. Construction of storages for conservation of water during the off-season and proper distribution of water during the monsoon season will manifest the rural areas having ample water in space and time. India’s National Water Policy of 2012 aims to adapt climate change through water management strategies, plans and interventions, which will support water availability, quantity and quality (Sharma 2017). It is required to recharge the aquifers and springs using rainwater-harvesting tech- nology and then provide quality water from these aquifers and springs. We need to revive indigenous technology for rainwater harvesting and aquifer recharge. Further, it is required to identify the suitable sites and to design and construct appropriate hydrological structures for conservation of soils and water. It is also a need to transfer technology development and knowledge about hydrological conditions. Although, there are a number of water conservation projects initiated for improving rural water supply yet, it is not enough to provide proper and quality water supply. Community participation is essential to proper implementation of demand-driven water supply projects. Demarcation of small watersheds within the agro-ecological region and monitoring and assessment of water, soils and land degradation in these watersheds need to be undertaken using technologies such as remote sensing and simulation modeling. Reviving traditional knowledge of water conservation/spring rejuvena- tion through planting saplings and grasses and building recharge pits is inevitable. Khals-Chals, Naulas, Booris, Dharas, and Panihers (water recharge pits) represent the understanding of groundwater regime and response of the local population to rejuvenating spring discharge. Timely measures are required to be taken for proper development of hill aquifers that can recharge natural springs. Basin groundwater monitoring, including water level, is inevitable to conserve groundwater. Based on it, wells can be drilled in the selected hydrologically feasible locations.

References

Amar Ujala, Dehradun Edition (Hindi), Daily News Paper 17/4/2018 Bhavtosh Sharma (2016) Sustainable drinking water resources in difficult topography of hilly state Uttarakhand, India. Am J Water Resour 4(1): 16–21. http://pubs.sciepub.com/ajwr/4/1/2 References 61

Bureau of Indian Standard (1993) Code of basic requirements for water supply, drainage and sanitation (Fourth Revision). IS1172: 1993 (Reaffirmed 1998) Central Ground Water Board (2011) “Ground water year book (2009–2010) Uttarakhand.” Central Ground Water Board, Uttaranchal Region, Ministry of Water Resource, Government of India Central Water Commission of India, Report (2010) New Delhi Uttarakhand Jal Sansthan (2009) Parampra Ka Punarjivan, Uttarakhand Jal Sansthan. Ecol Surv India Sp Pub 34 Confederation of Indian Industries (2009) “Uttarakhand Vision 2022”. http://www.indiaat75.in/ vision…/Final_Uttarakhand_Vision_Document.pdf Desai J, Tank SK (2010) Deterioration of water quality due to immersion of Ganesh idols in the river Tapti at Sural, India. J Environ Res Dev 4(4):999–1007 Gopikrishna K (2009) “Ground water management studies, Dehradun district, Uttarakhand.” Central Ground Water Board, Uttaranchal Region, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India Goyal VC (1997) Water wise in Uttarakhand, Down to Earth, New Delhi, Tuesday 15 April 1997 Gupta A (2006) Ground water scenario and management options in Uttaranchal state. Bhu-Jal News 21: 1–5 Hasnain SI (1999) Runoff characteristics of a glacierized catchment, Garhwal Himalaya, India. Hydrol Sci J 44(6):847–854 ISRO (2011) High Altitude Himalayan Lakes. National Wetland Inventory and Assessment. Space Application Centre, ISRO, Ahmedabad. 2011 India-WRIS WebGIS (2015) http://india-wris.nrsc.gov.in/wrpinfo/index.php? Nandi SN, Dhayni PP, Samal PK (2006) Resources information database of the Indian Himalaya, Envis Monograph (3), a publication of GBPIHED, Kosi-Katarmal, Almora, 123 Rawat AS, Sah R (2009) Traditional knowledge of water management in Kumaun Himalaya. Ind J Tradit Knowl 8(2):249–254 Sati VP (2006) Water resource potentials and management in the Pindar Basin. Included in Chapter 4 of 2006 Rosenberg water policy forum: preliminary public E-consultation. A focused e-discussion held from July 31-August 28, 2006. http://www.banffcentre.ca/mountainculture/ mtnforum/conferences/rosenberg/week2.asp Sati VP (2014) Landscape vulnerability and rehabilitation issues: a study of hydropower projects in the Garhwal region, Himalaya. Nat Hazards 75(3):2265–2278 Sati VP (2015) Natural resources potential and socio-economic status in the Indian Himalayan region. Nat Environ 20(2):179–187 Sati SC, Paliwal PC (2008) Physio-chemical and bacteriological analysis of Kosi River water in Central Himalaya. Pollut Res 27(1):179–183 Semwal N, Akolkar P (2006) Water quality assessment of scared Himalayan Rivers of Uttarakhand. Curr Sci 91(4):486–496 Sharma S (2017) Affect of climate change on water resources in Uttarakhand, TNN, Jun 4, 2017, Dehradun Shrivastava N, Mishra DD, Mishra PK, Bajpai A (2013) Water quality deterioration of Machna River due to sewage disposal, Betul Madhya Pradesh, India. J Environ Earth Sci 3(6):1–5 Urban Area Development (2009) Uttarakhand development report. Planning Commission, Govern- ment of India Directorate of Economics and Statistics (2016) Directorate of economics and statistics, Dehradun, Uttarakhand (2014–2015). http://des.uk.gov.in/, January 11, 2016 Chapter 5 Forests of Uttarakhand Himalaya

Abstract About 63% of the total geographical area is covered by forests in Uttarak- hand. Forests vary from tropical, subtropical, temperate to alpine and they have high economic viability. Further, forests are the major subsidiary source of livelihood of the Himalayan people, which not only enhance the economy and income but also restore the highly fragile landscapes. Forest area of the Uttarakhand Himalaya has increased by about 5% during the last three decades. In this chapter, forest types and distribution, district wise change in forest area and about the ecosystem services are elaborated.

Keywords Biodiversity · Bugyals · Van Panchayat · Ecosystem services · Agro-forestry · Corbett National Park

The Himalaya is rich in faunal and floral diversity, which varies vertically and hor- izontally. The three-dimensional landscapes—the river valleys, the mid altitudes and the highlands—of the Himalaya have further scope of obtaining high variation in the climatic conditions that manifests variations in diversity of fauna and flora. Thus, climate and biodiversity vary according to altitudes. Further, the impact of the mighty Himalaya on climate and biodiversity is noteworthy. The chilled air from the Himalaya determines the growth and types of fauna and flora in the highland regions. Slope aspects equally affect their distribution and growth pattern. North-facing slopes are comparatively cooler than south facing slopes and thus, these situations affect distribution pattern of floral resources largely. Climate also varies from tropical to sub-tropical, temperate, cold and frigid cold. Frigid cold part of the Himalaya is snow clad and it is fully barren. The large change in biodiversity and distribution of flora is the recent trend. In this chapter, I have described biodiversity and distribution pattern of floral resources and the current change that has been occurring during the recent past. A time series data on forest cover change at state and district levels has been gathered and analyzed. Forests play an important role in sustaining life of both humans and animals. It is a major life supporting layer and one amongst the major sources of livelihoods in mountainous region. Besides, the people of the Himalayan region are nature lovers; worship a number of trees (sacred groves)—Peepal, Banyan and Oak and several flowers and fruits—during various auspicious occasions. They never cut these sacred

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 63 V. P. Sati, Himalaya on the Threshold of Change, Advances in Global Change Research 66, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14180-6_5 64 5 Forests of Uttarakhand Himalaya groves. Further, the rural people are directly dependent on forest resources (CEDAR 2010) for fuel-wood, fodder and food and they practice community forestry, main- tained by village community forest councils commonly known as Van Panchayat, which was introduced in 1920 (Phartiyal and Tewari 2006). Forests not only provide fire-wood, fodder and wild fruits, but also provide leaf litter for manuring crop fields, and keep climate feasible (Singh et al. 2004). In Uttarakhand, about 38% green feeds are obtained from fodder trees and 31% fodder is obtained from grasslands (Rawat et al. 2012). The marginal farmers rear livestock in the grasslands—temperate and subtropical and gather fodder from tree leaves (Singh and Singh 2009). Besides, a variety of medicinal plants also grow in all the altitudinal zones. Uttarakhand shares about 0.75% forestland of the country’s geographical area whereas, it shares 11.05% forests of the Indian Himalayan region (Sati 2017). Its total forest area is 63.42%. Uttarakhand state has 7,869 floral species (SFR 2005). The plant diversity is so high from the valleys to the alpine meadows (Kumari and Tiwari 2009). It has eight forest types, out of total 16 forest types existing in India (Champion and Seth 1968). There are total 7,348 Van Panchayats, which cover 15.1% forest area. Besides, out of the total forest area, 69.2% forests are under forest depart- ment, 14.8% under civil forests and the rest belong to private forests (UEPPCB 2004). Uttarakhand’s forests, distributed along the altitudinal gradients, vary from tropical to subtropical, temperate and alpine. Broad leaf deciduous forests are found in the Tarai plain and Doon valley. Pine forests are densely and extensively distributed above the valleys and mid-altitudes, mixed-oak forests lie in the temperate zones and conifer forests are located in cold climate zones. Further, grasslands—subtropical, temperate and alpine are extensively found along these gradients. Economic viability of these forests is substantial. The local people conserve forests using traditional methods, which not only benefit carbon sequestration but also enable restoration and con- servation of forests, meadows and biodiversity together with local socio-economic upliftment (Rao et al. 1999; Maikhuri et al. 1997; Saxena et al. 2001). Common property resources are community forests, pasturelands and water resources, which the rural people use and conserve together (Joshi 2006).

5.1 Diversity and Distribution Pattern of Forests

The Himalayan forests are extensive and diverse and they differ significantly from both tropical to temperate forests with respect to structure, phenology and function, as well as in terms of ecosystem processes (Zobel and Singh 1997). The forest vegetation in the Himalayan region ranges from tropical dry deciduous forests in the foothills to alpine meadows above timberline (Champion and Seth 1968). The biomass productivity of the pristine forests of the region is comparable to the highly productive forests of the world (Singh and Singh 1992). Out of the total 1,200 species of birds reported so far in the Indian subcontinent, 600 species including water birds and migratory forms are found in the hills of Garhwal Himalaya (Ali and Ripley 5.1 Diversity and Distribution Pattern of Forests 65

Fig. 5.1 Horizontal and vertical distribution of forests in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source By author

1983). Recently, it was noticed that distribution and abundance of birds and invasive species in the Garhwal region have declined (Bisht 2011). Diversity and distribution pattern of floral resources in the Uttarakhand Himalaya vary according to altitudes, slope aspects and impact of snowy mountain peaks. Alti- tude varies from about 200 to 8,000 m and accordingly, diversity of forests varies (Sati 2006). The Uttarakhand Himalaya has five forest zones (Fig. 5.1)—Tarai, Babar and Doon Regions (<300 m), Shivalik ranges and river valleys (300–1,100 m), mid- altitudes (1,100 m–800 m), highlands (1,800–2,800 m) and the alpine pasturelands (2,800–3,400 m). The first zone is Tarai plains and Doon valley, which lies below 300 m. The main forests are broad leaf deciduous monsoon forests, including Sal, Shisham, mahogany and teak (Fig. 5.2). These forests are economically viable. India’s biggest national parks—Rajaji and Corbett lie in this forest zone. Bushes, shrubs and lower elevation grasslands are found in the valley regions, between 300 and 1,100 m. Pine is sub-temperate forest type, found densely along the slope gradient of mid- altitudes between 1,100 to 1,800 m (lower elevation). Slope aspects effect distribu- tion pattern of pine forests, which means that north facing slopes have low density of pine forests while south facing slopes are densely covered by pine. Pine is used for firewood and timber, and is economically viable forest. Mixed oak forests—oak (dominated), Buransh, Tilong and Kafal grow in the temperate region (upper eleva- 66 5 Forests of Uttarakhand Himalaya

Fig. 5.2 Forest types—a Sub-tropical deciduous forests in Doon valley b Dense pine forests in Jaharikhal, Pauri district c Mixed-oak forest in the lower altitude of Khirsu and d Coniferous forests in the higher altitude of Khirsu (Pauri district). Photo By author tion), having multiple uses. Oak is an economic tree. It provides firewood, fodder and wood for furniture. The oak forests are also known for their rich biodiversity (Dhar et al. 1997). Most importantly, oak forests retain water for a longer period, result- ing in a sustained water yield (Singh and Pande 1989). In the most populated belt (1,000–2,000 m) of the Uttarakhand Himalaya, (a large part of the western Himalaya) oak (Quercus spp.) and pine (Pinus roxburghii) forests form the dominant forest vegetation (Singh & Singh 1992). Wild fruits and flowers are abundantly found in this zone, which are healthy and which have high medicinal values. Coniferous forests are densely located in the high altitudes between 1,800 and 2,800 m. Main forests are deodar, spruce, fir and small variety of bamboo (Ringal). Although, the forests are economically viable yet, they are largely unused because of remoteness. Alpine meadows lie between 2,800 and 3,400 m. About eight months in a year, this zone remains snow-covered while during four months of summer, flowers and medicinal plants grow largely, which are economically viable. The Uttarakhand Himalaya has a number of vast alpine meadows. The highest forest area (41.35%) is found between 1,000 and 2,000 m followed by forest lying between 2,000 and 3,000 m (23.18%). Forest area between 500 and 1,000 m is 16.57% while the lowest forest area (0.08%) is found >4,000 m. Forest 5.1 Diversity and Distribution Pattern of Forests 67

Table 5.1 Vertical distribution of forest cover in Uttarakhand (Area in Km2) Altitudinal zone Very dense Medium dense Open forest Total (m) forest forest Km2 (%) <500 548 1,732 546 2,826 11.65 500–1,000 1,035 2,189 794 4,018 16.57 1,000–2,000 1,727 5,477 2,820 10,024 41.35 2,000–3,000 1,345 3,074 1,202 5,621 23.18 3,000–4,000 99 1,126 506 1,731 7.14 >4,000 0 4 16 20 0.08 Total 4,754 (19.61%) 13,602 (56.11%) 5,884 (24.47%) 24,240 100 Source Based on SRTM Digital Elevation Model, State Forest Reports of India, 2015 Figures in parenthesis are the percentages of forest area area <500 m is 11.56% whereas 7.14% forest is found between 3,000 and 4,000 m. It denotes that the highest forest area lies between 1,000 and 3,000 m. In terms of forest types such as very dense, medium dense and open forests, the highest areas are under medium dense forests (56.11%), followed by open forest (24.47%) and then very dense forest (19.61%). Very dense forests lie between 500 and 3,000 m while, medium dense forests are located from <500 to 4,000 m. In terms of open forests, the highest area lies between 1,000 and 3,000 m (Table 5.1).

5.2 Area Under Tree Species

Figure 5.3 shows that the Himalayan dry and moist temperate forests have the highest area i.e. 39.02%, followed by pine with 29.61% and tropical dry and moist deciduous forests (26.25%). Area under alpine dry and moist scrub is 4.98 and plantation forest covers only 2.7% area (Fig. 5.4).

5.3 Forest Area Change in Uttarakhand

It is important to define here the terms forest area and forest cover. The term ‘Forest Area’ generally refers to all the geographic areas, recorded as forest in government records such as reserved forests and protected forests. In the other world, it is the legal status of the land as per the government records. On the other hand, ‘Forest Cover’ denotes to all lands more than one ha in area having a tree canopy density of more than 10%, which means the presence of trees over in any land. Under this sub-heading, forest area change in Uttarakhand and district wise forest cover change have been described. 68 5 Forests of Uttarakhand Himalaya

Fig. 5.3 Area under tree species. Source SFRI (2015)

Fig. 5.4 Forest map of Uttarakhand showing types and distribution. Source By author 5.3 Forest Area Change in Uttarakhand 69

Fig. 5.5 Forest area change (1980–2015). Source SESD, Dehradun

Data on forest area has been gathered from the State Economic and Statistical Directorate (SESD), Dehradun 2017. It showed that the forest area was 59.17% of the total geographical area in 1980 and in 2017, it increased to 63.42%, with 4.25% growth during the period (Fig. 5.5). From 1980 to 2000, forest area was constant whereas, it increased substantially after 2000, the reason being that Uttarakhand got statehood in 2000 and launched a large forestation campaign, through forest and soil conservation departments. Further, Uttarakhand is one amongst the states in India, which has rigorously implemented Forest Act of India 1980. As a result, a large increase in forest area has taken place particularly at the time, when forest degradation was high in other parts of country. Tree cover in Uttarakhand has also increased from 1.23% in 2005 to 1.43% in 2015 (FRI 2015).

5.4 District Wise Forest Cover and Change

Figure 5.6 shows forest cover change (percentage of district’s forest area) between 2001 and 2015. Four districts of Uttarakhand have received decrease in forest cover from 34.2% (highest) in USN to 1.99% (lowest) in Rudraprayag. Forest cover has decreased in Haridwar district by 3.92% and similarly, it has decreased by 3.34% in Nainital district. The highest increase in forest cover was noticed in Dehradun dis- trict (7.8%), followed by Almora (5.88%), Champawat (5.24%), Bageshwar (5.08%), Tehri (4.45%), Pauri (4.04%), Chamoli (3.79%) and Pithoragarh (3.39%). Uttarak- hand, as a whole, received 1.26% increase in forest area.

5.5 Impact of Climate Change on Forests

Forests are believed to be the most sensitive to climate change. The author observed that forest diversity and distribution has largely been influenced by climate variabil- ity and change. Warming of the valleys and the mid-altitudes has further increased 70 5 Forests of Uttarakhand Himalaya

Fig. 5.6 Forest cover and change (2001–2015). Source Land Use Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, GOI 2001 and 2015 the vulnerability. Invasion of pine (locally known as Chir) forests in the temperate region, where mixed-oak forests grow, also supports warming of the river valleys and mid-altitudes. Mixed-oak forests have disappeared from many locations of the temperate belt. Climate change in the Himalaya has several implications on floral diversity and distribution. Among them, invasion of plants in other floral kingdom is common. Some recent studies conducted at few selected areas of Garhwal division (Gaur 1999; Negi and Hajra 2007; Bisht et al. 2010) suggest occurrence of more than hundred alien plants including certain invasive species. Three most common invasive plants observed in district Chamoli and Pauri (Garhwal) are Lantana, Eupatorium and Parthenium spp., which are considered harmful to the environment because of their distribution in all ranges and habitats. Lantana, a woody perennial shrub is a native of tropical America (Holm et al. 1977). Because of the biotic pressure on oak forests (which provide quality fuel wood, fodder, bedding leaves for cattle, minor forest products, medicinal plants etc.) in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, pine (an early successional and less useful species for the local people) has slowly but steadily invaded the oak (late successional species) forests (Singh et al. 1984). Pine forests represent a fire adapted ecosystem (Semwal and Mehta 1996), and the upward expansion of pine in the oak zone is ushering changes in the composition, and forest ecosystem services are occurring from the same. For example, between 8,000 and 4,500 years ago, as the climate warmed and snow melted, oaks expanded their importance at the expanse of pine trees (Zobel and Singh 1997). With current level of increase in mean annual temperature over various parts of the Himalaya, an upward movement of plants is expected (Grabherr et al. 1994;Paulietal.2001). Research carried out by scholars have shown that the community composition has changed at high alpine sites and tree line species have responded to climate warming by invasion of the alpine zone or increased growth rates during the last decades (Paulsen et al. 2000). The study by Borgaonkar et al. (2010) has reported 5.5 Impact of Climate Change on Forests 71

Fig. 5.7 a Fragile alpine pastureland in Kedarnath valley b Pine forests are invading mixed-oak forests in Gwaldom forest area. Photo By author an unprecedented enhancement in growth during the last few decades in the five tree-ring width chronologies of Himalayan conifers (Cedrus Deodara D.Don; Picea Smithiana Boiss) from the high altitude areas of Kinnaur (Himachal Pradesh) and Gangotri (Uttarakhand) regions. Change in temperature will narrow down seasonal temperature variation in the Himalaya within an annual cycle. This will result in fall in the number of species of deciduous forests (which need a proper seasonal temperature to shed and regain leaves), and will promote only evergreen forests, resulting in the loss of biodiversity (Singh et al. 2010). Alpine pasture degradation and spreading of pine forests in the oak regime is the recent trend (Fig. 5.7). Fire assisted invasion by pine in the oak forests completely change the microcli- matic conditions making them more suitable for invasion of P. Roxburghii to expand its territory, year after year. Of the total incidences of forest fires in the Uttarak- hand Himalaya, 63% were intentional and remaining 37% were accidental (Tiwari et al. 1986). Such a change in the ecological status of oak forests is a cause for alarm to the forest dependent local communities, managers and policy makers, who need to seek solutions to achieve a balanced environment in conserving the natural vegetation wealth of the Himalaya (Bhandari et al. 2000). Identification of potential areas of invasion, particularly under changing climate scenario, and likely impacts on ecosystem structure and function also need urgent attention (Negi and Palni 2010). In addition, there is a need to have a systematic conservation planning, which considers the detailed distribution patterns of biodiversity within forests, the socio-economic situations and conservation effectiveness of existing protected areas [(PAs) (Lang- hammer et al. 2007)]. Strong rules and regulations and effective enforcement have avoided forest degradation and deforestation in many of these Van Panchayats (VPs) in the state (Negi 2008). There is a need to identify the climatic amplitude of the species that are of economic interest and are classified as rare and threatened, grow- ing in the Himalayan region (MoEF 2010). Also, conserving them in the PAs with larger climatic amplitude so that species are able to shift their distribution, ranges naturally in the event of changing climate is highly needed (DST 2010). 72 5 Forests of Uttarakhand Himalaya

Fig. 5.8 Environmental services a Kedarnath peak in the Indian Central Himalayan Region b Alpine Bugyal located in downstream of the Kedarnath Dham c Dense oak and coniferous forests in the Mandakini River Basin d The Alaknanda River flowing near Kirtinagar. Photo By author

5.6 Ecosystem Services and Livelihoods

The Uttarakhand Himalaya is rich in the faunal and floral biodiversity and other natu- ral resources as well. It comprises of plenty of water, fresh air, panoramic landscapes and crop races. These natural resources provide ecosystem services to both upstream and downstream areas. Due to large-scale change in precipitation and temperature, ecosystem services have subsequently influenced. Change in structure, functions, patterns of disturbance and the increased dominance of invasive species have further influenced ecosystem services. Forest ecosystem service is intricately linked with the livelihoods of the people hence, well recognized but poorly understood (Singh 2007; Joshi and Negi 2011). Ecosystem services of the Himalayan forests, such as carbon sequestration and hydro- logic regulation are considered of far more value than that of the biomass extracted from them (Singh 2002). Himalayan ecosystem resources are critical on the face of natural disturbances, anthropogenic activities and climate change (DST 2010). Fodder, fuel-wood, food, clean water and hydroelectricity generation are the major ecosystem services that provide livelihoods to the local people (Fig. 5.8). 5.6 Ecosystem Services and Livelihoods 73

Total 51 million populations (6% of India’s population) of the Indian Himalayan region largely live in rural areas, where their livelihood mostly depends upon the natural resources, available in the nearby areas (Badola and Hussain 2003). The ecosystems in Himalayan region are very fragile and subsistence agriculture is the backbone of the local people (Malik and Bhatt 2016). Extraction of fodder from forests is very high (62%) compared to extraction from agro forestry system and low altitude grasslands and crop residues [(38%) (Singh and Pande 1988)]. India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change—NAPCC (GoI 2008), consid- ering national and global importance of the Himalayan Ecosystem, has made special provision of a National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystem, one of the eight missions and the only mission which is location specific. In view of the significance of the region, Government of India has established over 173 PAs in the Indian Himalayan states, which cover approximately 47, 500 sq km area. The coverage under PAs network in the region has steadily expanded over the years (MoEF 2009;MoA2012). Poor mountain farmers with average landholdings below 1 ha per household are highly dependent on forest resources for subsistence living (Singh et al. 2011; Kumar and Ram 2005). However, if the minimum area required for sustainable use of forests is 1.5 ha per household (ICIMOD 2010), then the future of this forest does not look very encouraging. Furthermore, there are other studies, which estimate that, an area between 3 ha and 5 ha are required per household for sustainable management of forest resources (Bisht 2005; Singh et al. 1992). The per capita annual consumption of dry wood in various parts of the Himalaya has been reported to be much higher, ranging between 500 kg and 1,200 kg (Campbell and Bhattarai 1984;Metz1990). Earlier, researchers have also reported that fuel wood is the most extracted material from the Himalayan forests and its consumption in the Garhwal Himalaya ranges between 20 and 25 kg per household per day (Singh et al. 2010).

Case Study 5.1 Village Shilpata lies on the left bank of the Ata Gad, one of the major tributaries of the Pindar River, at an altitude of 1,400–1,600 m. It can be reached from Adibadri, a valley pilgrimage, by trekking of about 10 km and from Diwalikhal, a small service centre, by a 7 km trek. People from all castes inhabit the village. Owing to its remote location, the farmers practice mixed agriculture-livestock farming in traditional mode. They are largely dependent on forests for fuel- wood, fodder and wild fruits. The Dudhatoli Mountain Range (DMR) lies in the upper reaches of the village, where forest diversity is high, ranging from mixed-oak forests to coniferous forests and alpine pasturelands. Meanwhile, the lower reaches comprise of pine forests. Forests are used for carrying day to day life sustainable, as they are amongst the major sources of livelihoods. Even today, about 80% of the fuel-wood need of the rural people is met from forests. The rural people collect fodder—grasses and oak leaves for feeding their animals. They also collect a number of seasonal wild fruits. In a whole, 74 5 Forests of Uttarakhand Himalaya

forests substitute livelihoods of the rural people. The animal herders had their seasonal dwellings in the highlands of DMR, where they migrate during the summer for pasturing. They also collect small bamboo (Ringal) for making agricultural goods. Overtime, enormous out-migration from the village has led to minimum use of forest resources and as a result, forest area and its density have increased in the lower and upper altitudes.

Uttarakhand’s forests are unique in terms of rich biodiversity, which spreads along the altitudinal gradients. Similarly, all the forest types are economically viable and are the major source of livelihoods. Although, forests cover has increased by 1.26% dur- ing the last decade in the Uttarakhand Himalaya yet, its natural growth has decreased. A FSI (2017) indicated that increase in forest area is due to a plantation drive and not by the natural growth of forest. Further, district wise forest area varies according to the location of districts—plain and mountainous. Climate change implications on forests were noticed as change in forest species along altitudinal gradients. Due to warming of the valleys and mid-altitudes, some forest species have become extinct and some are on the verge of extinction. In the meantime, some species are moving towards the higher altitudes and invading the regime of temperate forests. It has been observed that USN and Haridwar districts obtain the lowest forest area because these districts lie in the plain regions where arable land is more than 70%, and population concentration is high. Two districts of mountainous mainland, Chamoli and Uttarkashi, also obtain comparatively less forest area, because a large part of these districts fall under perpetual snow covered and alpine pasturelands. It was noticed that the Nainital district possesses the highest area due to a large tract of forest and the world famous Corbett National Park (CNP). The author has noticed the reasons of decrease and increase in forest area at the district level in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The three districts, where forest area has decreased are located in the plain region. Forest areas have been transferred for either cultivation or construction of settlements and thus, forestland has decreased. In Rudraprayag district, the cause of decrease in the forest area was mainly the Kedar- nath disaster of 2013, when cloudburst triggered debris flow and flashfloods have dev- astated the entire landscapes. A report from NRSC, ISRO, Hyderabad (2013) stated that about 125 ha grassland and 46 ha forest cover loss was noticed in Rudraprayag district due to the said incident. Rotational felling and diversion of forest lands for developmental activities (SFRI 2015) in the valleys and mid-altitudes of the district is also a prominent reason of decrease in forests. The district has famous highland pilgrimage ‘Kedarnath’ where a number of people visit every year. To provide them services—lodging and boarding—the local people cut forests for constructing busi- ness avenues along the river valley and in the pilgrimage site. It has been observed that increase in the forest area in Pauri, Chamoli, Tehri, Pithoragarh, Almora, Bageshwar and Champawat districts was because of exodus out-migration. Forestland has increased in the mainland of Uttarakhand due to a number of factors. Among them, Forest Act of India, 1980, Van Panchayats, creation of soil 5.6 Ecosystem Services and Livelihoods 75 conservation department and people’s participation in forest conservation are promi- nent. One of the major drivers of conserving forests is their sacred value. There are a number of trees, which the people of Uttarakhand worship at the different occasions. Dehradun district, which partially lies in the plain area, has also received increase in the forest area. Although, it has received exodus immigrants after 2000, when it became the state’s interim capital yet, it could not influence forestland. However, a large proportion of arable land has shrunken. The rural people in Uttarakhand are dependent on forest resources—fodder, fire- wood, food and other woods—for carrying their sustainable livelihoods. However, a big proportion of forest resources are unused, largely because of their inaccessibility. The people living in the rural areas are economically poor although, natural resources are found abundant, mainly forest resources. To make the rural people economically sound, sustainable use of forest resources is inevitable. The entire Uttarakhand is ecologically fragile, where a number of landslides and mass-movements are com- mon, which degrade the landscape. Conservation of forests through plantation drives and managing the existing forests will protect the degraded landscapes.

References

Ali S, Ripley SD (1983) Handbook of birds of India and Pakistan. Compact Edition, Oxford Uni- versity Press, New Delhi Badola R, Hussain SA (2003) Conflict in paradise: women and protected areas in the Indian Himalayas. Mount Res Dev 23(3):234–237 Bhandari BS, Mehta JP, Tiwari SC (2000) Fire and nutrient dynamics in a Heteropogon contortus grazing land of Garhwal Himalaya. Trop Ecol 41(1): 33–39 Bisht R (2005) Role of institution particular and equity in the management of watershed resources in central Himalaya. Ph.D. thesis, Kumaun University, Nainital Bisht MS (2011) Study of bird fauna of the Habitats established with invasive weeds in Garhwal Himalaya. Final Technical Report (Project no. GBPI/IERP/UA/04-05/13/313) Bisht MS, Kukreti M, Dobriyal AK, Bisht SS (2010) Diversity, distribution and similarity of invasive vegetation in Garhwal Himalaya, India. Adv Plant Sci 23(1):129–142 Borgaonkar HP, Sikder AB, Somaru Ram (2010) High altitude forest sensitivity to the recent warming: a tree-ring analysis of conifers from Western Himalaya, India. Quart Int J. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.quaint.1010.01.016 Campbell JG, Bhattarai TN (1984) People and forests in hills of Nepal. Preliminary presenta- tion of findings of community forestry household and ward leader survey. Project Paper 10, HMG/UNDP/FAO Community Forestry Development Project, Nepal CEDAR (2010) Centre for ecological development and research, Final report. www.cedarhimalaya. org Champion HG, Seth SK (1968) A revised survey of the forest types of India. Govt. of India Publi- cations, New Delhi, p 464 Climate Change and India: A 4x4 Assessment—A Sectoral and Regional Analysis for 2030 s. Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India Dhar U, Rawal RS, Samant SS (1997) Structural diversity and representativeness of forest vegeta- tion in a protected area of Kumaun Himalaya, India: implications for conservation. Biod Cons 6:1045–1062 76 5 Forests of Uttarakhand Himalaya

DST (2010) Mission document on national mission for sustaining the Himalayan eco-system under national action plan on climate change. Government of India, Department of Science & Technol- ogy, New Delhi FRI (2015) Forest research institute, Dehradun Gaur RD (1999) Flora of the district Garhwal-North West Himalaya with ethno-botanical GoI (2008) National action plan on climate change. PM council on climate change, GoI, New Delhi Grabherr G, Gottfried M, Pauli H (1994) Climate effects on mountain plants. Nature 369:448 Holm LG, Plucknett DL, Pancho JV, Herberger JP (1977) The world’s worst weeds. University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu ICIMOD (2010) Kyoto: Think global act local project completion report (2007–2009) Joshi BK (2006) J Hum Ecol 20:69–75 Joshi G, Negi GCS (2011) Quantification and valuation of forest ecosystem services in the western Himalayan region, India. Int J Biod Sci Ecosyst Serv Mgmt 7(1): 2–11 Kumar A, Ram J (2005) Anthropogenic disturbances and plant biodiversity in forests of Uttaranchal, Central Himalaya, Biodiversity Conservation 14: 309–331 Kumari P, Tiwari LM (2009) Biodiversity in Uttarakhand Himalaya region. Nat Sci 7(3):545–552 Langhammer PF, Bakerr MI, Bennun LA et al (2007) Identification and gap analysis of key biodi- versity areas: targets for comprehensive protected area systems. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland Maikhuri RK, Semwal RL, Rao KS, Saxena KG (1997) Int J Sustain Dev World Ecol 4:192–203 Malik ZA, Bhatt AB (2016). Regeneration status of tree species and survival of their seedlings in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary and its adjoining areas in Western Himalaya, India, Tropical Ecology Metz JJ (1990) Conservation practices at upper elevation village of west Nepal. Mount Res Dev 10(4):7–15 MOA (2012) Land use Statistics. Minstry of Agriculture, GOI MoEF (2010) Proceedings of the National Workshop on Joint Forest Management MoEF (2009) ’ fourth national report to the convention on biological diversity. MoEF, GoI, New Delhi Negi GCS (2008) Ecological and economic impact of JFM programme in Uttarakhand: quick appraisal of a few villages in Kumaun hills. In: Bajracharya P, Kandya AK, Krishna Kumar KN (eds) Joint forest management in India. IIFM, Bhopal. Aviskar Publishers & Distributors, Jaipur, pp 262–274 Negi PS, Hajra PK (2007) Alien flora of Doon valley, North West Himalaya. Curr Sci 92(7):968–978 Negi GCS, Palni LMS (2010) Responding to the challenges of climate change: mountain specific issues, pp 293–307. In: Jeerath N, Boojh R, Singh G (eds) Climate change, biodiversity and ecological security in the South Asian region. MacMillan Publishers India Ltd., New Delhi, p 456 Pauli H, Gottfried M, Grabherr, G (2001) High summits of the Alps in a changing climate: the oldest observation series on high mountain plant diversity in Europe. In: Walther GR, Burga CA, Edwards PJ (eds) Fingerprints of climate change: adapted behaviour and shifting species ranges. Academic Publisher, New York, Kluwer, pp 139–149 Paulsen J, Weber UM, Korner C (2000) Tree growth near tree line; abrupt or gradual reduction with altitude. Arc Antarc Alp Res 32:14–20 Phartiyal P, Tewari A (2006) IASCP Conference Papers. http://www.indiana.edu Ram J, Kumar A, Bhatt J (2004) Plant diversity in six forest types of Uttaranchal, Central Himalaya, India. Curr Sci 86:975–978 Rao KS, Maikhuri RK, Saxena KG (1999) Int Tree Crops J 10:1–17 Rawat JS, Joshi RC, Singh DK et al (2012) Van panchayat and forest management in Uttarakhand. Sci Cult 78(3–4):181–184 Sati VP (2006) Forest resource management in mountainous regions: a case study of the Pindar Basin of Uttarakhand Himalaya, Lyonia. J Ecol Appl 11(1): 75–84 Sati VP (2017) An assessment of forest cover changes in the Indian Himalayan region. ENVIS Bull Himalayan Ecol 25:66–74 References 77

Saxena KG, Rao KS, Sen KK, Maikhuri RK, Semwal RL (2001) Conserv Ecol 5(14). http://www. consecol.org/vol15/iss2/art14 Semwal RL, Mehta JP (1996) Ecology of forest fires in chir pine (Pinus roxburghii Sarg.) forests of Garhwal Himalaya. Curr Sci 70: 426–427 SFRI (2005) Forest survey of India. Ministry of Environment & Forest, Dehradun, pp 140–142 SFRI (2015) State forest report of India. Ministry of Environment & Forest, Dehradun Singh SP (2002) Balancing the approaches of environmental conservation by considering ecosystem services as well as biodiversity. Curr Sci 82(11):1331–1335 Singh SP (2007) Himalayan forest ecosystem services, 53 p. Central Himalayan Environment Association, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India Singh AK, Pande RK (1988) Deteriorating agro system of Kumaun Himalaya: observation and experiences. Rural Syst 6(4):175–185 Singh AK, Pande RK (1989) Changes in the spring activity: experiences of Kumaon Himalaya, India. The Environmentalist 9(1):75–79 Singh JS, Singh SP (1992) Forests of Himalaya: structure, functioning and impact of man. Gyano- daya Prakashan, Nainital, India, p 294 Singh K, Singh HS (2009) Forage resource development in Uttarakhand experiences and observa- tions, pp 1–35. www.uldb.org Singh JS, Rawat YS, Chaturvedi OP (1984) Replacement of oak forest with pine in the Himalaya affects the nitrogen cycle. Nature 311:54–56 Singh SP, Negi GCS, Pant MC, Singh JS (1992) Economic considerations in central Himalayan agro-ecosystem. In: Agrawal Anil (ed) The Price of Forests. Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, pp 291–296 Singh SP, Tewari A, Jina BS (2004) Int J Ecol Environ Sci 31:45–48 Singh G, Rawat GS, Verma D (2010) Comparative study of fuel wood consumption by villagers and seasonal dhaba owners in the tourist affected regions of Garhwal Himalaya, India. Energy Policy 38:1895–1899 Singh SP, Tewari A, Phartiyal P (2011) Community carbon forestry to counter forest degradation in the Indian Himalayas. In: Skutsch M (ed) Community forest monitoring for the carbon market. Earthscan, London, Washington DC, pp 118–133 Tiwari SC, Rawat KS, Semwal RL (1986) Forest fire in Garhwal Himalaya: a case study of mixed forests. JOHSARD 9–10:45–56 UEPPCB (2004) State of environment report for Uttaranchal, Uttaranchal environmental protection and pollution control board, Government of Uttaranchal, Dehradun notes. Transmedia, Srinagar (Garhwal) Zobel DB, Singh SP (1997) Himalayan forests and ecological generalizations. Bioscience 47:735–745 Chapter 6 Increasing Events of Disasters

Abstract The entire Himalaya is highly vulnerable to geo-hydrological disasters, among which earthquakes, cloudburst triggered flashfloods and debris flows, land- slides and mass movements are prominent. An inventory of these disasters has pre- pared and presented in this chapter. Forest fires are frequent, causing to heavy loss of biodiversity. Frequency and intensity of these geo-hydrological disasters have increased recently. It has been observed that increasing intensity of these hazards is also due to climate variability and change.

Keywords Natural disasters · Anthropogenic activities · Catastrophes · Richter Scale · Cloudburst · Environmental degradation

The tectonically active Uttarakhand Himalaya, one amongst the most fragile and sensitive landscapes of the world, is highly influenced by occurrence of severe natu- ral disasters. Man-induced (anthropogenic) activities through unscientific quarrying, construction of hydroelectricity power projects, construction of roads and build- ings and along the river courses have further accentuated vulnerability of these disasters. Change in land use pattern, increasing pressure on land, forest- land degradation and waste disposal have significant impact on landscapes, land use and natural geo-ecological systems. Further, due to its geo-climatic, ecological and socio-economic uniqueness, it is one of the most disaster prone states of the country. It has been observed that the whole Uttarakhand Himalaya or a part of it has received severe events of natural disasters—terrestrial (earthquakes), atmospheric (cloudburst-triggered flashfloods and debris–flow, mass-movements, landslides, hail- storms, thunder/windstorms, glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF) and avalanches) and manmade disasters (forest fires). However, during the recent pasts, their inten- sity and frequency have increased. They are the most devastating events, causing losses to lives, properties, resources and ecosystems in the region thereby, affecting its process of economic development (Satendra et al. 2014).

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 79 V. P. Sati, Himalaya on the Threshold of Change, Advances in Global Change Research 66, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14180-6_6 80 6 Increasing Events of Disasters

Fig. 6.1 The major disasters in the Himalayan region

6.1 Major Disasters in the Himalaya

The Himalayan region is severely influenced by the catastrophic disasters. These dis- asters are classified as natural and manmade. Further, natural disasters are classified as terrestrial and atmospheric disasters (Fig. 6.1). In this chapter, I have described all these disasters and have illustrated the mechanism, implications, prevention and mitigation measures in the Himalaya.

6.2 Terrestrial Disasters

6.2.1 Earthquakes

Earthquake is the major terrestrial disaster that occurs in the Himalaya. Its severity and magnitudes is very high and as a result, the Himalaya has received a number of high intensity/magnitude devastating earthquake tremors during the past, which has caused to destruction of landscape and human loss. Genesis of earthquake tremors in the Himalaya is mainly due to the tectonic movements. The Himalaya is the youngest new folded mountain system of the world and it was created due to the collision in two plates—the Indian plate in the south and the Eurasian plate in the north. The internal forces have strongly been active since its genesis, leading to high magnitude earthquakes. The Uttarakhand Himalaya, an integral part of the Himalaya, has also been facing the impediments of the tectonic movements and accumulation of huge and severe tremors. 6.2 Terrestrial Disasters 81

Table 6.1 Earthquakes of Affected area Magnitude Frequency Uttarakhand (Since 1803) Badrinath (1803) 9 1 Pauri (1809) 9 1 Gangotri (1816) 7 1 Nainital (1869) 6 1 Dharchula (1916) 6.3–7.5 4 Dehradun (1937) 8 1 Uttarkashi (1991–2013) 2.5–6.6 18 Chamoli (1999–2012) 3.1–6.8 10 Indo-China Border (2006–2011) 3.8–5.2 4 Bageshwar (2006–2012) 2.6–4.7 6 Indo-Nepal Border (2006–2013) 2.9–5.0 6 Rudraprayag (2008 and 2013) 3.5–4.3 2 Uttarakhand (2009–2010) 3.9–3.4 4 Pithoragarh (2010–2012) 3–4.7 3 Almora (2010–2011) 3.6–4.1 3 Source Satendra (2003), India’s Meteorological Department (2013)

The Uttarakhand Himalaya falls under IV and V earthquake zones in India’s earthquake zoning map (DMMC 2012a, b). It has received a number of catastrophic earthquakes during the past. However, the two major earthquakes of Uttarkashi (1991) and Chamoli (1999) have resulted in killing of 874 people (DMMC 2012a, b). So far, the whole Uttarakhand Himalaya has observed 11 earthquakes of magnitute greater than 6.0 on the Richer Scale during the last century, which shows high vulnerability of earthquakes (Satendra 2003). In a nutshell, Uttarakhand has received 65 earthquakes of varying intensity since 1803, as the India Meteorology Department has reported (2013). Table 6.1 shows some of the major earthquakes that have occurred in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The Uttarakhand Himalaya falls under earthquake zones IV and V (Fig. 6.2). An analysis on frequency and magnitude of earthquakes that occurred from 1803 to 2013 was carried out. The frequency of earthquakes has been increasing largely however, their magnitude has been decreasing. The highest magnitude of earthquake was nine, which occurred in both 1803 in Badrinath and 1809 in Pauri. Gangotri earthquake (1816) had high magnitude (7) while, magnitude was six of the Nainital earthquake (1869). There were four earthquakes of 6.3–7.5 magnitudes in Dharchula (1916). Uttarkashi received 18 tremors of earthquakes of 2.5–6.6 magnitudes from 1991 to 2013. Chamoli district has also received 10 tremors of earthquake of 3.1–6.8 magnitudes. Indo-Nepal border and Bageshwar have received 6 tremors of 2.6–5.0 magnitudes each, whereas, Indo-China Border has received 4 tremors of 3.8–5.2 magnitudes. Almora, Pithoragarh and Rudraprayag have also received tremors of 3–4 magnitude, 3 to 2 times. 82 6 Increasing Events of Disasters

Fig. 6.2 Earthquake zoning map of Uttarakhand. Source By author

The author observed that the frequency of earthquakes has increased and earth- quakes’ magnitude has decreased between 1999 and 2013. Further, there were 54 inci- dences of earthquakes that have occurred within a short period of time (2006–2013) with magnitude ranging from 2.5 to 5.2. On the other hand, between 1803 and 1999, 11 earthquakes of 6 to 9 magnitudes were occurred. After the Kathmandu earthquake of 2015, the Uttarakhand Himalaya has been receiving frequent tremors of various magnitudes. Data clearly shows that enormous earthquake tremors are accumulating due to high frequency of earthquakes although, their magnitude is low. It further shows that huge accumulation of earthquake tremors may produce potential future earthquakes. Uttarakhand has two major thrusts—Central Boundary Thrust (CBT) and Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), which have the potential to invite the future earthquake catastrophe. Since, the tectonic movements are quite active along the thrust and the Indian plate is moving towards the north at 40–45 mm/year therefore, potential of an earthquake occurring is very high. Human interference with nature in the fragile slope of the Himalaya has further accentuated severity of earthquakes. Construction of multi-stories building in Tarai and Doon plains and Shivalik hills is adding risk to disasters. 6.3 Atmospheric Disasters 83

6.3 Atmospheric Disasters

6.3.1 Cloudburst Triggered Flashfloods and Debris Flow

Cloudburst can be defined as an extreme amount of precipitation (heavy rainfall) within a short span of time and in a specific place (Sati 2007). Often, it occurs along with hail and wind/thunderstorm. There have been a number of cloudburst incidences occurring from time immemorial however, their intensity and frequency have increased during the recent pasts. Cloudburst triggers to flashflood and debris flow along the hill slops and river valleys and devastates the landscape, economic avenues and kills humans. This takes place mainly during the monsoon season, when the Uttarakhand Himalaya receives heavy rain, and flashfloods and debris flow are frequent and intensive. Landscape vulnerability and fragility adds severity in flash- floods and debris flow. In Uttarakhand, human settlements are located mainly in the mid-altitude slopes and in the river valleys, which are most influenced by flash- floods and debris flow. A survey conducted by DMMC 2012 on the major cloudburst incidences between 2002 and 2012 shows that the cloudburst incidences have an increasing trend. Further, the report reveals that cloudburst-triggered disasters killed thousands of people and destroyed huge property every year. Table 6.2 shows the major flashfloods/debris flows events in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Although, there have been a number of cloudburst triggered flashfloods and debris-flow events in the entire Uttarakhand Himalaya yet, only the major events have been discussed here, which had high magnitude. The author noticed that the districts, which are mountainous and remote affected the most. Equally, the river val- leys are also worst affected. In 2013, the highly affected districts of flashfloods/debris flow were Chamoli, Bageshwar, Pithoragarh, Rudraprayag and Uttarkashi. All these districts fall within the Seismic Zone V (GoU 2013). It has been noticed that the Alaknanda River and its tributaries have received outnumbered flashfloods/debris- flows events. It is seconded by the Yamuna River and its tributaries. In the Kumaon Himalaya, the river valleys of the Ram Ganga, Koshi, Saryu and Gomati have also been affected by the cloudburst-triggered flashfloods/debris flow. The major flashfloods/debris flows that have occurred in the Uttarakhand Himalaya and that have devastated the entire river valleys are Karnprayag (1989) in the Alaknanda River, Uttarkashi (1991) in the Bhagirathi River, Chaukhutia (1994) in the Ram Ganga River, Neelkanth (1997) in the Ganga River, Meykunda (2001) in the Mandakini River, Didihat (2003) in the Kali River, Kapkot (2004 twice) in the Pindar River, Vijaynagar (2005) in the Mandakini River, Didihat (2007) in the Kali River, Joshimath in the Alaknanda River and Munsiyari (2009), Kot (twice) in Pauri, Khatima, Rudrapur and USN (twice), Dehradun, Dhari, Nainital, Jaspur, Karnprayag, Nyalgarh, Pauri, Champawat and Jwalapur (2010), Raipur (Dehradun) and Tuneda [(Bageshwar) (2011)], Asi Ganga Valley, Uttarkashi district (2012) and the entire Uttarakhand Himalaya, mainly Chamoli and Uttarkashi districts (2013). The severity of flashfloods/debris-flow has been increasing after 2013 however, fre- quency of their occurrence is not uniform. 84 6 Increasing Events of Disasters

Table 6.2 Major flashfloods/debris-flow events in the Uttarakhand Himalaya Year Location 1989 Karnprayag 1991 Uttarkashi 1994 Chaukhutia 1997 Neelkanth 2001 Meykunda, Mandakini River 2003 Didihat, Kali River 2004 (twice) Kapkot, Pindar River 2005 Vijaynagar, Mandakini River 2007 Didihat 2009 Joshimath, Alaknanda River, Munsiyari 2010 Kot (Nayar River), Khatima, Rudrapur and Udham Singh Nagar (twice), Dehradun, Dhari, Nainital, Jaspur, Karnprayag, Nyalgarh, Pauri, Champawat and Jwalapur (Haridwar) 2011 Raipur (Dehradun) and Tuneda (Bageshwar) 2012 Asi Ganga Valley, Uttarkashi district 2013 The entire Uttarakhand Himalaya mainly Chamoli and Uttarkashi districts Source SEOC (2011)

6.4 Heavy Rainfall in Uttarakhand

Average rainfall in Uttarakhand during Monsoon season, mainly from July to Septem- ber, was recorded as 2,566 mm between 2000 and 2013 (Table 6.3). The Uttarak- hand Himalaya received heavy rain, varying from 3,265.5 mm (highest) in 2013 to 2,026 mm (lowest) in 2004, which resulted in the occurrence of a number of flash- floods, debris flow and other hydrological disasters (Sati 2013; Sati 2018). In 2010, rainfall touched 3,253.5 mm digits, the second highest during the given period. Rapid snow melting combined with bursting of natural and man-induced dams, cloudbursts and high velocity further accentuate the intensity of flashfloods.

6.5 Landslides and Mass-Movements

Landslides and Mass-wasting/movements are the active forces in the hills and moun- tainous mainland of the Uttarakhand Himalaya (MoEF 2011) whereas, Tarai, Bhab- har and Doon valley are prone to floods and water logging. Landslide disasters mainly occur during the monsoon period when the entire Uttarakhand Himalaya receives heavy downpour. Along with landslides, slope failures or land subsidence is common, causing loss of human and animal lives, damage to infrastructure (roads and build- 6.5 Landslides and Mass-Movements 85

Table 6.3 Heavy rainfall in Year Rainfall (mm) Dehradun, Uttarakhand Himalaya 2000–2013 2000 2,562.8 2001 2,328.5 2004 2,026.8 2005 2,169.2 2007 2,631.7 2008 2,457.2 2010 3,253.5 2011 2,688.5 2012 2,277.7 2013 3,265.2 Average 2,566 Source http://utrenvis.nic.in/data/climate/utta/pdf

Fig. 6.3 A & B Massive landslides near Kaliasaur along the river Alaknanda. Photo By author ing), and destruction of agriculture land and ecosystems. These also cause land and environmental degradation. They can further aggravate environmental degradation, if aspects of developmental activities are not adequately addressed. A study finds that the landslides are particularly common in Uttarakhand along two zones, lying in close proximity of the two major tectonic discontinuities—MBT and MCT (DMMC Report 2012a, b). The incidences of landslides and mass-movements can be seen every year during the monsoon season. Although, landslides are very common in the entire Himalayan region yet, they are mainly concentrated along the river valleys, road sides and steep slopes, where landscape vulnerability/fragility is high. Varuna- vat mass-movement, Harmony mass-movement and Kaliyasaur landslide (Fig. 6.3) are the severe ones, worst and old. Both Garhwal and Kumaon Himalayas have been affected by severe landslides and mass movements for time immemorial. I have listed herewith some of the most dev- astating landslides and mass-movements of the Uttarakhand Himalaya (Table 6.4). 86 6 Increasing Events of Disasters

Table 6.4 Major landslides and mass-movements in the Uttarakhand Himalaya Year River basin/place 1867 and 1880 Nainital 1893 Alaknanda River 1968 Rishi Ganga River 1970 Patal Ganga 1971 Kanauldia Gad, Alaknanda River 1978 Uttarkashi, Bhagirathi River 1920, 1952, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, Kaliasaur, Alaknanda River 1972, 1985 1998 Ukhimath Mandakini River 1998 Malpa, Kali River 2003 Varunavat, Bhagirathi River 2004 Badrinath, Vishnu Ganga 2005 Govind , Vishnu Ganga 2007 Dharchula, Kali River 2008 Amru Band 2009 Pithoragarh, Kali River 2010 Bhagirathi-Alaknanda valleys 2012 Ukhimath Mandakini Valley Source NDMA (2009)

Among them, Nainital (1867 and 1880), the Alaknanda River (1893), the Rishi Ganga River (1968), the Patal Ganga (1970), the Kanauldia Gad, a tributary of the Alaknanda River (1971), Uttarkashi (1978) along the Bhagirathi River, Kaliasaur (11 times since 1920 and it is continued), Ukhimath (1998) along the Mandakini River, Malpa (1998) along the Kali River, Varunavat (2003) along the Bhagirathi River, Badrinath (2004) and Govind Ghat (2005) along the Vishnu Ganga, Dharchula (2007) along the Kali River, Amru Bend (2008), Pithoragarh (2009) along the Kali River, the Bhagirathi- Alaknanda valleys (2010) and Ukhimath (2012) along the Mandakini River valley are prominent. Landslides, which had struck in the Madhmaheshwar and the Kali Ganga valleys, killed 103 people in August 1998 ((DMMC Report 2012a, b). In Phata and Gad areas (2001) and in Badrinath (2004), 20 and 16 people died, respec- tively due to landslides. After 2013, with an interval of a year or so, rainfall intensity increased and owing to it, landslides and mass-movements incidences also increased. Further, a number of development projects—hydroelectricity, road construction and institutional and business avenues—are increasing every year in Uttarakhand, accen- tuating magnitude of landslides and mass-movements. The upper layer of soil in the Uttarakhand Himalaya is very fragile gets easily eroded by heavy rainfall. At the top of hills or mountains, erosion starts along the slopes and leads to landslides/mass- movements. 6.5 Landslides and Mass-Movements 87

Fig. 6.4 Death toll due to landslides in the Gangotri National High way, Uttarkashi District. Source Compiled by author

Landslides, along the roads in the Gangotri National High Way, have caused to number of death (Fig. 6.4). In 1995, total death tolls were 70. From 2005 to 2010, the death toll reached to 128. Up to September 2018, total death tolls were reached to 51. The same situation prevails throughout the mountainous mainland, along the major road heads. Tourists and pilgrims visit the tourist destinations and the highland pilgrimages during the summer season, when heavy rainfall occurs. Roads are constructed along the fragile slopes and along the rivers, where the landslide incidences have been increasing every year.

6.6 Avalanches and GLOF

Hemkund, Badrinath, Kedarnath, Yamunotri and Gangotri are avalanches prone areas of Uttarakhand. Avalanches with an altitude of more than 3,500 m and with a slope of more than 30 degrees are quite common. They occur in both summer (south facing) and winter (north facing) according to the slope aspects. Avalanches were observed in the years—2008, 2010 and 2013, causing landscape destruction and killing people (some of them were Army personnel). The Uttarakhand Himalaya has about 1,474 glaciers, which are spread in 21,841 km2 area (Chap. 2). These glaciers have produced 1,266 lakes. There are about 809 supra glacial lakes found in Garhwal region, which will be affected the most in any future outburst. Although, Himachal Pradesh has double number of glaciers than Uttarakhand yet, glacial lakes are outnumbered in Uttarakhand. In the meantime, the glacial lakes are increasing and they are being potential threats to future 88 6 Increasing Events of Disasters catastrophes. The severity of Kedarnath disaster has increased due to the outburst of glacial lake lying on the upslope of Kedarnath.

6.7 Droughts

Droughts are not much influential in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, mainly in the mid- altitudes and the highlands, because of the presence of high humidity throughout the year and their close vicinity with the Greater Himalaya. The highlands and the mid- altitudes grow traditional cereals. The author observed that when the entire India was facing drought in 1987, Uttarakhand enjoyed substantial crop production (Sati and Kumar 2004). Droughts are mainly confined to the valley regions, where agriculture is rainfed, because of comparatively high temperature and variability. Further, the areas in the river valleys have irrigation facilities that are adequate hence, the impact of draughts is less.

6.8 Thunder/Wind/Hailstorms

During the summer season, mainly in the months of April, May and June, thun- der/windstorms are frequent and intensive, which are resulted in severe landscape degradation and also causing forest fires. Uttarakhand has received a number of dev- astating thunder/windstorms during the past. The intensity of windstorms is very severe, damaging mainly the forest areas and human settlements. Hailstorms during the same period are intensive and active hence, causing damage to Rabi crop, mainly wheat. During the period, when windstorms are active, wheat crop is harvested. It is also a time of flowering of nut fruits such as peach, plum, apricot, almond and walnut in the Uttarakhand Himalaya.

6.9 Manmade Disasters

6.9.1 Forest Fires

Forest fires have been a common phenomenon attributed to manmade and acciden- tal. Its intensity may continue to increase due to rising temperatures and warming. Forest fires are the most devastating disaster in Uttarakhand, mainly caused by anthro- pogenic activities. More than 95% of the forest fires are anthropogenic and the rest (5%) is caused by natural reasons i.e. lightning and extreme rise in the tempera- ture, which is very rare (Satendra and Kaushik 2014). The low rains with dry spell in winter also lead to early forest fires in the state (Dobriyal and Bijalwan 2016). 6.9 Manmade Disasters 89

Whatever the reasons of forest fire are, it causes adverse ecological, economic and social effects worldwide (Kinnaird and Brien 1998; Butry et al. 2001). Globally, forest fires are considered to be one amongst the major drivers of climate change that have caused adverse impacts on the Earth and its environment, as fire produces a large amount of trace gases and aerosol particles, and impacts severely on the floral and faunal species (Hao et al. 1996; Fearnside 2000; Crutzen and Andreae 1990). It affects and shapes the terrestrial systems and plant community. Forest fires cause wide ranging adverse ecological, economic and social impacts (Upadhyay 2016). Further, human action disrupts them and accentuates their frequency and intensity (Sugihara et al. 2006). Although, fires have been the primary agents of deforestation yet, as a natural process, these serve as an important function in maintaining the health of certain ecosystems. These also result in maintaining a dynamic mosaic of different vegetation structures and compositions. The fire ranges across the Himalayan terrain and along the dense forests of various types, which are the home to animals like bears and tigers, thousands of butterflies and insects, and, of course, hundreds of human communities. About 55% forest area in India is subjected to fire each year, causing an economic loss of over 4.4 billion rupees,1 apart from other ecological affects. A report from the FSI 2015 has estimated that 1.45 million ha of forests in India are affected by fires annually and 6.17% forests are prone to severe fire damage (Gubbi 2003; FSI 2001). Uttarakhand state has about 33,918.91 sq km area under forest, which is 63.42% of the total geographical area (53,483 sq. km.), of which 68.1% forests come under forest department, 19.3% under Van Panchayat, 12.5% under revenue department and 0.4% under municipality and cantonment. Forest types vary from broad leaf deciduous forests in the Shivalik hills to dense pine forests in the middle altitudes, and oak and coniferous forests in the high altitudes (Fig. 6.4). A vast tract of forestland, ranging between 1,000 and 1,800 m, is covered by pine Chir2 (Pinus roxburghii) forests, which possesses about 15% of Uttarakhand’s geographical area and shades about 2.4 million tonnes Pirul3 every year (Thadani et al. 2015). In terms of frequency, generally forest fires take place in a cycle of 2–5 years, while 11% of forests of the region experience fires every year (Semwal et al. 2003). Out of the total forestland, about 4,000 sq km forestland is highly sensitive to forest fires. A report of the SFD shows that 287 forest compartments are so sensitive that they received four to 10 times forest fires from 2005 to 2015. Further, out of total 1,133 forest beats4 in Uttarakhand, 70 beats are highly sensitive, 210 beats are medium sensitive and 853 beats are sensitive. Forest fires, coinciding with hot summer, is crucial between the months of March and June (120 days approximately) and the period is called ‘fire season’ (Bahuguna and Singh 2002). This is the time, when the valleys and middle altitudes receive heat waves. Broad leaf deciduous forests of the Shivalik hills and pine forests of the middle altitudes are the most

1Rs. 65 is equal to one USD. 2Pinus roxburghii. 3Dry pine leaves. 4Beat is the smallest forest administrative unit. 90 6 Increasing Events of Disasters

Fig. 6.5 Forest fire zones in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source By author prone to forest fires as these forests shed their leaves during the fire season. Further, windstorms are frequent and intensive during the same period that accentuates forest fire intensity (Fig. 6.5).

6.10 Forest Fires Sensitive Zones

Pine forests dominate in Uttarakhand, distributed between 800 and 1,600 m in the downstream river valleys and mid-altitudes. During the recent past, pine forests have invaded mixed oak forests up to 1,800 m. Distribution of sensitive forest fires zones in the Uttarakhand Himalaya lie along the pine forests from west (Dehradun/Uttarkashi) to east (Champawat/USN). Forest fires zones have been categorized into three sub- zones—sensitive, moderately sensitive and most sensitive (Fig. 6.6). The most sensi- tive forest fires zones lie in the parts of Dehradun, Tehri, Pauri, Almora, Nainital and Chamoli districts. Sensitive fires zones lie in Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Pauri, Almora, Nainital and USN districts at the altitude of 1,400 m. Moderately sensitive forest fires zones lie in Uttarkashi, lower parts of Rudraprayag, Haridwar, Pauri, Nainital, Bageshwar, Champawat and USN districts. A study on natural springs of Uttarak- hand shows that above 250 springs have dried up during the recent past. They are 6.10 Forest Fires Sensitive Zones 91

Fig. 6.6 Forest fires sensitive zones of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source Re-digitalized by author, basic source FSI 2016 located mainly in Dehradun, Pauri, Almora, Tehri, Nainital and USN, which are the most sensitive forest fires zones. The natural springs have dried up mainly in the river valleys and the mid-altitudes.

6.11 District Wise Forest Fires Incidences

District wise forest fires incidences (2005–2015) in the Uttarakhand Himalaya are described (Fig. 6.7). The highest number of incidences were noticed in Pauri dis- trict (2,364), followed by Nainital (1,693) and Tehri (1,106) districts. Meanwhile, Pithoragarh district has the lowest number of incidences of forest fires, followed by Rudraprayag (277) and Bageshwar (367) districts. In other districts such as Chamoli, Almora, Uttarkashi, Dehradun, USN, Champawat and Hardwar, numbers of forest fire incidences were between 397 and 891 numbers. SFD report of 2017 indicated that during the months of Feb, March and April, there were 202-forest fires incidences noticed in the Uttarakhand Himalaya (46 in the Shivaliks/valleys and 156 in the middle altitudes), which have affected about 286 ha forestland, killed 10 wild lives and caused to a loss of Rs. 355,000. Here, as an average, 2,200 ha forestland is getting destroyed every year due to forest fires, since 92 6 Increasing Events of Disasters

Fig. 6.7 District wise forest fires incidences based on FSI fire monitoring system (2005–2015). Source SFD, 2017 the last decades. A report of the National Remote Sensing Agency (2000) indicated that the forest fires of 1999 season in the hills of Kumaon and Garhwal Himalayas have influenced around 22.64% of the forest area (5,085.6 sq km) of which, 1,225 sq km was severely burnt.

6.12 Forest Fires Affected Areas and Rainfall

We collected data of forest fires affected areas (ha) and rainfall (mm) in Uttarakhand (2000–2017) and analyzed them (Fig. 6.8). It was noticed that forest fires were the highest between 2002 and 2005, 2008–2009 and 2016–17. However, rainfall was the lowest during the same period. On the other, forest fires were the lowest in 2000, 2006, 2011 and 2013 whereas, rainfall was the highest during the same years. It means that the amount of rain, the region receives, is greatly influenced forest fires’ frequency and intensity. A regression model (curve estimation) was employed to establish correlation between rainfall and forest fires. The result shows that higher the rainfalls, lower are the forest fires incidences and lower the rainfalls, higher are the forest fires incidences. Fire season is dry; its severity increases if the preceding winter season receives less precipitation. Further, annual variability in precipitation is high and it leads to the seasonal variation in intensity and frequency of forest fires. I observed significant correlation (0.765 r-value) between temperature/rainfall and forest fires (Fig. 6.9). Further, the author used descriptive statistics to analyze fire incidences’ frequency and affected compartments between 2000 and 2017. Mean value of fire incidences’ frequency was 8.13, with the maximum value of 16 and the minimum value of one. 6.12 Forest Fires Affected Areas and Rainfall 93

Fig. 6.8 Forest fires affected areas (ha) and rainfall (mm) in Uttarakhand (2000–2017). Source SFD and meteorological department

Fig. 6.9 A regression model (curve estimation) correlating intensity of rainfall and forest fires incidences. Source By author

In terms of affected compartments, mean value was 140.53, with the maximum value of 725 and the minimum value of one. It shows high severity of forest fires. Forest fires have raised average temperature by 0.2 degree Celsius, resulting in faster snow melting and erratic rainfalls (Sangal 2016). A report from the Parliamentary Committee on forest fires in Uttarakhand (2016) indicates that one of the reasons of forest fires is decreasing humidity in the forest areas. Further, the state is lacking 94 6 Increasing Events of Disasters modern fire control instruments. Jhanpa5 is used to blow out the fire. About 30% posts of forest guards and forest inspectors are laying vacant (Dainik Jagran 2017). Hot summers, erratic rainfall and longer dry spells have further accelerates forest fires intensity (Chaudhary 2018). The local people burn community forests and grasslands, and it spreads in the surrounding forest areas. Apart from these drivers, forest mafias are also responsible for forest fires as they get clearance of cutting forests easily after forest firess. After formation of Uttarakhand as a separate state, forest fires incidences have increased (Tolia 2016).

Case Study 6.1 On the ill-fated night of 16th and morning of 17th June 2013, the entire Uttarak- hand Himalaya received cloudburst (heavy downpour) that led to flashfloods and debris flow in almost all the river basins, which devastated the entire land- scape, killed above 10,000 people, affected 4,200 villages, lost 11,091 livestock and damaged 2,513 houses (The State Government report on 09 May 2014). The river valleys—Yamuna, Bhagirathi, Mandakini, Pindar, Alaknanda and their numerous tributaries were inundated, flowed over danger mark. wash- ing away the settlements along the river valleys. The Ganga River flew above the danger marks in Rishikesh and Haridwar pilgrimages. Among districts of Uttarakhand, Bageshwar,Chamoli, Pithoragarh, Rudraprayag and Uttarkashi were the worst affected. The river Mandakini and Vishnu Ganga devastated the Kadar and Badris valleys, respectively. One of the highland pilgrimages of the Uttarakhand Himalaya—the Kedarnath Town was completely devastated by torrential rains, coupled with the collapse of the Chorabari Lake (a glacial fed lake). Numbers of tourists, who were staying at Kedarnath and who were on the way to the pilgrimage were drowned due to the flashflood. Even, dead bodies were seen in the Ganga flowing near Allahabad city. On the way, set- tlements, bridges, animals and business avenues also drowned along the river valleys. It had a severe impact on the river valleys’ hydropower projects—on going and completed. About 80 ha forestland, 1,000 km length of forest roads and about 2,500 km bridle paths were damaged. The whole incident is termed as ‘the Himalayan Tsunami’. The Pindar River, which flows in both Bageshwar and Chamoli districts of Kumaon and Garhwal Himalayas, is highly vulnerable to the climate-induced disasters. Originating from the Pindari Glacier of Bageshwar district, it flows 120 km and inlet into the Alaknanda River at Karnprayag in Chamoli Dis- trict. Throughout its course, the landscape is highly fragile, where a number of landslides occur every year. Monsoon rain is a curse for the whole river basin. During the monsoon season, it turns into a youthful state (violent), flows over danger marks and devastates the settlements, agriculture land and other economic avenues that fall along its course.

5Broom made of green stems and leaves. 6.12 Forest Fires Affected Areas and Rainfall 95

On June 2013, like other parts of the Uttarakhand Himalaya, the Pindar valley received cloudburst-triggered flashfloods that affected the entire valley regions. The worst place was Narainbagar Town/Village (Fig. 6.10). Located on both sides of the Pindar River, Narainbagar is a service centre, known for the temple of Lord Narayana and Shiva. Kewer Gadhera (a perennial stream) meets with the Pindar River on its left bank here. From June 14, 2013, heavy downpour occurred in the entire river basin. The Pindar River and all its tributaries were inundated and it continued until a part of Narainbagar Town/Village was washed away. On the night of 16th June, the river was flowing above danger marks and suddenly it turned its course towards its right bank and started eroding its courses. Within few hours, a large part of town and village settlements, along with agricultural land drowned. Above 20 shops/settlements, and 10 ha agricultural land was destroyed. A bridge which connected the villages located on both sides of the Pindar River was fully washed away. The narrow Pindar River has become wide after flashflood. About 800 m of motor road was collapsed after a landslide. It has manifested to acute impediments such as communication, connectivity and occupation, which the people are facing until today. On May 3, 2018 cloudburst triggered landslide and flashfloods devastated, once again a part of Narainbagar Town and damaged half km road and busi- ness avenues. Several vehicles were drowned. The town was cut off from the main stream for several days and people living in the town and surrounding villages faced acute problems. The whole town has now collapsed. Cloudburst- triggered flashflood events are the most frequent along the river.

6.13 Increasing Trends of Disasters

Unusual climate change and its repercussions such as erratic rainfall, retreating glaciers and increase in GLOF events are the major natural factors that acceler- ate disastrous events in the Himalaya. Among anthropogenic factors, illegal human activities, setting up of hydroelectricity power projects and illegal mining are dom- inant. Climate scientists have noticed that the Himalaya is warming at a higher rate than the global average (IPCC 2007;Duetal.2004) and its impact can be seen as an increase in frequency and intensity of natural disasters (Holeman 1984; Asthana and Asthana 2014). Being the youngest tectonically active mountain chain, the Himalayan Mountain receives continuous internal stress, resulting in unstable and fractured rocks. The area is more prone to disasters because of its complex geological factors. Geologi- cal/tectonic features like Himalayan Frontal Fault, MBT, MCT and Trans Himalayan 96 6 Increasing Events of Disasters

Fig. 6.10 a Massive landslide between Narainbagar and Tharalibagar b Flashflood in the Pindar River at Narainbagar town. Photo By author

Thrust are common. Along with this, faults and shear zones make the whole Uttarak- hand very active and unstable, tectonically (NIDM 2013). Prior to cloudburst in Kedarnath valley of Uttarakhand Himalaya in June 2013, it received an abnormal rise in atmospheric temperature and consequent release of heat (Mukherjee 2014). Therefore, it has been a well established fact that rises in tempera- ture has accentuated the magnitude of natural disasters in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Rock/soil condition, over burden materials such as moraine (glacier deposit), highly weather rock (Schist), topography and slope angle largely affect the intensity of dis- asters. Further, there has been a connection between the Himalaya, Ganges plain and climatic regime of the entire region due to global warming.

6.14 Major Causes and Implications of Disasters

The Himalaya is very sensitive and prone to natural disasters due to complex geolog- ical settings. The various tectonic features like thrust, faults and shear zones are very common here. These features are tectonically more active and unstable. Increasing pressure of the Indo-Australian plate is activating these thrusts and other associated tectonic features, making the region geologically unstable, fragile and prone to nat- ural disasters, according to the Plate Tectonic Theory. Uttarakhand, as an integral part of the Himalaya, has similar features and as a result, it is highly prone to natural disasters. The Himalaya is a young mountain range and its formation is continuously going on. Its landscape is fragile, unstable, and thus, it is more prone to natural disasters. Besides natural factors causing high vulnerability, human-induced developmen- tal activities have equal responses, rather causing more vulnerability. Irrational and unscientific development in the fragile ecosystems such as quarrying, construction roads, hydropower projects, changing land use pattern, deforestation, mushrooming 6.14 Major Causes and Implications of Disasters 97 of urban centres along the fragile course of rivers have accelerated the natural dis- asters. Poor socio-economic conditions in the remote areas also determine disaster vulnerability. Low production and yield of crops from the farming often leads to the movement of people from the rural areas to the urban centres of the river valleys, which are highly susceptive to natural hazards. The poor people do not have alternatives to construct settlements in safe sides. The condition of houses is critical and they cannot cope with natural disasters. Low income capacity of the poor forces them to settle in the hazardous and more vulnerable areas. Poverty and deprivation further enhance vulnerability of poor people. In the events of flashfloods, landslides and earthquakes, poor housing structures result in more damage and loss of lives. However, majority of these houses, consisting of mud, un-burnt bricks walls and stonewalls, are more vulnerable and likely to get severely damaged or collapsed during moderate intensity earthquakes, landslides and flashfloods (DMMC 2012a, b). Mounting population on the fragile slopes puts more pressure and increases human vulnerability to natural disasters. Population density has increased from 159 in 2001 to 189 in 2011 and the total population of the State had reached 100.86 lakh in 2011, which is about 16 lakh more than 2001. Growing tourism activity is causing more vulnerability. In Uttarakhand, toruism sector contributes about 25% to the GDP. The majority of tourists visit during the summer season (May-July), when heavy monsson rain occurs, further enhancing vulnerability. The livelihods of 83,320 households from the worst flood affected districts—Bageshwar, Chamoli, Pihtoragarh, Uttarkashi and Rudraprayag—depend on tourist sector (JRDNA 2013). Developmental activities lead to vulnerability, mainly in the mountainous areas where landscape is fragile and highly susceptival. Heavy road construction, change in agricultural practices, large-scale hydroelectricity projects have led to land degra- dation and deforestation, further accentuating the vulnerability aspects of the region. Change in forest structure and human encroachment have caused threat to the natural habitats of wildlife. It has resulted in forcing wildlife to enter into the human settlements and consequently, it has become havoc to humans, resulting in loss of crops and death of people. A report from the Parliamentary Committee set up by the Government of India to review human-wildlife conflict depicted that wildlife has damaged crops from 30 to 70% and killed a number of people. Monkeys, boars and leopards are among the main wildlife in this region.

6.15 Prevention and Mitigation Measures

Keeping the high fragility and vulnerability of landscape in mind, there is a need to follow the best practices in the landslide stabilization techniques, including eco- logical and bioengineering solutions. Hazard mapping and assessments, real time monitoring, evaluating the economic impacts of landslides, training, and most impor- 98 6 Increasing Events of Disasters tantly public awareness and education are the suitable measures to be adopted to reduce climate-induced hazards in the mountainous mainland of the Himalaya. Proper implementation of catchment area treatment plan, including stabilizing land- slide/slip prone areas, reservoirs, rim treatment works and plantation can avoid or reduce landslide vulnerability. Policy measures and public awareness campaigns are required for the post-disaster reconstruction activities in the affected areas. Long- term livelihood security measures, natural resources management and development of religious tourism are the measures that can be used to reduce natural disasters vulnerability. The roads are the only means of surface transportation due to the hilly terrain. Construction of roads on the fragile rugged terrain is risky. Whenever a new road is constructed, chances of occurrence of landslides and landslips increase. Road construction through bridges and tunnels will reduce landslide risk although, it is expensive. In the mountainous regions of the developed world, where similar natural conditions prevail, development of road and rail transportation is substantial and technologically advanced. Similar technology can be used in the Uttarakhand Himalaya for the better development of transportation and risk reduction. To avoid casualties, construction of settlements should be done in the safe side, not along the streams and rivers.

References

Asthana AKL, Asthana H (2014) Geomorphic control of cloudbrusts and flash floods in Himalaya with special reference to Kedarnath area of Uttarakhand, India. Int J Adv Earth Env Sci 2(1):16–24 Bahuguna VK, Singh S (2002) Fire situation in India. Int For Fire News 26: (23–27) Butry DT, Mercer DE, Prestemon JP (2001) J For 99(11):9–17 Chaudhary Juhi (2018) India Climate Dialogue, Hindustan Times (4.4.2018) Crutzen PJ, Andreae MO (1990) Science 250:1669–1678 Dainik Jagran (2017) A daily newspaper, Garhwal edition, published in Dehradun 10th April, 2017 DMMC Report (2012) State disaster management action plan for the state of Uttarakhand. Disas- ter mitigation and management centre, Uttarakhand Secretariat, Rajpur Road, Dehradun. http:// dmmc.uk.gov.in/files/pdf/complete_sdmap.pdf DMMC Report (2012) Seismic retrofitting of lifeline structures in Uttarakhand—a report. Disaster mitigation and management centre, GoU, Uttarakhand Secretariat, Dehradun, Uttarakhand. http:// dmmc.uk.gov.in/files/seismic_retrofitting_english.pdf Dobriyal MJR, Bijalwan A (2016) Why cutting down Chirpine is not a solution to Uttarakhand forest fires. Down to Earth.Blog Du MY, Kawashima S, Yonemura S, Zhang XZ, Chen SB (2004) Mutual influence between human activities and climate change in the tibetan plateau during recent years, Global and Planetary Change (41) Fearnside PM (2000) Clim Change 46:115–158 FSI (2001) State of the forest report, forest survey of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests, GoI GoU (2013) Uttarakhand disaster recovery project (P146653) world bank assisted: Environmental and social management framework, draft, September 2013, p 6 Gubbi S (2003) Deccan Herald. http://wildlifefirst.info/images/wordfiles/fire.doc (accessed Jan 2004) Hao WM, Ward DW, Olbu G, Baker SP (1996) J Geophys Res 101:23577–23584 References 99

Holeman JN (1984) Sediment yield of major rivers of the world: rivers and lakes of Xizang (Tibet). Science Press, Beijing India Meteorological Department (2013) Earthquake reports, preliminary list of Earthquakes. http:// www.imd.gov.in/section/seismo/dynamic/welcome.htm accessed on 23 Nov 2013 IPCC (2007) Climate change the physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change JRDNA Report (2013) India-Uttarakhand disaster, June 2013, Joint rapid damage and needs assess- ment report, August 2013. Jointly prepared by Govt. of Uttarakhand, the World Bank and the ADB Kinnaird MF, O’Brien TG (1998) Conserv Biol 12(5):954–956 MoEF (2011) AHEC/2011: Assessment of cumulative impact of hydropower project in Alaknanda and Bhagirathi Basin, Chapter 4. http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/CH-4.pdf Mukherejee S (2014) Extra terrestrial remote sensing and geophysical applications to understand Kedarnath cloudburst in Uttarakhand, India. J Geophys Remote Sens 3(3) NDMA (2009) National disaster management guidelines, management of landslides and snow avalanches, National Disaster Management Authority, New Delhi, pp 130–134 Report on Uttarakhand Disaster (2013) National Institute of Disaster Management, Government of Uttarakhand Sangal PP (2016) Forest fire in Uttarakhand, Financial Express Satendra (2003) Disaster management in the Hills. Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi Satendra, Kaushik AD (2014) Forest fire disaster management. National Institute of Disaster Man- agement, Ministry of Home Affairs, New Delhi, 2014 Satendra AK, Gupta VK, Naik TK, Saha Roy, Sharma AK, Dwivedi M (2014) Uttarakhand disaster 2015. National Institute of Disaster Management, New Delhi, p 184 Sati VP (2007) Environmental impacts of debris flow: a case study of the two debris-flow zones of the Garhwal Himalaya, India. Debris-Flow Hazards Mitigation: Mechanics, Prediction, and Assessment, pp 715–724 Sati VP (2013) Extreme weather related disasters: a case study of two flashfloods hit areas of Badrinath and Kedarnath Valleys, Uttarakhand Himalaya, India. J Earth Sci Eng 3:562–568 Sati VP (2018) Cloudburst triggered natural hazards in Uttarakhand Himalaya: mechanism, pre- vention and mitigation. Int J Geol Environ Eng 12(1): 45–38; 1307–3892 Sati VP, Kumar K (2004) Uttaranchal: dilemma of plenties and scarsities, New Delhi, published by Mittal Publications Semwal R, Chatterjee S, Punetha JC, Pradhan S, Dutta P, Soni S, Sharma S, Singh VP, Malayia A (2003) Forest fires in India, Lessons and Case Studies. WWF, India SEOC (2011) State Emergency Operation Centre, Disaster Management and Mitigation Centre, Govt. of Uttarakhand Sugihara NG, Van Wagtendonk JW, Fites-Kaufman J (2006) Fire in California’s ecosystems. Uni- versity of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA, pp 58–74 Thadani R, Singh V, Chauhan DS, Dwivedi V, Pandey A (2015) Climate change in Uttarakhand. Dehradun: Singh V. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal. Singh Tolia RS (2016) Forest-fire of Uttarakhand, Times of India (4.5.2016) Upadhyay K (2016) Uttarakhand battles fire crisis. The Hindu. Dehradun. 30 April 2016 Part II Cultural Aspects Chapter 7 Change in Culture and Custom

Abstract The Uttarakhand Himalaya is known for celebrating its traditional and colourful fairs and festivals throughout the year. People mainly belong to Shaiv cult, worship Lord Shiva and Goddess Shakti. They are also nature’s lover, which is reflected while celebrating fairs and festivals. Pilgrimages to the Himalaya are the centuries old practices, which has been conserving local culture since time immemo- rial. Recently, the modern cultural waves blown from within and outside of India have largely influenced the culture of Uttarakhand. The people of Uttarakhand are quite adaptive to absorb the influence of other culture, because they are innocent. The river valleys and tourists’ resorts are much affected due to modern mass cultural waves.

Keywords Culture · Custom · Folklore · Caste system · Shaivism · Pilgrimages · Cultural change

The Uttarakhand Himalaya has a rich cultural heritage. The presence of mighty Himalayan ranges, huge perennial rivers and their valleys, spectacular landforms, and rich faunal and floral resources have a direct influence on its culture and thus, the folk has been performing culture, keeping these natural entities in mind, for centuries. It is evident from the fact that the folk worship all the natural entities as folk deities. The Himalaya itself is an abode of Lord Shiva therefore, the cultural importance of the Himalaya is significant. The culture of Himalaya has its root deep into the nature in the form of trees, water and land, and the folk perform everyday duties, adapting them and walk according to their rhythm. It won’t be considered as an exaggeration to say that the folk of the region go close with the nature and follow nature’s law routinely. On the one hand, the magnitude of performing culture, rituals and customs vary according to time and space. On the other hand, the seasons change the colourful bend of culture, rituals and customs. Overall, culture and nature go nick and nick, and people perform all rituals accordingly. However, the traditional culture and custom have received significant change during the past several decades. Modern cultural waves that have been drawing from the plain areas of Indian sub-continent and abroad are comparatively more advanced and have transformed the traditional culture. The people of the Himalayan region are innocent as they live in the remote areas and they have less interaction with the mainstream people of country. In the meantime, they are much more vulnerable

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 103 V. P. Sati, Himalaya on the Threshold of Change, Advances in Global Change Research 66, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14180-6_7 104 7 Change in Culture and Custom to change. Although, adaptation is the basic characteristic of humans yet, it has a substantial impact on the Himalayan people, whose dwelling lie in the remotest areas. In fact, the modern mass-tourism and development of infrastructural facilities have brought a tremendous change in folk culture, rituals and customs of the Himalayan region. The Himalaya is an abode of the world famous pilgrimages and natural locales of touristic interest, where a number of pilgrims and tourists visit every year. The highlands and the river valleys pilgrimages are the places of salvation for the exodus Hindu devotees, as they believe that visiting these pilgrimages help in getting rid of the cycle of birth and death (Sati 2018). Pilgrimage tourism on the other hand has strengthened the culture and rituals of the Himalaya. In the course of time and along with invasion of mass-tourism, mainly in the form of adventure tourism i.e. river rafting, mountaineering and trekking and other forms, have brought tremendous changes in all the respects of culture—food habit, clothing, lifestyle, languages and ceremonies. The waves of changes have reached even in the remotest areas. The intensity and frequency of traditional rituals, fairs and festivals have lessened. An enormous change in culture has been noticed, mainly along the river valleys’ roadsides, and the tourist places and pilgrimages. Increase in numbers of business avenues and service centres along the roadsides have opened shelters to modern cul- tural waves from all around the world that has mixed the traditional folk culture into modern one. I have noticed that these modern cultural waves have largely influenced the traditional rituals. The summer hill resorts also attract huge number of tourists during the summer, when the plain areas of country suffer from heat waves, and all these driving forces have created atmosphere to change cultural regime of the Himalaya.

7.1 Worshiping Nature and Folk Deities

The people of Uttarakhand believe all the natural entities as folk deities. They worship tree—oak, Peepal (Fig. 7.1a), banyan, Tulsi—during various cultural and religious occasions. Doob grass is used in everyday basis while worshiping folk deities. Wood of mango is used in Yagna,offeringtoHavan. Wood is also used in all the occa- sions—from birth to death. Trees’ leaves have their importance in all auspicious occasions. People make garlands of mango, Peepal and Bail leaves and hang them in the entrance doors of their houses. Trees’ leaves, along with flowers, are offered to the God at everyday while worshiping. Summer season is important for livestock rearing communities when they move highlands for rearing their livestock. People worship oak trees and natural springs during the auspicious occasions. Water is offered to the deities. Newly married couples worship the water sources—well, stream and pool—immediately after their marriage. Before taking meal, people of all castes and creeds offer water to the deity. Married women offer water to the moon on the full-moon day for the well-being of their husband and children. People of all groups and genders offer water to the sun early in the morn- ing, when the first rays of sun touch the surface of the Earth. During the 7.1 Worshiping Nature and Folk Deities 105

Fig. 7.1 a A priest offering sari (a colourful cloth) to Lord Shiva at Panti (Pindar valley) b A Peepal tree is worshiped by local people at Narainbagar (Pindar valley) ceremony, the person who performs cremation ritual offers water to their ancestors to make them easier to achieve immortality. On, every auspicious occasion, water is worshiped or it is used to worship the folk deity. People worship agricultural land during sowing and harvesting of crops. They wor- ship land (Bhumi Pujan) during various occasions such as construction of houses, cowsheds or other buildings. Priests use soil during chanting the God. Land is con- sidered as folk deity and is named Bhumial. People believe that Bhumial protects them from the internal and external devil forces. Animals support livelihoods in terms of providing milk and manure, and assist agricultural practices. Animal rearing is a part of culture of people in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Thus, people worship animals in many occasions. On the day of Bagwal (festival of lights), cows and oxen are especially worshiped and people feed them with some delicious meal. Cow has a religious importance, called ‘mother cow’, and it is worshiped at various religious occasions. Cow is given to the bride at the time of her marriage as a gift by the bride’s parents. It is offered to priests in lieu of chanting. When a person dies, cow is offered to him to get rid of the cycle of birth and death. The people of Uttarakhand worship all forms of nature and folk deities, ghosts and Veers. Isht Dev/Devi (Fig. 7.1b), Kul Dev/Devi, Pitri Dev/Devi, Bhumi/Dev Devi and Jungle Devta are the major forms of folk deities. In several places, folk worship ghosts and Veers. They believe that folk deities, ghosts and Veers protect them, their agricultural fields and animals from the adverse situations. I observed that every family has its own folk deity. During any occasion or new events, they offer delicious foods and worship them. New crops are offered to folk deities before their use. There are two occasions when Jungle Devta and ghosts are worshiped. The first one is when any person is frightened and people believe that it is a ghost’s curse. The second occasion is when a newly married woman falls ill in her husband’s house, the family members believe that it is due to the evil souls she brought from her parental village, and then they worship ghosts or the Jungle Devta. Women have a very special relationship with jungles and half of their time is passed in jungles. They go to jungles 106 7 Change in Culture and Custom for collecting fodder for animals, wood for cooking food and for rearing animals. In various occasions, they are alone in the jungle and get scared and then the process of worshiping the Jungle Devta and ghosts begins. Worshiping folk deities is a major part of the day-to-day activities and it is deep routed in culture and tradition of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Every village has its own folk deity—Bhumiyal, every Kutumb has its own—Kul Devi/Dev and every family has its own Isht Devi/Dev, which they worship in all the times and in all the occasions. Whenever, the village people suffer from adverse situations, they worship the folk deities. The form of folk deities varies from one region to other and method of worshiping them varies accordingly. People believe that at the entrance of house, Lord Ganesha resides and in every window of house, Lord Vishnu resides, which they refer in the Jagars (songs that are sung for praising folk deities including ghosts) as ‘Kholi Ka Ganesha and Mori Ka Naraina’.

7.2 Celebrating Fairs and Festivals

People of the Himalayan region walk with the nature’s rhythms and celebrate fairs and festivals according to the changes in nature and seasons. Celebrating fairs and festivals are the important part of their life. Every day is auspicious to perform rituals. Fairs and festivals are also organized with changing months and seasons and at the time of showing seeds, and ripening and harvesting of crops. All the economic activities begin with worshiping the folk deity. Most of the festivals are associated with agriculture, as it is the main occupation and the major source of income. The entire Uttarakhand Himalaya is unique because of its six climate seasons (Ritus), and one or more big fairs and festivals are celebrated in each season. The first season is called the spring season, which falls in the months of March–April. Baishakhi (Fig. 7.2a) is celebrated in most of the parts of the state in this season. Chaitra Navratras (continuous nine days and nights festival) is also celebrated during this season. It is also the time when farmers get almost free from agricultural activities. The second season is the hot season, falls in the months of May and June. It is the time of harvesting the spring wheat crops. People worship the land deity for high production of crops and after harvesting wheat, they worship their folk deity and offer meal made from the new wheat crops. They boil wheat, put salt in it and after offering it to the deity, serve it to the members of the family and neighborhoods. In the end of the season, farmers sow paddy and millets as Kharif crops. Farmers worship the God of rain—Lord Indra for sufficient rain, under the situation of drought. Latu,the male folk deity is also worshiped during the season. Rainy season (the third season) falls in the month of July and August. Heavy rain falls during the months and thus, greenery can be seen everywhere in the state. People celebrate two festivals—Rai Sankranti and Ghee Sankranti in this season. In Rai Sankranti, farmers plant trees on the edges of agricultural fields that show their interest to conserve environment. Ghee Sankranti shows prosperity. Since, milk production is high during rainy season, as fodder for animals is easily available; farmers make several dishes, made of Ghee. 7.2 Celebrating Fairs and Festivals 107

Fig. 7.2 a Doli and Naishan of Kobeshwar Mahadev dancing at Panti, Narainbagar b Pilgrims waiting for the welcoming procession of Shri Nanda Devi Raj Jat. Photo By author

September–October is called the Sharad season. It is the harvesting time of paddy and millets and a flowering season. People prefer marriages of the young boys and girls during the season. Chuida, made of rice is a delicious food, which people eat during the season. Shardey Navratras is the main festival of the time. Along with this, Dasehra and Deepawali are celebrated. November and December is the cold season. People celebrate winter Puja in which the Gods and Goddesses appear in the human body, and this process is called Dev Avataran. It is the time, when snow falls in the upper reaches, often up to 1400 –1600 m. The last season is called the Shishir season, falls in the months of January and February. Magh fair and Uttarayani are the major festivals celebrated throughout the season. Basant Panchami is also celebrated. Ritus and Sankrantis (the first day of each month) have cultural and religious importance in the day-to-day life of people.

7.3 Performing Samskaras

Performing Samskaras are the traditional rituals, the cultural heritage, beginning before the birth of a child to after his death with time intervals. Among them, Namkaran ceremony, Annapras, Akshar Gyan, Chudakaram, Yagyopaveet, Mar- rieage ceremony, cremation ceremony and Barsi (Pitri Bhoj) are the major Sam- skaras, practiced by every family irrespective of any caste or creed, rich or poor. Namkaran ceremony is celebrated on the eleventh day of birth of the child, in which name is given to a newborn baby according to the zodiac location and influence of stars and planets at the time of his birth by the priest. Priest makes Janmakundly, which records the future destiny of a child. Various dishes are cooked and served to the priests and the members of Kutumb. Dhol-Damau is played and the whole family enjoys the occasion. After six months, Annaprasha ceremony is performed. Parents provide cooked food, made of grains, to the child for the very first time. Priest pro- nounces Vedic hymns, worships the folk deity and people of the village participate 108 7 Change in Culture and Custom in the ceremony. Bhoj is served to the members, who participate in the ceremony. Akshar Gyan starts with the word ‘Om’ and the child is taught to pronounce, ‘Om Namah Siddham’. Family members and priest worship Lord Saraswati (Goddess of knowledge) and pronounce Vedic Hymns. In the Chudakaram ceremony, the child’s head’s hair is cut down first time and this ritual is followed by the Yagyopaveet cere- mony at the age of 16 years. Male child wears Janeu on this occasion. He also wears yellow clothes. Priest preaches him about the truth of life. Marriage ceremony is peculiar, celebrated differently in different parts of Uttarakhand. Finally, cremation ceremony and Priti Bhoj are performed. Everyone performs these Samskaras,asthey are the way of life.

7.4 Cultural Processions

Cultural processions are associated with the movement of the folk deities, followed by pilgrims and devotees. This ritual is unique in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, as it is celebrated in every part of the state. People take away folk deities from their native place to the surrounding areas ranging from a day, weeklong to for six months, depending on their custom however, repetition cycles of these processions is not fixed. The cycle of cultural procession is also irregular. In many cases, cultural procession for a folk deity is repeated in 10, 20, 50 or even 300 years. It has been observed that generally, these processions start during the rainy season and end during the winter season. Few processions have a fixed cycle such as the Shri Nanda Devi Rajjat procession (Fig. 7.2b) cycle, repeated after every 12 years. Exodus people follow the procession; move from village to village and temple to temple. Each procession has its own territory and path. Dishes are made and people offer them to the folk deities and the priests. Jagars are sung on welcoming and farewell of cultural processions. Along with Nanda Devi Rajjat, which is the longest cultural procession, there are a number of other cultural processions that take place in the region. This is carried out mainly for the cultural integration of the various sub-cultural realms and also for appeasing the folk deities. The colourful culture of the region can also be seen in these processions.

7.5 Folklores and Folkdances

Folklore and folkdances are deep routed in the culture and in the day-to-day life of the people of Uttarakhand. They are related to nature, humans, climatic seasons, human activities, agriculture, livestock, forests, flowers etc. Folklores are also sung in praise of the Gods and the Goddesses, describing seasons and nature, war-song and songs related with favourable and adverse circumstances of a family or a person. Women sing these songs, while they are in the jungle collecting fuel-wood, fodder and rearing animals, in the agricultural fields during sowing and harvesting crops 7.5 Folklores and Folkdances 109 and when their husbands are far from home during wartime. Folklores are also sung during various auspicious occasions—birth of child, marriage ceremony, fairs and festivals. Folkdances have similar importance in the society. At every auspicious occasion, they are performed. People spontaneously start dancing when folksongs are sung or played through musical instruments. Dev/Devi Naach is a traditional ritual. When folk deities appear in the human’s body and perform dance, the process is called ‘Dev Avataran’. Therefore, it is rightly said that the folk of Uttarakhand dances with the nature’s rhythms.

7.6 Changing Cultural Space and Boundaries

I have an experience of over 40 years on culture and customs of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. During the period, I have observed various phases of changing culture, space and cultural boundaries. Because, a large part of the Uttarakhand Himalaya is mountainous with minimal infrastructural facilities and thus, people have been isolated from the mainstream for centuries. This was the reason that they could preserve their traditional culture, customs and rituals, which was accustomed mainly with the nature. Slowly, roads were traversed along the river valleys up to the border areas with China, because of their strategic locations, mainly after Chinese aggression of 1962. However, it could not affect the remote parts of it, because the roads were constructed mainly along few river valleys whereas, human settlements were lying on the mid-altitudes and the highlands. Although, the world famous highland and river valley pilgrimages too had an importance during the period yet, a number of pilgrims were not substantial, and mobility was limited. Besides, the Himalayan people are innocent and nature’s lover, therefore, the influence of pilgrims could not make any big change on their day-to-day cultural life (Sati 2015). Slowly but steadily, change has been occurring in terms of increasing infrastruc- tural facilities. Roads have been constructed up to to the major pilgrimages and tourist destinations and as result, mass-tourism has took over the small-scale pilgrims and tourists activities. The highland pilgrimages and tourist places have also been con- nected by airways. Mass tourism has brought the modern cultural waves from within and outside the country and thus, the entire Uttarakhand Himalaya has been getting influenced by it. Several areas that fall in-route to the major pilgrimages or tourist destinations, now have having mixed culture. Even, the remote areas are also being influenced by modern cultural waves slowly. With increasing numbers of hotels, motels, tea stalls and Dhabas, running along the roadsides and serving the pilgrims and tourists of different regions, food and beverages types have been changing. Food made of traditional subsistence cereals has been changing into fast food—patties, burger, Pizza, Maggi and Chaumin. Clothing style has also changed, as jeans have become the common cloth for all groups of people, mainly for young boys and girls. It has replaced the old fashion of wearing Dhoti and Kurta. The local dialect called ‘Garhwali and Kumaoni’ has been mixed-up with Hindi and English. 110 7 Change in Culture and Custom

Case Study 6.1 (Sati 2017) Badhan, one of the cultural realms, lies in the Pindar valley of Chamoli district, Garhwal Himalaya. It has a rich cultural heritage. Being as an important part of the Greater Himalaya, where Trishul and Nanda Devi mountain peaks are located, the whole Badhan cultural realm is influenced by Shaivism. Lord Shiva is an adorable deity. Shakti, in the form of Nanda or Gaura, is a female deity, worshiped by people irrespective of their castes and creeds. Besides, a number of folk male and female deities such as Bhagawati, Latu, Goril, Kalwa, Bhairav and Kali are worshiped by local people. People also worship Kul Devi/Devta, Isht Devi/Devta, Gram Devta, Bhumiayal Devta, Jungle Devta and ghosts. They worship trees, water, land and food. Sacrifice custom (mainly of goats and buffaloes) dominates in the society to appease folk deities. Goddess Bhagawati is an adorable folk deity, also known as Nanda, Parwati and Gaura. In the month of Bhadrapad (August), Nanda Ashtami is celebrated in every part of the Badhan cultural realm. They worship Latu Devta, brother of goddess Bhagawati and the God of rain. During summer, when long spell of drought prevails in the entire cultural realm, people worship Latu Devta for raining. Other Gods are worshiped during Dev/Devi Naach. Society is divided mainly into three castes—Brahmins, Rajputs and Shu- dra. Brahmins are privileged class, do not eat food, which is cooked by the people of other castes. They follow caste bar. Marriage ceremony takes place within the privileged class. Their occupation is worshiping the Gods and the Goddesses and performing Puja during various religious occasions. Rajputs practice agriculture and serve national army. They also rear livestock. Shudra, mainly Dom and Chammar, belongs to the unprivileged class. They are land- less labour that work in the agriculture fields of the privileged class people and play drums during cultural occasions. An enormous change in culture has been observed since the recent past. The rituals and customs that were deep routed into the society are now minimized. A number of folk fairs and festivals celebrated during the past have been faded away. The whole region received the waves of modern culture drawn from Indian sub-continent and abroad by tourists and pilgrims. The methods of celebrating rituals such as birth, Yagyopaweet, marriage and cremation ceremony have changed.

Frequency of fairs, festivals and other rituals has decreased along with changing style of their celebration. These have been largely influenced by waves of modern culture, which has been drawn from the western hemisphere. Modern means of enter- tainment, such as television, has reached in the remote areas and the Bollywood films have become so popular that they are always being played in the traditionally orga- nized fairs, festivals and rituals. Time is another factor, as people engage themselves in watching movies and other entertainment items in television, whenever they are free, and they have least time to devote for celebrating fairs and festivals. Rural areas 7.6 Changing Cultural Space and Boundaries 111 dominate in Uttarakhand and migration of exodus people from the rural areas causes declining celebration of festivals. I have also observed that the number of pilgrims have declined and tourists have increased. Intention of visiting pilgrimages has been changed from spirituality to recreation. In most of the cases, although people visit the major pilgrimages yet, their intentions are inclined more towards recreation. Faith on folk deities has declined as growth in economic sector has led to consumer society, and both pilgrims and tourists moved towards pilgrimages for enjoying food and facilities and for taking mental rest from the crowed cities. In the meantime, the local people serve them to earn money and matters and thus, the sanctity and divinity of pilgrimages have declined. Mass tourism has further influenced the local culture, as the mountain people are more adaptable and they are easily influenced. Mixing of local people with foreigners has brought them together, and this has led to marriage of youth/guides with the foreigners and many of them have settled in both countries. People from all over the world prefer the Himalayan people, as they are innocent and simple and their relationship goes simpler. However, these performances are not limited to the positive aspects, they created cultural pollution. The valley pilgrimages, such as Rishikesh and Haridwar, are more polluted culturally. The foreigners stay in these pilgrimages for a longer period, and involved in using drugs and wine. Illegal sexual relationship has also become common in these areas. While performing rituals, modern means of entertainments have taken the tradi- tional performances. Modern dances and songs have become common and they have replaced the traditional folklore and folkdance. Wine has replaced the milk made drink during festivals and rituals. Vedic Mantras, which were pronounced during all the occasions of performing rituals and celebrating festivals, are not seen in such form. In lieu of it, Bollywood songs are played during these auspicious occasions. Priests, who were the most respectful people in the society, are not getting substan- tial respect and they are suffering from situations where they are unable to maintain cultural legacy. They have become the most humiliated people and their economic conditions are critical. All these driving forces have led to the cultural erosion in the Uttarakhand Himalaya.

References

Sati VP (2015) Pilgrimage tourism in mountain regions: socio-economic implications in the Garhwal Himalaya. South Asian J Tourism Heritage 8(1):164–182 Sati VP (2017) Cultural geography of Uttarakhand Himalaya, Today and Tomorrow Printers and Publishers, New Delhi, p 262 Sati VP (2018) Carrying capacity analysis and destination development: a case study of Gangotri Tourists/Pilgrims’ circuit in the Himalaya. Asia Pac J Tourism Res APJTR 23(3):312–322 Chapter 8 Population, Social and Economic Change

Abstract The Uttarakhand Himalaya is sparsely populated. Population is mainly concentrated along the river valleys and the mid-altitudes. Literacy rate and level of education is comparatively higher. In rural areas of mountainous mainland, sex ratio is high. Although, population is growing yet, population growth rate is decreasing. Society is woven by various cults, castes and creeds, mainly Brahmins, Rajputs and Scheduled Caste People and their sub-castes. Besides, a group of people belong to Scheduled Tribes. Caste system prevailed during the past whereas, in due course of time, it has diluted. Occupational structure of all the segments of society has been changing from practicing agriculture to working in the service sector.

Keywords Indigenous population · Education · Unemployment · Population profile · Social structure · Economic disparity

The Uttarakhand Himalaya has an indigenous population and a traditional society. Here, people live in the remote areas, mainly their concentration is high in the mid- altitudes. The river valleys and the highlands are sparsely populated. Mid-altitudes comprise comparatively suitable arable land along with ample forests and grasslands, which supports livelihoods of the rural people. In the meantime, the highlands have harsh climate and the valleys are narrow, where livability opportunities are not sub- stantial. This is the case with the mountainous mainland of Uttarakhand Himalaya. The plain regions, such as Doon valley, Tarai and Bhabar, which comprises of only about 7% of the total geographical area, are highly fertile and densely populated. They are socially advanced and economically developed regions. About 70% population of the state lives in rural areas (COI 2011). Social structure is woven by the caste system—comprises of privileged class (Brahmins and Rajputs), scheduled castes people—Dom, Chammar, Karat, Kol, Kohli and Bagchi and scheduled tribes—Jaunsari, Bhotia, Tharu, Raji and Buk- sha. Brahmins perform Puja, practice agriculture and rear livestock. Rajputs serve the National Army, also practice agriculture and they have their dwelling along with Brahmins. Scheduled caste people are landless labours, play musical instruments dur- ing the various auspicious occasions—cultural and social ceremonies. They are arti- sans, mainly ironsmith. The Uttarakhand Himalaya also comprises of tribal groups

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 113 V. P. Sati, Himalaya on the Threshold of Change, Advances in Global Change Research 66, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14180-6_8 114 8 Population, Social and Economic Change who inhabit in the forested and remote areas. They are mainly nomads and their economy is dependent on rearing livestock. Besides, they are landless labours. Practicing agriculture is the main occupation and the major source of income and economy of the majority of people living in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Besides, livestock farming, remittances and tourism are the other sources of income that contribute substantially in the economic development. Although, the region has high potential for sustainable development, as it has abundant natural resources base yet, the whole region is economically underdeveloped. Unemployment, low income and economy, and lacking infrastructural facilities constrain the economic development of the Himalaya. Population has been increasing in the Uttarakhand Himalaya however, decadal growth rate has been decreasing since the last decades, which is now 18.81%. Fur- ther, increase in urban population is higher than the rural population. Population density varies from plain districts (higher) to mountainous mainland (lower). Depop- ulation in the rural areas is mainly due to exodus migration. In and out-migration has transformed land use pattern in both receiving and sending areas. Society has been transforming because of changes in practicing culture and influence of modern culture, drawn from the Indian sub-continent and abroad. Development in terms of tourism—natural and pilgrimage—has caused major social and economic change. Caste system has been minimized and people’s income and living conditions have increased. In this chapter, I have described population distribution, rural-urban pop- ulation, literacy, sex ratio, social structure and caste system along with change in population and social structure, largely during the last four decades. Further, change in income and economy of the region was noted and has been discussed in this chapter.

8.1 Change in Population Profile

Population size of the state was 2,945,929 persons in 1951, which has increased to 3,610,938 persons in 1961. Total increase in population was 665,009 persons with 22.57% decadal growth. There was an increase of 881,786 persons in 1971 when population reached to 4,492,724 with a decadal growth rate of 24.42%. Decadal population growth was the highest in 1981 (27.45%) with total 5,725,972 popula- tion. Although, there was a substantial growth of population in 1991, which was 7,050,634, decadal population growth rate was only 23.13%, about 4.32% less than the previous decade. Further, decadal growth rate had decreased to 20.41% (2.72% less) with 8,489,349 total populations in 2001. Finally in 2011, population increased to 10,086,292, which has now increased by 1,596,943 numbers with 18.81% decadal growth rate. It has been observed that the decadal growth of population has increased sizable (more than double) from 1951 to 1981 although, population increased only 2.8 million. However, in later half (1981–2011), population increased by 4.3 million (Fig. 8.1). Meanwhile, decadal growth rate of population has decreased from 27.45 to 18.81% (8.64%). 8.1 Change in Population Profile 115

Fig. 8.1 Population, literacy, sex ratio and urban population (1951–2011). Source Census of India, 2011

Education/literacy is one amongst the major driving forces of social change. Data from the census of India (2011) presents that literacy rate has increased from 18.93% in 1951 to 78.82% in 2011, which is about 60% increase during the last 60 years. Further, it has been observed that after 1961, increase in literacy rate is persistent. Similarly, educational level has been increasing constantly, leading to change in occupation of educated people from primary sector to service sector. This has also led to rural-urban migration. As a result, land abandonment in the rural areas and over population in the urban centres has become common. On the other hand, both rural and urban landscapes have increasingly changed. Women/thousand men (sex ratio) have increased from 940 in 1951 to 963 in 2011, which were 23 women/thousand men higher although, the increase was heteroge- neous. Between 1961 and 1991, sex ratio decreased and after 1991, it increased. These figures represent average sex ratio of both mountainous and plain districts. It has been observed that the districts lying in the mountainous mainland have higher sex ratio in comparison to the districts of plain areas. In mountainous mainland, out- migration among men is higher, and women mainly stay in the rural areas and thus, their population is higher. In the recent years, education among women is increasing and they are out-migrating substantially, which is resulting in a significant increase in sex ratio. Another observation is that in the plain districts, female genocide is higher because of the greater will for the male child. The suitable medical infrastructure has also increased female genocide in the plain districts. However, during the recent 116 8 Population, Social and Economic Change past, due to increasing level of education among women and several awareness pro- grammes, female genocide has decreased and it has manifested to increase in the sex ratio. Urban population has largely been increasing. Data shows that urban population was 13.60% in 1950, which has increased to 30.55% in 2011. It shows that during the last 60 years, urban population has increased more than double. The decadal growth in urban population has been constant after 1961. In the three decades—1970 s and 2000—increase in urban population was 4 and 5%, respectively. Although, agri- culture dominates the economy of rural Uttarakhand and large number of people is involved in practicing agriculture yet, during the recent past, rural-urban migra- tion has increased and as a result, the number of people engaged in agriculture has decreased.

8.2 Change in Population Distribution at District Level

District wise population distribution and change between 2001 and 2011 shows that Haridwar district obtains the highest population share in both censuses (17.1% in 2001 and 18.7% in 2011), followed by Dehradun (16.8%) and USN districts [(16.3%) (Fig. 8.2)]. Nainital district ranks fourth with 9.5% population share. Likewise, other districts obtain population share ranging from 6.6 to 2.4%. It seems that the order of population share in districts of Uttarakhand in 2001 is similar as of 2011. If we look into the decadal change in population growth, we find that it varies from the districts obtaining the highest population to the districts having the lowest population share. For example, the first four districts USN (33.4%), Dehradun (32.3%), Haridwar (30.6%) and Nainital (25.1%) have the highest decadal growth rate. A decrease in decadal growth rate was noticed in Pauri (1.4%) and Almora (1.3%) during the period 2001 and 2011. In the remote districts—Champawat (15.6%) and Uttarkashi (11.9%), growth rate is average however, it is higher than the state average (11.8%). Other districts of Uttarakhand have less than 10% population growth. I have examined district wise shares of population and area. Percentage shares of population and area have opposite relationship in all districts. It shows that the higher is the percentage share of population, the lower is the area share and vice versa. District Haridwar had the highest population share of the state in both the years—2001 and 2011 i.e. 17.1% and 18.7%, respectively whereas, area share is only 4.3%. The figures are almost similar with districts of Dehradun and USN, representing 16.8% and 16.3% population share and 6.4% and 5.1% area share, respectively. On the other hand, Chamoli, Uttarkashi and Pauri districts represent the highest area share (15%, 14.3% and 11.8% respectively) their population shares are 3.9%, 3.3% and 6.8% only. Other districts represent the same trends however, their shares in both area and population are less. 8.3 Change in Decadal Growth Rate at District Level 117

Fig. 8.2 District wise change in population 2001–2011

8.3 Change in Decadal Growth Rate at District Level

I analyzed district wise population growth of Uttarakhand (1991–2001 and 2001–2011). During 1991–2001, the highest population growth was registered in Haridwar district with 26.3%, followed by districts USN (27.8%) and Dehradun (24.7%). Nainital received 32.9% growth. In the hilly districts, Uttarkashi obtained 22.7% growth, followed by Champawat (17.7%). Meanwhile, Pauri and Almora dis- tricts registered the lowest growth i.e. 3.9 and 3.1%, respectively (Fig. 8.3). Other districts obtained growth ranging from 9 to 16%. Population growth increased in 2001–2011 from 4.1% in Bageshwar to 33.5% in USN. However, it has decreased in Pauri (1.4%) and Almora (1.3%). Other districts registered population growth below 20%. In terms of change in growth rate between 1991 and 2011, it has decreased in most of the districts from −141% in Almora to −4.6% in Uttarkashi. In the state, change in decadal growth rate is −2.1%. Only three districts—Dehradun (30.8%), USN (20.5%) and Haridwar (16.3%) obtained an increase in the decadal growth rate.

8.4 Change in Literacy/Education at District Level

Overall literacy rate of the state is 78.8%, which is higher than the national average of literacy rate (74%). District wise literacy shows that Dehradun district has the highest literacy (84.3%), followed by Nainital (83.9%), Chamoli (82.7%), Pithora- garh (82.3%) and Pauri (82%) districts. Total eight districts have above 80% literacy (Fig. 8.4). Rest of the districts has less than 70% literacy. The lowest literacy was reg- istered in USN (73.1%), followed by Haridwar (73.4%). Other districts are Uttarkashi (75.8%), Tehri (78.4%) and Champawat (79.8%). 118 8 Population, Social and Economic Change

Fig. 8.3 Change in the decadal growth rate at district level (1991–2011)

Fig. 8.4 Literacy rate (2011) and change in literacy rate (2001–2011)

8.5 Change in Sex Ratio and Population Density at District Level

The author analyzed gender distribution of population at district level in both 2001 and 2011. Female ratio in per thousand populations is less as far as Uttarakhand is concerned, as it stood 962 in 2001 and 963 in 2011 (Fig. 8.5). In the six districts of Uttarakhand, female population was noticed to be less than the male population in 2011. Female population is the lowest in Haridwar district in both censuses (868 in 2001 and 880 in 2011), followed by Dehradun (893 and 920, respectively) and USN (902 and 920) districts. Nainital district had 906 and 934 female population. Other districts where female population was less are Uttarkashi (in both the censuses) and Champawat (in 2011). 8.5 Change in Sex Ratio and Population Density at District Level 119

Fig. 8.5 Sex ratio at district level (2001–2011)

Among the hill districts, Almora had the highest female population (1139 women per thousand men), in 2011, followed by Rudraprayag (1114) and Pauri (1103). The districts where female population was above 1000 are Bageshwar (1090), Tehri (1077), Pithoragarh (1020) and Chamoli (1019). Female population was also high (above 1000) in 2001 in the same districts. There was a mix response in the growth of gender population. In plain districts, female population increased substantially whereas, in hill districts its growth was mixed. Overall, a small increase in female population was noticed between 2001 and 2012. Population density varied from hill districts to plain districts between 2001 and 2011. The highest population density was recorded in Haridwar district in both the censuses (612 in 2001 and 801 in 2011), followed by USN (649 in 2011) and Dehradun (541). Nainital district recorded 225-population density. Hill districts had registered less than 200 population density. The lowest population density was noticed in Uttarkashi district (41), followed by Chamoli (49) and Pithoragarh (68). In terms of change in population density, Almora had registered −3.4% while, it was stagnant in Pauri district. The highest change in population density was observed in USN with 53.1% increase, followed by both Haridwar (30.9%) and Dehradun (30.7%). Other districts have received from 1.7% (Rudraprayag) to 16.7% (Cham- pawat) change in population density. Overall change in population density was reg- istered +18.9% (Fig. 8.6). I have analyzed data on change in population, decadal growth rate, sex ratio and population density of districts of the Uttarakhand Himalaya during the last decades (2001–2011). There is a large decrease in population in Pauri and Almora districts because of exodus out-migration. In the other mountainous districts, increase in population is not substantial. In the meantime, there has been a large increase in pop- ulation in USN, Dehradun, Haridwar and Nainital districts. I noticed that the high increase in population in these districts is due to enormous in-migration. Increase and decrease in population has led to change in the population density. Population 120 8 Population, Social and Economic Change

Fig. 8.6 Change in population density (2001–2012) density has increased significantly in the plain districts because of high population growth—natural and by migration. Out-migration from Almora district is the highest in Uttarakhand Himalaya therefore, the population density is negative. Population density has decreased in other mountain districts. The same trend has been noticed in the decadal population growth. It is the highest in plain districts and the low- est in the mountainous mainland. Rural-urban migration has a significant role in higher growth of population in plain districts. Sex ratio in mountainous mainland is high and in the plain districts, it is low. One of the reasons of high sex ratio in the mountainous mainland is male migration, as women practice agriculture in the rural areas and men out-migrate for jobs. Medical facilities are substantial in Dehradun, USN, Nainital and Haridwar districts. Choice of male child has further decreased the female population in the plain districts.

8.6 Rural-Urban Population

Urban population is the highest (55.52%) in Dehradun district, followed by Naini- tal (38.94%), Haridwar (36.66%) and USN (35.58%). Dehradun, the capital city of Uttarakhand and the entire Doon valley, spread between Rishikesh and Haridwar in the east, and Ponta Sahib in the west, is highly urbanized and densely populated. The Tarai region of Nainital district is flat, where the number of urban centres has increased. Haridwar and USN districts have also flat lands with substantial urban pop- ulation (20−50%). Six districts—Pauri, Chamoli, Champawat, Pithoragarh, Tehri and Almora have 10 to 20% urban population. This figure is <10% in Uttarkashi, Rudraprayag and Bageshwar districts. As per the census of 2011, the Uttarakhand Himalaya as a whole has 30.23% urban population (Table 8.1). 8.6 Rural-Urban Population 121

Table 8.1 Levels of urban Indices Levels Districts population >50% High urban population Dehradun 20−50% Medium urban Nainital, Haridwar and population USN 10−20% Low urban population Pauri, Chamoli, Champawat, Pithoragarh, Tehri and Almora <10% Uttarkashi, Rudraprayag and Bageshwar Source By author

High urban population in Dehradun district is evident from the fact that it has received exodus in-migration during the recent pasts, mainly after Uttarakhand became a separate state and Dehradun was declared its interim capital. Large number of people out-migrated from the mountainous mainland of Uttarakhand and settled in Dehradun city and Doon valley. As a result, the entire Doon valley has densely populated and a number of urban centres have emerged. Population of Dehradun city has increased multifold during the period. Nainital, Haridwar and USN districts have also received a large urban population. In the meantime, urban population of the remote and hilly districts could not increase, mainly due to enormous out-migration and less institutional and infrastructural facilities.

8.7 Social Structure and Change

Social structure of mountain communities is unique and different from those areas, which are rather plain or developed. However, it varies from one mountain to other, according to their location and nature of development. Mountain people are innocent, hardworking, socially backward, economically underdeveloped and still untouched by the modern cultural waves. There are a number of driving forces that have influ- enced the social structure of mountain communities and of course, remote location and socio-economic backwardness are the prominent forces. Mountains that lie in the developed countries have high social and economic advancement and they enjoy all the modern facilities. The Himalaya, on the other hand, has traditional society, where the waves of modern civilization/culture have not reached fully, so far. Infrastructural facilities are insufficient and social structure is woven by the threads of traditions. Caste system dominates the society, which leads to class struggle. Caste and class system—privileged and unprivileged—is practiced in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. However, during the recent pasts, caste and class system has minimized in the entire region. Due to the increasing number of tourists and pilgrims, drawn from the Indian 122 8 Population, Social and Economic Change

Fig. 8.7 Population by religion in Uttarakhand. Source Census of India (2011) sub-continent and abroad, modern cultural waves have largely influenced the tra- ditional culture of the region, mainly in the river valleys, pilgrimages and tourists’ destinations. In this section of the chapter, a detailed social stratification, caste system and changes on it, during the course of time, have been described. The Uttarakhand Himalaya, an integral part of the Himalaya, is worse affected by the natural hazards and it is highly prone to socio-economic vulnerability. People have limited access to food and other necessary commodities that are required to live a better life. Further, they are fully dependent on the mountain niche products to carry their livelihoods. These conditions lead to prevalence of social structure—caste and class systems and thus, rituals and customs are influenced greatly. Another reason of prevalence of traditional social system is closeness of the native people with the nature. Caste system comprising Brahmins, Rajputs, Scheduled castes (SC) and Scheduled tribes (ST) constitutes the social structure. Description on the content of this segment relies on my long observation/experience about social structure of Uttarakhand. The data of the censuses of India (2001–2011) were gathered for further illustration of scheduled caste and scheduled tribe population, and changes. People of almost all the religions—Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Buddhists and Jain inhabit the state (Fig. 8.7). Among them, the Hindus are outnumbered (82.9%), followed by Muslims (13.9%). People from other religions have small proportion (Census of India 2011). Social structure, mainly in the Hindu society, is woven by various cults, castes, creeds and tribes. It includes both aborigine people and those who in-migrated here during the middle period. The aborigine people are less in number, belonging to the unprivileged classes—scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. On the other hand, in-migrated people are Brahmins and Rajputs, known as the privileged class peo- ple. Concisely, the people of Uttarakhand constitute four social groups—Brahmins, Rajputs, SC and ST, spread in all the geographical and cultural realms. Meanwhile, the tribal communities inhabit in the specific geo-cultural regions, mainly in the forested and hilly terrain. In due course of time, the four castes of Hindu society 8.7 Social Structure and Change 123 were further divided into sub-castes, mainly Brahmins and Rajputs, based on the location of the villages where they lived. They perform same customs and rituals however, their Gotra1 varies.

8.8 Caste Systems

Inadequate information on the pre-colonial society of Uttarakhand makes it difficult to describe the social structure and changes. The available information shows that the society was comprised of three major groups—the Thuljats, the Khasas and the Doms. Doms, the earliest settlers, descendent of Kols, were untouchable, performed ironsmith, coppersmith, carpenter, drummer’s and tailoring work. They worked as agriculture labours. Khasas (also known as Khasiyas), a powerful tribe, were farmers, cultivated land both as proprietors and as tenants and were not part of the caste order. They subdued Doms and later set up their own rules and regulations. Rajputs, in- migrated from the plains, conquered the Khasas (Turner 1931) and established Chand and Panwar dynasties. During the period, a large number of Brahmins in-migrated to this region (Pathak 1988), which played an important role in the evolution of social structure. Thuljat had its impact on Khasas after centuries of contact. Brahmins and Rajputs emerged among Khasiya, although they managed to retain the distinctive- ness of their customs and traditions (Joshi 1984). The Thuljats were composed of Brahmins and Rajputs who had political and economic impact on the society, during the pre-colonial period (Sanwal 1976). Thuljats put on Janeo (sacred thread), distinguished them from Khasas. Caste systems dominated in the society and marriage of high caste women with the lower caste men was an offence. The Khasas and the Doms were not allowed to wear Janeo and if anyone found violating the rules was punished (Sanwal 1976). Thuljats dominated the King’s administration and occupied all the important offices. Caste system was diluted during the British Rule and education emerged as the new symbol of status, mainly English education. However, the Thuljats and the Brahmins were the first who got higher education. By 1900, there were just nine graduates and all were Brahmins (Garhwali 1913). Thuljats got a number of jobs. Doms struggled to improve their status. Those worked as artisans could improve their status and claimed a higher status among Doms. Some of them joined Arya Samaj and became Aryas. Khasas were merged with Rajputs. Caste system existed, characterised social structure, however, it was not much rigid as it was observed in other parts of the country (Fig. 8.8). It can be noted from the fact that the local deity, ‘Parvati’, the daughter of Himalaya, and the King’s son were believed to be sheep and cattle herders whereas, Parvati is a very popular Goddess, worshiped by all the segments of society, all over Uttarakhand. It is believed that the caste system in Uttarakhand began during the Mughal period, when a large

1Gotra denotes clan. It broadly refers to people who are descendents, an unbroken male line from a common male ancestor or patriline. 124 8 Population, Social and Economic Change

Caste System

Previleged Class Unprevileged Class

Brahmins: Sarola and Gangari SC: Kol, Kirat, Dom, Bagachi (above 10 major classes) and Chammar

Rajputs: ST: Tharu, Jaunsari, Buksha, Bhotia and Raji Above five major classes

Fig. 8.8 Caste system in Uttarakhand. Source By author number of people in-migrated, mainly the Brahmins and Rajputs, as some historians opine. Others advocate that caste system began during the reign of Katyuri and Chand rulers. Uttarakhand has a suitable form of social structure where all groups of people live together in harmony. Although, Hindus are outnumbered yet, people of other religions such as Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists and Jain have their presence and they live in harmony with each other. Their language, food habits and clothing are similar to that of the Hindus. They speak Garhwali and Kumaoni dialects and follow all the customs, fairs and festivals that are celebrated in Uttarakhand. The main castes—Brahmins and Rajputs—represent 75% of the total population and area (Fig. 8.7). I have described social structure and caste systems in both Garhwal and Kumaon regions of Uttarakhand, separately.

8.9 Brahmins

Brahmins belong to the privileged class and dominate the population size. They perform all rituals, take part in all the social and cultural programmes from Namkaran ceremony to marriage and cremation ceremonies, and pronounce Vedic hymns in all the religious occasions. They conserve rituals and culture, and also perform their duties in temples. There are several sub-castes of Brahmins and based on them, I have divided them into three major categories (Sati 2017). The Sarola Brahmins are superior among other castes of people. They eat only self-cooked food and they do not have Bhaat and Beti2 relationship with other caste people. In all the auspicious occasions, Sarola Brahmins cook Bhaat for other com- munity people. It is believed that the Sarola Brahmins in-migrated in Garhwal region during the 8th and 9th Century AD from the Ganges plain. They first settled in Chand-

2Sarola Brahmins eat only self cooked Bhaat (rice) and also serve it to other caste people in all the auspicious occasions. Similarly, they don’t have marriage (Beti) relationship with other sub-groups of Brahmins. 8.9 Brahmins 125 pur Pargana in surrounding of the Chandpur Garhi’s villages therefore, the Kulgurus (Purohits) of king Bhanupratap of Chandpur Garh were Sarola Brahmins. With the expansion of Panwar dynasty, Sarola Brahmins spread in other villages of the region. Nautiyal, Gairola, Simalty, Khanduri, Maithani, Sati, Manodi, Nainwal and Dimari are among the main Sarola Brahmins. Further, there are 12 sub-castes of the Brah- mins living in different areas of the Garhwal region called ‘Barah Thana Brahmins3’. They belong to different Gotras however, the customs and rituals they perform are similar to each other. The term ‘Gangari’ has been derived from the word ‘Gangarh’, which denotes river valleys or low lying areas. In other words, the Gangari Brahmins live in the Gangarh regions. The customs and rituals they perform are similar to that of the Sarola Brahmins however, they eat Bhaat cooked by other Brahmins and they have Beti relationship with them. Pt. Ganga Dutt Upreti4 explains that the major differ- ence between the Sarola and Gangari Brahmins is that of cooking Bhaat.Mostof the Gangari Brahmins are known by the name of their villages such as Dobhal of Dobh village, Naithani of Naithana village, Bahuguna of Budhani village etc. Dur- ing the past (before independence), they had a tremendous influence on the Tehri King’s Court. Juyal, Bahuguna, Dangwal, Dobhal and Uniyal Brahmins had pos- sessed important position in the King’s Court. Nagagorti Brahmins are divided into many sub-castes. Earlier, they had performed all rituals and customs and had Bhaat and Beti relationship within the community but now, they have started having these relationships with other Brahmins too. They are also called Khas Brahmins and they are similar to the Brahmins who have in-migrated in Uttarakhand. Pandas, residing in Devprayag, are very popular. They travel the entire India during winters to perform Puja and other rituals in their Yajmans’5 houses. The major sub-castes in Pandas are Maliya, Todriya, Kothiyal, Purohit, Dhyani, Arjunya, Palyal, Wawliya, Alkhaniya, Raiwani, Tiwari, Bhatt, Dravid, Karnatak, Tailang, Maharashtriya, Gujarati, Joshi and Panchbhaiya. These sub-castes of Pandas are pure Brahmins. They follow the customs of Gharjawain (the groom lives in bride’s house) and nourishing Dharmaputra (adopted son). Now, other Brahmins of Garhwal such as Dobhal, Dangwal, Nautiyal, Khanduri, Budhana, Missar, Uniyal, Khugsal, Dabral, Thapliyal and Baluni share relationships with Devprayagi Pandas through performing marriage relationships. In Kumaon too, Brahmins dominate the population size and social structure. Some of the Brahmin clans of Kumaon residing in Srinagar, Tehri and Badhan have sim- ilarity in food habits and they have Bhaat and Beti relationship with the Garhwali Brahmins. The main Brahmins residing in Kumaon—Pandey, Pant, Missar, Tiwari and Joshi—are mainly divided into three clans and can be identified by the name of their villages and occupations. They are the original Brahmins of Kumaon. Dur- ing 6th century A.D., people in-migrated in Kumaon and served the kingdom as

3Than denotes the place of God and Sarola Brahmins belongs the Barah Thans. 4Notes on prevailing castes of Garhwal (1889). 5Yajmans are generally Rajputs and other lower caste people who are dependent on Brahmins for performing rituals and customs. 126 8 Population, Social and Economic Change

Mantri, Purohit and Jyotishi. They are known as ‘Thul Brahmins’. These Brahmins are involved in agriculture and in ploughing fields. The noble Brahmins do not have Bhaat-Beti relationship with them.

8.10 Rajputs

Rajputs of Kumaon and Garhwal regions are divided into several sub-castes, because of the differences in their origin, origin period and place where they reside. Pal or Rajwar of Askot, Gaida, Kadakoti and Karki are the major castes of Suryavanshi Rajputs. Chandravansi Rajputs include descendents of the Chand dynasty such as Rautela of Sor, Kota, Dhaniakot and Fadtyal of Kali Kumaon. They are the main Rajput castes in Kumaon. Khas Rajputs are the oldest castes of Kumaon region who were landlords. Atkinson6 described 280 sub-castes of Khas Rajputs. They are crossbreed of Rajput and Khasia clans and they perform their rituals and customs similar to other Rajputs of the region. The Rajputs whose origin is not known come under this category. It means that nothing is known about the time and place of their origin. The real/original Rajputs are believed to be the Aryans. They in-migrated in Garhwal region during the eighth and ninth century A. D. They wear Janeu.7 Panwar and Kunwar Rajputs belong to the Royal family of Garhwal. The major castes in original Rajputs are Bisht, Negi, Bhandari and Rawat. Before independence, Bisht and Negi Rajputs worked in civil departments, Bhandaris were cashiers, and Rawat and Gusain worked in the Army of the Garhwal King. The Khas Rajputs are believed to be the oldest and ancient residents of the Garhwal region. They are treated as inferior caste than to the original Rajputs as they don’t have Bhaat and Beti relationships with them. They perform various works, serve people and are similar to the Kumaon’s Khas Rajputs. Sunar (goldsmith) also reside in Garhwal however, they are few. They have Bhaat and Beti relationship with Khas Rajputs and also with original Rajputs. Other castes found in Garhwal are Kanait, Kalal, Naai, Kumhar, Bhalda, Bohra, Nayak, Jiwar and Grihsthinath. An important point to be noted here is that although, people of all castes and creeds are equally distributed in Uttarakhand yet, in Kumaon, people belonging to Naga Race are out- numbered. It is evident from the fact that several places have obtained the word ‘Nag’ with their names such as Berinag, Nagdev, Pingalnag, Dhaulnag, Kalinag and Basukinag.

6Gazetteer of Himalaya (1882). 7A sacred threat put on the left side of neck and arm, as Brahmin clan wears it. 8.11 Scheduled Castes 127

8.11 Scheduled Castes

SC, also called Harijans, are the most downtrodden, socially backward and economi- cally underdeveloped people, although, they are believed to be the oldest inhabitants of the Uttarakhand Himalaya, living here from the centuries. People belonging to SC have several sub-castes mainly, Kol, Kohli, Kirat, Kinnar, Dom, Bagachi and Chammar, about which is referred in the Ramayana and epics. It is believed that after in-migration of the privileged class people, including Brahmins and Rajputs, in Uttarakhand, caste system has deepened and the original SC people lost their social status. Most of the SC people are agricultural labours, working in the agricultural fields of Brahmins and Rajputs, construction labours, artisans and drummers. They play drums (Dhol and Damau), sing songs and dance in all the auspicious occasions and in lieu, they receive food items and money. During Bagwal, they visit the houses of the upper caste people and perform programmes. Their role is unique during Dev/Devi Naach. SC people worship lord Shiva and Shakti (Goddess Kali). They sing Jagars during Dev/Devi Naach and play drums—Dhol, Damau, Huduk and Thali. It is believed that God appears in their body and they dance. They practice this in occasions such as hosting Dev/Devi Naach and while participating in others programme. Presently, the SCs constitute a substantial segment of population in Uttarakhand. According to the Census of India Report, 2001, SC population shares 17.9% of the total population of Uttarakhand with about 23.2% growth rate. Out of the total SC population, Shilpkar shares 51.9%, followed by Chamar (29.3%), Balmiki (5.9%), Kori (2.7%), Bagachi (1.4%) and Dom (1.25). The Pasi, Dhobi and Kolare obtain a small proportion of population equally. The government of India has notified 66 SCs in Uttarakhand. Regional distribution (district wise) of SC population shows that Bageshwar district obtains the highest population (25.9%), followed by Pithoragarh (23%). Meanwhile, Haridwar (20.7%), Dehradun (11.4%) and Udham Singh Nagar (10.7%) together account for 42.9% of the SC population. SCs live mainly in the rural areas as their average rural population proportion is 82.8%. However, some of the sub- castes of SCs are highly urbanized, among them Balmiki caste shares 68.1% urban population, which is followed by Dhobi (50%), Pasi (41.2%) and Kori (38.1%). Gender population in SC is higher (943 women per thousand men) than the national average of 936 (2001). It is the highest in Bagachi (974) and the lowest among Chammar (861). According to the census of 2001, literacy rate of the SC pop- ulation (63.4%) was higher than the national average (54.7%). Further, male literacy was higher (77.3%) than female literacy (48.7%). During the past, literacy rate stood low among the SC people and most of them were uneducated. However, the govern- ment has launched several welfare programmes to improve the socio-economic status of SC. Over time, the social status of SC has pushed forward through imparting free education and reservation in employment. Among the SC’s sub-castes, Dhobis have obtained the highest literacy (68.9%), followed by Shilpkar (67.2%) and Balmiki 128 8 Population, Social and Economic Change

(65.5%). Kol (43.8%) and Dom (44.6%) stand to the lowest literacy. In terms of the educational level of SC population, only 3.3% people among the literates are graduates and above. Dhobi (6.9%), Chamar (4.3%) and Pasi (3.5%) represent the highest number of graduated people. Work Participation Rate (WPR) is 37.5%, which is lower than the SCs’ aggregate at the national level (40.4%). Out of the total WPR, 68.4% workers are the main workers and the rests are marginal workers. Female WPR is 29%. Among the males, majority workers are the main workers (75.4) while, among the females, only 56.7% are the main workers. Among the sub-castes of SC, Kol’s WPR is 47% (highest), whereas Balmiki’s WPR is 29% (lowest). Amongst the working population, cultiva- tors record 45.5% WPR. Agricultural labours constitute only 12.3% whereas, 3.2% people are involved in the household industry and rest of them are engaged in other working sectors. Among the sub-castes of SC, Bagachi holds 74.1% cultivators, fol- lowed by Kol (72.4%), Dom (70.6%) and Shilpkar (65.5%). Cultivators among the Balmiki community are only about 1.2% while among Dhobis’, they are about 5.3% and among Pasis, the figure is 5.5%. It is a matter of fact that Balmiki, Dhobi and Pasi sub-castes of SC live in the urban areas thus, the proportion of their population in practicing agriculture is minimal. During the past, SCs’ economic situation was crit- ical. They were landless labours who worked in the agricultural fields of privileged class people, mainly of Brahmins and Rajputs, and carried out their livelihoods. Now, the situation has changed. They have their own agricultural land. The government has allowed them to expand their agricultural land in the forestland. Further, reservation policy has brought them into the main stream through providing government jobs and in many villages their economic status is substantial, higher than the so-called upper caste people. However, their economic status is not uniform at all. On account of family life, about 54.9% SC population is not married, 4.3% are widowed and 0.2% is divorced. A large proportion of SC population follows Hindu customs and rituals (99.4%). Few are Sikhs and Buddhists. SC has an important role in perform- ing Hindu customs and rituals and in many occasions, without their participation, rituals are not considered complete. They play drums—Dhol and Damau, which are declared as the state’s musical instruments. From the birth of the child until death, drums have an important role, as they are played in all the occasions by SC people.

8.12 Scheduled Tribes

Tribes of Uttarakhand constitute a major segment of the social structure. They belong to different clans and their socio-cultural identities also vary. However, a recent study8 says that all the main five tribes of Uttarakhand—Tharu, Jaunsari, Bhotia, Buksa and Raji (Fig. 8.9) belong to the same race and their ancestors were Buksa. They are very close to the nature, live in the forest areas, rear animals and perform

8Blood samples of the members of each tribe were tested by Dr. Venu Gopal and Dr. Harshvardhan of the Anthropological Survey of India. 8.12 Scheduled Tribes 129

Fig. 8.9 Population, population change and change (%) of tribal people. Source Censuses of India 2001–2011 seasonal migration. In the following paragraphs, a detailed description of the tribes of Uttarakhand has been elaborated. The historical evidences reveal that Bhil-Kirat nomads of the lower Himalaya migrated to the higher Himalaya (in the Alaknanda Basin) during the past. In due course of time, Tibetans and Khas caste people mixed with them. Later on, the crossbreed generation was called Bhotia. According to hearsay, Kirats were also called Bhota or Bhotantic till the 10th century A.D. They had trade relationship with the Tibetans through several trade routes such as Niti, Mana, Jauhar, Darma and Vyas passes. This was the time when India was known as the Golden Bird and contribution of Bhotantic in the Indian economic development was significant. The sub-tribes of Bhotias are Marchha, Tolchha, Johari, Shoka, Darmiya, Chaundasi, Byasi, Jad, Jethra and Chhapada. Jad tribes, living in the Bhagirathi valley, originally belong to Bhotias. Raji tribes are mainly found in the Pithoragarh district, Kumaon region. Their habitats are located in few villages—Mana Gaon, Goutha Vikha, Kimkhola, Chau- rani, Jamtadi and Kanakanyal of Kanalichhini and Didihat development blocks. Their habitats lie in the forest areas, made of grasses and are called Routyuda/Rautyosh. They are believed to be the descendents of the local king, Rajwar. Raji tribes, also called Vanrawat, are illiterate nomads who are dependent on forest products such as wild fruits and hunting of animals for carrying their livelihoods. They rear animals, mainly cattle, sheep and goat and migrate from place to place according to change in seasons. Their dwellings lie in Kumaon and Nepal border areas. Recently, they have started practicing agriculture in small patches of arable land and also working in agricultural fields of landlords. Goddess Nanda Devi is their deity. Other Gods they worship are Malainath, Ganainath, Saim, Chhurmal and Baghnath. They also worship various forms of nature such as forest and water, perform Thadiya dance. These people believe in superstition, are coward and shy in nature. The customs they perform are different than of the other tribes of Uttarakhand. While, people of 130 8 Population, Social and Economic Change

Uttarakhand celebrate Makar Sakranti,9 Raji tribes celebrate Kark Sakranti.10 Their mother tongue is Munda however, people mostly speak Kumaoni dialect. During the past, they were well known for carving wooden crafts and their livelihood was depen- dent on it. Generally, they do not have any relationship with other people. Before getting into relationships, they understand each other. Women are conservative, do not mix-up with the male members and do not eat food, which is cooked by other people. Even nobody can enter in their kitchen. Jaunsaris have their habitats in Chakrata tehsil of Dehradun district. They follow rituals and customs that are associated with Pandawas and worship them as God. Jaunsaris strongly believe in superstitions (occult). They believe that those who die in unnatural ways don’t get salvation and their souls keep on wandering in the forms of ghosts and phantoms (spirit). Mahasu is the main God of Jausaris whom they worship in various occasions. Hanol, a village where the temple of Mahasu Devta lies, is a pilgrimage for Jaunsaris. Bissu, Panchoi and Mocha are famous fairs and festivals of Jaunsar and Bawar regions, which are celebrated every year. People perform folk dances, which are very popular. Jaunsaris are cultured and their women have respectful place in the society. Tharu tribes, having their habitats in the southern part of Tarai belt, bordering with Nepal in the Kumaon Himalaya, are the main tribes of Kumaon and the sec- ond most important tribe of Uttarakhand. Their habitats are found in 141 villages of Khatima, Sitarganj, Kichha, Nanak Satta and Banbasa areas in Nainital district. Anthropologists believe them as a mixed race, dominated by Mangole. Their Gotra is called Kuri. The main sub-castes among them are Badwayak, Battha, Rawat, Vri- tiyan, Mahaton and Dahait. Badwayak is believed to be the most superior caste. Some of the Badwayaks believe that they are the descendants of Sisodia Rajput of Rajasthan. Tharu, literally meaning stagnant, have been living under hard geograph- ical conditions in Uttarakhand for the centuries. Women have very respectful place in the society. They own the family house and other properties. Tharu’s society is open and divorce is not a taboo. Even, they can remarry. Tharus’ girls are simple and honest, and they have faith in friendship. Their friendship with a boy is termed as ‘Dilvar’. Between women, friendship is termed as ‘Sangana’. Buksa tribes inhabit in 173 villages of Bajpur, Gadarpur, Kashipur and Ramnagar in Nainital district, Kotdwar, Bhabhar in Pauri district and Doiwala and Sahaspur development blocks of Dehradun district. Structure and texture of Buksha tribes show that they are a mixed race. Bukshas believe themselves as the descendents of Panwar royal clan. Other clans are Jaduvanshi, Partaja, Rajvanshi and Tunwar. Buksas follow caste system. An English officer Eliot wrote that Buksa tribe settled in Banbasa, located in the bank of . Buksas’ forefather helped the king of Kumaon in a war and the king offered them a part of Kumaon as reward. In due course of time, their forefather migrated from Banbasa and settled in a place called

9When the solar radiations fall vertically on the Tropic of Capricorn. 10When the solar radiations fall vertically on the Tropic of Cancer. 8.12 Scheduled Tribes 131

Bukshad. A description of Bukshad is mentioned in the Aine Akbari11 which shows that Buksa came to this region before the 16th century A. D. Buksas do not marry with other tribes. The youth get married generally after 20 years of age. They eat meat and wild fruits, collect wood and medicinal plants from the forests. Men drink wine and prevent their women from drinking it. They collect raw gold from gravel in the river bank. Since, they are landless labours, they work in the agricultural fields of landlords. Recently, few Buksas have owned agricultural lands. During the past, they reared goats, sheep and cattle, migrated from place to place and lived as nomads. Buksas worship Goddess twice in a year. The temple of Gram Khedi Devi is known as Bhawani, which lies in the front of village head in every Buksa village. It is believed that Goddess Bhawani protects their crops and livestock from adverse situations. She also protects people from diseases, Hulka Devi and a ghost named Bujja. All Hindu Gods and Goddesses, along with their own deity, called Bula Dundari are also worshiped. Buksa tribes believe in magic/charisma. A person who knows charms is known as Bharare. They are fond of fairs and festivals, celebrate them throughout the year. Cheti is the main festival. Others are Naubi, Ramlila, Diwali, Teras and Holi. In Dehradun district, Buksas are called ‘Mahar Buksa’. They are nomads; migrate from one place to other, after every two years. Bukshas are socially backward and economically underdeveloped tribes. They lend money from others to carry their livelihoods and live under pressure throughout their lifespan. The most exploited community, Buksas have different social systems. They elect a head and five members of the village Panchayat called the Biradari Panchayat and follow both funeral and burial systems. Burial is practiced when people die in an unnatural way. Jad tribes inhabit in the frontier areas of the upper Bhagirathi valley in Uttarkashi district, bordered with Himachal Pradesh. Nilang and Jadung are their original vil- lages, which lie in the India-Tibet border area at an average altitude of 3,400 m and comprise dry and cold climate. During the recent past, they have settled in Harsil town, which lies closely to the Gangotri pilgrimage. They are nomads, mainly rear sheep and claim themselves as Rajputs. During summer, they live in the Jhanavi valley and in winter, they migrate to Rishikesk. Jad tribes are the followers of the Buddhism and they also believe themselves as the descendents of the king Janak. They wear woolen Choga called ‘Wapkan’, Himachali cap and leather shoes. Jads follow traditional society and have disinte- grated families. When a male turns young, he leaves the family and stays with his wife. Ancestor property is distributed equally among sons and daughters. They have cultural relationship with Tibetans. People who assist Brahmin are called ‘Lama’. At present, they follow the rituals of both Buddhism and Hindism. Khadwal habitats lie in the western hills of Bandarpoonch, along the course of Tons River in Uttarkashi district, making boundary with Himachal Pradesh. Four storied wooden houses comprise their habitats. Top floor is used for human living, ground floor for livestock and the middle floor is used for keeping food grains, fodder

11Aine Akbari is a detailed administrative record of Akbar’s empire written by Abul Fazl. 132 8 Population, Social and Economic Change etc. Main food items include Chaulai, potato, Faffer, Mandua, Sem, Rajma and meat of goat and sheep. Shautan, a long coat, and Kamar band (Dauru) are the main dresses for men. Women also wear it, along with Dhantu and jewelry. Marriage is performed within the tribes. Polyandry system is practiced. Yavans belong to the creed of people who in-migrated to this region from outside. Brahmins inhabited here after Shakyas during the Muslims’ invasion in India. Panwars and Rajputs in-migrated later on and settled here. Vanraji tribes inhabit in Didihat and Dharchula taluks of Pithoragarh district between Kali and Gori rivers. This tribe is the most downtrodden, striving from food insecurity and malnutrition and as a result, its population is declining. Total population of the eight villages remained stagnant (590 persons) during the two cen- suses. The habitats of Vanrajis lie in the forest area and they depend on forests for food and fuel wood. After 1980, when the Forest Conservation Act of India was implemented, Vanrajis are unable to have enough food and thus, they are suffering from food insecurity. Health of women has deteriorated and infant mortality rate has increased. I have described herewith the population profile of scheduled tribes in Uttarak- hand. Data on population profile was gathered from the census of 2001 and 2011.12 Uttarakhand’s Scheduled Tribes constituted 3% of the total population (256,129) with 20.9% decadal growth rate (1991–2001). Total five scheduled tribes are noti- fied in Uttarakhand (2001). Tharu shares 33.4% population (largest), followed by Jaunsaris (32.5%), Buksa (18.4%), Bhotia (18.3%) and Rajis. They inhabit mainly in the rural areas (93.8%). Only Bhotia (25.8%) and Raji (8.9%) tribes have habi- tats in the urban centres. In 2011, total population was almost similar as to in 2001 (257,490). There was a decrease in decadal population in Jaunsari, Buksa and Raji tribes whereas, decadal population of Tharu and Bhotiya tribes increased. In Uttarakhand, ST population is mainly concentrated in four districts—Udham Singh Nagar (43%), Dehradun (38.8%), Pithoragarh (7.5%) and Chamoli (4.1%). Udham Singh Nagar has plain topography while, Dehradun district is partially plain. Jaunsaris, the second largest tribe of Uttarakhand inhabit in the hilly parts of Uttarak- hand, mainly in Chakrauta taluk of Dehradun district while, Rajis are found in Udham Singh Nagar. Gender population varies among the tribes, the highest in Bhotia tribe (1049) and the lowest in Raji (833). Average gender ratio is 950 female per thousand male. Literacy rate (Average 63.2%) among the tribes is similar to that of the national average (2001) whereas, in Bhotia tribe, it is higher (79.9%). The lowest literacy was observed in Raji tribes (35.8%). Educational level of Bhotia tribes is comparatively higher. About 11.6% populations are graduated. Total number of graduates in tribal population is 4.3%. The author analyzed category wise workforce among all the tribal populations and noted that cultivators are the highest (67.9%), followed by agricultural labour (7.7%). About 5.2% household are working in the industrial sector and remaining 19.2% are other workers. Jaunsari and Tharu are predominantly cultivators (average 79%). In Buksa, about 54.1% are cultivators and 28.3% are agricultural labours.

12Registrar General of India, New Delhi. 8.12 Scheduled Tribes 133

Tribes are marginal farmers, practicing agriculture. They also rear cattle, goats and sheep. Most of them are working in the agricultural fields of Brahmin and Rajputs. Recently, reservation policy of the Government of India brought them into the main streams and now many tribes are working in tertiary sectors. The largest impact of reservation policy was noticed in Bhotia tribes who are holding some prestigious positions in the Indian Civil Services. However, in a nutshell, WPR was noticed only 41.1%, of which, 73.1% was recorded as main workers and rest of them were marginal workers. Meanwhile, woman WPR was noted only 31.9%. Among Bhotias, WPR of women was the highest (41.1%) while, it was the lowest among Buksas (34.9%). Social structure of tribes is unique and it varies from one tribe to other. The tribes have an open and liberal society and a large number of people don’t get married. Census report of 2001 presents that about 53.8% ST population is unmarried, 4.1% women are widowed and 0.2% people are divorced although, remarriage is not a taboo. They follow widow remarriage and often a person can marry with his elder brother’s wife. Mainly they are Hindus, share 99.1% population and rest of the people has adopted Buddhism.

8.13 Economic Disparity and Change

Economic disparity prevails between mountainous and plain districts, and according to occupation of people. Firstly, I have discussed here about the disparity among the hills and plain districts. The economy of the hill districts is underdeveloped due to several reasons such as remoteness, rugged and difficult terrain, high variability in climatic conditions, less arable land, high landscape fragility/vulnerability and lacking in infrastructural facilities. Industrial backwardness of the region is mainly due to these prevailing situations. Besides, the government policy towards the holistic and sustainable development of the mountain regions has failed to address these physical constraints. On the other hand, the plain districts have been given high priority for development although, these districts share only 7% of the total area. It can be noticed from the fact that even after 18 years of being a separate state, Uttarakhand could not shift its capital from Dehradun (interim capital) to Gairsain (proposed capital), even amidst the tremendous pressure and a number of intensive agitations from the public. Formation of the Uttarakhand as a separate state took place mainly due to its poor/underdeveloped economy. Before 2000, Uttarakhand was a part of the Uttar Pradesh state, whose capital city is Lucknow. The people of Uttarakhand blamed the policy makers that they are formulating policy for the region without considering the topography and hardship of the mountainous areas and as a result, they demanded for a separate state. Meanwhile, after several years of being a separate state, the eco- nomic situation of the state is similar, infect, it has been deteriorating. The economic growth rate of plain districts—Haridwar, USN, Dehradun and Nainital—is almost doubled than the hill districts. In the hill districts, economy is dependent on the output from farming—agriculture, horticulture and livestock. Meanwhile, it varies 134 8 Population, Social and Economic Change from one district to other. Substantial revenue has been generating from tourism and pilgrimage activities however, its impact lies in the river valleys, on the roadsides, and in the tourists’ destination and pilgrimages. Rest of the mountainous areas is debarred from the tourism development. Another reason of economic disparity at household level is occupation. In the rural areas of Uttarakhand (70% population live in the rural areas—COI 2011), three categories of people live. The first one is those who have out-migrated to other parts of India permanently. They are medium to higher income level families, doing high level government jobs. They are highly educated people. The second category people are living in the rural areas whereas, one or two members of the family have out-migrated for an yearly or two yearly basis. Most of them are working in the national army or having teaching profession, sending monthly remittances to their family members, who are living in the villages. People belonging to this category are earning from two sources—farming and remittances and their economic condition is substantial. The third category people are the most unprivileged class. They are marginal farmers, having small landholdings. Farming is the main source of economy. In the meantime, output from farming is too low to run sustainable livelihoods and they are facing acute food scarcity and malnutrition. A case study shows that out of 120 households, 30% have out-migrated permanently, 30% households have two sources of income—remittances and farming, and rest 40% people are marginal farmers, coping with food insecurity and malnutrition. Gap between rich and poor people has been widened recently although, Gross Domestic Production (GDP) is increasing. Agriculture and its allied sectors are the major sources of livelihoods of the rural people in Uttarakhand. It is also a substantial source of income and econ- omy to the State Government. The author collected time series data (2004–2005 to 2013–2014) on GSDP from agriculture and all the sectors at constant prices of 2004–2005 (Table 7.2). In terms of GSDP from all economic sectors, there is a contin- uous increase from 2004–2005 to 2013–2014 except in 2012–2013 when GSDP has decreased by −4.97%. An increase is enormous—2.27% in 2013–2014 and 39.75% in 2007–2008. Total GSDP has increased by 16.24% during the period. In 2005–2006, GSDP has decreased by −3.22% in agriculture and allied sec- tor. Further, in 2008–2009, it has decreased by −3.66%. In the meantime, GSDP from agriculture has increased by 9.63% (highest) in 2009–2010 and by 2.09% in 2007–2008. Total growth in GSDP was 27.81% during the last ten years (2004–2005 to 2013–2014). In 2014–2015, forest revenue increased to USD 64.67 million (CAGR 9.50%). In 2015–2016, total horticulture crop production was 1,956,240 MT. Tourist inflow in Uttarakhand increased from 101,970 in 2014–2015 to 105,880 in 2015–2016 (Table 8.2). 8.14 Change in Population, Social Structure and Economy 135

Table 8.2 Gross state domestic products (GSDP) from agriculture and allied sectors at constant prices (2004–2005) S. no. Year From all Increase (%) From Increase (%) sectors agriculture (Billion USD) (USD) 1 2004–2005 5.53 – 8364.24 – 2 2005–2006 6.79 22.78 8094.80 −3.22 3 2006–2007 8.15 20.02 8471.80 4.66 4 2007–2008 11.39 39.75 8648.83 2.09 5 2008–2009 12.14 6.58 8332.18 −3.66 6 2009–2010 14.92 22.89 9134.83 9.63 7 2010–2011 18.41 23.39 9534.80 4.38 8 2011–2012 20.9 13.52 9917.5 4.01 9 2012–2013 19.86 −4.97 10267.5 3.52 10 2013–2014 20.31 2.27 10690.41 4.11 Source Economic and Statistical Directorate, Statistical Diary (2015), Dehradun

8.14 Change in Population, Social Structure and Economy

The present study shows that about 50% population lives in 10% area of Haridwar, USN and Dehradun districts whereas remaining 50% population lives in 90% area of the hill districts. Thus, over and under population comprises the region. I tried to find out the causes of negative population growth in the hill districts of Uttarak- hand during the period 1991–2001 and 2001–2011. The two districts—Almora and Pauri observed the highest negative population growth (−141% and −135%, respec- tively). The causes are many. The first cause is out-migration. It was noticed from the migration data that number of out-migrants is higher in these districts in com- parison to other districts of the state. The second reason is high female population. Out-migration is practiced among the male population as they move to other areas in search of job. This fact can be noticed in gender population ratio of three dis- tricts—Harrdwar, Dehradun and Udham Singh Nagar, which is 868, 893 and 902, respectively. Similarly, Decadal growth rate in these districts is the highest (average 32%). Dehradun is the interim state capital of Uttarakhand since 2000. Population data of Dehradun shows that it receives above 60% growth after 2000. Further, it has received numerous quality education centres and job opportunities. People from all the hilly districts of Uttarakhand have in-migrated here to get education and jobs. Haridwar and Udham Singh Nagar districts are plain and fertile areas where crop productivity is high thus, population growth rate is higher. In other districts such as Nainital, growth rate decreased (23.7%) due to creation of USN as a separate district (2001). Already, population distribution in hilly part of Nainital was sparse. In Tehri district, population growth has decreased because of various causes. The first cause was the construction of Tehri high dam as people of 114 villages rehabilitated to the 136 8 Population, Social and Economic Change plain areas of Haridwar and Dehradun districts. This has caused for high population concentration in the plain districts. The hilly districts comprise difficult terrain, harsh climate and very less infrastructural facilities. Output from agriculture, which is the main occupation of people, is not sufficient thus, people have out-migrated to plain regions of the State. This has resulted in decrease in population growth. I observed that in all the four districts, where population growth rate was the high- est, percentage share to total migration was comparatively less, except from Dehradun district, where out-migration was 8%. The district where agricultural land dominates in land use pattern and fertility of soil is comparatively higher, out-migration is less whereas, the highly educated people have out-migrated from Dehradun city for the better livelihoods. We noted that out-migration from three districts—Almora (14.2%), Pauri (13.9%) and Tehri (13.1%)—was the highest. The level of educa- tion in Almora and Pauri districts is very high thus, a large number of people have out-migrated. Tehri district has a different story of out-migration. A large number of people rehabilitated from Tehri to Haridwar and Dehradun districts due to con- struction of Tehri High Dam. I established relationship between literacy/education and out-migration and found it as significant. It means higher the education, higher is the rate of out-migration. Uttarakhand’s culture, conserved by the traditional Brahmins, has been influ- enced by the waves of modern civilization that have been drawn from the Indian subcontinent and abroad through tourism and pilgrimages and thus, lots of changes in performing rituals and culture have been noticed during the pasts. Uttarakhand is bestowed with the world’s famous pilgrimages—the highlands and the valleys, where a number of pilgrims visit during the pilgrimage seasons. The influence of tourists and pilgrims on the native society and culture has been tremendous, which has led to decrease in caste system largely. Earlier, SCs people ploughed the field of Brahmins and Rajputs, now they have their own land. The upper caste people—Brahmins and Rajputs have out-migrated and working either in army or in educational institutions. The practices of traditional customs and rituals in the Uttarakhand Himalaya have been declining, along with minimizing their frequency. In a number of areas, customs and rituals are performed for the namesake. Severity of caste system in due course of time has also been diluted. The custom of Bhaat-Beti relationship among the higher caste Brahmins got changed along with the openness in the society. Traditional food habits and clothing has been changed. In cities, towns and service centres, fast food culture is increasing. There have been a modern cultural waves intruding and influencing the traditional culture. Uttarakhand has received a dormant phase for decades in terms of cultural development. However, recently, it has rejuvenated, after it got statehood, as many social organizations are performing the cultural events and conserving them. Economy and per capita income of the state has increased mainly after 2000. I observed that in two different years, the GSDP has decreased while, in rest of the years, it has increased substantially. One of the reasons of decreasing GSDP in 2012–2013 was due to the catastrophic cloudburst triggered atmospheric hazards, which have devastation the entire Uttarakhand region. Although, arable land has decreased during the past decades yet the GSDP has increased. Tourism sector has 8.14 Change in Population, Social Structure and Economy 137 been growing and employment opportunities and income have increased. Agriculture and tourism have high potential for economic development in Uttarakhand. There is a need to involve the youth of the region in practicing agriculture and tourism. This will reduce the unemployment and will enhance the income and economy.

References

COI (2011) Census of India. Registrar publications, New Delhi Joshi LD (1984) The Khasa family law, Allahabad 1929, as the Tribal People of the Himalaya: a study, Delhi Pathak S (1988) Kumaon society though the ages. In: Valdiya (ed) Kumaon: Land and People, Nainital, pp. 97–110 Sanwal RD (1976) Thes social stratification in rural Kumaon, Delhi Sati VP (2017) Cultural geography of Uttarakhand Himalaya. Today and Tomorrow, Printers and Publishers, Delhi Statistical Diary (2015) Economic and statistical directorate, planning department, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, Part 2, p 53 Turner AC (1931) Castes in the Kumaon division and Tehri Garhwal state, Census of India, 1931, vol. 18, Part I, p 17 Chapter 9 Migration and Agrarian Change

Abstract Migration is the major issue in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. About 18% rural population has migrated to the urban centres during the last decades. The moun- tainous districts are worst affected. Migration has severe implications in the forms of land abandoned and ruined rural settlements. On the other hand, the urban areas are being over crowded. Change in land use and cropping pattern is the recent trend. It has been observed that due to high variability and change in climate, crops produc- tion and yield has decreased. In several areas, a number of cultivars are disappeared mainly fruits. Production of traditional cereals has decreased while, wheat and paddy is largely growing in the river valleys and the mid-altitudes. This chapter describes about migration and agrarian changes in the Uttarakhand Himalaya.

Keywords Migration · Virtually uninhabited villages · Land abandonment · Ghost villages · Slums · Agrarian change

Migration has become one amongst the most important issues in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Although, out-migration has several positive implications, because the remittances sent by the migrants, support livelihoods of the families living in rural areas yet, it has numerous adverse implications. These implications are noticed mainly as virtually uninhabited villages (called ghost villages) and arable land aban- donment. Land abandonment has already led to drying up of natural springs, which are the major sources of drinking water in the rural areas. On the other hand, the urban areas, which are receiving in-migration, are suffering from over population, water and air pollution, road congestion and emergence of slums. The quality of life/health has deteriorated in urban areas largely. There has been noticed a significant change in agricultural land use and cropping patterns in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Decrease in arable land, crop production and yield has become common. Change in cropping patterns—from subsistence cereals to paddy and wheat, cash-generating crops and tea garden practices, is a recent trend. Apple cultivation has disappeared from the patches where it was grown largely. Similarly, production and yield of citrus fruits, pears, peaches, plums, walnut, apricot and others have significantly decreased. Low production and yield of crops has manifested land abandonment and consequently, exodus people have out-migrated. Change in livestock farming has also been noticed from grazing animals to stall-

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 139 V. P. Sati, Himalaya on the Threshold of Change, Advances in Global Change Research 66, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14180-6_9 140 9 Migration and Agrarian Change feeding animals. Number of migratory animals such as goats, sheep and lambs has decreased. In this chapter (8), I have described the major driving forces that have led to migration and agrarian changes in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. I have also illustrated the implications of migration and agrarian change, both in rural and urban areas.

9.1 Migration: Characteristics, Causes and Implications

Migration is a natural phenomenon, as old as history itself however, number of migrants have increased rapidly in the last few decades (ILO 2010). A report shows that about 232 million international migrants are living in the world today and as a result, global migration growth has been observed 200% higher than the previous decades (UN 2013). In South Asia, about 38% migration occurred within the region and additional 12% is directed to other developing countries (Hoermann and Kollmair 2009). An increasing number of people worldwide are migrating to improve or secure their livelihoods, as remittances from migrants are an important source of income in many developing nations, at both country and household levels (World Bank 2016). Migration movement, both in and out migration, has been observed as the major socio-economic driver in mountain regions (Paul et al. 2011). People moving to mountain regions (in migration) of Europe and North America are increasing, as both residents and sojourners (Moss 2006). In Peru’s Andes, rise in tourism has brought a reverse migration as men come home from the lowlands to work in the Andes tourism trade and farm (Saul 2015). However, mountain regions of developing countries, including the Himalaya, characterise a large-scale out-migration, causing low population and decrease in farming activities in rural areas, and rapid and hap- hazard urban growth in urban centres. Rural-urban migration plays a significant role in the process of urbanization as India has witnessed 30% urban growth (COI 2010) and 326 million internal migrations (28.5% of the total population) during the recent past. Migration has been an old practice in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. During 11th and 12th century A.D. and in later years, it received a large in-migration from the other parts of India (Atkinson 1882). Studies reported that during the period (11th and 12th century A.D.), India witness a number of invasions by the foreign rulers, mainly by Muslims, and a group of upper caste people ran away towards the hills of Uttarak- hand and settled there. After independence, population has increased tremendous in these hills and a number of educated people have out-migrated outside the state in the search of jobs. In the decades of eighties and nineties, the rate of out-migration has increased largely. Out-migration has been a long-standing socio-economic issue in Uttarakhand region, which also witnessed inter-state migration in the second half of the 20th century and now characterises intra-state migration. A number of youth has been serving in the National Army from British regime in India and now, the youth are also working as teachers, hoteliers and drivers, and providing services to the tourists and pilgrims in the valleys’ service centres, and natural and pilgrimage tourists’ destinations. Migration from the Uttarakhand Himalaya largely began after independence (Pant 2016) and was in the peak during the 1980s, which fuelled the 9.1 Migration: Characteristics, Causes and Implications 141 demand for a separate state (Down to Earth 2016). Further, the magnitude of migra- tion was higher after 2000 when Uttarakhand got statehood and an exodus population out-migrated from the rural areas to urban centres. It has been continuously increas- ing day by day. Although, remittances from the migrants had substituted the family income yet, migration, now, has negative socio-economic implications.

9.2 Characteristics of Migration

To understand the characteristics of migration in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, I gath- ered district wise migration data from the secondary sources and calculated them using two different ways. The first one is percentage share of district population and the second is percentage share of the total migration. The migration share has been changed in both ways. On account of percentage share of district population, the highest outmigration was registered in Bageshwar (64.8%), followed by Pithoragarh (36.9%) and Chamoli (29.3%) districts. Other districts with above 14% outmigra- tion are Rudraprayag (24.2%), Champawat (22%), Uttarkashi (16.6%), Pauri (15%), Almora (14.8%) and Tehri (12.2%). They all are hilly and remote districts. Four districts, which are fully and partially plain areas, have encountered less than 10% migration. In terms of percentage share of total migration from districts, it varies from 3.9% (lowest) in Bageshwar to 14.2% (highest) in Almora. About 13.9% outmigra- tion was noted from Pauri and 13.1% from Tehri. From other districts, outmigration was noted to be below 10% (Fig. 9.1).

Fig. 9.1 Number of people out-migrated from districts of Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source Economic and Statistical Directorate, Statistical Diary, 2013, Dehradun. Note Original data on migration was gathered at household level. I multiplied it by five to get number of out-migrants (Five is an average family size in Uttarakhand 2011) 142 9 Migration and Agrarian Change

9.3 Migration Pattern and Types

Rural-urban migration is the main characteristics in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Rural areas are mainly located in the middle altitudes and the highlands whereas, urban centres are located in the valleys and plain regions. Rural people generally migrate to the urban centres for employment and many of them get permanently settled in the urban areas. The urban areas, where rate of in-migration is high, are called migration hotspots (Fig. 9.2). Case study of a village (Prethi) shows that households have decreased by 6.6% and total population has decreased by 10.7% during the last decade (2001–2011). It further shows that migration within the state’s urban centres is 66.7% whereas, 33.3% people have out-migrated to urban centres outside the state. In terms of migration types, 44.4% people have been out-migrated permanently, 33.3% for the service period, 6.7% for seasonal and 15.6% as daily basis.

Fig. 9.2 Migration hotspots in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source By author 9.3 Migration Pattern and Types 143

Case Study 9.1 Village Prethi lies at an altitude of 1600–1800 m in the middle catchment of the Pindar River Basin, about five km upward slope from Narainbagar service centre in Chamoli District of Uttarakhand. The Brahmins inhabit the village, with 120 households and a total population of 500. Agricultural practices are the main occupation of the people whereas, output from the agricultural fields is considerably low. The village has low infrastructural facilities and less opportunities of employment. While, the literacy rate and level of education is high. Unemployment, high education and low output from the farm lands are the major drivers of exodus out-migration. A household level survey on out- migration shows that about 40% households have out-migrated. Migration has three types—permanent, annual and seasonal. Highly educated people have permanently out-migrated (44.4% of total migration) and they are engaged in doing high skilled jobs. They never come back to the villages and their houses, and agricultural lands are abandoned (Fig. 9.3). About 33.3% people migrate on an annual basis, and most of them are recruited in the National Army. From each family, one or two persons migrate annually, sending remittances to the other members of their families. Out of the total migrants, 22.3% are seasonal migrants. They are working as teachers, drivers and seasonal workers, in the hotels and motels. During the tourism/pilgrim seasons, a number of educated youth extent their services to the pilgrims and tourists in the service centres and the major pilgrimages and tourists’ destinations. The trend of out-migration is increasing, mainly that of permanent migration. Case study shows that the numbers of migrants are higher among the people who have graduated, fol- lowed by those who are secondary educated. Among primary educated and illiterate people, migrants’ percentage is less. During the recent past, the rate of migration has increased. The village has now only 60 households with a total population of about 300 people. A number of settlements are ruined and arable land has become unproductive (Fig. 9.3).

I interviewed the migrants for reasons of migrating (Table 9.1). Out of the total migrated people (66%), 34% people out-migrated for work/employment, which is followed by education (17.4%). About 10.8% people migrated after birth while, 14.8% households out-migrated along with their family members. About 8.2% women out-migration for the marriage whereas, a small proportion of population (3.8%) migrated for business. Others, such as daily and seasonal workers, stand for 11%. Data on factors affecting migration was analyzed (Table 9.2) and their correlation/coefficienta was observed. Education and employments are the most important driving forces of migration, with significant values of 0.001 each. Simi- larly, family size, production and yield of crops (0.002 each) and remittance (0.005) are other major driving forces. Remoteness/altitude (0.02), arable land (0.10), climate variability and natural disasters (0.10), lacking in infrastructural facilities (0.021), 144 9 Migration and Agrarian Change

Fig. 9.3 (Left): Ruined settlement (inset): an abandoned house and (right): land abandonment (village Prethi). Photo By author

Table 9.1 Reasons for Reasons for migrating Frequency Frequency (%) migrating Work/employment 179 34 Education 92 17.4 Moved with HHs 78 14.8 Moved after birth 57 10.8 Marriage 43 8.2 Business 20 3.8 Others 58 11 Total 527 100 Source Field survey, 2015 human-animal conflict (0.131) and economic disparity (0.453) are also found to be the drivers of out-migration with significant values.

9.4 Virtually Uninhabited (Ghost) Villages and Land Abandonment

Census of India 2011 shows that out of total 9,358 villages, 724 (7.7%) villages in Garhwal region of the Uttarakhand Himalaya are virtually uninhabited, called ‘ghost villages’, and 943 (10.1%) villages have population less than 10 persons (Fig. 9.4). The number of ghost villages increased substantially after 2013 catastrophe, which washed away thousands of settlements and killed more than 10,000 people (Sati 2013). Pauri district obtains the highest number of ghost villages (54%), followed by Tehri and Rudraprayag (12.3% each) and Chamoli districts (11.2%) whereas, Hardwar district obtains 5.5%, Uttarkashi-2.4% and Dehradun-2.3% ghost villages. In terms of villages having less than 10 populations, Pauri district leads with 55.6%. 9.4 Virtually Uninhabited (Ghost) Villages and Land Abandonment 145

Table 9.2 Factors affecting Predictors Correlation/Coefficientsa migration n = 170 HHs Education 0.001 Employment 0.001 Family size 0.002 Low production and yield 0.002 Remoteness/altitude 0.02 Lacking in infrastructural facilities 0.021 Climate variability and natural 0.10 disaster Limited arable land 0.10 Human animal conflict 0.131 Economic disparity 0.453 Source Field survey, 2015

Fig. 9.4 Virtually uninhabited (ghost) villages and land abandonment in the districts of Garhwal region. Source Economic and Statistical Directorate, Statistical Diary, 2015, Dehradun

It is followed by Tehri (14.6%) and Chamoli districts with 12.4%. Its proportion is significantly less in Rudraprayag (6%), Dehradun (4.5%), Uttarkashi (3.7%) and Hardwar (3.2%) districts. Rural areas of Garhwal region have received large land abandonment due to out- migration. It was noted the highest in Pauri district (44.8%), followed by Tehri district (41.4%). In Chamoli district, it is about 5%, and Rudraprayag, Hardwar, Dehradun and Uttarkashi districts have the land abandonment percentage as less than 3%. The Government of Uttarakhand has established the migration commission, which aimed at studying the causes and consequences of in and out-migration, and framing policies to control out-migration. A report (2018) published by the commission stated that about 300,000 people have out-migrated from Garhwal region, of which 146 9 Migration and Agrarian Change

Fig. 9.5 Correlation between the ghost villages and land abandonment

30% have out-migrated permanently. During the last few decades, 42.25% of the educated youth (between 26 and 35 years of age) has out-migrated in search of jobs. This percentage is the highest in the districts of Haridwar and Chamoli. There were total 724 ghost villages in 2011, which have increased to 1106 in 2018 (45.3%), the report stated. It further showed that migration to nearby towns is 19.46%. It is 15.18% to district headquarters, 35.69% to other districts, 29% to other states of the country and 1% outside the country. Among the major causes of out-migration, about 50% migration was for the reason of search for jobs and 15% for better education. Other causes were low production of crops, lack in infrastructural facilities and increasing wildlife, the report indicated. I correlated data on ghost villages and land abandonment and noticed that in the districts having large number of ghost villages, a large part of the total arable land has been abandoned. Correlation between the variables came out to be significant with 0.563 R2 value (Fig. 9.5). Analysis on population size and out-migration shows significant relationship. Two districts of the plain—Hardwar and Dehradun obtained the highest population, along with high decadal growth rate. I observed that enormous in-migration in these districts was the major cause of large population size and high decadal growth. In the 9.4 Virtually Uninhabited (Ghost) Villages and Land Abandonment 147 hill districts, except Uttarkashi, population size and decadal growth rate is low, even Pauri district has negative growth rate. Out-migration from Uttarkashi district is less than other hill districts thus, population size and growth is high. However, it is the highest from Pauri and Tehri districts and thus, population growth in Pauri district is negative and it is very less in Tehri district. Similarly, the other districts have less population growth due to high out-migration. This study further shows that due to an exodus out-migration, Pauri district has the highest number of virtually uninhabited villages (ghost villages), followed by the Tehri district. Meanwhile, Dehradun and Hardwar districts have few number of ghost villages. Similarly, numbers of ghost villages in Uttarkashi district are less. Case study of villages from five districts also exhibit that the rate of out-migration is low from the villages of Uttarkashi district and it is high from the villages of Pauri district. Further, over 40% of the rural population is estimated to have migrated from the border districts of Uttarakhand since the formation of the state; is a serious concern for security mainly, for the villages lying in the border area of China.

9.5 Causes of Migration

There are several push and pull factors that have caused in and out-migration in Uttarakhand. Uttarakhand’s economy is based on practicing subsistence agriculture, output from which is quite low and thus, a number of people cope with food inse- curity and malnutrition. Further, people are devoid from the fundamental rights of Jal (water), jungle (forest) and Jameen (land) and as a result, livestock farming, which was a supplementary source of livelihood, has decreased. Forest Act of 1980 has minimized the rights of rural people to use substantial forest products mainly, fodder and fuelwood. These factors have largely manifested out-migration from the Uttarakhand region. The geo-physical constraints have traditionally been the push factors of migration (Singh 1990; Jain and Nagarwala 2004). High level of educa- tion, unemployment, low infrastructural facilities, low output from the arable land, undulating terrain and harsh climatic conditions are the other major push factors. Further, abandonment of villages has caused degradation of land, making villages unlivable, which has fueled out-migration. Warming of the valley regions and the mid-altitudes has led to enormous changes in the cropping patterns, with low pro- duction and comparatively low yield of crops, which, further accelerated the severity of migration. Other push factors that triggered out-migration from the mountainous districts include declining crop production. It was noticed that in the districts where agriculture is sustainably practiced, the out-migration rate is low. Further, mounting population pressure on arable land has led to food scarcity and malnutrition, which has further accentuated out-migration. However, three districts of Haridwar, Dehradun and USN have comparatively high carrying capacity (arable land and infrastructure facilities), along with several other pull factors. Therefore, in-migration is high in these districts. 148 9 Migration and Agrarian Change

The hill districts of Uttarakhand Himalaya are remotely located, landscape is undulating and fragile hence, industrial development could not take shape. In addi- tion, infrastructural facilities are lagging behind. Planning Commission of India (2011a) stated that about 58% villages are cut off from proper road, about 20% villages have no road connectivity and about 5,000 villages (34%) have poor access to roads. Although, several hydroelectricity projects of about 10,000 mw in Uttarak- hand region are functioning well yet, more than 2,000 villages do not have proper electricity. The report further indicates that medical facilities in the villages are also lagging behind. Education is one amongst the prominent drivers of out-migration. Youth of the rural areas migrate to the urban centers for getting higher education and later prefer to work in the tertiary sectors such as army, educational institutions, tourism activities, hotels and transportation services. A disparity in economic opportunities was observed. Although, the whole region has witnessed a high rate of economic growth yet, revenue share from the plain districts is higher, as a report from the State Government exhibits that per capita income in the five hilly districts is just half of the two plain districts (Government of Uttarakhand 2013). An increased number of monkeys, bears and leopards in the forest areas have moved towards the rural settlements. This has led to the damage of agricultural crops and human-animal conflicts. A study carried out by the state’s department of agriculture shows that about 30 to 70% of the crop damage is due to the displacement of wild animals. A large number of people have out-migrated due to the fear of wild animals and as a result, their agricultural land has abandoned. The natural springs, which are the sources of drinking and irrigation water, have dried up because of land abandonment. Repeated forest fires and loss of plants and animals have accelerated drying of springs. After the Forest and Wildlife Act of India (1982), wildlife has increased largely, which has led to human-animal conflicts. A report (Wildlife of Institute of India 2015) showed that on an average, 50 people are killed every year by leopards. A number of wild bears have already increased during the recent past. The report further stated that during the last 16 years, wild animals have killed about 448 children. Monkeys’ terror has been increasing since the recent past. They destroy the crop fields often. This has significantly forced the rural people to out-migrate. Climate-triggered extreme events have increased the severity of disasters. Increas- ing temperature in the valleys, mid-altitudes and the highlands have further influenced the cropping pattern, resulting in the declination of the crop yields. It is observed that fruits, mainly citrus and apple, have disappeared from the mid-altitudes and the highlands, respectively. Another report (Water Resource Development 2015) exhibits that about 221 natural springs (75% of the total) in Uttarakhand have dried up and as a result, crop yields have decreased and water scarcity has increased. UNEP-WCMC (2012) observed that climate led extreme events have stressed the Himalayan ecosys- tem, resulting in increased male out-migration and hardships to rural women (Tiwari and Joshi 2012). Figure 9.6 shows the causes and implications of out-migration. 9.6 Implications of Migration in Sending and Receiving Areas 149

Causes and Implications of Out-migration

Causes Implicatioins

Push Factors - Less arable land, low Sending Areas - Depopulation, land producion and yield of crops, harsh abandonment and drying natural climate, undulating lanscape, low springs. employability, less infrastructural Receiving Areas - Over population, facilities and climate change. road congestion, increasing pollution, Pull Factors - Higher education, high emergence of slums, shrinking employability and institutional facilities agricultural land, unemployment and in urban centres warming of urban areas.

Fig. 9.6 Causes and implications of out-migration in Uttarakhand. Source By author

9.6 Implications of Migration in Sending and Receiving Areas

Changes in rural landscape, as land abandonment and ruined settlements, is a serious concern caused by out-migration in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. We have noticed that in the districts where the rate of out-migration is high such as Pauri and Tehri, a large proportion of arable land has been abandoned. In contrast, the valley’s urban centres (migration hotspots) are mushrooming. These urban centres are located along the roads and river valleys, and are susceptible to landslides and natural disasters. High population pressure further accentuates the susceptibility of disasters. A rapid urban growth due to in-migration has been noticed in the urban centres mainly in Doon valley. In 1991, urban population of Uttarakhand was noted to be 22.97%, which increased to 30.55% with 45.3% decadal growth. Doon valley has observed an increase of 44% population per decade in the last half century (Ghosh and Nangia 1998). Meanwhile, from 1991 to 2011, population of Dehradun city has increased by 55.9% (COI 2011) which is higher than the national average of 31.16% and the state average of 30.55%. The hill districts, adjoining to Dehradun have witnessed a four-fold increase in the number of towns (Uniyal 1999). Similarly, population of Kotdwar town has increased by 208% during the period 2001–2011. In urban centres, croplands have been converted into concrete jungles. Doon val- ley was famously known for growing substantial aromatic Basmati Rice during the past. The farmers exported it to the foreign countries at high prices. Now, cultivating Basmati rice does not exist in any part of the valley (Sati and Kumar 2004;PTI 2010). As land has decreased because of large-scale construction of independent houses, apartment culture is in trend. It means that the urban space is sprawling ver- tically, which is vulnerable to future terrestrial catastrophe, as the whole Uttarakhand region is geologically sensitive, and seismically and tectonically active. Inadequate infrastructural facilities impede to sewerage, garbage and water scarcity. In addition, 150 9 Migration and Agrarian Change

Fig. 9.7 Slums emerging along the Rispana: A dying river in Dehradun. Photo By author large increase in urban population due to in-migration has led to an increase in the number of slums that has accentuated pollution level. In Dehradun city, which has experienced a tremendous in-migration, number of slums has increased from 27 to 113 in the recent past. Rispana (Rishiparna), a perennial river, which was a major source of pure drinking water to Dehradun city during the past, is dying. Significant number of poor migrants has settled along the river, making the river water polluted (Fig. 9.7). As they lie mainly along the seasonal streams, water contamination has become a major issue. Migration has become the biggest socio-political movement in Uttarakhand region, which has led to the foundation of many governmental and non-governmental organizations. It is a serious threat and it needs immediate controlling measures. Although, people have been migrating since past decades yet, migration intensity has notably increased during the recent past. Out-migration has manifested to severe socio-economic, political and cultural implications in the rural and urban areas. Declining livelihood options, cultural erosion and decreasing rich traditional knowl- edge of rural communities are among the major consequences of out-migration. Increasing out-migration, mainly among male youth population, affects the quality of rural women through feminization of mountain agriculture and resources devel- opment process (Leduc and Shrestha 2008). The author observed that the women and old men are living in the villages and the male youth population has largely out-migrated.

9.7 Agrarian Change

9.7.1 Land Use Pattern

The author collected time series land use data of 2005 and 2017 from the land use statistics, Ministry of Agriculture (Table 9.3). Data shows that land use pattern has 9.7 Agrarian Change 151

Table 9.3 Land use/cover Land use Area (%) Change change in Uttarakhand 2005 2017 (%) Forest area 60.96 63.42 +2.46 Land not available for 8.17 7.51 −0.66 cultivation Permanent pasture and other 4.03 3.20 −0.83 grazing lands Land under misc. tree crops 4.43 6.49 +2.06 and groves Cultivable wastelands 6.79 5.29 −1.5 Fallow land other than current 1.25 1.44 +0.19 fallows Current fallows 0.72 0.95 +0.23 Net area sown 13.64 11.70 −1.94 Source Land Use Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, GOI, 2005, 2017 largely changed during the period. Forest area has increased by 2.46%, land under misc. tree crops and groves has increased by 2.06, 0.19% area has increased under fallow land other than current fallows and 0.23% land has increased under current fallows. On the other hand, a substantial decrease of 1.94% under net area sown was registered. Similarly, land not available for cultivation, permanent pasture and other grazing lands and cultivable wastelands have decreased. There has been noticed an increase in forest area and decrease in sown area during the period.

9.8 Agro-Ecological Zones and Farming Systems

Agriculture forms the main source of income for about 70% people of Uttarakhand (Alam and Verma 2007; Sati and Kumar 2004). Sustainable agriculture includes food, nutritional and livelihood security. Cultivation of subsistence cereals in the Uttarakhand Himalaya could not attain the level of sustainable agricultural develop- ment and thus, vegetables being the cash crops attract farmers of the region (Tuteha 2013). It is a significant crop however, its cultivation area is less than 5%. A number of cultivars/crop races support high crop diversity (Kala 2010). Poor road network, poor supply chain and lacking in proper market for agricultural products further con- straints agricultural development. A report from the Union Ministry of Agriculture mentioned that the net sown area of the state has decreased by 10% between 2000 and 2014 however, a large portion of the population (70%) are still involved in practicing agriculture. Agro-ecology of the Himalaya varies vertically from <300 to 3400 m, and accord- ing to the climatic zones (Fig. 9.8). The first zone falls under <300 m altitude. Tropical 152 9 Migration and Agrarian Change

Fig. 9.8 Agro-ecological zones and the major crop races/cultivars. Source By author climate dominates in the zone, which comprises of Tarai, Bhabar and Doon valley. This zone grows paddy, wheat, sugarcane, mango, guava and papaya. Adequate irri- gation facilities and fertile soil have manifested to high yield of crops and thus, yield is the highest in USN. The second zone is sub-tropical, ranging between 300 and 1,100 m and comprising the river valleys and Shivalik hills. Major crops grown in the zone are paddy, wheat, tomato, leafy vegetables and major fruits are citrus, plum and peach. Mid-altitudes comprise of temperate climate, lying between 1,100 and 1,800 m. Crops diversity is substantially higher in this zone. The main crops grown are paddy, wheat, millets, pulses, oilseeds, onion, citrus and apple. Leafy vegetables and beans are also grown. Human population concentration is high in this zone. Proportion of terraced fields is also high. The highland, lying between 1,800 and 2,800 m altitude, has cold climate. A number of crop races/cultivars grow in this zone with colossal crop biodiversity. The main crops grown are multi-grain (Barah- naza), millets, pulses, oilseeds, potato, vegetables, apple, walnut, almond, peach and pear. Medicinal plants grow naturally between 2,800 and 3,400 m, and above the zone is snow clad. Total area of the Uttarakhand Himalaya is 53,483 sq km, of which, Chamoli district has the highest area (15%), followed by Uttarkashi district (14.3%) and Pauri district (11.8%). All the three districts are hilly. Bageshwar district has the lowest area (3.7%), followed by Champawat and Rudraprayag (4.1% each). These districts 9.8 Agro-Ecological Zones and Farming Systems 153 are carved out of Almora, Pithoragarh and Chamoli districts, respectively. Among the plain districts, the lowest area is of Haridwar district (4.3%), followed by USN (5.1%) and Dehradun (6.4%). The other districts have about 7 to 8% area. Data on land use/cover change, gathered from the office of the Principal Revenue Commissioner, Uttarakhand, shows that forest covered 63.42% land in 2013, with 9.7% increase from 2004. It is followed by the actual sown area (11%). Meanwhile, the actual sown area has decreased by 8.4% since 2004. Area sowed more than once covers 6.2% with 11% decrease during the period. Land, under bushes and shrubs, has increased by 44.7%, covering 6.1% of the total area. The highest decrease was noticed in the land not suitable for agriculture (26.9%), followed by wasteland suitable for agriculture (13.6%). Permanent pastureland has decreased by 12.8% whereas, its area share constitutes only 3% of the total area. Current fallow and fallow land other than the current fallow has increased by 28.8 and 34.5%, respectively. Land use, other than agriculture, has decreased by 28.3% however, their area share is significantly less (10.5%). Cropping pattern is dominated by cultivation of traditional cereals, which include millets—Kodo, Koni and Jhangora, Barahnaja (twelve crops that grow in a single field), pulses and oil seeds. Paddy and wheat crops cover a substantial part of the arable land. These crops grow in the highlands, the mid-altitudes and the valleys, respectively. Crop diversity is very high in cereals (in the highlands). In the valleys, mono cropping is practiced. Although, these crops are the staple food of the rural people yet, there production and yield is considerably low. Apple, pear, peach, apricot, walnut (temperate), citrus (sub temperate) and banana, guava, litchi and mango (sub-tropical) are the major fruits grown in Uttarakhand. However, area used for production of mango, apple and citrus is high. Overall, area under fruits has increased during the period meanwhile, it was the highest in 2001–2002 and 2009–2010. In terms of production and productivity, both decreased during the period 2001–2002 whereas, it substantially increased in 2009–2010 and 2013–2014. It was noticed that the production and productivity of fruits has increased higher than the area. Uttarakhand is an emerging state among the Himalayan states in terms of pro- duction of vegetables. Here, production and productivity of vegetables is substantial and it has huge potential to grow them largely. The major vegetables grown here are eggplants, cabbage, cauliflower, pumpkin, bottle guard, cucumber, potato, tomato, onion, beans, spinach, capsicum, mustard leafs and green leaves. Area and produc- tion of potato is the highest among these crops. An increasing trend of area and production of all vegetables has been noticed. Overall data on area, production and productivity shows increasing trends during the period 1991–1992 and 2013–2014. Area increased from 57.1 thousand ha to 88.3 thousand ha, production increased from 617.6 thousand MT to 1016.8 thousand MT and productivity increased from 10.8 MT/ha to 11.5 MT/ha although, there was substantial increase and decrease in area, production and productivity during the period 2001–2001 and 2009–2010. Uttarakhand grows varieties of flowers in about 1.3 ‘000 ha arable area, with a substantial production. Sub-tropical, temperate and alpine climate of the region support the cultivation of flowers. Flowers grow naturally mainly, in the temperate 154 9 Migration and Agrarian Change

Fig. 9.9 Yield of crops under Kharif and Rabi crops. Source National Horticultural Board, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India (Indian Horticulture Database 2014) and alpine regions. In the meantime, flowers are cultivated in the sub-tropical regions mainly, in the valleys. It grows a number of spices such as ginger, garlic, turmeric, chili and coriander. However, the output of three crops, namely ginger, turmeric and garlic is ample and Uttarakhand exports these spices. Area under spices decreased during the period 2010–2012 while, overall area has increased. A large increase in the production of spices was noticed during the reported period. Similarly, productivity of spices also increased, substantially. Yield of crops in Uttarakhand is comparatively low in comparison to the plain regions. Further, it is higher of Rabi crops than Kharif (Fig. 9.9). Data from 2004–2005 to 2013–2014 shows crops’ yield under both Kharif and Ravi seasons. Although, there is no particular trend observed in terms of increasing or decreasing yield yet, the overall yield during the decade increased. Crops’ yield under Kharif season increased from 1502 kg/ha in 2004–2005 to 1732 kg/ha in 2013–2014. Simi- larly, yield of Rabi crops increased from 1955 kg/ha in 2004–2005 to 2329 kg/ha in 2013–2014. Kharif crops, mainly cereals, grow during the monsoon season in the mid-altitudes and the highlands. All crops are rainfed, even paddy. Since, monsoon rain is highly variable and uncertain, it largely impacts the crop production and yield. On the other hand, crops that grow in the Rabi season, mainly wheat, barley and mustard, have comparatively high productivity because of their location (mainly grow in the valleys and plains) and they do not need much water. Agro-climate is suitable for growing various types of fruits—mango, litchi, guava and papaya in the valleys and plain areas of the state, and citrus, apple, pear, peach, walnut and apricot in the mid-altitudes and the highlands. Increasing area, production and productivity under fruits are healthy signs for the future prospects. A sustainable 9.8 Agro-Ecological Zones and Farming Systems 155 approach is needed to develop horticultural farming in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. We need to harness the natural potential in terms of devoting more arable land under fruit cultivation. Fruit cultivation has two major impacts—(i) it is a cash crop and its economic viability is high (ii) it restores fragile landscape. Since, the whole Uttarakhand Himalaya is fragile and landscape is instable, fruit cultivation will assist in restoring landscape. Diversity in vegetable crops is high in Uttarakhand. Here, a number of crop races/cultivars are grown (Sati 2012). Since, agro-climate varies from sub-tropical to temperate and cold therefore, it gives scope to grow vegetables in different altitudinal gradients. Flowers are perishable in nature. They need infrastructural facilities such as transportation, market and storages. The temperate and alpine belts of the state, which are suitable for growing varieties of flowers, are remotely located without any means of transportation. Although, these regions grow flowers naturally, they are perished without use. The State Government should develop infrastructural facilities to grow flowers and to enhance economy through its production. Our study shows that spices may play a greater role in agricultural development, as spices are cash crops and they have high market value. Increase in their area, production and productivity in several places of Uttarakhand, which are ideal for the cultivation of spices, prove their economic significance. Although, Uttarakhand has ideal conditions for growing spices yet, due to market constrains, the farmers cannot harness them. Further, area under its cultivation is quite less. I suggest that a suitable proportion of arable land should be devoted to grow spices and the government agencies, which are involved in agricultural sector, should provide market facilities to the growers.

Case Study 9.2 The author conducted a study of citrus and apple fruit-belts of the Pindar River Basin, a perennial tributary of the Alaknanda River.The river basin has feasible agro-climatic conditions, ranging from sub-tropical to temperate, alpine and cold, for growing diverse agricultural and horticultural crops. A number of cul- tivars/crop races grow in the forms of traditional cereals, fruits and vegetables and the basin has rich agro-biodiversity. Cereal crops dominate the highlands and paddy, and wheat grows in the middle and valley regions. Among fruits, apple grows between 1600 to 2000 m and citrus grows from 800 to 1600 m. High diversity in vegetable crops is found in all the altitudinal zones. In the valleys and mid-altitudes, onion grows largely whereas, potato grows in the highlands. Both, climate and landscape enhance high production of all the crops. Cere- als comprise millets—Mandua (Kodo), Koni, Jhangoro; pulses—Urd, Moong, Soybeen, Kulthi, Ramas, Bhat, Tour and Rajma; and oilseeds—mustard, Rai, Til, Bhangzeera and among the varieties of food grains, wheat, barley and paddy dominate the cropping pattern. A number of green leaves, french beans, eggplants, chili etc. grow in all the altitudes. Garlic, ginger and turmeric are the major spices. Peach, pear, plum, walnut, apricot, lemon, elephant citrus, 156 9 Migration and Agrarian Change

orange, mandarin, Malta and delicious variety of apple grow in different alti- tudes. In the decade of 1970s, the State Government created two fruit belts in the temperate regions i.e., Gwaldom-Lolti and Kalimati-Janglechatti. Production of apple and citrus, along with peach and plum, was substantial. The farmers were able to export apple and it has substantially enhanced their income. The author observed that the fruit belts do not exist anymore. Due to warm- ing of the valleys and mid-altitudes, apple belts have shifted towards higher altitudes. Because, human settlements and cultivable land are located at aver- age altitude of about 2,000 m, cultivation of apple above this altitude is not possible, and thus, apple cultivation from these two apple belts (1,600–2,000 m) has disappeared. Villages Ali (1,100 m) and Kulsari (1,200 m) grew all variety of citrus fruits with high quality and quantity. During the 1970s, these villages sold citrus fruits in the local market. Now, the land is abandoned, cit- rus trees are disappeared. The land under citrus fruits had been transferred to grow nut fruits in these villages and in due course of time, nut fruits have also been disappeared. The fruit growers have observed that vanishing fruit culti- vation from these localities was due to high variability and change in climatic conditions. Large number of changes has been observed in the cultivation of cereals. Production of millets has decreased, and wheat and paddy production has increased. Gone are the days, when the people of the Pindar River basin did not have wheat production and they used to eat Mandua (millet), also known as the meal of poor people. Now, wheat production is abundant (Fig. 9.10). Change in cropping pattern from cultivation of millets to wheat and paddy rice was mainly due to low yield of millets, increasing population and change in food habits. This has led to decrease in area under cereal crops (76%). Fur- ther, area under fruits has decreased by 65%. Area under individual crop has also decreased such as 70% under apple, 60% under potato, 70% under cit- rus, 41% under millets and 75% under onion whereas, area under paddy and wheat has increased by 94% and 63%, respectively. In a nutshell, 12% area has decreased during the past decades. Similarly, the yield and production of all the crops has decreased during the period.

Agriculture contributes nearly 17.1% in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of India. Few studies confirm that decline in agriculture is due to climate change (Saseendran et al. 2000). Uttarakhand obtains multidimensional agriculture, ranging from food-grains to horticulture, plantations, fisheries and dairy. Practicing agri- culture is the major occupation of the people in Uttarakhand. About 70% people are engaged in agriculture (65% of the total workforce) and agriculture contributes about 31% in the GDP of the State (Planning Commission 2009). Further, subsistence farming and smallholding dominates agricultural pattern in Uttarakhand. All crops grow up to the altitudes of 2,000 m. Cropping intensity (156%) is higher than the national average of 135% (Sati 2017). During the recent past, agricultural practices 9.8 Agro-Ecological Zones and Farming Systems 157

Fig. 9.10 Wheat is grown in the cluster of villages (Kaub) in the middle Pindar Basin. Photo By author have decreased. Lack in irrigation facilities (10% only), scattered land holdings, rough and rugged terrain, lack in innovation in agricultural fields, high variabil- ity and change in climate and inadequate market facilities attributed to low yield of products. Further, huge out-migration and detachment of youth from practicing agriculture hurdle the yield of crops. Uttarakhand has rich agro-biodiversity, as over 40% crop races/cultivars grow here (Agnihotri and Palni 2007). Barahnaza is the best example of crop diversity (Ghose and Dhyani 2004; Sati 2009). Among them, many crops/cultivars have declined by 60% and many of them are at the brink of extinction because of social, economic and climatic influences (Maikhuri et al. 1997). Uttarakhand has a cropping area of 7.93 lakh ha (14%) and of which, about 90% area is rainfed (State Action Plan 2012). Economic growth has largely increased from 2.9% in 2001 to 7.9 in 2015. In terms of per capita land, it is the highest in Uttarkashi district (2.46%), seconded by Chamoli district (2.17%). Hardwar district has the lowest per capita land (0.12 ha). USN follows it (0.17 ha). Per capita land has decreased in all districts and average decrease was recorded 0.11 ha (Statistical Diary 2014). 158 9 Migration and Agrarian Change

Fig. 9.11 Change in livestock farming 2001–2002 to 2013–2014. Source Livestock Census 2015

9.9 Change in Livestock Farming

Livestock farming is the most important allied activity in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. It is the second important occupation of people after agriculture. Besides providing milk, milk-made products and meat, livestock supports agriculture through providing manure and ploughing crop fields. Cow is known as ‘Mother Cow’, an economic animal and worshiped by the people during a number of occasions. Buffaloes provide milk and manure. Oxen are used for ploughing fields and providing manure. Goats, lambs and sheep are used for wool and meat. Cows, buffaloes and oxen are reared as stall feeding and grazing animals. Meanwhile, goats, lambs and sheep are grazing animals. Hens are also reared mainly, in the service/urban centres. Improved hens have the highest proportion among total livestock (45.4%), seconded by milching buffalo with 17.8% and milching cow (indigenous) with 15.3%. Goat shares the lowest proportion (1.8%), followed by the crossbreed milching cow (5.2%) and hen (6.1% indigenous). Sheep also occupies only 6.6%. During the last decades (2001–2014), four livestock—hen (indigenous) goat, sheep and lamb registered negative growth (Fig. 9.11). A decrease of 11.1% in indigenous hens was noted. Goat decreased by 26.8%, followed by lamb with 17.2% and a little decrease was noticed in sheep population (0.5%). Meanwhile, improved hen increased by 643.6%, followed by milching cow (crossbreed) with 288.9%. Although, the number of indigenous milching cows is higher and they rank second in terms of total number of livestock yet, increase in their population during the period was 19.3% only. Milching buffalo has increased by 18.4%. Both negative and positive change was noticed in the production pattern of live- stock between 2001 and 2014. The highest increase was observed in production of eggs (improved) i.e. 472.6%, followed by cross breed milching cow (282.5%) and meat from lamb (185%). Meat from goat received 147.1% increase. In terms 9.9 Change in Livestock Farming 159 of decrease in livestock production, the highest was recorded from indigenous egg production (38.8%), followed by wool from goat (23.4%). Declining population of goat (28.8%), sheep (0.5%) and lamb (17.2%) was due to decrease in grazing practices. During the past, the households from the valleys and mid-altitudes migrated to the summer pasturelands (locally known as Bugyals), along with their animals for up to five months. They had their seasonal dwellings in these Bugyals. Goats, lambs and sheep were the main animals which they reared. Along with this, they made Ringal (small bamboo) products for agricultural uses. Every household was involved in practicing it. The Bhotia nomads were largely practiced it. They used to migrate with their families, horses and dogs to the alpine pastures during the summer and during winter, they used to come down to the valleys and practice exchange of goods with the native people—sold mainly, potatoes, herbs and medicines, and bought food grains, pulses and oilseeds. In due course of time, this practice reduced. Now, only few people (less than 20%) are involved in practicing it at household level. Further, the practice of seasonal migration has lessened and thus, livestock (goats, lambs and sheep) population has decreased. In the meantime, stall feeding of livestock has gained momentum (Fig. 9.12). The above discussion shows that the traditional method (grazing) of rearing live- stock has declined. Stall feeding has become common. Although, the number of livestock has increased yet, per capita livestock has decreased. In the valleys, cross- breed milching cows and buffaloes have increased and as a result, milk production has also increased. The Uttarakhand Himalaya obtains the rich and diverse climate for rearing of all the varieties of animals. Grazing animals in the sub-tropical and alpine pastureland has been a centuries old practice, which can be revived again. A number of fodder trees from forests and agro-forestry provide fodder for stall feed- ing. Both practices—grazing animals and stall-feeding can be practiced to enhance milk and meat production, generate employment, control out-migration and reduce the impact of global change.

9.10 Climate and Agrarian Change

Mountain agriculture is the most vulnerable to climate change. Here agriculture is rainfed, which is fully dependent on the patterns of temperature and rainfall to determine crop selection. Change in regional climate will affect agricultural systems in mountain regions. Climate change impact on agriculture varies from one region to other. In the tropical region, where temperature is high, high evapo-transpiration may lead to water scarcity and consequently, will lead to declination of yields. On the other hand, crop productivity will increase in the mid-altitudes and the highlands in the mountainous areas (Olesen 2007). Climate variability will lead to a vast change in cropping pattern and crop productivity, even small changes in rainfall pattern in the growing season can lead to a marked change in productivity of crops (Lobell and Bruke 2008). 160 9 Migration and Agrarian Change

Fig. 9.12 a Calves are grazing in the temperate grassland in Bharadisain b Goats, lambs and sheep are grazing in the alpine pastureland of Dayara Bugyal c Paddy straw for stall feeding in Prethi village and d Cows and buffaloes in the cowsheds in Prethi village. Photo By author

It is argued that climate change will have an impact on the crops grown in the same places and its yield will be declined (IPCC 2007). Findings of the studies on agronomics say that developing countries will face severe decline in crops’ yield in the near future (Matthew and Wassmann 2003; Parry et al. 2004; Tao et al. 2006; Xiong et al. 2007; Yao et al. 2007; Chen et al. 2013; Aerts and Droogers 2004;Boyles and Raman 2003;Duetal.2004; Li Rui-li and Shu Geng 2013; Mcdonald et al. 2005; Meehl 2007; National Development and Reform Commission 2007; Piao et al. 2010; Qui et al. 2012; Reddy and Pachepsky 2000; State Council Information Office 2008; Wu and Zhao 2010; Yang and Pang 2006). Climate change will have negative impact on the Himalayan agriculture and thus, it will have low output. On the contrary, population and industrial growth will demand more production (Li et al. 2011). However, there are some researches who claim that agriculture is not at risk due to climate change (Liu et al. 2004) and even two degree increase in temperature will have a positive impact on the mountain agricultural sector (Mendelsohn et al. 2000). On the other hand, the shift in cropping pattern due to climate change (Chen et al. 2013) has threatened the food security. As population is increasing tremendously and food supply is limited, it will lead to food insecurity in time to come. Since, 9.10 Climate and Agrarian Change 161 agriculture is highly vulnerable to global climate change, food security concern is relevant to all of us mainly to the climate and agricultural scientists. Thus, a number of empirical studies have been conducted by the concerned scholars, worldwide (Mendelsohn et al. 1994;Hertel1997; Clin 2007; Wang et al. 2009). The Uttarakhand Himalaya has received several changes in the cropping pattern during the past three decades or so. The foremost change is decrease in arable land due to land abandonment. Cultivation of traditional cereals, which were the main occupation and major option of livelihood, has decreased. The reason was high pop- ulation growth and low production and yield of crops, which could not feed the farm- ers adequately. During the period, food habit largely changed. Farmers shifted their farmland from cultivating cereals to paddy and wheat, mainly in the mid-altitudes and the valleys. During the 1970s, the Government of then Uttar Pradesh demarcated the temperate regions of Uttarakhand as fruit belts. Farmers of these regions grew apple up to a certain period of time however, they could not maintain the cultiva- tion of apple due to several reasons. Among them, climate change was prominent. Cultivation of citrus and nut fruits has depleted subsequently because of number of driving forces—climate variability and market facilities. In the valleys and mid- altitudes, wherever irrigation facilities were available, the farmers grew vegetables, shifted their arable land largely under vegetables crops (Figs. 9.13 and 9.14). The recent trend of growing medicinal plants also could not get success and the farmers, mainly in the highlands, have further returned to their traditional way of cultivating crops with less intensity. Tea cultivation in the Uttarakhand Himalaya began during the British regime in India. It was well developed in the districts of Dehradun, Chamoli and Almora. In due course of time, mainly after India got independence, tea cultivation has completely disappeared. In the beginning of 2000, when Uttarakhand got a separate statehood, carved out of Uttar Pradesh, the State Government has initiated tea cultivation in the temperate belts of the state, where an ample sloppy land was available. The temperate areas, which were earlier devoted for cultivation of temperate fruits, are, mainly designated for tea cultivation. During the recent past, production of tea leaves and tea is growing however, area under tea garden is yet to be increased. The state now produces quality tea, which is being exported to the Northeastern Asian countries. Although, tremendous change in cropping pattern in all over the Uttarakhand Himalaya, horizontally and vertically, was noticed yet, area devoted to cultivation of cereals, wheat and paddy rice is large. Climate supports the cultivation of all variety of crops at all the altitudes. In the meantime, market is not easily accessible and therefore, the commercial crops such as off-season vegetables, fruits and medicinal plants do not get their return, and farmers, after several years of practice, further shift their arable land to cereals which can at least support their livelihood instantly. The author analyzed climate data—temperature, rainfall and humidity with yield of crops using correlation method. It was noticed that although climate variability was high during the reporting period yet, it did not influence the yield of crops (Table 8.4). Crop cultivars, mainly food-grains grow traditionally in the mid-altitudes and the highlands, which means that climate variability impact is negligible in growing these crops. Sati (2012) observed that when the entire India was facing acute draught 162 9 Migration and Agrarian Change

Fig. 9.13 Changing cropping pattern a Traditional cropland in Takorigarh b Paddy field in Narain- bagar village c Off-season vegetables in Khandagarh and d Tea cultivation near Gairsain. Photo By author situation and consequently low output from the farmlands in 1987, the mid-altitudes and the highlands of Uttarakhand were enjoying substantial production of traditional food-grain. It was also observed that because humidity remains high in the whole year and the Great Himalayan ranges keep the uplands cool, temperature and rainfall do not have much impact on crop production and yield. So, it is very clear that changing cropping pattern and declining production and yield of fruits and vegetables in the mid-altitudes and the uplands are not only due to climate change but also due to several other reasons. Uttarakhand typically comprises small and fragmented landholdings, along with limited arable land (18.5%). The Watershed Management Directorate of Uttarakhand (WMDU) reported that the average landholding in the state is approximately 0.68 ha, which is further fragmented into several small terraced patches. It is significantly less than the national average of landholdings i.e. 1.16 ha/farmer. Rainfed agriculture is practiced in the unsuitable terraced fields and thus, yield of crops is critically low. Further, due to uncertainty in climate and low yield from agriculture, land has become abundant. The farmers of the valley regions, where irrigation facilities are ample, have given their land in lease to the Nepali immigrants who grow seasonal and off- seasonal vegetables, making agriculture a profitable occupation. The author surveyed 9.10 Climate and Agrarian Change 163

Fig. 9.14 Changing cropping pattern in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Source By author

Table 9.4 Correlation between climate and yield of crops (Kharif and Rabi) Variables (Dependent) Statistical tools used Variables (Independent) Temperature Rainfall Humidity Yield (Kharif) Pearson correlation 0−0.012 0.052 0.250 Sig. (2-tailed)a 0.974 0.886 0.486 Sum of squares and 0−3.076 8636 491 cross-products Covariance 0−0.342 959 54.6 Yield (Rabi) Pearson correlation 0.007 0−0.452 0−0.144 Sig. (2-tailed)a 0.984 0.190 0.692 Sum of squares and 9.05 0−0357 0−1347 cross-products Covariance 1.006 0−3962 0−149 aCorrelation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) 164 9 Migration and Agrarian Change and observed that the native people have given a large fertile patches of agriculture land along the Khanda Garh Sub Watershed in lease to the Nepali immigrants. The author has observed that one of the causes of declining agriculture is Mahatma Gandhi Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA). The farmers are now largely working in MGNREGA and earning money in cash to carry their livelihoods and most of them have left practicing agriculture. In addition, agricultural products are easily available in market in low cost. Human-animal conflict has fueled the prob- lem of land abandonment. Outmigration has decreased human population in rural areas and subsequently, increase in wildlife has marked rise in human-animal con- flict. Population of monkey and wild bears has increased multifold. These animals are harmful for agricultural crops. Livestock farming has reduced in the mainland of Uttarakhand while leopard population has increased and they have started descending the slopes and wandering into human settlements. India is among the top 10 apple growing countries of the world and of which, 70% of the apple grow in Jammu and Kashmir. Uttarakhand grows only 3.7% (33.76 ha) of the total production of the country and of which, 90% is rainfed. In the meantime, the area and production of apples has decreased. Uttarakhand can contribute significantly in growing apples if sufficient measures are taken. Less snowfall and increasing temperature in the Uttarakhand Himalaya seem to act as constraints to the production of apples. Apple growers in the highlands of the state have shifted their land from apple cultivation to peach and plum (Thapliyal 2014) however, production of peach and plum is not substantial. Apple cultivation needs chill winds for high growth and as occurrences of snow have decreased, it has considerably impacts its production. Meanwhile, nut fruits such as pear, peach, walnut, plum, apricot and almond do not require much chill winds and as a result, farmers have given upon apple cultivation. Experts and extension workers of the Valley Fruits Research Centres in Srinagar, Uttarakhand have observed that climate change is certainly affecting the produc- tion of apple. They have suggested that suitable measures are required immediately to restore apple production otherwise, apple will be disappeared from the region. Changing pattern of weather conditions like inadequate/erratic rain, high intensity of rain within a short period of time, occurrence of hailstorm during flowering season of fruits due to climate variability and change are hampering fruits production. This is further leading to financial insecurity among the fruit growers. Uttarakhand has limited weather stations and thus, climate related data are inadequate for the entire region. For proper study of climate and its impact on apple cultivation, several mete- orological stations are required to be established above 1,500 m. Although, the State has a number of Universities and Colleges on agriculture and horticulture, precise studies on sustainable fruit cultivation are yet to be conducted. Studies on suitable varieties and technologies of climate resilient horticulture are inevitable to be carried out. Depletion of water table is directly linked with declining agricultural production and land abandonment. Agriculture in Uttarakhand is mainly rainfed because of inadequate irrigation. Further, precipitous landscape does not permit for the devel- opment of irrigation facilities. Under such situations, natural spring water is the most profound that can be used for watering plants, mainly during the dry season. As the 9.10 Climate and Agrarian Change 165 natural springs are drying up due to erratic rainfall and high variability and change in climate, agriculture production has decreased subsequently. About 37% of the natural springs that contribute to the Ganga River system are rapidly drying up, according to a recent science report. Uttarakhand Jal Sansthan (water institute) Department has supported the report, which depicts that about 70% of the water sources have decreased and of which, 75% are from natural springs. Pauri, Almora, Tehri and Pithoragarh are among the districts, which are the most affected by decreasing nat- ural springs. This finding has been received from a study of 500 water sources of 11 districts of Uttarakhand, conducted by Uttarakhand Jal Sansthan Department (2013). Climate change studies indicate serious threats to the marginal and small farmers in the region. There are several examples indicating that these farmers have already been influenced by the phenomenon of climate change and their socio-economic con- ditions are under threat. Erratic weather patterns have been experienced in the recent past and low yield of crops poses threats to food security. Selection of cultivars/crop races in the altitudinal gradient has been observed one of the major consequences of climate change. Decrease and delay in snowfall and high rate of snow melting has manifested crops/cultivars to shift in the higher altitudes and it shall not be consid- ered exaggeration to predict that warming of the lower altitudes will compel farmers to grow crops in the Bugyals (alpine meadows). Already, cultivation of potato has been shifted in the higher altitudes. In many places, potato grows near the Bugyals. A report published in the Press Trust of India 2010 indicated that peak rainfall time in Uttarakhand has shifted from July-August to August–September and winter precipitation extended until February. Cloudbursts have become a common and regu- lar phenomenon during the recent pasts. There are several instances when a huge loss of agriculture and lives was noticed, such as in 2010 and 2013. The author observed declining apple production, along with shifting of apple zone in the higher altitude and since settlement lies below 2,200 m thus, the area under apple cultivation has shrunken. Production of cabbage, pea and tomato is substantial in the higher altitude. Shortening of winter season has affected winter crops like wheat, barley and mustard. Rainfall has decreased during March-May, declining yield of millets and extending of monsoon until October, damaging crops, which are ready to harvest. However, there is no clear pattern in climate change over the past 50 years. Agriculture in Uttarakhand is the most vulnerable to climate-induced risk. Ramay et al. (2011) had the similar opinion as he observed that rainfed agriculture is extremely sensitive to climate change. Average warming has increased, which has reduced genetic diversity of species and increased snow melting, leading to increased flood as mentioned in IPCC report 2007. Erratic rainfall and warming have affected agriculture by changing the geographical distribution of crops. This part of the Himalaya has a humid layer of atmosphere, which is suitable for growing crops throughout the year. Now, humidity has decreased and this has manifested the decrease in number of crops. There has been a trend noticed in the hailstorm events, the timing has changed from March to late May, which has increased the damage of crops at flowering or early stage. A report published in the Press Trust of India (2011) estimated that around 50–60% of the apple crops were destroyed in 2011 due to hailstorm in Uttarakhand. Due to intensive rain, top soil in the agricultural fields 166 9 Migration and Agrarian Change has drowned and thus, soil fertility has reduced. Survey from a village suggested that about 25 to 30% of cultivation has been affected due to climate change and the farming families are suffering from the effect. Due to the flashflood of June 2013, about 753,711 ha farmlands along the Mandakini and Alaknanda rivers have been washed away. Agriculture is the mainstay of people of the Himalayan region, as about 70% people live in the rural areas and practice agriculture. Agro-ecological conditions are quite suitable to grow various crop races/cultivars. However, the farming system is uncertain and changing. Low production and yield of crops from the farmlands has compelled people to migrate from the region, which has led to tremendous negative implications. To avoid such a situation, a sustainable farming pathway is inevitable. Adopting mono-cropping is not sustainable in this fragile landscape. We need to grow all the suitable crops along the altitudinal gradient. Selection of crops according to landscape and climate is required. I analyzed crop productivity and suitability in the Uttarakhand Himalaya and suggested that there are a number of crops that can grow according to the altitude and climate. Cultivation of apple, citrus and nut fruits can be revitalized in the temperate belts. Cereals (Barahnaza)aresuitabletogrow in the highlands, wheat and paddy rice in the mid-altitudes and the valleys, and sugarcane can grow in the plain regions. In the meantime, seasonal and off-season vegetables can grow in the various altitudinal gradients according to their suitability. Subsequently, producing tea and medicinal plants may be a promising venture that can help to increase potential of farming system (Sati 2018). For the perishable nature of crops, cold storage can be constructed. Market is a major hindrance. Initiatives at the government level through subsidizing products and providing market at its level can change the mindset of the farmers, so that the farmers can grow high yield variety crops and enhance their livelihoods. Potential for rearing livestock is high due to feasible landscape and climate, and further enormous availability of fodder and grasslands. However, livestock farming has decreased in comparison to increase in human population. It is further deteriorat- ing due to lack in infrastructural facilities. Accessing proper market is a holocaust. Further, a number of rural settlements, where people practice livestock farming, are remotely located and thus, the milk and milk-made products are consumed domesti- cally whereas, their market value is very high. Since, milk and milk products are per- ishable in nature, processing products and market is required rigorously. I observed in the European Alps that the small areas have their own cooperative dairy farming and niche market (a small segment of the big market), and are quite able to sell their products on time and in good price, although rural population in the European Alps is comparatively less (40%) than the Himalaya (70%). It is mainly because of the acces- sibility of farmlands, ample market systems, high demand of milk and milk made products, and enough milk production. Socio-economic systems in the Himalaya are the most fragile, because of social backwardness and economic underdevelopment. Animal farm system can integrate social, economical and environmental sustainabil- ity. In the micro-drainage basins, cooperative dairy farming can be run successfully. Milk products can be made available at the cooperative units in each micro-drainage basin (Sati 2017). The role of the government in developing the dairy farming at the 9.10 Climate and Agrarian Change 167 micro-drainage level is inevitable. Livestock faming can be integrated with agricul- ture and tourism that can generate employment and minimize out-migration. Improving soil fertility and water conservation is the most useful strategy to cope with climate uncertainty in mountain areas (Kandpal and Negi 2003). No tillage farming, promotion of perennial grasses in degraded land, plowing against hill slop, water conservation through water harvesting and indigenous methods such as con- struction of ponds (locally known as Khals-Chals), selection of crops according to their suitability, value addition and adequate market facilities can cope with the consequences of climate change in the Himalaya. The Uttarakhand Himalaya has different climatic conditions, mainly influenced by altitude and slope aspects and nearness to the Greater Himalaya. A large variation can be noticed within a short distance, which is further influenced by the microclimate. Traditional farming has been practicing for time immemorial. Adaptation of climatic variations and organic farming is a way to reduce poverty and food scarcity and to combat climate change in the Himalaya. The Uttarakhand Himalaya has ample water in the forms of perennial streams that flow along the settlements and terraced fields. This water can be used for irrigating crop land. The indigenous method of irrigating terraced fields through Gools (a small canal made of mud and stone) can resilience climate change consequences. Further, we can conserve the tradition of cultivating terraced fields in a manner that can restore the fragile landscape. I have studied the Hani rice terraced fields of Hwong He county of Yunnanprovince in China and found that a small tribal group called Hani is enjoying a substantial production of rice. UNESCO has declared these terraced fields as the heritage site. Further, the tribal group Hani claims this site as the largest terraced fields in the world, and they have developed tourism here. However, in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, the size of terraced fields is rather larger than Hani terraced fields. It is therefore, high time to conserve these terraced fields for growing a variety of crop races/cultivars and to restore the unwarranted and uncertain change in the cropping pattern. This will also results in the minimization of out-migration.

References

Aerts J, Droogers P (2004) Climate change in contrasting river basins: adaptation strategies for water, Food and Environment, CABI Publishing, The Netherlands Agnihotri RK, Palini LMS (2007) On farm conservation of landraces of rice (Oriza sativa L.) through cultivation in Kumaon region of India, Central Himalaya. J Mt Sci 4:354–360 Alam G, Verma D (2007) Connecting small-scale farmers with dynamic markets: a case study of a successful supply chain in Uttarakhand, India. Centre for Development, Dehradun, India Atkinson ET (1882) North western provinces gazetteers, Vol. XII. (Reprinted in 1976), The Himalayan Gazetteer (1) Boyles RP, Raman S (2003) Analysis of climate trends in North Carolina (1949–1998). Environ Int 29:263–275 Chen Yongfu Wu, Zhigang Katsuo Okamot, Han Xinru, Ma Guoying, Chien Hsiaoping, Zhao Jing (2013) The impact of climate change on crops in China: A ricardian analysis. Glob Planet Change 104:61–74 168 9 Migration and Agrarian Change

Cline WR (2007) Global warming and agriculture: impact estimates by country. Centre for Global Development and Peterson Institute for International Economic, Washington, DC COI (2011) Census of India, Registrar Publication, Government of India, New Delhi Down to Earth (2016) June issue, New Delhi Du MY, KawaShima S, Yonemura S, Zhang XZ, Chen SB (2004) Mutual influence between human activities and climate change in the Tibetan Plateau during recent years. Global Planet Change 41:241–249 Ghose P, Dhyani PP (2004) Baranaja: the traditional mixed cropping system of Central Himalaya. Outlook Agric 33(4):261–266 Ghosh S, Nangia R (1998) Sustainable development in the endangered Doon Valley. Himalayan environment and sustainable development. Ed. P.B. Saxena. Dehradun, India: Surya International Government of Uttarakhand (2013) Statistical dairy Uttarakhand, Directorate of economics and statistics, Government of Uttarakhand Hertel TW (1997) Global trade analysis: modeling and applications, Cambridge University Press Hoermann B, Kollmair M (2009) Labour migration and remittances in the Hindu Kush Himalayan Region, ICIMOD Working paper, pp 1–15 ILO (International Labour Organization) (2010) A right based approach. p 2 www.ilo.org/public/ english/protection/migrants/download/right-based-apporach.pdf IPCC (2007) Contribution of working group I to the Fourth Assessment Report. Cambridge Uni- versity Press, Cambridge, UK Jain A, Nagarwala D (2004) Why conserve forests? a baseline study to assess people’s perception, attitude and practices for increasing people’s involvement in conservation. Dehradun, Appropriate Technology India Kala CP (2010) Status of an indigenous agro-forestry system in changing climate: a case study of the middle Himalayan region of Tehri Uttarakhand, India. J For Sci 56(8):373–380 Kandpal KD, Negi GCS (2003) Studies on leaf litter decomposition rate for rain-fed crop soil fertility management in the western Himalayas. J Hill Res 16(1):35–38 Leduc B, Shrestha A (2008) Gender and climate change in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas: Nepal, case study report, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu, Nepal Li Rui-li, Shu Geng (2013) Impact of climate change on agriculture and adaptive strategies in China. J Integr Agric 12(8): 1402–1408 Li X, Takahashi T, Suzuki N, Kaiser HM (2011) The impact of climate change on Maize yields in the United States and China. Agric Syst 104:348–353 Liu H, Li XB, Fischer G, Sun LX (2004) Study on the impacts of climate change on China’s agriculture. Clim Change 65(1–2):125–148 Lobell DB, Burke MB (2008) Why are agricultural impacts of climate change so uncertain? The importance of temperature relative to precipitation. Environ Res Lett 3:1–8 Maikhuri RK, Semwal RL, Rao KS, Nautiyal S, Saxena KG (1997) Eroding traditional crop diversity imperils the sustainability of agriculture system in Central Himalaya. Curr Sci 73(9):777–782 Matthews RB, Wassmann R (2003) Modeling the impacts of climate change and methane emission reductions on rice production: a review. Eur J Agron 19:573–598 Mcdonald RW, Harner T, Fyfe J (2005) Recent climate change in the Arctic and its impact on contaminant pathways and interpretation of temporal trend data. Sci Total Environ 342:5–86 Meehl G. A. (2007). Global climate projections, In: Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Chen Z, Marquis M, Averyt K B Tignor M, Miller H, eds., Climate Change 2007. The Physical Science Basis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK Mendelsohn R, Nordhaus W,Shaw D (1994) Measuring the impact of global warming on agriculture. Am Econ Rev 86(5):1312–1315 Mendelsohn R, Schlesinger M, Williams L (2000) Comparing impacts across climate models. Integr Assess 1:37–48 Moss LAG (ed) (2006) The amenity migrants: seeking and sustaining mountains and their cultures. USA CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK and Cambridge References 169

National Development and Reform Commission (2007) China’s National Climate Change Pro- gramme (2002-02-15). http://www.ccchina.gov.cn Olesen JE (2007) Uncertainties in projected impacts of climate change on European agriculture and terrestrial ecosystems based on scenarios from regional climate models. Clim Change 81:123–143 Pant R (2016) The ghost villages of Uttarakhand, the need of Rehabilitation, cover story: Tera Green, 9(3) Parry ML, Rosenzweig C, Iglesias A, Livermore M, Fischer G (2004) Effects of climate change on global food production under SRES emissions and socio-economic scenarios. Global Environ Change 14:53–67 Paul M, Thomas S, Heinz V (2011) Between longsing and flight—migratory processes in mountain areas, particulalry in the European Alps. J Alp Res 99(1):1–4 Piao SL, Ciais P, Huang Y, Shen ZH, Peng SS, Li JS, Zhou LP, Liu YH, Ma YC, Ding YH et al (2010) The impact of climate and land use changes on water security for agriculture in northern China. J Integr Agric 11:144–150 Planning Commission of India (2009) Uttarakhand Development Report, pp 54 Press Trust of India (2010) Floods cause large scale damage to apple crops in Uttarakhand. Business Standard, 22 Sept 2010. http://www.businessstandard.com/india/news/floods-cause-large-scale- damage-toapple-crops-inuttarakhand/109434/on accessed: 02 Dec 2010 P.T.I (2010) Urbanization kills basmati in Dehradun. Press Trust of India/Dehradun March 29, 2010 Qiu GY, Yin J, Geng S (2012) Impact of climate and land use changes on water security for agriculture in Northern China. J Integr Agric 11:144–150 Ramay S, Munawar Z, Ahmad M (2011) Climate change and food security in the HKH region. Paper presented at the Authors’ Workshop for the regional report on climate change in Hindu Kush Himalaya: The State of current Knowledge, 18–19 Aug 2011, ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal Reddy VR, Pachepsky YA (2000) Predicting crop yields under climate change conditions from monthly GCM weather projections. Environ Model Softw 15:79–86 Saseendran SA, Singh KK, Rathore LS, Singh SV, Sinha SK (2000) Effects of climate change on rice production in the tropical humid climate of Kerala, India. Clim Change 44:495–514 Sati VP (2009) Conservation of agro-biodiversity through traditionally cultivating ‘Barahnaja’ in the Garhwal Himalaya. MF Bulletin Vol IX Issue 2 July 2009. www.mtnforum.org, ISSN: 1815–2139 Sati VP (2012) Agricultural diversification in the Garhwal Himalaya: a spatio-temporal analysis. Sustainable Agric Res 1(1): 77–85 Sati VP (2013) Extreme weather related disasters: a case study of two flashfloods hit areas of Badrinath and Kedarnath Valleys, Uttarakhand Himalaya, India. J Earth Sci Eng 3:562–568 Sati VP (2016) Livestock Farming in the Uttarakhand Himalaya: use pattern and potentiality, Current Science, 111(12) Dec 25, 2016. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v111/i12/1955-1960 Sati VP (2017) Enhancing food security through sustainable agriculture in Uttarakhand Himalaya, Sustainability. Productivity 58(2): 187–196 Sati VP (2018) Crop productivity and suitability analysis for land use planning in Himalayan ecosystem of Uttarakhand, India, Current Science, 115(4): 767–772. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/ v115/i4/767-772 Sati VP,Kumar Kamlesh (2004) Uttaranchal: dilemma of plenties and scarcities. Mittal Publications, New Delhi Saul E (2015) Migration between Peruvian Andes and Amazon impacts environments. https://news. mongabay.com/2015/08/how-ya-gonna-keep-em-up-on-the-farm, last assessed 7/2/17 Singh CP (1990) Population dynamics and pressure in the Uttar Pradesh Himalayas. In: Ahmad A, Clarke Ji, Shreshtha CB, Trilsbach A (eds) Mountain population pressure, Vikas Publication Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi State Council Information Office (2008) China’s policies and actions on climate change (2011-12- 10). http://china.org.cn/govenment/new/200810/29/content Tao FL, Yokozawa F, Xu YL, Hayashi Y, Zhang Z (2006) Climate change trends in phenology and yields of field crops in China, 1981–2000. Agric For Meteorol 138: 82–92 170 9 Migration and Agrarian Change

Thapliyal J (2014) Apple growers shifting to peach, plum, Tribune News Service, 21 Dec, Dehradun The Water Resource Department (2015) Government of Uttarakhand Tiwari PC, Joshi B (2012) Natural and socio-economic drivers of food security in Himalaya. Int J Food Secur 4:195–207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-012-0178-z Tuteha U (2013) Baseline data on horticultural crops in Uttarakhand. Agricultural Economics Research Centre, University of Delhi, Delhi UN (2013) World migration in figures, OECD-UNDESA UNEP-WCMC (2012) Mountain watch: environmental change and sustainable development in mountains. UNEP, Nairobi. www.ourplanet.com/wcmc/pdfs/mountains.pdf Uniyal M (1999) Fleeing the mountains in tough terrain—media reports on mountain issues. PANOS South Asia, Kathmandu, Nepal Uttarakhand Jal Santhan (2013) Finding of baseline report of small holder agriculture and climate change in Uttarakhand 2013. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305441755 accessed Mar 31 2018 Wang J, Mendelsohn R, Dinar A, Huang J, Rozelle S, Zhang L (2009) The impact of climate change on China’s agriculture. Agric Econ 40(3):323–337 Wildlife Institute of India (2015) Dehradun, Wildlife Survey World Bank (2016) Personal Remittances, Received (% of GDP). http://dataworldbank.org/ indicator/BX.TRF.PWKR.DT.GD.ZS?order¼wbapi_data_value_2013þwbapi_data_value& sort¼desc accessed on 5 January 2016 Wu PT, Zhao XN (2010) Impact of climate change agricultural water use and grain production in China, Transactions of the CSAE, 26, 1–6, (in Chinese) Xiong W, Matthews R, Holman I, Lin E, Xu Y (2007) Modeling China’s potential maize production at regional scale under climate change. Clim Change 85:433–445 Yang XL, Pang JW (2006) Implementing China’s ‘Water Agenda 21’. Front Ecol Environ 4:362–368 Yao F, Xu Y, Lin E, Yokozawa M, Zhang J (2007) Assessing the impacts of climate change on rice yields in the main rice areas of China. Clim Change 80:395–409 Chapter 10 Sustainable Development Under Changing Environment

Abstract The Uttarakhand Himalaya is economically underdeveloped and socially backward region. Agriculture, including livestock farming, is the main occupation and the major source of income and economy. It is followed by service sector and tourism practices. Industrial development is lagging behind. Meanwhile, Gross State Domestic Products have been increasing since 2000, after it got statehood. Uttarak- hand has tremendous potential for the sustainable development of abundance natural resources. In this chapter, the major sectors of development and several policy mea- sures such as sectoral approach, social inclusion and development of infrastructural facilities have been described broadly.

Keywords Sustainable development · Industrial development · Tourism development · Social inclusion · Sectoral development

Sustainable development is the key issue in the wake of growing population and depleting natural resources. It is more relevant in the mountainous areas, which are highly vulnerable to climate change and disasters. Further, mountainous areas are economically underdeveloped, socially backward and ecologically fragile. Uttarak- hand, one amongst the Himalayan states of India, is an economically underdeveloped and a socially backward region. However, it has high potential for sustainable devel- opment, both at economic and social levels. In this chapter (10), I have elaborated the current trends and the future prospects of development under changing environ- ment. Several policy measures for sustainable development have been formulated and suggested for their implementation.

10.1 Current Trends of Development

There are total four major economic sectors—agriculture including livestock, service, industrial including tourism and mining and manufacturing, in Uttarakhand. The highest Gross State Domestic Products (GSDP) is obtained from the service sector, which is about 40%, followed by agriculture and livestock with 30%. Industrial sector, including tourism, follows them with 20%, and finally mining and manufacturing

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 171 V. P. Sati, Himalaya on the Threshold of Change, Advances in Global Change Research 66, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14180-6_10 172 10 Sustainable Development Under Changing Environment

Fig. 10.1 GSDP at current price (% billion USD). Source Statistical Diary Uttarakhand (2014) shares 10%. However, there is a high variability in their share from year to year. GSDP from the service sector is increasing rapidly while, from agriculture and livestock, its growth rate is minimal however, its trend is increasing. We have found that although, agriculture is the main occupation and a number of people are engaged in practicing it yet, its share in the total GSDP is not substantial.

10.2 Economic Development

There is an enormous increase in economic development. The author has described GSDP at current price from 2004–2005 to 2015–2016 and observed that increase in GSDP during the given period was about 382%, which has been continuously increas- ing (Fig. 10.1). All the indicators of economic development have been increasing in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. In 2014–2015, forest revenue has increased to USD 64.67 million (CAGR 9.50%). In 2015–2016, the total horticulture crop production was 1,956,240 MT. Tourist inflow in Uttarakhand has also increased from 101,970 in 2014–2015 to 105,880 in 2015–2016.

10.3 Industrial Development

The state of Uttarakhand is lagging behind in industrial development. Here, the large- scale industries could not be established, even in the plain regions. The mainland of Uttarakhand has precipitous and rugged terrain and landscape is fragile; establish- ment of large-state industries is nearly impossible. Data on Khadi-village industries shows that the trend of industrial units and employment opportunities was uncertain between 2009 and 2014, because industrial units were not uniform. Total units of Khadi industries were 1,210 with 3,750 employees in 2009–2010. It decreased to 447 10.3 Industrial Development 173

Fig. 10.2 Growth rate of GSDP in industrial sector. Source Statistical Diary Uttarakhand (2014)

Table 10.1 Industrial units, Particulars 2011–2012 2012–2013 2013–2014 capital investments and employment creation from Number of 40,049 42,340 44,809 industrial sector industrial units (as on 31 March) Capital investment 7,212 8,380 9,002 (Rs. Crore) Employment 177,615 196,004 208,846 creation (No.) Source Statistical Diary Uttarakhand (2014) units and 3,853 employees in 2012–2013 whereas, in 2013–2014 the units increased to 1,030 and employees have increased to 4,059. On the other hand, the small-scale industries have increasing trend in terms of industrial units and employment oppor- tunities, and they are outnumbered as compared to Khadi industries. In 2009–2010, the units of small-scale industries were 35,955 and the number of employees was 142,780, which have increased to 44,809 and 208,846, respectively. The author has illustrated growth rate of GSDP in the industrial sector from 2000 to 2014 (Fig. 10.2). It was noticed from the data that there is no particular trend in terms of industrial development in Uttarakhand. Rather, the growth rate is varying from year to year. It further shows that development in industrial sector is not stable so far. Industrial growth in terms of increase in its units, capital investment and employ- ment creation is shown in Table 10.1. Data of three years were compared (2011–2012 to 2013–2014). Industrial units have increased from 40,049 to 44,809 whereas, capital investment also increased from Rs. 7,212 to Rs. 9,002 crore, which is slow growth. In terms of employment creation, it substantially increased from 177,616 in 2011–2012 to 208.846 in 2013–2014. 174 10 Sustainable Development Under Changing Environment

10.4 Tourism Development

Tourism is one amongst the major economic activities in Uttarakhand, which con- tributes a large share to the total GSDP. The Uttarakhand Himalaya is bestowed with a number of tourists’ destinations and pilgrimages. It practices numerous types of tourism from natural to adventurer, cultural and spiritual. Natural locales are widely spread and have panoramic landscapes, as the river valleys, the mid-altitudes, the highlands, the alpine pasturelands and the snow clad Great Himalayan Ranges. National parks, wildlife and eco-tourism are the other dimensions of tourism, which have tremendous potentials. Trekking, mountaineering and river rafting are the major forms of adventure tourism, which can be developed here. Uttarakhand Himalaya is the land of Gods and Goddesses, where numerous fairs and festivals are celebrated every year. It is a land where several highlands and valley pilgrimages are located. A number of pilgrims perform cultural and spiritual tourisms, participate in the fairs and festivals and visit these pilgrimages. Natural and pilgrimage tourism has been practicing in the Uttarakhand Himalaya for time immemorial. However, the nature of tourism has been transforming. During the past, people across the country and abroad visited these places for pilgrimages, peace of mind and to some extent for recreation and escaping from the heat strokes during the summer. Now, tourism is practiced in a different form. It has turned into mass-tourism. Every year, a number of tourists—domestic and foreign visit these natural and pilgrimage centres. It has been observed that in the places, which are located along the road head and where infrastructural facilities are substantial, tourist flow is high. Meanwhile, Uttarakhand has several tourists/pilgrimage centres, which are remotely located and where tourists flow is low. Dehradun, Mussoorie and Nainital are the popular tourists’ destinations in Uttarakhand, which are witnessed for receiving a number of tourists. In the meantime, Haridwar, Rishikesh, Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri and Yamunotri also receive exodus pilgrims. Tourist places, located in the river valleys and along the roads, leading to the highland pilgrimages, are also overloaded due to tourists flow. Among them, Joshimath, Karnprayag, Rudraprayag, Kotdwar, Pauri, Uttarkashi and New Tehri are famous. In Kumaon region, Nainital, Almora, Ranikhet, Munsiyari, Pithoragarh and Kosani are the major tourists’ desti- nations, where a number of tourists visit every year. Kumaon region has also several pilgrimage centres such as Purnagiri, Dwarhaat and where a number of pilgrims visit. In Uttarakhand, tourism is practiced mainly during the summer season, because of the pleasant climate. Data on tourists and pilgrims’ inflow in Uttarakhand was gathered from the Uttarakhand Tourism Corporation, Dehradun (Table 10.2). It shows that there are total 28 major tourists and pilgrims’ destinations. Out of them, many tourists’ resorts and pilgrimages (highlands and valleys) are world famous, where tourists and pil- grims’ inflow is above 10 million/per year. In terms of foreign tourists, the flow is comparatively quite low. It has been noticed that tourists/pilgrims’ inflow has decreased in 2013 in comparison of 2010. Uttarakhand is bestowed with spec- 10.4 Tourism Development 175

Table 10.2 Tourist flow in the major tourist places of Uttarakhand S. no. Tourist 2010 2013 places Domestic Foreign Total Domestic Foreign Total 1. Hardwar 18837125 29555 18866680 12763650 22611 12786261 2. Joshimath 1609216 2070 1611286 418882 559 419441 3. Dehradun 1401942 20699 1422641 1718783 18202 1736985 4. Musoorie 1098870 5926 1104796 1070925 5050 1075975 5. Rishikesh 1093164 5548 1098712 370216 4193 374409 6. Badrinath 921250 276 921526 497234 152 497386 7. Tehri 898505 16103 914608 482865 13504 496369 District 8. Nainital 786705 7123 793828 737130 7088 744218 9. Uttarkashi 593290 2967 596257 964380 15899 980279 10. Rudraprayag 404527 380 404907 393307 329 393636 11. Kedarnath 400243 268 400511 333575 81 333656 12. Gopeshwar 381722 32 381754 71901 18 71919 13. Kotdwar 321438 26095 347533 319529 15561 335090 14. Gangotri 310255 306 310561 95098 320 95418 15. Yamunotri 309452 182 309634 96856 87 96943 16. Hemkund 308888 262 309150 164594 76 164670 Sahib 17. Srinagar 219103 1098 220201 118346 2009 120355 18. Pithoragarh 189474 774 190248 153127 562 153689 District 19. Corbett 181000 7696 188696 172598 4204 176802 National Park 20. Kathgodam 150423 691 151114 118403 272 118675 21. USN 100457 1509 101966 122765 1613 124378 22. Pauri 97516 160 97676 65473 442 65915 23. Almora 95947 5031 100978 76958 3499 80457 24. Ranikhet 83211 398 83609 67432 439 67871 25. Kausani & 70523 299 70822 63740 792 64532 Bageshwar 26. Champawat 63443 328 63771 72494 349 72843 District 27. Auli 40290 376 40666 29345 248 29593 28. Valley of 4155 301 4456 870 68 938 Flowers Total 30972134 136453 31108587 20864669 103596 20968265 Source Tourism Corporation of Uttarakhand, Dehradun 176 10 Sustainable Development Under Changing Environment tacular natural and cultural landscapes however, it is highly vulnerable to climate induced disasters. These disasters influence tourists/pilgrims’ inflow. The author observed that decrease in tourists/pilgrims’ inflow in 2013 and afterwards was due to the ‘Himalayan Tsunami’, which has devastated the entire mountainous region of Uttarakhand. Both domestic and foreign tourists/pilgrims have decreased in all the destinations, which is about 33.3% during the period. Uttarakhand has substantial accommodation facilities in the forms of hotels, guest- houses, lodges and dharmashalas—private and government. Total numbers of hotels are 1,768, total numbers of rooms are 31,065 and total numbers of beds are 67,973. Further, accommodation varies from one tourist destination (36,252 highest) to other (135 lowest). In Uttarakhand, number of classified hotels are 13 with 508 rooms. Categories of classified hotels vary from 2 stars to 5 stars, time share resorts and heritage hotels (India Tourism Statistics 2013). Institutional facilities support tourism development sustainably, as it provides basic facilities to tourists and publicizes the places of tourist’s interest. How- ever, the Uttarakhand Himalaya is facing an acute problem of these facilities although, Garhwal Mandal Vikas Nigam (GMVN) and Kumaon Mandal Vikas Nigam (KMVN), along with Uttarakhand Tourism Development Board, are working for tourism development in Uttarakhand. The inadequate institutional facilities have resulted in low development of the tourist destinations. Tourism has been a major source of income and livelihoods of people in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. It generates approximately 40% revenue for the state (Tourism Statistics 2015). A large number of youth is involved in tourism activ- ities during the tourism season, earning substantial income. They are seasonal migrants, providing services to tourists and pilgrims in the tourist centres as skilled and unskilled labours. Because, mass tourism for river rafting, mountaineering and trekking has been increasing in Uttarakhand, service centres are growing along the river valleys and road sides.

10.5 Infrastructural Development

10.5.1 Transportation

Means of transportation are limited in Uttarakhand, which impede development activ- ities. Roads are the major means of transportation meanwhile, the conditions of roads are critical. In the mountainous mainland, landslides and mass movements are com- mon along the roads, mainly during the monsoon season, which further impede the roads’ quality. This leads to a number of road accidents that kills people. About 40% villages in the mountainous mainland are not connected by roads and even by any other means of transportation thus, people walk miles to reach up to the road head. The length of roads in 2009 was 44,332 km, which has increased to 58,714 km in 10.5 Infrastructural Development 177

2013 (32.4% increase). In the meantime, the length of national highways during the period did not increase from 2,042 km (Statistical Year Book of India 2015). Rail transportation is limited to the plain areas of Dehradun, Haridwar, Naini- tal and USN districts. Because, a large part of the state is mountainous therefore, rail transportation is not feasible. Airways in the plain districts are also not much developed. Only Dehradun city is well connected with air services. During the Yatra season, air services are operated in the major highland pilgrimages. However, these air services are expensive and the local people cannot afford them. Mountainous mainland of Uttarakhand is ecologically fragile, which impedes road and rail construction. Further, because of inadequate resources and bad quality of materials, used in construction work, due to corruption at administrative and the government level, the quality of roads and rail routes is bad. Lack in technological advancements also contributes in deteriorating the roads and rail routes.

10.5.2 Electrification

On account of electrified villages and towns in Uttarakhand, the whole situation is satisfactory. There are total 86 towns, which are electrified. Total number of villages is 15,761, of which, about 95% villages are electrified (Statistical Year Book of India 2015). However, electricity supply is improper, because of mismanagement and terrain constraints. The mainland of Uttarakhand is susceptive of terrestrial and atmospheric hazards where flashfloods, debris flow, landslides and mass movements are common. During the monsoon season, these hazards damage the electricity lines. Since, the electricity lines pass through remote, forested and inaccessible areas, repairing them is hard and in several occasions, electricity is not available, even for a month long.

10.6 Human Resource Development

10.6.1 Educational Development

The state of Uttarakhand has a number of educational institutions. Literacy rate is about 79% according to the Census of India 2011, which is higher than the national average (74%). In terms of level of education, it is substantial. Every village has a primary school and a cluster of villages has a middle school and an intermediate college. A time series data on educational institutions shows that the primary schools have increased from 15,356 in 2007–2008 to 15,740 in 2011–2012 (2.5%), although, the increase is not much. In terms of middle schools, it has increased from 4,263 to 4,611 (8.2%) during the same period. The third place is of the higher secondary educational institutions, which increased from 2,362 to 3,062 (29.63%). It shows 178 10 Sustainable Development Under Changing Environment that the higher secondary schools have been increasing fast (MHRD 2014). This tiny state has a large number of higher educational institutions. Within a period of three years, universities increased from 18 to 21, colleges increased from 346 to 396, polytechnics have increased from 68 to 69 while, nursing colleges (total 9) and the teachers’ training colleges did not increase (MHRD 2014).

10.6.2 Medical Facilities

Medical facilities are not sufficient in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Further, most of the hospitals (government and private) are located in the river valleys’ service centres, in the towns of mountainous mainland and in the plain regions. The villages, remotely located, are facing acute problems of health, because of negligible medicinal facil- ities. In addition, out of total 1,847 medical centres functioning in Uttarakhand, 30.4% are functioning without water supply, 27% sub-centres are running without electricity and 35.6% centres are working without all weather motorable approach road. Total number of government hospitals and beds were 695 and 7,965, respectively (2010–2013). Similarly, allopathic doctors and dental surgeons were 1,121 and 70, respectively during the same period. Under Ayush system, there were total 50 hospi- tals and 530 dispensaries, 50 homeopathy, 257 health centres and 30 mobile medical units. Total 23 licensed blood banks were functioning of which, 10 blood banks were private (National Health Profile 2015).

10.6.3 Policy Initiatives for Sustainable Development

The Uttarakhand Himalaya has enormous reservoirs of natural resources in the forms of forests, water, healthy environment and feasible climatic conditions. The three dimensional landscapes—the river valleys, the mid-altitudes and the highlands further manifest potentials to future development. There are 175 rare species of medicinal plants, which are used for traditional medical healthcare. Abundant water resources support generation of hydroelectricity, forests supply ecosystem services and panoramic landscapes help in developing tourism. The state has numerous advan- tages for sustainable development. Among them, high literacy rate, strong social and industrial infrastructure and suitable conditions for horticulture-based industries are prominent. I have already discussed about the potentials of natural resources in the preceding chapters. Herewith, a detailed note on future prospects of sustainable development has been illustrated. 10.6 Human Resource Development 179

10.6.4 Key Policy Initiatives

The Government of Uttarakhand has initiated a number of key policies to harness the natural resources for sustainable development. Some key policy initiatives are Mega Industrial and Investment Policy 2015, which was implemented to provide assistance to dairy and textile processing units in the state of Uttarakhand. The state government has initiated harnessing environmental friendly and renewable energy resources, sustainably. In 2011, Industrial Hill Policy was implemented to set up industrial hubs and to attract investments for industrialization in the hilly areas of the state. In 2015, Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Policies (MSMEP) were implemented to boost up entrepreneurship, end outward migration and bring inclusive development in the state. A Solar Energy Policy (SEP) was initiated in 2003 to attract public and private investments in the solar power projects for production of solar energy in the state.

10.6.5 Major Policy Perspectives

For sustainable development and suitable use of natural resources, framing policies and their implementation are inevitable. Several policy measures such as multifunc- tional model, which includes social inclusion, utilized agricultural areas, livestock farming change and off-farm jobs are required essentially. Sectoral approach may support ways for the sustainable development. I have proposed two models—social inclusion and sectoral approach for sustainable development of the Uttarakhand Himalaya.

10.6.6 Social Inclusion

Social inclusion dimensions include social network—financial dimension, identity i.e. education, work life balance (civic engagement) and life satisfaction [(spatial situation) Fig. 10.3]. Financial support is an important tool for sustainable develop- ment of rural environment. It has been noticed that the entire Uttarakhand Himalaya is economically underdeveloped because of low economy and low income genera- tion. Financial support will enhance rural development. Educationally, Uttarakhand is developed however, due to lack in employment opportunities, the educated youth have out-migrated largely. Life satisfaction is another dimension. In the mountainous mainland of the Uttarakhand Himalaya, quality of life is poor and a large number of people were not satisfied with the existing infrastructural facilities therefore, they have left rural areas for better life. 180 10 Sustainable Development Under Changing Environment

Social Network - Financial Dimension

Social Life Satisfaction Identity - - Spatial Inclusion Education Situation Dimensions

Work Life Balance - Civic Engagement

Fig. 10.3 Dimensions of social inclusion. Source By author

10.6.7 Sectoral Development

Sectoral development approach is the key for sustainable development of rural areas in the mountainous mainland. I have developed a sectoral development model for the Uttarakhand Himalaya (Fig. 10.4). Policy perspectives for sustainable development and environmental conservation are divided into four sectors—farming sector, industrial sector, development of infrastructural facilities and environmental conservation. These measures are sub-divided into several other measures for precise interpretation.

Policy measures for sectoral development

[A] Farming Sector

Major crops Agro-climate/altitude Suitable areas Traditional cereal crops Temperate (1,400–2,000 m) The highland areas of districts: Almora, Pithoragarh, Champawat, Bageshwar, Nainital, Chamoli, Rudraprayag, Tehri, Uttarkashi, Pauri and Dehradun Cultivation of sugarcane Subtropical (below 500 m) USN, Haridwar, plain areas of Nainital and Dehradun districts Cultivation of wheat and paddy Subtropical-temperate Mainly in plain districts and the (200–1,600 m) river valleys Cultivation of fruits Subtropical (below 700 m) Mainly in plain districts Mango, Guava, papaya and litchi (continued) 10.6 Human Resource Development 181

(continued) Major crops Agro-climate/altitude Suitable areas Citrus Subtropical-temperate Valleys and mid-altitudes of all (200–1,600 m) the mountainous districts Apple, pear, peach and plum Temperate (1200–2200 m) Mid-altitudes and highlands of all mountainous districts Cultivation of vegetables Temperate (above 1,400 m) Highland areas of mountainous Potato districts Onion Subtropical-temperate Valleys and mid-altitudes in all (500–1,600 m) districts Tomato Subtropical-temperate Tarai, Doon valley, river valleys (200–1,600 m) and mid-altitudes Ginger, garlic and turmeric Subtropical-temperate Tarai, Doon valley, river valleys (200–1,600 m) and mid-altitudes Seasonal vegetables Subtropical-temperate (200–1600 Tarai, Doon valley, river valleys m) and mid-altitudes Green leaves Subtropical-temperate (200–1600 Tarai, Doon valley, river valleys m) and mid-altitudes Tea cultivation Subtropical-temperate Sloppy landscape of valleys and (500–1,600 m) mid-altitudes Cultivation of medicinal plants Temperate-cold (above 1,400 m) Mid-altitudes, highlands and alpine meadows Mushroom cultivation Sub-tropical (below 1,100 m) Tarai, Doon valley and river valleys Dairy farming Subtropical-temperate In all the altitudinal gradients, (500–2,000 m) temperate climate is most suitable Source By author

[B] Industrial Sector

Industries Suitable areas Fruit processing In fruit growing areas; one processing centre in each block headquarter centres Milk and milk-made In the river valleys which are connected by roads, at least one centre products after every 30 km. Milk can be collected from the peripheral region Furniture industries On the roadside, in accessible forest areas, at least one in each micro-drainage basin Handicrafts industries In the headquarter of every development block Woolen based cloth Mainly in the mountainous districts where goats and sheep are reared, industries such as Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Bageshwar, Pithoragarh and Champawat districts Industries based In all districts where forest density and diversity is high non-timber forest products Tourism development Mainly in all the altitudinal zones of the mountainous mainland Source By author 182 10 Sustainable Development Under Changing Environment

Fig. 10.4 Policy perspective for sectoral development. Source By author

[C] Development of Infrastructural Facilities This includes, development of transportation, improving medical facilities, develop- ment in banking sector, development in educational sectors and development of the river valleys projects. Development of transportation is the key factor in Uttarak- hand, because of fragile landscape and poor economy. Roads are only the means of communication however, their condition is very critical. Construction of tunnels and bridges for road transportation, particularly along the fragile landscape, will control landslides. Further, construction of ropeways to connect the rural areas, which are remotely located, may be the best option and it is best suited to the ecologically fragile slopes. Chopper services at subsidized rates, connecting rural areas with the towns/cities of Uttarakhand will further develop transportation. Medical facilities should be provided and a medical center should be set up in every cluster of villages. The medical personnel should be given incentives to work in the rural areas. Tradi- tional health care system can be developed at village level. The old and experienced 10.6 Human Resource Development 183 people, who have knowledge of medicinal plants and herbs, should be identified to practice traditional health care system. Banking institutions need to be developed at micro drainage basin level. It should have facilities to grant loans to the farmers at village level. Although, educational level is high yet, educational institutions are lagging behind. Therefore, the youth migrate to the urban centres to get education. [D] Environmental Conservation Landscape development, launching plantation programmes and restoring fragile landscapes are the major conservation measures. Landscape development is a crucial issue, because of the panoramic views and aesthetic nature of landscapes. There are a number of tourist places, located in all the three dimensional landscapes. Landscape can also be developed through developing horticulture. Along the fragile slopes, plantation drive can be launched to avoid further land degradation. Role of Forest and Soil Conservation Departments in environmental conservation is essential. Local people participation can be ensured. In this chapter, I have mostly illustrated the potential and policy measures for sustainable development in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. It has been noticed that the Uttarakhand Himalaya has high potential for sustainable development, as it has abun- dant natural resources. Educational level is high. Landscape is spectacular and cli- mate is feasible. There are a number of tourist destinations and pilgrimage centres, which can be developed sustainably. In the meantime, natural resources are largely unused. Highly educated people have out-migrated. Tourist places and pilgrimages are underdeveloped. I, therefore, have suggested a number of drivers that can improve development scenario and can pave a way for the future development of the region. A model of sectoral development and policy perspective has been developed and if all these measures are implemented, the Uttarakhand Himalaya can attain United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goal of 2030.

References

India Tourism Statistics (2013) Ministry of tourism. Government of India, Delhi MHRD (2014) Statistics of school education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, New Delhi National Health Profile (2015) Ministry of health and family welfare, Government of India Statistical Diary (2014) Directorate of economics and statistics, planning department, Government of Uttarakhand, Dehradun Statistical Year Book of India (2015) Ministry of rural development, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India Statistical Year Book of India (2015) Ministry of statistics and programme implementation, Gov- ernment of India Tourism Statistics (2015) Tourism corporation of Uttarakhand, Dehradun Chapter 11 Conclusions

Abstract Change in natural and cultural aspects in Uttarakhand has been observed during the recent past. Landscape degradation, climate variability and change, warm- ing of the river valleys and mid-altitudes, receding glacier, drying natural springs, change in distribution of floral species, increasing events of geo-hydrological disas- ters, change in culture and customs, population and social change, and migration and agrarian change are the major changes, which the Uttarakhand Himalaya is facing. In this chapter, drivers of change, resilience and adaptation are broadly elaborated.

Keywords Drivers of change · Natural aspects · Cultural aspects · Resilience · Cold storages · Governance

The Himalayan Mountain, the most fragile and the most vulnerable landscape to cli- mate change and increasing disasters, has enormously been transforming for the last few decades. Changes in geographical and geological features and climate, reced- ing glaciers, change in forests distribution and types, drying up of water resources, increasing disasters—both natural and human, large changes in culture and customs, population, social and economic change, and migration and agrarian change are the major divers, transforming the Himalaya. Although, change is the law of nature yet, the recent changes in both natural and cultural aspects in the Himalaya are tremen- dous. In this chapter, the author has elaborated about the major drivers of changes and suggested measures for resilience and mitigating them.

11.1 Major Drivers of Change

The author has divided the major drivers of changes into two aspects—natural and cultural (Fig. 11.1). Description of these aspects is as follows.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 185 V. P. Sati, Himalaya on the Threshold of Change, Advances in Global Change Research 66, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14180-6_11 186 11 Conclusions

Fig. 11.1 Major drivers of changes and adaptation in Uttarakhand. Source By author

11.2 Drivers of Change in Natural Aspects

Warming, high climate variability, increasing disasters, and high landscape fragility and vulnerability are the major drivers of change in natural aspects in the Himalaya. Global warming has become a major concern, which has attracted all the climate stakeholders. In the Uttarakhand Himalaya, warming is confined to the river valleys and the mid-altitude, and has a larger impact on the cropping pattern, forests and micro-climate. Fruits, mainly apple and citrus, have disappeared from their original locations, and from several other areas, they have completely vanished. The impli- cations of warming can be noticed in pine forests, as pine is spreading towards the higher altitude, invading mixed-oak forests, and as a result, oak forests have also disappeared from a number of locations. Warming of the valleys and mid-altitudes has also influenced the micro-climate, which has direct impact on daily life of the people in these areas. However, its impact in the highlands is not much substantial. Climate variability has been observed high during the past decades. Data between 2000 and 2014 shows that rainfall trend is not uniform however, it is highly variable from year to year. The Uttarakhand Himalaya has received the highest rainfall in the years 2007, 2010, 2013, 2017 and 2018. On the contrary, rainfall was scanty in the years 2002, 2004, 2006 and 2012. The author has also noticed that the total amount of rain and its intensity has been increasing during the period. Further, temperature varies according to the variation in altitude—the valleys, the mid-altitudes and the highlands. It also varies according to the variation in amount of rainfall and snowfall. 11.2 Drivers of Change in Natural Aspects 187

Variation in humidity is high, horizontally and vertically, and, it also varies from year to year, depending upon the amount of rain and temperature, it receives. It has significant impact on crops’ production and yield. In a nutshell, climate variability is high and its impact is severe in both natural and cultural aspects. Intensity and frequency of disasters have been noticeably increasing. Data on atmospheric disasters revealed that the intensity of cloudburst triggered disasters such as flashfloods, debris flow, landslides and mass movements has increased tremen- dously during the recent past. These disasters are linked with climate variability and change. It has been observed that 2013 disaster, ‘The Kedarnath Tragedy’, also called ‘The Himalayan Tsunami’, was due to cloudburst in several locations of the region. Similarly, a number of climate disasters have been occurring every year and among them, flashfloods and landslides are very common. Terrestrial disasters, such as earth- quakes’ frequency, have increased although, their intensity has been observed less. However, they are the potential future threats to severe catastrophes for the whole Uttarakhand Himalaya, as it falls under the IV and V earthquake zones. Landscape is highly fragile and vulnerable to disasters. Except the Tarai and Doon plains, which constitute only 6.3% of the total geographical area, rests of the mountainous mainland are highly fragile in all the altitudinal zones. However, the highlands and alpine pastures are the most fragile landscapes. Similarly, landscape vulnerability of the river valleys, where human settlements are densely found and roads are constructed along the rivers, is tremendously high. Abundant soil erosion due to excessive rainfall further accentuates the fragility of landscape. As a result, land degradation is high in all the slope gradients of the three dimensional landscapes. The river valleys are facing acute problems of natural and manmade disasters, because of high landscape vulnerability. Dense settlements, along the roads and the perennial rivers, further add vulnerability to disasters. All these natural driving forces have transformed the landscape largely.

11.3 Drivers of Change in Cultural Aspects

Education, change in culture and customs, change in food habits, declining crop production and yield, unemployment and migration are the major drivers of change in the cultural aspects. The rate of literacy (79%) and the level of education are high in all over Uttarakhand, although, quality educational institutions are lacking in the rural mountainous regions. Migration for education is high, as the large number of youth from the rural areas migrates for getting higher education in the urban centres, within the river valleys and the plain regions, of the state. They also migrate to other cities of the country for an education. When they receive higher education, they do not come back to their native places. The others, who get education in the mainland, they also migrate to the cities. Actually, agriculture is the main occupation and the youth do not prefer to work in the agricultural fields. Therefore, the men population 188 11 Conclusions in Uttarakhand is called ‘white color’ people. The percentage of such youth has increased during the recent past and therefore, sex ratio in the rural mountainous areas has also increased. Culture and customs have been changing, mainly in the river valleys’ urban cen- tres, tourist places and the highlands’ pilgrimages. During the recent past, a number of tourists and pilgrims have increased tremendously. Modern cultural waves, coming from the Indian subcontinent and abroad, have transformed the culture and customs of the region. The people of rural remote areas of Uttarakhand are innocent however, they are highly vulnerable to social and cultural change. Several areas have received tremendous change due to visit of exodus tourists. The Uttarakhand Himalaya has rich culture and cultural heritage, which varies from place to place—one micro drainage basin to other. Societies are woven by different castes, creeds and tribes. The rich culture, customs and rituals of the region have been replaced by the modern ones. Food habits have changed largely, mainly in the river valleys and tourist destinations. The state produces traditional cereals including millets—the staple food however, its production has reduced. Fast food culture has been increasing. Traditional dresses like Kurta—Pajama for men and Salwar-Kurta and woolen black Chadar for women have been replaced by modern dresses, mainly by jeans and tea-shirts. The traditional ornaments, mainly Bulac, Nath and Gulaband, have been replaced by modern ones. Widely used musical instruments such as Dhol, Damau and Bhankora have also been replaced by Band-Baja, played in various occasions. Arable land, production and yield of various crops have decreased, mainly after the 1980s. The major drivers of decrease in all of them were noticed, because of high climate variability and warming of the river valleys and the mid-altitudes. Decreasing crop-diversity and changing pattern of crop races/cultivars along the altitudinal gradi- ent have also manifested the decreasing crop production and yield. In addition, small landholdings and fragmentation of arable land caused it. There is an emerging trend of increasing wildlife populations in the forest area, because of rigorous implementa- tion of Wildlife Conservation Act 1980. Forests and pasture lands have degraded and as a result, wildlife populations are moving towards the human settlements, killing people and damaging agricultural land and crops. This has led to a large-scale rural- urban migration and further, farmlands have been abandoned. Already, arable land is very less and population is growing, the output from agriculture is low. Unemployment has increased tremendously. The Uttarakhand Himalaya is lag- ging behind in terms of industrial development. It is also lagging behind in institu- tional facilities. On the other hand, the youth of the region are highly educated; do not work in the agricultural fields. As a result, they out-migrate to the urban centers in search of jobs. The urban centres are over-crowded and rural areas are facing youth depopulation. Migration has become a major tool of change in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The region has experienced a large-scale out-migration as about 18% population has out- migrated (Census of India 2011). Data reveals that about 60% youth are recruited in the national army. Similarly, the youth are working as teachers, drivers and as a hotel 11.3 Drivers of Change in Cultural Aspects 189 staff, mainly in the urban centres. This has manifested depopulation in villages, many of them are now known as ghost villages. About 724 (7.7%) villages have become the ghost villages and 943 (10.1%) villages have less than 10% population in Garhwal region. It has been observed from the above discussion that the entire Uttarakhand Himalaya is facing the problem of enormous change—natural and cultural, which has substantial adverse implications on all the aspects. Landscape degradation, land abandonment, increasing food scarcity and malnutrition are among the several imped- iments that are causing threat to human survivability. Resilience and adaptation to these changes are therefore essential to reduce future catastrophes/risks.

11.4 Resilience and Adaptation

Resilience and adaptation are the two prominent solutions for coping with the change aspects. The author has identified significant resilience and adaptation measures of change in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Climate smart agriculture/horticulture, crop suitability analysis according to agro-climate and landscape, cultivation of cash crops—fruits and vegetables, cultivation of tea leaves and medicinal plants, adequate irrigation, market facilities, cold storages, transportation facilities, co-operative farming, employment opportunities and good governance are among the major resilience and adaptations that can cope with all the change aspects. They are elaborated separately below.

11.5 Climate Smart Agriculture/Horticulture

Agriculture is the most vulnerable to climate change. During the recent past, agri- culture has largely been influenced by climate change and it will continue to be influenced, as agricultural scientists believe. Climate smart agriculture/horticulture, a new concept and initiative, will be a milestone to reduce the impact of climate change. Ample water supply through irrigating croplands and more use of rainwater harvesting is a part of climate smart agriculture.

11.6 Crop Suitability Analysis

Suitability analysis of crop races/cultivars along with the altitudinal gradients may be ensured. The highlands of the Uttarakhand Himalaya obtain temperate climate, which are suitable for crop diversity therefore, high agro-biodiversity is found in this region. Due to cold climate and sufficient moisture present in the atmosphere, impact of drought on the crop production is negligible in the highlands. Further, 190 11 Conclusions the river valleys are suitable for growing wheat and paddy with limited arable land. Land intensification may be a key tool for securing food. Cultivation of fruits, veg- etables and medicinal plants are best suited in different altitudes. These crops can be cultivated sustainably, according to their suitability and productivity.

11.7 Cultivation of Cash Crops

Cash crops, including various kinds of fruits, vegetables and medicinal plants, are best suited in the agro-climatic zones of Uttarakhand. Their economic viability is signifi- cant all along the altitudinal gradients. Temperate climate is suitable for cultivation of apple whereas, citrus fruits—lime, elephant citrus, mandarin and orange—are suit- able to grow in the sub-tropical climate. Stone fruits can grow in different altitudes, according to climate and landscapes. Among vegetables, potato can grow in temper- ate region and onion can grow in sub-tropical region. Similarly, beans, egg-plants, lady fingers, French bean, capsicum, spinach, cauliflower, cabbage and other leafy vegetables can grow in all the altitudes, mainly in the river valleys where irrigation facilities are adequate. Medicinal plants can grow in the highlands and the alpine meadows naturally, they can also be cultivated at household levels. Tea cultivation is a centuries old practice. It is carried out in the mid-altitudes and the highlands, where slope is gentle and climate is feasible. Before independence, tea cultivation was in the developed stage, it was flourishing. After 1947, for decades, tea cultivation was in the dormant phase and when Uttarakhand became a full flagged state in 2000, the government reinitiated its cultivation. The mid-altitudes and the highlands are suitable for tea cultivation in Uttarakhand. A sizeable land (forest and arable) can be devoted for its cultivation. It will surely manifest economic develop- ment in Uttarakhand and will restore the fragile ecosystem.

11.8 Restoring Traditional Livestock Farming

Livestock farming is well adapted in the ecosystem of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. It was the second major source of livelihoods and income of the rural people. Because, fodder is easily available, as the large subtropical and temperate grasslands are located in the region, people reared two or more than two livestock. Now, the number of livestock, in comparison to increasing population, has decreased substantially. The marginal farmers of the Uttarakhand Himalaya have been suffering from acute food shortage, development of livestock farming, therefore, will enhance livelihood oppor- tunities, income and economy. 11.9 Adequate Irrigation Facilities 191

11.9 Adequate Irrigation Facilities

Adequate irrigation facilities can mitigate the climate change consequences. The valleys are suitable for irrigating crops, because of comparatively flat agricultural fields and ample water facilities. Similarly, in the mid-altitudes and the highlands, traditional irrigation methods such as construction of Gools and small canals can be reintroduced and intensified as the farmers have already left this practice. This initiative will surely increase the production and yield of crops, even in the adverse situations, and it will cope with climate change related consequences.

11.10 Market Accessibility

Agricultural and horticultural products are home consumed, mainly in the rural areas, because of market inaccessibility. In terms of perishable nature of crops, such as fruits and vegetables, the crops are destroyed within a short span of time. The other crops, such as medicinal plants, which take a long period to grow, do not get adequate market price. Due to huge market shock, the farmers grow subsistence crops, only for home consumption. At the government level, market can be provided at subsidy rate so that the farmers can enjoy the output from the agricultural fields. Market facilities will boost up the agricultural production and livelihood sustainability.

11.11 Cold Storages

The climate is quite suitable for the high yield of crops—fruits and vegetables. In the meantime, it needs cold storages to store seasonal fruits for off-season market. Although, Uttarakhand has huge potential to grow fruits and vegetables, yet, due to lake of cold storages, farmers do not grow them at commercial level. During the season, excessive production is unutilized and their price is less. If cold storages are constructed in every micro-drainage basin, and fruits and vegetables are stored and sold during the tourism seasons then, the farmers of the region can grow cash crops, mainly fruits at a large-scale.

11.12 Transportation Facilities

Temperate regions of the Uttarakhand Himalaya are remotely located, where trans- portation facilities are just negligible. Production of cash crops is high. Further, dairy farming is quite suitable here. However, all these products are perishable in nature. Ample transportation facilities are required to be developed for selling cash crops and 192 11 Conclusions dairy products. It is also inevitable for tourism development. As landscape is fragile and constructions of large roads are not sustainable, ropeways can be the substitute as the major means of transportation.

11.13 Co-operative Farming

Livestock farming is an allied activity and the second most important source of livelihoods for the rural people in Uttarakhand. This study reveals that the livestock population has been decreasing substantially. Livestock are reared here for plough- ing fields, producing manure and household level production of milk. Meanwhile, climate is highly suitable and natural grasslands are abundant for developing dairy farming at the co-operative level. Co-operative dairy farming can be introduced at villages’/cluster of villages’ level. This will develop dairy farming and manifest livelihood sustainability.

11.14 Employment Opportunity

Augmentation of employment is the key driver to control out-migration of the edu- cated youth. Educational, administrative, business, banking and industrial avenues can be established at block and district levels. These avenues can accommodate the educated youth, providing them employment. This will further reduce the economic disparity between hills and plain districts, and will stop brain-drain.

11.15 Good Governance

Government’s role in terms of framing suitable policies and providing good gover- nance in developing economy and society is inevitable. Even having abundant natural and cultural resources, the Uttarakhand Himalaya is facing development dilemma, mainly because of lack in good governance. Further, mountain specificities need more care in terms of new innovation and technology. Area specific approach for sustainable development of mountainous mainland, which is located remotely, can be framed and implemented through good governance. The government agencies and policy makers, which are looking after the development initiatives, should come for- ward to reduce the developmental vulnerability. Village level local self government can play a vital role in good governance. It can be concluded that the entire Uttarakhand Himalaya is facing enormous changes in the natural and cultural aspects. The major drivers of changes are warm- ing of the valleys, climate variability, education, influence of modern culture on the traditional society and change in food habits. It has been noticed that these changes 11.15 Good Governance 193 have adverse implications on social and economic development of the region. The author has incorporated several suggestions for mitigating these changes for sus- tainable development of the Himalayan region. Among them, the major suggestions are—introduction of climate smart agriculture/horticulture, crop suitability analysis, cash crop farming, co-operative farming, livestock farming, employment opportuni- ties, adequate irrigation, market accessibilities, transportation facilities, construction of cold storages and good governance. Policies measures at regional and local-level should be adopted to mitigate the implications of global changes in the Himalaya. All these measures will not only improve livelihood, income and employment but also control out-migration.