《禪與人類文明研究》第 7 期（2020） International Journal for the Study of Chan and Human Civilization Issue 7 (2020)

MEDITATION METHODS IN : A MAP OF THE FIELD OF PRACTICE FROM MEDITATION CENTERS TO THE FOREST TRADITION

Brooke Schedneck (Rhodes College)

ABSTRACT

There are estimated to be about two hundred meditation centers in Thailand with varying meditation methods and modes of instruction. This article offers a map of the meditation methods and teachers of the most popular and well-known meditation centers in Thailand. Each meditation center contributes to the diverse field of international engagement in Thailand. Analyzing the main meditation methods and places of meditation for international meditators, I especially highlight the Buddhadasa , Dhammakaya, and Tong methods. Contrasted with the institution of the meditation center are the temples of the . These temples follow a different model of practice, which is more oriented toward the monastic life. Through this series of case studies I examine the factors that contribute to the ways these various methods reach diverse audiences. This map of Thailand’s meditation centers and places of practices, along with their methods, highlights the diversity, accessibility, openness, inclusivity, and flexibility of engagement with .

KEYWORDS

Meditation, Thailand, Meditation Center, Buddhism, Practice

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《禪與人類文明研究》第 7 期（2020） International Journal for the Study of and Human Civilization Issue 7 (2020)

There are estimated to be about two hundred meditation centers in Thailand with varying meditation methods and modes of instruction (Fuengfusakul, 2012: 221). In addition to this diversity within the institution of the meditation center, Thailand also hosts other places of practice, such as temples within the Thai Forest tradition. This paper provides a map of the meditation methods and teachers of the most popular and well-known meditation centers and places of practice in Thailand. I have compiled and created this map through research using meditation guidebooks, primary and secondary literature, Internet resources, and discussions with meditation center teachers during a research period between 2009-2011. Analyzing the main meditation methods and places of meditation for lay meditators; I especially highlight the most popular methods used in meditation centers and the Thai Forest tradition methods. This overview allows for an understanding of how and why some methods become popular as well as a comparison between the meditation center and forest tradition models. Because of this, I highlight both the technique and the teacher, focusing on the features of their appeal to their students. Meditation techniques and teachers must legitimate themselves within their tradition through various factors such as , scriptures, and experience. These claims will in turn be evaluated by who become disciples of those teachers they perceive as charismatic and effective. This map of Thailand’s meditation sites and methods highlights the diversity, accessibility, inclusivity, and flexibility of engagement for lay meditators with Buddhism in Thailand.

THE MEDITATION CENTER AND THE FOREST TRADITION IN THAILAND

The meditation center is designed for temporary meditation practice, usually for large numbers of people. In contrast, the temples of the Thai Forest tradition focus mostly on monasticism and practice for ordained members. This section contrasts these two main practice spaces in Thailand, beginning with the meditation center. In addition to the core buildings of any monastery, the meditation center has ample facilities for the temporary resident meditators including accommodation, assembly halls, dining halls, kitchens, administrative offices, etc.123 This administrative complex is needed to coordinate the large turnover of meditators on a regular basis.124 The daily routine of the meditation center is extremely regimented and revolves almost exclusively around the practice of meditation.125 This institution began in the 1950s in Thailand but became popular in the 1970s because of a number of changes within Thai society.

123 This is in contrast to solitary meditation locations within huts and caves. 124 The meditation center can be contrasted with the typical monastery in many ways. Monasteries provide for the residence of a limited number of monks. Some have spare accommodation available but few possess the same type of facilities as meditation centers. The monastery serves many functions and so there is more freedom within the daily schedule. Besides the morning almsround, morning and evening chanting, and meals, monastics’ schedules vary. Novices carry out duties like sweeping the floors, cleaning, and preparing offerings for the Buddha statue. More senior monks often conduct ceremonies away from the temple or for visitors to the monastery and have other administrative duties. 125 For descriptions of meditation centers in Burma see Houtman (1990) and Jordt (2007). For Thailand see Cook (2010) and Schedneck (2015), especially Chapter Three. 81

《禪與人類文明研究》第 7 期（2020） International Journal for the Study of Chan Buddhism and Human Civilization Issue 7 (2020)

In the 1970s, increased standards of literacy, education, the development of an urban middle class, and new media such as cassette tapes allowed for the reproduction of popular teachings for a mass market. Before this time, meditation teaching was available only at monasteries with well-known meditation teachers in residence. When those teachers passed away, so did the opportunity to learn meditation (Tambiah, 1984: 168). This changed through the widespread dissemination programs taking place in Thailand at this time, which trained monks from all regions of the country to teach meditation. 126 At Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya Buddhist University, within the grounds of Mahathat, courses in meditation and Abhidhamma added to the available options (Van Esterik, 1977: 56). Abhidhamma, the section of the Pāli Canon that presents a scholastic and detailed analysis of physical and mental processes, was linked with meditation. Both studying the Abhidhamma and practicing meditation were seen as endeavors cohering with Western science for educated middle class urbanites. Through these transformations, once considered the preserve of specialized monks, meditation became a practice appropriate for a much larger audience that coincided with the newly rising urban middle class (Schedneck, 2015: 38).127 Apinya Fuengfusakul relates the popularity of vipassanā to its appealingly rational and accessible characteristics, which resonate with the middle class. She traces this to the 1970s rise of democratic and leftist movements in Thailand, which made Buddhist doctrines relevant to urban life. The meditation centers themselves, their structured organization and increasing availability across the country, was also attractive. The ability of lay involvement with not only meditation but the spiritual realm in general through the flexible style of course management resonated with a new urban cultural logic (Fuengfusakul, 2012: 220). As well the de- emphasis of ritual, smaller gap between lay and monk’s religiosity, transnational character of the retreat allowed for laity to express and engage with Buddhism in new ways. These changes in Thai society have taken hold and continue to affect the popularity of meditation and meditation centers. The meditation center as an institution helped to push meditation into the mainstream by making it accessible. But not all meditation methods in Thailand utilize the possibilities of this approach. The Forest Tradition of Northeast Thailand does not follow the regimented, portable model of the meditation center. Instead the forest tradition focuses on monasticism and individual practice over long periods of time in forest settings. Although this means that less lay people can partake in the practices of the forest tradition, forest monasteries (Wat Pah) hold a major importance for our understanding of meditation in Thailand. Forest monks today are seen as exemplary followers of the Buddha’s path. They have become famous nationally and internationally for their teachings, biographies, and strict adherence to monastic discipline. Originally comprised of individual wandering monks, the Thai Forest tradition eventually became institutionalized (Taylor, 1993). Although they do not follow the model of the meditation center, they have disseminated meditation methods through highly revered forest monk teachers in the

126 The meditation program of Phra Phimolatham encountered an obstacle when he was arrested, prosecuted, and incarcerated in 1963. Tambiah argues that his widespread meditation networks were thought to constitute political power by the prime minister of this time Marshal Sarit Thanarat. The monks of this program amassed religious power, which was inaccessible to the lay military leaders (Tambiah 1976, 260). 127 This paragraph is from Chapter 2 of my book on this topic. See Schedneck (2015). 82

《禪與人類文明研究》第 7 期（2020） International Journal for the Study of Chan Buddhism and Human Civilization Issue 7 (2020)

forms of books, published dhamma talks, and other publications on forest monastery websites (see forestsangha.org and forestdhamma.org). Below I discuss these sites, their history, and meditation methods using a regional approach, further distinguishing between the meditation center model used in Central, Southern, and Northern Thailand and the forest tradition model in the Northeast.

MEDITATION IN THAILAND: HISTORY, SITES, AND METHODS

In order to understand the field of meditation in Thailand, I highlight the main actors, meditative practices, and sites that have contributed to Thai Buddhism’s meditation centers and popularity of the forest tradition. Methods such as those of Buddhadasa Bhikkhu, Ajan Tong Srimangalo, Dhammakaya, and the more general Four Foundations of approach are the most influential and well-known within Thailand’s meditation centers. The Thai Forest Tradition uses a different method and model of dissemination than the meditation center. Through a mix of charismatic teachers, popular locations, and accessibility to information about these sites, particular meditation methods have emerged as the most well-known.

Meditation Centers: Central Thailand Wat Mahathat is an important temple for the history of meditation centers in Thailand. Section 5 of Wat Mahathat has a long record of a practice space and instruction to both Thai and foreign meditators that begins in the 1950s. Since this time, the schedule at Section 5 consists of three practice times of three hours in the morning (7-10am), afternoon (1-4pm), and two hours in the evening (6-8pm). Attending one of these sessions, one will hear an opening instruction on meditation. After this, each meditator sits silently until a closing chanting of spreading loving-kindness and sharing the of the meditation with others. The small meditation hall remains empty until the next period. Meditators enter and depart this center as they wish, staying for one or several nights or practicing for just a day.128 Instead of a distinct method, this center asserts that they teach a meditation method based on the Four Foundations of Mindfulness, as outlined in the Satipatthāna Sutta. 129 Utilizing teaching practices from the Satipatthāna Sutta, instruction focuses on some form of contemplation of the body, most commonly the breath as the beginning concentration point. The accessibility of this temple in the old city of and flexible times of practice, as well as its long history of teaching meditation, has made Section 5 of Wat Mahathat an important place for the dissemination of vipassanā meditation. Dhammakaya meditation is a unique method and the temples that use this technique owe their existence to the famous monk known by both his monastic name Luang Por Sot Chandassaro (1885-1959), or the name Luang Por Wat Paknam, after the temple he came to be most closely

128 More information can be found here: www.centermeditation.com/english_version_mainpage.php 129 Translated as the Four Foundations of Mindfulness, this is the most important text for modern day meditation methods. Its found in the Canon in the Majjhima Nikaya in the tenth discourse (MN 10). 83

《禪與人類文明研究》第 7 期（2020） International Journal for the Study of Chan Buddhism and Human Civilization Issue 7 (2020)

associated with. This meditation technique contains many levels and becomes increasingly complex as one progresses, but the beginning stages are meant for everyone. There are three main temples that offer instruction in Dhammakaya meditation: Wat Dhammakaya, Wat Luang Por Sot, and Wat Paknam.130 Sources for the unique visualization method known as Dhammakaya meditation include scholars (Newell, 2008; Bowers, 1996) as well as teachers of the Dhammakaya meditation method (Rajyanvisith, 2009). Although its meditation teachers claim this method is based on the same Satipatthāna Sutta, this technique differs from other meditation methods, which utilize the Four Foundations of Mindfulness. 131 This exemplifies the variety of ways the practices of the Satipatthāna Sutta have been interpreted. Dhammakaya meditation, unlike other Thai meditation practices, is usually conducted in groups and utilizes visualization. When one begins this practice, one first uses three techniques: concentration on the breath, the repetition of a (samma araham), and concentration on a bright object. As the meditator repeats the mantra, they will also visualize a sphere of light or crystal ball that moves through seven bases within the body, starting at the nostril and moving down to the center of the body. The meditator takes these steps before initiating concentration on the bright object in the center of the body, which is considered to be about two finger-widths above the navel. Focusing on this sphere (pathama-magga) will eventually produce the first image in a series of spheres. For intermediate and advanced meditators there is a series of further spheres and bodies that arise as one’s concentration deepens (Rajyanvisith, 2009: 72-84). On most beginner retreats though, this high-level meditation is not discussed. For most people Dhammakaya meditation is promoted as simple and effective, and something that can easily transform one’s life. Another point of difference between Dhammakaya meditation and other Thai forms is the focal point of the concentration. Instead of at the nostril or abdomen, Dhammakaya meditation focuses on the center of the body. And instead of focusing solely on the breath, the meditator concentrates on the imagined bright object (Schedneck, 2015: 51-52).132 The simplicity of the first part of this practice and its visualization techniques is attractive to followers of Dhammakaya meditation.

Meditation Centers: Southern Thailand In the South of Thailand, most meditators attend one of two large group retreats. The first retreat site in this region was Buddhadasa Bhikkhu’s Wat Suan Mokhh, which began in 1985. Starting in 1990, through the enthusiasm and encouragement of the present abbot, Venerable Ajan Bodhi Buddhadhammo, or Ajan Pho as he is called, the International Dhamma Hermitage was built across the highway from the temple.133 In addition, Ajan Pho also established a similar retreat on the island of Koh Samui.

130 See Newell (2008) for more information on Dhammakaya temple networks. 131 Some scholars have argued (Crosby, 2000; Newell, 2008) that Dhammakaya meditation takes as its origin yogāvacara (known as a form of Tantric Theravāda) meditation techniques. This is one of the reasons why Dhammakaya meditation has many features that are different from other forms of Theravāda meditation. 132 The above three paragraphs on Dhammakaya meditation are part of Chapter 3 of Schedneck (2015). 133 For information on Wat Suan Mokkh see: www.suanmokkh.org/. 84

《禪與人類文明研究》第 7 期（2020） International Journal for the Study of Chan Buddhism and Human Civilization Issue 7 (2020)

Buddhadasa Bhikkhu (1906-1993) was a famous Buddhist scholar whose English writings cover many shelves on subjects such as comparative religion and Buddhist teachings for daily life.134 The temple Buddhadasa Bhikkhu founded, Wat Suan Mokkhabalarama, or Suan Mokkh (garden of liberation), in Chaiya, Southern Thailand, still bears his legacy. This is a meditation temple for the monastics in residence as well as lay meditators. His legacy also includes the International Dhamma Hermitage, a meditation center he established.135 Similar to the mass lay meditation movement methods, Buddhadasa Bhikkhu’s meditation method is a general one that can be used by all meditators. However, Buddhadasa Bhikkhu bases his meditation technique on the instead of the more popular Satipatthāna Sutta. 136 He asserts that out of the many meditation methods and systems of and vipassanā created by various teachers – ānāpānasati, or mindfulness of breathing, is the closest one to the Buddha’s teachings.137 He recommends using the Ānāpānasati Sutta as a framework that offers complete and clear guidance. In his meditation instructions, Buddhadasa states that following this sutta from beginning to end “is simply the correct way as recommended by the Buddha” (Buddhadasa, 2001: 17). One can learn and follow this technique at the ten-day retreat programs at The International Dhamma Hermitage. The main attraction of Buddhadasa Bhikkhu’s retreats is to learn from the legacy of this most well-known Thai monk. Most Thai Buddhists have at least heard of Buddhadasa Bhikkhu (called in Thai Buddhathat) and read some of his many works. Many also admire his thought and contribution to helping practice and understand Buddhism. Dipabhavan Meditation Center was founded by Ajan Pho,138 current abbot of Wat Suan Mokhh. He was born on the island of Koh Samui and had a long-time wish to start a retreat center there. He had seen the arrival of tourism on the island and felt that Thailand had more to offer than sun and sand. In 2006, through the donation of land by a Thai lay female follower, Ajan Pho was able to realize his dream of a meditation center on his homeland, with separate retreats each month for English-speaking and Thai meditators. The Dipabhavan Meditation Center program is based on the twenty plus years of retreat experience at the International Dhamma Hermitage.139 Ajan Pho is also well-respected as a disciple of Buddhadasa Bhikkhu and has many followers in Southern Thailand. His association with this famous monk, the fact that his retreat is based on the model of the International Dhamma Hermitage, and the beautiful setting of Koh Samui are all factors in the appeal of this particular retreat program.140

134 Swearer notes that Buddhadasa’s writings constitute “the largest corpus of thought ever published by a single Theravāda thinker in the entire history of the tradition” (Swearer 1989, 2). 135 See website: www.suanmokkh-idh.org/. 136 This sutta, translated as Mindfulness of Breathing is located in the Pali Canon under the Majjhima Nikaya in the 118th discourse (MN 118). 137 In Theravāda , there are two main forms of meditation, samatha and vipassanā. Samatha refers to concentration meditation, where the mind focuses on one object; while vipassanā takes as its focus many objects. Vipassanā meditation has become especially dominant in the revival of interest in meditation in Theravāda Buddhist countries. 138 I attended the retreat at Dipabhavan Meditation Center from June 20th – June 27th, 2010. 139 For more information see: www.dipabhavan.org/. 140 This section on Southern Thailand is a revised version of parts of Schedneck (2015: 54-55). 85

《禪與人類文明研究》第 7 期（2020） International Journal for the Study of Chan Buddhism and Human Civilization Issue 7 (2020)

Meditation Centers: Northern Thailand While these group retreats were starting in the South, in the North of Thailand individual retreats for Thai Buddhists began for the many who showed an interest in the practice. Phrakhru Phiphat Khanaphiban, or Ajan Tong Srimangalo (1923-present), is known for promoting an adapted version of the vipassanā technique of Burmese teacher Mahasi . 141 Many meditators have participated in Ajan Tong’s 20+ day meditation courses in the numerous temples that utilize his method, mostly in Northern Thailand. Ajan Tong was able to spread vipassanā meditation throughout Northern Thailand because of opportunities to study in Bangkok and Burma. The abbot of Wat Phra Singh Voravihara in Chiangmai selected Ajan Tong as the Northern Thailand representative to study vipassanā meditation at Wat Mahathat in 1952. He also researched vipassanā meditation for over two years in Yangon through the connections already made in Bangkok by Phra Phimolatham (Tambiah, 1984: 172). Upon Ajan Tong’s return to Chiang Mai, he established one of the first meditation centers in Northern Thailand at Wat Muang Man. He continued to institute a number of meditation centers throughout the region (Schedneck, 2015: 59) This method consists of a number of bodily practices including , walking, and sitting meditation. All activities outside of formal meditation should be completed with awareness and mindfulness. Beginning with fifteen minutes sitting and walking meditation periods, the practice gradually increases to one hour for each type of meditation (Cook, 2010: 76-77). Through the use of a timer, the meditator tracks her own meditation periods. Meditators follow a complex exercise of moving the mind to various points in the body, up to 28 ‘touching points.’ These points constitute a sequence that is developed as each day the meditator receives an additional pair of points. At first the meditator practices by noting, ‘rising, falling, sitting,’ focusing on the abdomen and then their bottom on the cushion. As they progress, the meditator receives more complex instruction to focus the mind on these various points in the body beginning with the legs and hip until the 28 points are completed. This exercise not only builds focus but also limits someone from entering into deep concentration. Within the 20+ days of the retreat, the goal is for each meditator to complete one cycle of insight and reach the stage of stream-enterer. Although this method of meditation first began under Ajahn Tong at Wat Muang Man, after renovating Wat Rampoeng, just outside of Chiangmai city, Ajan Tong moved his meditation center there. It continues today as the Northern Insight Vipassana Meditation Center at Wat Rampoeng under the guidance of Ajan Tong’s disciples. Today, Ajan Tong continues to manage the meditation center at Wat Chom Tong in Chom Tong, Chiangmai province. Because of Ajan Tong’s history in the region and the dominance of his method here, other temples and teachers have adopted it without any formal affiliation with the teacher. This is the case at Wat Doi Suthep

141 The two techniques use the same basic practices of sitting and walking meditation with a focus on the rise and fall of one’s abdomen. However, international meditation center teachers at Wat Chom Tong explained to me that Ajan Tong’s basic retreat course is over a month shorter than Mahasi Sayadaw’s recommended basic course. As well Ajan Tong’s recommended speed for walking meditation and daily activities while in retreat is relatively quicker than Mahasi Sayadaw’s method. 86

《禪與人類文明研究》第 7 期（2020） International Journal for the Study of Chan Buddhism and Human Civilization Issue 7 (2020)

and Wat Umong where teachers use parts of the Ajan Tong method in the meditation retreats they facilitate at these centers. Many meditators from Northern Thailand practice the Ajan Tong method with his retreat programs at Wat Rampoeng and Wat Chom Tong being especially well-known and attended by Thai Buddhists from Chiang Mai.

Forest Tradition: Northeast Thailand All of the methods and sites described above follow the meditation center model. In stark contrast to this is the Forest Tradition of the Northeast Thailand. This tradition is known throughout Thailand for its strict monastic and meditation practice. Two of the most well-known teachers in the Thai forest tradition are both disciples of Ajan Man Bhuridatta (1870-1949), the founder of the revival of the forest tradition in the 1920s. Ajan Chah Subbhado (1918-1992) and Luangda Mahabua (1914-2011) founded large forest monasteries in Northeast Thailand. These forest tradition teachers do not have retreat programs for lay meditators in the mode of the mass lay meditation retreat model as their methods are not taught in the systematic, standardized way of guided retreats at meditation centers.142 When I visited Wat Pah Nanachat and , temples of , and Wat Pah Baan That, founded by Luangda Mahabua, during fieldwork in 2010, I was struck by how different these temples are from the mass lay meditation retreat model. However, in all of these monasteries, lay people are welcome to practice, just without some of the support and initial instruction of a retreat center model. Ajahn Chah and Luangda Mahabua both come from the lineage of Ajahn Man and yet their styles and teachings differ enough to affect lay meditators who come to their monasteries. Luangda Mahabua focuses on formal practice. At his temple, it is recommended that one do the small tasks needed to keep the monastery functioning quickly and quietly. After this, one returns to formal practice. This formal practice consists of much walking meditation on one’s individual jongrom (walking) path and sitting meditation in one’s solitary kuti (hut). Because of this stress on individual meditation practice, Luangda Mahabua’s monastery does not have communal activities such as daily chanting or group meditation. The only community activity is for the monks to recite the Patimokkha once every fortnight. 143 Luangda Mahabua spent many years living with and attending to the founder of the forest tradition, Ajahn Man, and thus his practices come directly from the first generation of forest practice. Many of these masters were hermits, wandering individually or in very small groups. 144 The style of Luangda Mahabua and the setup of his monastery show how he carries this tradition forward, even though he is settled in an established monastery. This way of practice is not set up for a large number of lay people with neither

142 In fact the abbot of Wat Pah Nanachat, the international forest monastery founded by Ajan Chah, recommends that visitors participate in a meditation retreat based on the Four Foundations of Mindfulness, or the Goenka method, before arriving for a stay at Wat Pah Nanachat. Because this temple offers no meditation instruction, a retreat experience will give the meditator a method to follow independently. 143 This description is based on my personal observation and interviews conducted with monks living there during a research trip in November 2009. 144 A short version of Luanda Maha Bua’s biography can be found here: http://www.forestdhamma.org/about/boowa/. For more on the history of forest tradition in the Northeast see Tiyavanich (1997). 87

《禪與人類文明研究》第 7 期（2020） International Journal for the Study of Chan Buddhism and Human Civilization Issue 7 (2020)

opportunities for interviews nor formal instruction. In fact, it is recommended that lay people who come to Wat Pah Baan That, have a meditation practice they can follow on their own while there. Ajahn Chah, in contrast to individual practice, wanted to develop the monastic community in his monasteries. Another divergence from Luanda Mahabua is that Ajahn Chah only spent a short time with Ajahn Man, receiving a teaching from him at a crucial time in his meditation practice.145 Although gaining much insight into his teachings and being able to implement them into his own practice, he was not as close to the teachings and personality of Ajahn Man as was Luangda Mahabua. Thus Ajahn Chah does not follow in Ajahn Man’s footsteps as closely as Luangda Mahabua. Ajahn Chah also stresses meditation and mindfulness in daily life, rather than formal practice. In the recordings of his speech, Ajahn Chah is often described as chiding those who think that meditation can only happen on a cushion or on the walking path. For Ajahn Chah every aspect of monastic life was to be a part of one’s practice.146 In his writings about his own meditation practice and recommendations for others, Luangda Mahabua discusses sitting and walking meditation. He writes, “One should focus the mind on one word (‘Buddho’ is a good choice) or another word to suit one’s character. Repeating the word brings calmness” (Maha Boowa Nanasampanno, 2012a: 11). Eventually one will enter (an absorptive concentration state) and the breath will seem to cease. After one becomes proficient in samadhi one should move to investigation or vipassanā meditation. One can use samadhi as a resting point for the mind when investigation is too tiresome. One comes out of samadhi naturally and at that point one should reflect on the meditation session (Maha Boowa Nanasampanno, 2012b: 12). During walking meditation, Luangda Mahabua advises that one should have a 20-30 meter path and walk at a moderate speed. For this method hands are placed right over left in front and the meditator should look down. One should stop and reflect until the mind is calm by repeating ‘buddho,’ as in sitting meditation. In contrast to the structure of meditation centers, sessions of walking and sitting meditation last as long as one wishes– there is no set length of time (Maha Boowa Nanasampanno, 2012a: 14). After one has reached samadhi, one can then first investigate objects of the body such as hair, nails, teeth and skin, and one can also investigate the inner body. The 5 khandhas (aggregates) can also be used as objects of investigation. But the choice of the object of investigation depends on the individual and their character (Maha Boowa Nanasampanno, 2012b: 24). 147 Luangda Mahabua recommends that instead of a teacher’s guidance in this choice, the meditator should decide on their own as only the meditator knows their own tendencies and habits (Maha Boowa Nanasampanno, 2012b: 8). Luangda Mahabua is careful to note that his teachings come from both theory and his own experience. Therefore the meditation techniques of Luangda Mahabua are particular to his experiences and the forest lineage of Luangpu Ajahn Man. It is also particular to his environment of the forest, of practicing alone in one’s kuti, meditating in nature, wandering,

145 For more of Ajan Chah’s biography see: https://forestsangha.org/ajahn-chah/biography. 146 This description is taken from my observation and interview with forest tradition monks at Wat Pah Nanachat in January 2010. 147 The Five Aggregates are five objects that compose sentient beings within Buddhism: feeling, body, consciousness, perception, and mental formation. 88

《禪與人類文明研究》第 7 期（2020） International Journal for the Study of Chan Buddhism and Human Civilization Issue 7 (2020)

and fasting. Thus the method, lineage, and place of practice result in a different dynamic than the lay meditation centers. Luangda Mahabua’s method is less specific and direct than those of the meditation center model but allows for meditators to develop the practice on their own. Ajahn Chah has also spoken about Buddhist practice but there is little one can piece together of a distinct meditation method. In the collection of Dhamma talks, Food for the Heart, Chah is quoted as reasoning “That’s why this year I’ve distanced myself from my disciples, both old and new, and not given much teaching: so that you can all look into things for yourselves as much as possible” (Ajahn Chah, 2005: 209). He found that his teaching could get in the way of students learning for themselves. He sometimes saw people idolizing him and following him when they should have been following their own minds. Ajahn Chah was a teacher mostly to monks but also addressed the laity. In Living Dhamma, Ajahn Chah says “If you really understand the practice of Dhamma then no matter what position or profession you hold in life, be it a teacher, doctor, civil servant or whatever, you can practice the Dhamma every minute of the day. To think you can’t practice as a layman is to lose track of the path completely” (Kornfield, 2010: 111). His focus, therefore, is on practice in everyday life and understanding and knowing one’s own mind. This is similar to Luangda Mahabua’s more general teachings and unwillingness to give a specific meditation method. Unlike the meditation center model where one method is seen to work for all, the forest tradition focuses on the individual. Many meditation teachers within meditation centers have created a technique that they teach in a series of steps. Ajahn Chah had no such method, but instead, he focused on teaching with directness, advising naturalness, and being self-reliant. He found that retreats in meditation centers could have some benefit but that it is difficult for this to carry over into one’s daily life. In A Still Forest Pool, Ajahn Chah stresses that the value of silent meditation retreats depends on the individual. “You must learn to practice in all kinds of situations, both in the market-place and when you’re really alone” (Ajahn Chah, 2004: 153). In Ajahn Chah’s monastery, unlike at meditation centers, there are no daily interviews. In A Still Forest Pool, he advises students to interview themselves, listen to dhamma talks and compare the teachings with their own practice, and conduct self-examination in order to understand the process of doubt in one’s mind (Ajahn Chah, 2004: 153). Ajan Chah recommends that as long as one is mindful, all meditation methods are the same because in the end one must let go of all systems. Ajan Chah, therefore, is not interested in retreats or formal practice, but in understanding oneself. But Ajahn Chah did give some meditation instructions to start people off. He advises to take a few deep breaths and then establish the attention on the breath, using the mantra word ‘Bud- dho.’ “Make this practice continual. . . When you start to feel fatigued then bring all your thinking to a halt, let the mind gather itself together and then turn to knowing the breath” (Kornfield, 2010: 59). The forest tradition is unique, when compared with the meditation center model, in the lack of formal instruction, the focus on self-reliance and knowing oneself, and the emphasis on solitary meditation. Thus the personalities, backgrounds, and styles of each forest meditation master affect how meditation instruction is presented to lay meditators. The varying styles of the meditation

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《禪與人類文明研究》第 7 期（2020） International Journal for the Study of Chan Buddhism and Human Civilization Issue 7 (2020) center and the forest tradition affect the amount of instruction received, the hours available for formal practice and other activities, and lay meditators’ integration into daily life at the monastery.

CONCLUSION

This paper has provided a descriptive analysis of the main meditation methods and practices available in Thailand today, contrasting the meditation center model with the forest tradition way of practice. Taking a regional approach, we saw that in Central Thailand some of the most significant methods and spaces of practice are the Four Foundations of Mindfulness as part of the oldest meditation center in Bangkok, Wat Mahathat, and Dhammakaya meditation. Buddhadasa Bhikkhu and his interpretation of the Sutta has led to large group retreats in the South. In Buddhadasa Bhikkhu’s hometown of Chaiya, the International Dhamma Hermitage facilitates retreats as well as Dipabhavan Meditation Center on Koh Samui, established by Buddhadasa’s disciple Ajan Pho. In Northern Thailand, the method of Ajan Tong has been predominant with multiple sites, which follow his techniques. In these three regions, the meditation center model dominates. All of these retreats take place in a group setting for a prescribed length of time, have fixed meditation periods, and have regular or daily instruction available with a teacher. In contrast to this is the Northeast region, home of the Thai forest tradition. Here daily life is part of meditation practice as interpreted by Luangda Mahabua and Ajan Chah. There is much more focus on knowing the self and what kind of meditation is best for the mind and body at each moment. Because of this, the teacher and formal practice times are not as important or structured. However, the forest tradition method is distinctive in its focus on solitary meditation and repetition of the mantra, ‘Buddho.’All of this diversity of meditation methods in Thailand signals the various ways possible to interpret the authoritative texts of meditation. The methods highlighted here do not represent the entirety of accessible practices in Thailand. Instead, these are the most well- known with many branch centers, followers, websites, and publications. Meditation teachers in Thailand have considerable freedom to create their own method as long as it is deemed effective by practitioners. The education, experience, and teaching style of meditation teachers are factors in the perceived effectiveness of their method.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bowers, Jeffrey. (1996). Dhammakaya Meditation in Thai Society. Bangkok, Thailand: Chulalongkorn University Press. Ajahn Chah. (1984). Bodhinyana: A Collection of Dhamma Talks. California, USA: Abhayagiri Monastery.

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BIOGRAPHY

Brooke Schedneck is Assistant Professor in the Department of Religious Studies at Rhodes College. Her work focuses on contemporary Buddhism in Thailand, where she has lived and conducted researched for over eight years. Her first book, published through Routledge’s series Contemporary Asian Religions in 2015, is titled Thailand’s International Meditation Centers: Tourism and the Global Commodification of Religious Practices. Her research been published in Contemporary Buddhism, The Review, Modern Asian Studies, Religion, and The Journal of Contemporary Religion.

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