African American Spiritual Music: a Historical Perspective

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24 THE DRAGON LODE Spring, 2000 18/2

African American spiritual music: A historical perspective

In that great gettin’ up morning and social studies and can be made applicable to Fare you well, fare you well students of all ages. When you see the forked lightning When you hear the rumbling thunder INTRODUCING CHILDREN When you see the moon a bleeding TO SPIRITUAL MUSIC When you see the well’s on fire The purpose of this article is to present a com- Fare you well, fare you well pressed history of African American spiritual mu- -Great Gettin’ Up Mornin’- sic to provide educators with an introduction to this topic. Teachers may wish to incorporate the are you well? Where might you be jour- study of spiritual music in literacy education. Con- neying? Must you leave early in the morn- nections to interactive activities built upon inquiry ing, before first light? And what sights will and discovery abound. Young children may be you watch for: a flaming moon; a bleeding engaged in activities involving play songs to learn well? What does all this mean for the trav- more about rhyming; they might also experiment Feler? with nineteenth century cooking and learn to cre- Spiritual music served as a form of commu- ate simple nineteenth century clothing, or they nication for slaves in the United States in the pre- might craft musical instruments from raw materi- civil war era. Having few possessions and even als similar to those used by slaves. Early elemen- fewer written documents, slaves had songs, stories, tary students might create an illustrated book of and dances that allowed them not only to worship spirituals, begin to discover the concept of free- but to communicate in ways other than through dom, and explore communication without using written communication. When 250 years of sla- words (signals, drums, etc.), or probe the double very ended, the predominant American culture had or hidden meanings found in some of the songs. influenced and changed the slaves, but, in return, Children might also create dioramas of plantations American popular music had taken on certain ele- and study astronomy to learn how a slave might ments of the music of slaves of African descent. “follow the drinking gourd.” Authors and illustrators of children’s books Upper elementary students might interview have revitalized spiritual music for new genera- descendants of slaves, read historical fiction, study tions of audiences. In particular Ashley Bryan, with nineteenth century American art, learn about the his books Walk Together Children: Black technology of the era, or create authentic functional American SpiritualsSpirituals, I’m Going to Sing: crafts (e.g., drinking gourds). Middle schoolers Black American SpiritualsSpirituals, and All Night, might contrast immigration with the forced migra- All Day: A Child’s First Book of African tion of slaves or study the economics of the era. American Spirituals Spirituals, offers richly illustrated High school students might compare various gov- songbooks. Spiritual music can be used as the ba- ernmental systems that allow slavery (past and sis for a thematic unit that links literature, the arts, present), explore accounts of slavery in works of 24 African American spiritual music 25 historical fiction, or may produce a slide show or effectively literate in religious recitation. They dem- videotape on slavery, along with music and origi- onstrated literacy through the accentuation of the nal narration. musical intelligence (Gardner, 1983). Another Spiritual music is a topic that can be investi- unintended outcome of converting Africans to gated through texts of many genres. Students can Christianity through teaching them white church explore nonfiction histories of this musical form music was that some of the spirituals came to serve and read biographies of notable figures. The lyrics a dual purpose-- to worship and also to communi- of the music offer opportunities to study poetic cate or signal information about escape routes, safe imagery, form, and rhythm. Allusions to spiritual houses, and persons to trust. The songs Gospel music in fiction can also be found. Teaching stu- Train, Get on Board, Little Children, Behold That dents about African American spiritual music may Star, and This Little Light of Mine are well known help achieve many aims. In part, it may support examples of songs that gave secret messages about learning in an integrated curriculum, develop finding the way to freedom. multiple intelligences, emphasize teaching peace, Folk music, by the strictest definition, stretches social justice, and diversity, and bring speakers and continuously from a far distant past. Part of the performers into schools. African tradition meant using drums. It was the drum, particularly, that allowed the slaves to at IN TIMES OF SLAVERY times send a sort of Morse code from one planta- Aboard slave ships, some captains would either al- tion to the next. They were sending messages that low or force Africans to sing and dance to keep the masters didn’t expect, but when the masters them fit and strong. Tribes or clans were kept sepa- came to understand this, often drums were banned. rate so that they could not plan revolt. But even as The slaves drummed with their heels on wooden they sang and danced in their own languages, the floors to achieve the same loud sounds. Slaves in- slaves were united by sorrow and fear. troduced many new instruments to the United In the United States, persons who were black, States: the drum, the bones, body percussion, and slaves or free, were at times denied the right to make an instrument variously called the bania, banju, or music altogether or to make certain kinds of mu- banjar, a precursor to the banjo but with no frets. sic, such as drumming. Generally, slaves were rig- Sometimes spirituals were called sorrow songs. orously converted to Christianity. Slaves were told Slaves played them to express deep suffering, en- that it was God’s will that they serve in this life and durance, and yearning for freedom in the peaceful they were instilled with the belief that their salva- kingdom of heaven. Spirituals offered emotional tion would come in heaven. Most of the slaves release, psychic relief, and helped some slaves keep embraced the new faith that enabled them to in- up morale. They sang to lighten their burdens, re- corporate their mystical ideas about the afterlife mind one another of hope, restore their spirits, in- with their love of song. Ironically, as the crease their courage, and enjoy the little free time slaveholders’ inhumanity disgraced Christianity, they had, as in the spiritual Just Keep on Singin’. the spirituals glorified that same religion. The ballads mingled sorrow with great joy, faith in Some white Americans of the era thought the God’s love, and optimism in other worldly release. Africans weren’t capable of singing and playing Funerals, particularly, were filled with music. Part white European music. However, as the slave cul- of the solace of song came in togetherness. Church ture mingled with the Protestant culture, many was, at times, the only place slaves could legitimately spirituals came to sound similar in melody to Prot- congregate, socialize, and safely express feelings. estant hymns and certainly spoke many of the same Church was also one place they could sing songs ideas-praising the Lord, looking for salvation, etc. that had dual meanings, such as Deep River, which However, the tribal rhythms transformed the staid, was used to plan meetings to discuss escape. Wade quiet hymns into new songs with rhythm and depth. in the Water meant that a slave’s absence had been The loudness, rhythm, and intonation were some- discovered. Singing the song would spread the thing that the whites had never heard before. word to other plantations in hopes that the run- At a time when standards of literacy for most away would hear it, know the bloodhounds were of the populace meant recitation (but not neces- after his[her] scent, and travel by water to hide any sarily reading) of the Bible, and although slaves scent and tracks. were usually denied the right to read and write, Spirituals were often interactive songs, using their ability to sing about Christianity made them call and response singing. A leader sings a main 26 THE DRAGON LODE Spring, 2000 18/2 verse, the call, and a group sings the response. An viously unheard by Anglo-Saxon ears. Neverthe- individual might make up a new verse, to be an- less, it was entertainment, not art; only European swered by the group’s chorus. This impromptu music was considered art. musical form was perfect for sending news and The slave bands inspired the minstrel shows. updated messages in the struggle toward emanci- Half a century or more before vaudeville, white pation. Slaves also sang call and response songs as musicians began to borrow from black music. work songs, which resembled the English and Irish Minstrel shows featured white men who smeared “chanteys.” Here, again, groups working in fields, burnt cork on their faces and sang and danced to in stables or loading wagons at market places might African-inspired tunes. No blacks were allowed to have a chance to send messages. Other songs, such perform or attend performances. Minstrels per- as Scandalize My Name or You Fight On were sung formed skits, musical comedies, and popular bal- to teach social relations, character development, lads. In the 1830s-60s minstrelsy was in its hey- and how to relate to others. Some songs, such as day. Performers used banjo, bones, dance, and imi- John Henry, glorified heroic figures. tation of black dialect. Minstrels went on “research trips” to slave plantations to listen to songs, observe THE RESPONSE OF SOUTHERN WHITES clothes, and write down dialect. In this era black As time went on, a number of southern whites, music began to be written down by white musi- some of whom were slave masters, encouraged and cians as well as by a few black musicians. At that even enjoyed the spiritual music for its own sake, time, the imitation of black persons was not meant with the exception of the drums, which were never to be cruel. It was meant to show musical styles aesthetically pleasing to the white audience. Some that were new and fresh. After the Civil War, how- masters were content with music as a palliative; ever, embittered whites did portray cruel, harsh they felt the slaves were happier and less rebel- stereotypes in minstrel shows. There were antics, lious. Some people, unfortunately, saw the condi- jokes, and comedy skits at the expense of African tions of the slaves through a very limited perspec- Americans. The portrayal of men emphasized shuf- tive and misunderstood the slaves’ love of music. fling, stupid characters or citified dudes and pan- They assumed it meant acceptance of their lives, derers. The women were depicted as prostitutes. or happiness. The myth of the contented slave was Minstrels of this age did not research the emerg- perpetuated by some whites. ing African American culture, but rather recycled Spiritual music was often passed to whites by negative stereotypes. Eventually blacks were al- slave women who took care of owners’ children. lowed to play in minstrel shows, but, in a shameful Spirituals were sung as lullabies and play songs. practice, they too had to put blackened cork on their Many southern whites grew up with warm child- faces. hood memories of these songs. In yet another in- congruity, some present day societies dedicated to SPIRITUAL MUSIC’S MISAPPROPRIATION the preservation of spiritual music are exclusively BY MAINSTREAM AMERICAN CULTURE white Southern societies. The lack of authenticity of minstrelsy corrupted In some Anglo-Saxon communities there was performance of spiritual music for white audiences. a purposeful absence of musical tradition. Music Through composers such as Stephen Foster an in- and dance were sinful and not respectable; they delible, sentimental image of the gracious old south were thought to be frivolous. They were public was widely promoted. To white America, common displays of emotion, took time from work and knowledge of spiritual music meant exposure to prayer, and might be racy or in poor taste. Often plantation music that portrayed the contented slave, their own musical forms were stiff and emotion- while the sorrow songs, work songs, and escape less, but African-inspired music offered great emo- songs were seldom heard. Although Foster, a white tion and variety. It is a sociological precept that Northern composer, researched plantations to write the most emotionally expressive musical forms in Swanee River, My Kentucky Home, Jeanie With the any society usually come from that society’s lowest Light Brown Hair, and other songs, he perhaps in- classes. African-influenced spiritual music offered advertently expedited a belief that oppressors try a rustic flavor in popular entertainment. Planta- to promote--the idea that the oppressed are happy tion masters, to amuse themselves and their guests, with their station in life. allowed slave bands to form. Musicians, singers, Given that this was the picture of plantation and dancers provided musical entertainment pre- life that white audiences had come to accept, even African American spiritual music 27

African American musicians needed to perpetuate enced 20th century piano music, notably the Tin this image to survive in the musical marketplace Pan Alley Sound as well as the big band dance or- of the time. Perhaps the best known composer is chestras. Jazz, gospel, rhythm and blues, soul, and James Bland who wrote Carry Me Back to Old rap are all descended from spiritual music. Virginny for the Genuine Colored Minstrels, his troupe. Popular performance of the late 1800s PRESERVING SPIRITUAL MUSIC downplayed the unique elements of spiritual mu- In the 1870s, the Fisk Jubilee Singers of Nashville’s sic. Its rhythms were made more acceptable to Fisk University began performing sacred songs for whites. Sorrow songs were sung by individuals as popular audiences. The chorus brought two causes ballads, not by groups as mass release of emotion to the world: education for African Americans and or as communication. the preservation of spiritual music. The chorus still exists today. THE INFLUENCE OF SPIRITUAL MUSIC A great figure in spiritual music in this cen- ON OTHER MUSICAL FORMS tury was Paul Robeson, one of the few African In 1893, the influence of American black music Americans of his day who could perform European was dignified when innovative composer Antonin classical music, the only music of its day consid- Dvorak chose spiritual music to represent America ered “art,” to enormous audiences in Europe and in his Symphony From the New World. Even so, America. Recordings of Robeson’s deep, booming spiritual music has had a far greater impact on voice introduced spiritual music to listeners all over popular music than on classical music. the world. As early twentieth century African Americans Wings Over Jordan, a chorus and preserva- moved to the cities, they took their music to dance tion society, and the singing group Sweet Honey In halls and saloons, and influenced the blues, the The Rock are currently promoting performance and tango, and ragtime. The Blues are sometimes known recording of spiritual music. Smithsonian Folk- as secular spirituals, songs of lament about more ways is the industry leader in producing compact earthly subjects such as love and money and social disk recordings. injustice. If spirituals were sometimes covertly protest songs, blues music protested overtly. Crime, EXPLORING SPIRITUAL MUSIC prison, abandonment, substance dependency, lone- The following list of books and recordings is in no liness, despair, and being far from home were and way exhaustive. Libraries, book and music stores, remain subjects of blues music. and Internet-based merchants offer many and var- Playing the blues required reading and writ- ied items. ing musical notation and understanding scales, tones, and suspended tones. Blues music contained Books on spiritual music: History, perfor- particular “broken notes” which were notated in mance (Adult) blue, hence “Blue Notes,” hence the blues! The Cleveland Public Library. (Originally published in 1937, 1991). blues were the first form of black music written Index to Negro spiritualsspirituals. CBMR Monographs, No. 3. Chicago: Co- down with regularity. In Memphis, a heated may- lumbia College Center for Black Music Research. oral campaign took on blues music as a catchy cam- Cone, J.H. (1991). The spirituals and the bluesblues. Maryknoll, paign theme, hence Memphis blues. The blues also NY: Orbis Books. took on tango rhythms; the word “tango” came Epstein, D.J. (1977). Sinful tunes and spirituals: Black folk from the African “tangana,” music that was played music to the civil warwar. University of Illinois Press. by Africans enslaved in Spain and by African Cu- Haskins, J. (1987). Black music in America: A history bans and Brazilians. through its peoplepeople. T.Y. Crowell. Syncopation, or ragged time, was a natural Hudson, W. & Hudson, C. (1995). How sweet the soundsound. Scho- part of spiritual music. The rhythms of Protestant lastic. hymns were transformed and the songs were played Johnson, J. W. God’s trombones: Seven Negro sermons in on African-inspired instruments. At the first verseverse. Penguin Books. World’s Fair in Chicago in 1892, itinerant black Johnson, J. W. (1993). Lift every voice and singsing. Walker. (also musicians came together to hear each other experi- Scholastic, 1995). ment with syncopated music. One of these musi- Jones, A.C. (1993). Wade in the water: The wisdom of the cians was Scott Joplin, and ragtime, the first black spirituals. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books. dance music in America, was born. Ragtime influ- Lovell, J. (1972). Black song: The forge and the flame [The 28 THE DRAGON LODE Spring, 2000 18/2 story of how the African American spiritual was hammered out]. New Hopson, D.P., Hopson, D.S, & Clavin, T. (1969). Juba this and York: Macmillan. Juba that: 100 African American games for childrenchildren. Fireside Reagon, B.J. (1993). We who believe in freedom: Sweet Books. (See also Tashjian, V.H., Juba this and Juba that: Story hour honey in the rock ... still on the journeyjourney. New York: Anchor Books stretchers for large or small groupsgroups. Little, Brown.) Doubleday. Hurd, T., (1984). Mama don’t allow: Starring Miles and Reagon, B.J. (1994). Wade in the water: African American the Swamp BandBand. Harper & Row. sacred music traditionstraditions. Smithsonian. (Book and tape) Johnson, J.R. (1970). Lift every voice and sing: Words and musicmusic. New York: Hawthorn Books. Musical scores Johnson, J.R. (1993). Lift every voice and singsing. New York: Walker. Illustrations by Elizabeth Catlett. Commission for Black Ministries of the Executive Council of the Johnson, J. W. (1995). Lift every voice and singsing. Scholastic. Episcopal Church. (1981). Lift every voice and sing: A collection Illustrations by Jan Spivey Gilchrist. of Afro-American spirituals and other songssongs. New York: The Jones, H. (1995). Big star fallin’ Mama: Five women in Church Hymnal Corp. black musicmusic. Viking. Sandburg, C. (1923). American songbag. American songbag. Kroll, V. (1992). Wood-Hoopoe WillieWillie. Watertown, MA: Warren, G. S. (1997). Every time I feel the spirit: 101 best- Charlesbridge. loved psalms, gospel hymns, and spiritual songs of the Afri- Langstaff, J. (1987). What a morning: The Christmas story can American churchchurch. New York: Henry Holt and Co. in black spiritualsspirituals. M. K. McElderry Books/Macmillan. Langstaff, J. (1991). Climbing Jacob’s ladder: Heroes of Books and activities related to spiritual the Bible in African American spiritualsspirituals. M.K. McElderry Books/ music (Children’s books and teachers’ re- Macmillan. sources) Larsen, R. (1989). Paul Robeson: A hero before his time. F. Becvar, P. (1991). A place called Mother Hubbard cup- Watts. boardboard. Chicago: Nystrom. Levene, D.B. (1993). Music through children’s literatureliterature. Boatner, E. (1973). The story of the spirituals. New York: Teacher Ideas Press. Belwin Mills. McKissack, P. (1992). Paul Robeson: A voice to rememberremember. Bryan, A. (1974). Walk together children: Black Ameri- Enslow. can spiritualsspirituals. Atheneum. Moll, P.B. (1994). African American story books & activi- Bryan, A. (1982). I’m going to sing: Black American spiri- ties for all childrenchildren. Purchase through author, Hampton Mae Insti- tuals, Vol. 2. Atheneum. tute, 4104 Lynn Ave., Tampa, FL33603-3421. Ringgold, F. (1992). Aunt Harriet’s underground railroad Bryan, A. (1991). All night, all day: A child’s first book of in the skysky. Crown Publishing. African American spiritualsspirituals. Atheneum. Schroeder, A. (1997). Satchmo’s bluesblues. New York: BDD. Carter, D.R. (1995). Music in the familyfamily. Lindsey Publishing. Silverman, J. (1994). Traditional black music series: Slave Clifton, L. (1973). All us come cross the waterwater. Holt, Rinehart, songs, African roots, gospel songssongs. Chelsea House Publishers. & Winston. Silverman, J. (1996). Just listen to the song I’m singing. Ehrlich, S. (1988). Paul RobesonRobeson. Chelsea House. Brookfield, CT: Millbrook Press. Fox, P. (1973). The slave dancerdancer. New York: Dell. Strickland, D. S. (1986). Listen children: An anthology of Greenfield, E. (1975). Paul Robeson Robeson. New York: black literatureliterature. New York: Bantam. HarperCollinsPublishers. Warren-Mattox, C. (1989). Shake it to the one that you Holmes, B. (1995). Paul Robeson: A voice of strugglestruggle. love the best: Play songs and lullabies from black musical Raintree SteckVaughn. traditionstraditions. Nashville: Warren-Mattox Productions/ JTG. (Available as Hopkinson, D.(1999). A band of angels: A story inspired by book, tape, or book and tape kit) thethe jubileejubilee singerssingers. New York: Atheneum Books for Young Readers. Winter, J. (1988). Follow the drinking gourdgourd. Knopf.

Discography Singing for freedom: Music for Little People, 1995 Wade in the water African American Spirituals: A concert for the child (juvenile folk music) The Concert Tradition, Vol. 1 in each of us African American Congregational Singing, All for freedom Sweet Honey in the Rock Nineteenth Century Roots, Vol. 2 Music for Little People, 1989 African American Gospel, (juvenile folk music) The Pioneering Composers, Vol. 3 African American Community Gospel, Vol.4 I got shoes Sweet Honey in the Rock Smithsonian/Folkways, 1994 Music for Little People, 1994 several volumes (juvenile folk music)

Rainbow sign Rounder, 1992 Breaths Sweet Honey in the Rock (juvenile folk music) Flying Fish, 1988 African American spiritual music 29

In this land Sweet Honey in the Rock Spirituals Philips 9500, 1979 Earthbeat, 1992 Works William Grant Still Live at Carnegie Hall Sweet Honey in the Rock New World Music, 1990 Flying Fish, 1988 The American vocalist: Boston Camerata Spirituals and folk hymns Erato, 1992 Still on the journey Sweet Honey in the Rock Earthbeat, 1993 Spirituals Simon Estes Philips, 1985 Sweet honey in the rock Sweet Honey in the Rock Flying Fish, 1976 Spirituals Martina Arroyo (juvenile folk music) Centaur, 1991

Spirituals in concert Kathleen Battle He’s got the whole Marian Anderson Deutsche Grammophon, 1991 world in His hands RCA Victor, 1994

REFERENCE Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligencesintelligences. New York: Basic Books.