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Business Practice, Ethics and the Philosophy of Morals in the Rome of Marcus Tullius Cicero

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Business Practice, Ethics and the Philosophy of Morals in the Rome of Marcus Tullius Cicero J Bus Ethics (2013) 115:341–350 DOI 10.1007/s10551-012-1401-8 Business Practice, Ethics and the Philosophy of Morals in the Rome of Marcus Tullius Cicero Michael Willoughby Small Received: 11 June 2012 / Accepted: 4 July 2012 / Published online: 20 July 2012 Ó Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012 Abstract Moral behaviour, and more recently wisdom Keywords Cardinal virtues Á Philosophy of morals Á and prudence, are emerging as areas of interest in the study Prudent behaviour Á Business practice Á First century BC of business ethics and management. The purpose of this Rome article is to illustrate that Cicero—lawyer, politician, orator and prolific writer, and one of the earliest experts in the field recognised the significance of moral behaviour in his The purpose of this paper is to survey ‘Moral Duties’ society. Cicero wrote ‘Moral Duties’ (De Officiis) about 44 (De Officiis) and give the student and the practitioner of BC. He addressed the four cardinal virtues wisdom, justice, business and management, particularly those who may be courage and temperance, illustrating how practical wis- unfamiliar with the classic writings, an opportunity to see dom, theoretical/conceptual wisdom and justice were that philosophers such as Plato (429–347 BC) and Aristotle viewed in Rome of the first century BC. ‘Moral Duties’ is a (384–322 BC), and the lawyer Cicero (106–43 BC) pro- letter admonishing his son, Marcus. It refers to personal duced material that is still relevant in contemporary busi- behaviour, business practice and analyses terms such as ness society. good faith and criminal fraud. In addition, it contains Extracts from the original texts reveal that human material which would be suitable for tutorials/seminars and behaviour in respect to business practice in first century discussions, particularly in the areas of critical thinking in Rome was very similar to contemporary business practice. business ethics and general management. A study of De The extract from Livy (59 BC–AD 17) illustrates Cicero’s Officiis in respect to present day management and business courage and his character, and the depth of ill-feeling that practice could give a wider perspective to business ethics Antony and Octavian had for Cicero. The reader will be and management students. If concepts such as moral virtue, introduced to concepts such as ‘wisdom’ (sophia, roui9a) moral propriety and moral goodness, many of which seem and ‘practical wisdom’ (phronesis, uqo´mgri1), terms to be ignored in business situations today, are to be which are fundamental to understanding leadership in embedded in business leaders of the future, it is reasonable business. In ancient Athens, a paidagogos (paidacxco´1) to expect that these qualities will be analysed and discussed was the trusted slave who escorted the schoolboy from by business students today. Further, a study of Cicero’s six- home to school and back again. This will be the approach step approach, when preparing an address/speech, could be in this paper—the reader will be led through De Officiis useful and productive for practitioners and students in this from point to point. In most cases, the link to present day area. business will be obvious, in other cases the reader must be left to draw his/her own conclusions. It might be assumed from the references to uqo´mgri1, roui9a and paidacxco´1 that the foremost thinkers in this area were Greek, but a number of Romans were writing & M. W. Small ( ) about these topics in addition to the Greek school. Wisdom Centre for Ethical Leadership, Melbourne Business School, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia (roui9a), prudence (uqo´mgri1), moral virtue (aqesg’ ), moral e-mail: [email protected] goodness (honestum), moral duty (officium), moral 123 342 M. W. Small propriety (decorum) and moral rectitude (honestas) are still death’ he said ‘in the country which I have often spoken today by the chairmen of business organisations saved’. when talking about prudent behaviour and the need for He was being carried to the villa in a litter when the moral compasses. It would seem reasonable, therefore, soldiers arrived. He did not resist but stretched out his when looking at ‘business ethics’, ‘moral behaviour’ and neck from the litter. They cut off his head with a now ‘practical wisdom’, to see what the early philosophers, sword. Then they cut off his hands too, which had and what Cicero (106–64 BC) in particular, had to say written so many speeches against Antony. His head about these topics. Cicero spoke of prudentia when refer- was carried back to Antony and fixed between his two ring to a ‘practical wisdom’ and to sapientia when referring hands on those Rostra on which he had so often to a ‘transcendent, or more conceptual, theoretical’ form of attacked Antony with such eloquence. wisdom. ‘Moral Duties’ (De Officiis) illustrates Cicero’s Perhaps not the greatest recommendation for someone view of practical wisdom. It describes business practice in advocating wisdom and justice, but these were exceptional ancient Rome, touches on Cicero’s leadership qualities vis- times. a`-vis the Roman organisational hierarchy, and includes Cicero had two words for ‘wisdom’, prudentia and sa- sections on terms such as ‘good faith’ and ‘criminal fraud’. pientia. Prudentia for practical wisdom (III, XXXIII, 117), In the following analysis of Cicero’s ideas, reference will as in ‘and what will be the function of wisdom?’ Quod be made to contemporary Australian situations that illus- autem munus prudentiae? Lewis and Short (1879) defined trate the classical concepts in practice. prudentia as a foreseeing, but it could also refer to an Marcus Tullius Cicero was a lawyer, an ambitious pol- acquaintance with a thing, knowledge of a matter, or skill itician and a writer with a prodigious output. ‘Moral Duty’ in a matter. In a third sense, prudentia also meant sagacity, was one of his philosophical works. Cicero progressed good sense, intelligence, practical judgement or discretion. through the Roman hierarchy demonstrating his leadership Cicero said prudentia consisted of three parts viz., mem- qualities and became consul (chief magistrate) in 63 BC, ory, intelligence and foresight, prudentia tribus partibus the highest appointment in the Roman administrative sys- constare videtur-memoria, intelligentia, providentia. The tem. There was a downside, however; Cicero lived in dif- Greeks, he said, defined prudence phrone¯sin uqo´mgrim (I, ficult and dangerous times, a civil war was taking place and XLIII, 153) ‘as something else, namely the practical he was banished from Rome. Antony and Octavian had him knowledge of things to be sought for and of things to be proscribed, and then murdered. As proof that Cicero was avoided.’ dead, his head and hands were returned to Rome in a sack and displayed in the Forum. Livy cited in Balme and quam Graeci uqo´mgrim dicunt, aliam quondam in- Morwood (1997) has described the circumstances of Cic- telligemus, quae est rerum expetendarum fugienda- ero’s death. It is based on Fragment 50: rumque scientia; Mors Ciceronis: nemo Antonium vehementius op- Sapientia vis-a`-vis prudentia was different. Cicero (II, pugnaverat quam Cicero. Antonius ipse manum mil- II, 5) wrote that this wisdom or sapientia had been defined itum misit qui iussi sunt eum occidare. ille in villa by earlier philosophers: manebat prope mare; ubi de adventu militum cog- Wisdom, moreover, as the word has been defined by novit, temptavit in nave ad villam redire constituit; the philosophers of old, is the knowledge of things ‘mortem obibo’ inquit ‘in patria quam saepe servavi.’ human and divine and of the end of the causes by in lectica ad villam ferebatur, cum milites advene- which those things are controlled. runt. non restitit sed cervicem e lectica extendit. illii caput gladio praecidunt. tum manus quoque prae- Sapientia autem est, ut a veteribus philosophis de- ciderunt, quae tot orationes in Antonium scripserant. finitum est, rerum divinarum et humanarum causa- caput eius ad Antonium relatum inter duas manus in rumque, quibus eae res continentur, scientia; eis rostris affixum est in quibus Antonium tanta elo- When Cicero was talking to (I, V, 15) his son Marcus quentia totiens oppugnaverat. about ‘moral goodness’, he said that moral goodness and The Death of Cicero: No one had attacked Antony wisdom were closely linked, and ‘if moral goodness could more violently than Cicero. Antony himself sent a be seen with the naked eye it would awaken a marvellous band of soldiers who were ordered to kill him. He love of wisdom’, ut ait Plato, excitaret sapientiae. The was staying in a villa near the sea; when he heard of word used in this instance is sapientia, Cicero’s choice the arrival of the soldiers, he tried to escape in a ship, when referring to higher-level issues. Sapientia also but he was driven back by contrary winds. At length, referred to good taste, good sense, discernment, discretion, he decided to return to his villa: ‘I shall meet my intelligence and even prudence. Cicero (I, XLIII, 153) 123 Morals in the Rome of Marcus Tullius Cicero 343 thought that the foremost of all virtues was wisdom; he So can this situation be rectified? The need for devel- wrote that the Greeks called it sophia roui9am’, oping a sense of integrity and moral maturity in business leaders has never been greater, but programmes in business Princepsque omnium virtutem illa sapientia, quam ethics seemed to have had little impact in reducing ques- roui9am Graeci vocant tionable business practices. It might be argued therefore If wisdom was the most important of the virtues, as it that the content and focus of business ethics programmes certainly was, Cicero emphasised this point by writing ut should be reviewed. est certe, it necessarily followed that, that duty which was Cicero (I, V, 15) citing Plato’s Phaedrus proposed that connected with the social obligations was the most all that was morally right arose from one of four sources important duty.
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