Environmental Racism Throughout the History of Economic Globalization Chelle Mcintyre-Brewer*

Original Article 105

Environmental racism throughout the history of economic globalization Chelle McIntyre-Brewer*

University of Nebraska, Omaha, MA Critical and Creative Thinking Program, USA * Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Environmental racism plagues the history and contemporary realities of globalization. To control resources, stake holders seek to dominate lands and peoples in order to produce at a maximum profit. Left in the wake of consumerism are populations of ethnic, religious, and racial minorities. These groups traditionally have an attachment to ancestral lands they wish to protect or are unable to compete with large corporations who establish environmentally unfriendly conditions and unfair working situations for underserved populations. Since a mentality of ‘Not in My Backyard’ (NIMBY) perpetuates apathy for addressing iniquities, remediation of these issues has been slow to non-existent. The value of exploring specific instances and recurring trends within regions of inequity and destructive ecological policy cannot be understated. Without awareness, change is impossible. Inherently, methodologies used to analyze current global systems are imperialist in nature and create further distance from the subjects exposed to detrimental corporate and policy decisions. This research provides an historic overview of globalized environmental racism in order to address and combat negative choices affecting marginalized communities throughout the world.

KEYWORDS environmental racism; resources; NIMBY

Received: 22 June 2018 Accepted: 7 May 2019 Published online: 21 June 2019

McIntyre-Brewer, C. (2019): Environmental racism throughout the history of economic globalization. AUC Geographica 54(1), 105–113 https://doi.org/10.14712/23361980.2019.10

1. Introduction 2. Background The global economy has major impact on environ- From the dawn of civilization, the allocation of ment with most of its effects hugely altering the eco- resources has dominated politics at the local, regional, logical balance and future of our planet. Across the and global levels. This play for ownership has evolved world, pollution levels continue to rise, and those not over time and continues to be an area that raises in control of resources become the increasingly marginalized. Land degradation is at an all-time high with agricultural pursuits, deforestation, mining, and the critics,questions alike, about disagree morality, as to sustainability,how resources efficiency,should be deposition of waste (Kwong 2005). There is a high dispersedand capacity based for onincreased the aforementioned profit. Researchers issues withand correlation between the wealthy and environmental - the masses and others taking a more environmental orsome humanistic arguing forapproach. capitalistic Realistically, gain at the these expense conver of- consequencesfitness as opposed due to to corporate those who waste come zones, from industri pover- sations need to come to some sort of affable consen- alty pollution,being exposed and theto the pervasive worst environmental ‘not in my backyard’ fallout sus sooner rather than later because there is a tangi- attitude from those who control resources (Bullard ble reality that humans are consuming resources at 2008). Despite many efforts to change environmen- a rate more pronounced than they are recovered, and tal conditions, very few changes have been made. It is entire communities are being destroyed in the name imperative that all major actors in the global economy work judiciously to alter the current trajectory of the be understood to decide how to address the issue of earth’s ability to sustain humankind, because current globalof profit. access The tohistory supplies of allocation of any nature. of resources must efforts are not enough and at the detriment to underserved populations. 2.1 Pre-historic Quest for Resources Without an awareness of the issues facing these under-represented communities, environmental In pre-ancient times, the challenge in the days of the racism will continue to plague the global commu- hunter-gatherer was to have enough food to sur- nity. Most realistically, I contend that the means by vive. When sustenance disappeared, humans moved which to combat environmental racism lies in making to another area until those resources also became people aware of how the mistreatment of the under- scarce, repeating the pattern until agrarian abilities

ways to preserve food to consume in times of want, pollutionserved will, in in areas turn, that affect do those not havewho benefitthe representa from the- formed (Hakim 2005). Once humans were able to find- tionproducts to advocate created for by themselves. the corporations While the exacerbating idea ‘Not in mal level. “In the paleolithic period men were already My Backyard’ (NIMBY) is convenient for ignoring the awaretheir explorations that at certain could times be fulfilledof the year on lessanimals of a andpri state of global pollution, showing people that the negative effects of production do harm everyone forces ritual observances to maintain an adequate supply of those controlling resources to acknowledge that envi- themplants were are less therefore prolific deemed than at necessary.” others, and Even seasonal dur- ronmental racism is not sustainable (Maiorino 2011). ing this early time in history, supply was of utmost The results may not be seen immediately but will be importance. profoundly obvious when clean water and air become scarce, nutrients in the soil are depleted, and diseases 2.2 Emergence of Civilizations and Hierarchy spread from minority areas to those who control economic supply and demand. Making the consequences As humans migrated, so did their cultures, languag- of environmental racism relative to the entire popu- es, and religions. They developed unique identities lation so that there is an impetus to reform corporate mishandling of waste treatment and overseeing con- As anthropologists continue to study the remains and servation initiatives in order to manage and restore artifactsthat have of influenced those who their predated regions the throughout current popula time.- an ecological balance is of the utmost importance of tion, it is commonly agreed that the cradle of civiliza- the future of society. The use of traditional historical tion is in the Middle East and Northern Africa, with Ethiopia also having a distinct early culture (Havi- means to understand the pervasiveness of character- land 2013). As independent civilizations gathered the isticsreview and and scenarios case studies surrounding as examples the issue is an of effectiveinequity knowledge and resources to create agrarian societies and environmental racism, serving to bridge the gap between perception and reality. hierarchieswith more complex developed governments (Whitrow and 2004). the opportunity The result wasfor caloric a miniscule energy ruling to be expendedor upper class,on recreation, a very limited social scholarly or merchant class middle class, and the rest being the working class which supported the entire civilization. Environmental racism throughout the history of economic globalization 107

commodities from foreign nations of opposite alle- wealth, while the lower classes toiled on land they giance as possible. The upper classes had the luxury of time and While so much attention has been paid to Europe- needs were barely being met while those in positions an imperialism, the Ottoman Empire (Turks) dom- ofdid power not own, lived for comfortably. profits they As could time notprogressed, claim. Their the labor of the lower classes and the prowess of the mer- of the major players in Europe as well as Japan and, chant and ruling classes created trade routes span- eventuallyinated the Middlethe United East States while between Asia was colonial a confluence times ning various continents. These routes brought with right on up to the inception of World War I. Prior to them the opportunity for economic growth through that period, it had seen several large imperial forces ravage the area. At the very root of colonialism, various civilizations. Inevitably, there was an unbal- regardless of location, were resources. ancetrade, in the resources profits of on war, all levelsand the (Postgate acquisition 1994). of land In fact, for some of the very resources being distributed were 2.4 Industrial Revolution Through World War I the very lowest classes: slaves. The idea of man as a commodity was an idea well-established through- As colonies in the Americas and Asia fought to gain out the continents based on the emerging idea of con- independence, the Industrial Revolution became the quering to claim for political growth (Brace 2004).

- theimpetus Scramble for European for Africa, nations Europeans to find ravaged means tothe obtain Afri- tionUnfortunately, of resources the takes practice place. of slavery – in whatever raw materials to produce finished products. Known as- form – developed as a reality wherever the acquisi tial income and rivers for transportation at a rapid 2.3 Age of Exploration pace.can continent, In 1870, tenclaiming percent land of masses Africa was filled controlled with poten by

ninety percent had been claimed (Easterly 2009). The - fruitsEuropean of the entities, African but continent by the wereonset being of World taken War I, at an By the Age of Exploration, the dominant political and incredibly high cost to the African people. Despite the expeditionaryestablished political forces, exceptentities for was the threefold: various dynas gold, atrocities occurring, many wealthy investors ignored God,ties of and eastern glory. Asia, Monarchs existed sought in Europe. to gain The capital focus byof the horror of African imperialism. The beginning of the twentieth century ushered in as many foreign civilizations to Christianity, and great transformations, both politically and economi- enjoyingfinding gold the andglory other of owning lucrative more assets, of theconverting Earth’s cally. The emergence of a solid middle class brought crust through imperialism (Crowley 2015). The about new ideas and challenges to the traditional - modes of government. The assassination of Archduke

Atlantic,for shipping Pacific, companies Indian, andacting with under them the a wide authority vari ofety various of seas kingdoms were now and filled countries. with trade Once route again, claims the Ferdinandby corporate became greed onthe both excuse sides. needed Then, to the embark post-war on a deadly conflict which cultivated a war machine fueled- - duction, which had been geared to the war effort, had ed,resources or manufactured were allocated by the to masses.the few – those At this pointwealthy in toperiod be changed was difficult over onto multiplepeaceful levels. uses.” “IndustrialThis time-con pro- history,enough toagriculture dictate exploration – and was not nearly asmined, valued cultivat as the suming process led to unemployment as soldiers from precious minerals being mined to sustain the desire for riches of the elite in Europe (Williamson 2009). - Crashall fronts of returned1929, the home world to was find strugglingthere were tofew recover. jobs to chants quickly latched on to the market of slaves be Thisfilled. time, Combining fascist regimesthis with came the Great forward Stock with Market eco- comingWith the out demise of the of nativesMiddle inEast colonial and Africa,expanses, loading mer -

America, but quickly on its heels, North America, as nonomic continent promises was at left the unscathed,expense of whetherfreedom byand being pro human cargo in ships and setting sail for, first, South directlygress which involved eventually in battle led or to through World War IIcommitment where agriculture unique to the Americas falling in favor, of manpower and resources (Gilbert 1979). Corpo- thewell. Triangular Once the ColombianTrade soon Exchange followed suitwas with created its own and rations showed their disregard for moral principles by choosing to work with enemy governments while Africa and the Mediterranean were traded for sugar providing products for Allied countries. Some of their andeconomic molasses cycle. in Ships the West filled Indies with slaveswhere and it was gold turned from technological advancements even led to the death into rum, and other raw materials from the American of both Allied troops as well as the victims of wide- Colonies were sent to Europe to be manufactured so spread genocide (Bakan, Crooks, Achbar 2003). To they could be sold so that the entire process would date, corporations involved with this duplicitousness begin again (Galeano 1997). Because of the reliance deny direct involvement, taking an amoral approach on water routes, countries also hired privateers to act that they have no control over the use of their product on their behalf essentially as pirates to pull as many once sold to entities (Bakan et al. 2003). 108 Chelle McIntyre-Brewer

2.5 Post-World War II lines of race, often without the input of the affected communities of color.” The history and pervasiveness Once World War II concluded, it seemed the world of colonization throughout time reinforced environ- was split between communist ideologies and capitalism. Oil, which came to the forefront during the First of globalization. World War, dominated economic decisions globally. mentalContemporary racism so discourseit is entrenched centers within around the the context inher- Europe and Asia were in ravages, while the United ently problematic issues that arise in attempting to States held the upper hand economically on a univer- address environmental racism. As the result of impe- sal level. It seemed the tables had turned on the former rialism and colonization, the injustices associated economic and political powers while former colonies - oppression. Smaller, previously ignored countries nation,with controlling pollution, resources and other while inequities maximizing (Das, Hortonprofits suchexerted as Viettheir Nam fledgling and Korea power came in protest to the offorefront long held in 2017).often excludes Furthermore, the voices the inability most affected to respond by contami to corporate policy that negatively affects communities the people of those countries were more interested in keeps victims of environmental racism from being the fight between capitalism and communism, while- able to spearhead legal and legislative reform, much - less have the resources to relocate to safer areas or exercising their independence. Time and again, coun access appropriate medical care. “The issues around thetries web would of globalism. vie for true Since freedom Central from and outsideSouth Ameri influ- environmental racism show that environmental and caences now only had to more find businessthat they tieswere with inherently the United sewn States into social issues cannot be neatly separated from each than Europe and, as already noted, corporations have a long history with supporting tyrannical govern- available to those affected so they can be heard when ments, this geographic region, like Asia followed by theyother. call Resources, this discrimination legal and financial, out for what need it tois.” be Contin made- ued concerted efforts on the part of corporations and whim of wealthier governments or connected corpo- rationsAfrica, would(Williamson find itself 2009). in politicalEven today, upheavals the corporate at the the environments in which they live despite massive impact over government is undeniable. Corporations studiespolicy makers indicating to exploit the negative underserved impacts populations to the ecology, and such as Monsanto are deeply embedded in the polit- health, and sustainability of impacted areas. ical decisions made in both developed and developing nations (Robin 2008). Essentially, those corpora- 3.1 The United States tions, the International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and World Trade Organization are the equivalent of In the United States, environmental racism is typically the ancient Mesopotamian priests, making decisions and primarily minority residents, referring “to any the few. policy,identified practice in areas or ofdirective lower income, that differentially dense population, affects that affect the lives of many while directly benefitting or disadvantages (whether intended or unintended) individuals, groups or communities based on race or 3. Environmental Racism colour (sic)”. These types of communities are found all over the country, in both urban and rural areas, and Environmental racism is a concept that evokes con- involving a multitude of races and ethnicities. Ironi- siderable controversy but must be addressed in cally, one of the most affected groups in the United order to protect the future of our planet. The term States are Indigenous People. “The legacy of institu- takes on different meaning depending on the geo- tional racism has left many sovereign Indian nations graphic area depicted, but the basic premise is that without an economic infrastructure to address pover- the ethnic, religious, and racial minorities of a region ty, unemployment, inadequate education and health are underserved in terms of adequate access to basic care, and a host of other social problems.” Despite environmental protections and rights (Lancet Plan- well-known and accepted histories of cultural inter- - est in the earth and its relationship to humans, North ting from this marginalization continue to refuse to American Indigenous Peoples are routinely found acknowledgeetary Health 2018).the profound While those damage currently being donebenefit to, advocating to protect their land and resources from not only the minority groups directly involved, but the entire planet, our world is rapidly decaying and reaching a point of irrevocable damage. “Leaders Dakotamostly economicAccess Pipeline entities controversy determined brought to find to profit light in the environmental-justice movement have posit- at the expense of the environment. Most recently, the

Nations publications and numerous peer-reviewed contaminatingthe conflict between water and corporate infringing entities on sacred and tribalburi- ed – in places as prestigious and rigorous as United alaffiliations grounds atwith the the Standing protests Rock over Indian the possibility Reservation of inverse of environmental justice, when environmen- (Liu 2016). The sheer apathy of the pipeline’s corpo- taljournals – that risks are allocated environmental disproportionately racism exists along as the rate response caught the American people, as well as Environmental racism throughout the history of economic globalization 109 global followers, off guard and brought to light the In the South, racism continues to be a force of inequalities feeding into institutional environmental oppression, particularly through corporate impacts racism. on the environment. The USGAO’s study, “Siting of Corporate indifference to industrial pollution is not unique to the Indigenous communities in the United the Racial and Socio-Economic Status of Surrounding - Communities,”Hazardous Waste sites Landfills lenient and regulations Their Correlation and hand with- outs for corporations, with little legislation to protect (USGAO)States: “Two and theinfluential other by studies the United exploring Church this of Christ rela land, water, and air resources (United States General tionship – one by the U.S. General Accounting Office- ple of color were more likely to live close to hazardous a result of the public outcry to the Warren County, waste(UCC) – found sites and that facilities African-Americans than whites.” and Both other studies peo NorthAccounting Carolina Office Polychlorinated 1983). This Biphenyls information (PCB) came dump as were conducted in the 1980s and revealed inequities sites created by Ward Transformers Company begin- on several levels. The UCC research was able to link ning in 1973. While Warren County received support - from an outraged populace, other areas of the South sure to contaminated materials (United Church of were found to be just as contaminated, with a predis- raceChrist specifically 1987). Most to augmentedimportantly, opportunities these studies for brought expo position to place factories, dump waste, and otherwise awareness to the fact that minority communities were fuel environmental racism based on the fact that these more prone to environmental racism. communities did not have the same representation in Whether natural or man-made, environmental dis- political places of power and, in predominantly Latino asters continue to dominate in areas where poverty of under-communication of the dangers of industri- alcommunities, pollution (Bullard language 2000). barriers Across added the Unitedan extra States, level Newand minority Orleans. communitiesThe result was exist. chaos In 2005,and destruction Hurricane economic growth has been set as a priority while whichKatrina impacted ravaged all the strata Gulf of Coast society region, but particularly specifically in underserved communities continue to suffer from the the black community. The authors of Institutional Dis- effects of pollution and environmental degradation. crimination, Individual Racism, and Hurricane Katrina 3.2 Europe - esexplore prior the to reasonsthe hurricane for this madeinequity escaping in their itsresearch, wrath explaining that previous poverty and lack of resourc- which has a vast history of discrimination against cally stunted by governmental sources as compared Environmental racism is also experienced in Europe,- tomore predominantly difficult while white recovery areas (Henkel,efforts were Dovidio statisti and onization. On its own continent, Europe continues Gaertner 2006). Over a decade later, the area is still tominority struggle groups with itswhich treatment extended of Romaniits grip through and Indige col- being rebuilt, with a focus on the corporate infrastruc- nous tribes of the continent. Comparable conditions ture dominating the horizon while some families are face the Romani to those of minorities in the United still living in FEMA provided trailers (Robertson and States, as they are relegated to poorer urban areas, Fausset 2015). Nature may have created the storm, with contaminated living situations. The European but society has allowed its destruction to linger in Roma Rights Centre indicates that “Forced evictions underserved areas. of Roma on environmental grounds are on the rise” while mining and deforestation efforts are threaten- environmental racism are affected from a corporate ing the well-being of ethnic groups in the northern vantageOther point. parts Detroit,of the United Michigan States is whichhistorically experienced known regions of Europe (Tauli-Corpuz 2015). Sami, Koni, as the car manufacturing center of the United States, Yemets, and other Indigenous groups of continen- while its factories sit empty and pollutants continue to corrode the environment surrounding the city and those in North America, with their food and water its outlying regions. In 2014, it was revealed that lead tal Europe find themselves in similar positions as levels in the water of Flint, Michigan could be legal- - - biasupply Information contaminated Network by corporate 2009). The efforts environmental to expand tection Agency (Craven and Tynes 2016). As a major threatand increase to these profit marginalized (European people Racism is andvery Xenopho real and ly defined as toxic waste by the Environmental Pro seldom recognized at a global level. were being released into the air, water, and soil for With such indifference toward the well-being of generationscontributor leadingto Detroit’s to this automotive crisis and industry, affecting toxinsa pre- the indigenous groups of the region, it is no wonder dominantly minority and underserved population. that the refugee situation in Europe has been cause - for discontent and inevitable environmental racism. ronmental racism in the U.S., which for decades has - “Flint’sallowed water polluters crisis to fits prey into on a historical communities trend of of color,envi ca and the Middle East have converged on the Euro- in part because of weak environmental regulations.” peanVast amounts continent of andthose are fleeing often political used for unrest undesirable in Afri The industrialized North was certainly not alone in its contributions to environmental racism. labor that exposes them to dangerous chemicals and extreme weather conditions to work for wages that 110 Chelle McIntyre-Brewer do not meet the European standards (Serpis 2015). Shell Oil began drilling on their tribal lands, leading Further north, refugees routinely jostle with French - riot police in Calais as they attempt to access the Unit- ly nutrient rich soil (Spitulnik 2011). After a massive ed Kingdom, living in deplorable conditions that are outcryto toxic from environmental the people levelsand very in whatpublic was protests, previous the veritable environmental hazards (News France 2017). - testors to quell the situation, ultimately siding with sort of behavior to a global level that remains prob- ShellNigerian Oil andgovernment continuing arrested to allow and large executed scale pollution. nine pro lematicThe European to this day.quest to imperialize has extended this Ultimately, the same sort of patterns of environmental racism present themselves in Africa as has been 3.3 Latin America and the Caribbean seen elsewhere, with the underserved populations

Latin America and the Caribbean were molded by pollutants and contamination. and minorities being exposed to dangerous levels of Indigenous people (Williamson 2009). Despite centu- 3.5 Asia riesfierce of colonialism pillage and and annihilation exploitation of the of the native land popula and its- tion due to war over resources, slavery, and the spread Geographically, Asia is an interesting area because it - ing environmental racism. “Campesino identity and to major industrial nations including Korea, Japan, farmworkerof disease, the identity people have still takelong anbeen active pillars role of in politi fight- andis filled China. with It constitutesisland countries an enormous as well as amount being ofhome the cal participation in rural Latin America, particularly planet and includes a wide range of ecosystems, gov- - ernments, ethnicities, and industries. It also is home to al histories of revolutionary violence. Now despoiled the largest ocean on the planet which, as Haunani-Kay landscapes,where peasants’ poisoned demands watersheds, for justice agricultural ﬁgure in nation chemicals, and other rural environmental problems share the platform with such traditional peasant issues as theTrask tremendous attests, “The number vast Pacific of environmental is a dumping ground contami for- land, credit, and commodity prices.” The destruction nantstoxic and released hazardous during wastes” World (Trask War II, 1993). the area Aside remains from of the environment is largely due to foreign interests rife with industrial activity that releases pollutants at either using the raw materials native to South Amer- ica and the Caribbean or creating industrial settings Even on the continental mainland, environmen- in these areas to save money on labor, production, talthe racismexpense has of indigenousbeen prevalent people throughout of the region. the area. writing,and the ethnicity,disposal ofrace, toxic and waste poverty (Carruthers are driving 2008). forc- In 1983, Texas owned Union Carbide Corporation esMuch which the determine same as the where other these cases corporate examined outposts in this experienced an industrial catastrophe when its plant are located, and the damage done is typically to the mixed methyl isocyanate, a chemical fertilizer, with underserved community while those with adequate water causing a noxious gas to loom over the town resources are distant from the damage incurred. residentsof Bhopal werein India, dead exposing and thousands 520,000 more people would in the be area. Within three days, approximately 8,000 native- 3.4 Africa sis, neurological issues, severe body pains, while the deathdiagnosed toll continuedwith lung tofibrosis, mount blindness, (Das Gupta tuberculo and Das Gupta 2008). The sheer number of those affected is staggering in comparison to many of the other regions Africa,Well documented stripping the activitycontinent exists of its ofnatural so-called resources first of the world, which makes sense considering that world national corporations sending toxic waste to Asia homes 59.63% of the world’s population (United labor is pervasive throughout colonial history (Kig- Nations 2011). Another common denominator making othowithout 2015). regard Environmental to ecological racism balance, is aand volatile exploiting issue this disaster like others of its kind in Asia is that the in Africa, with political unrest being only a portion of incident occurred with an outsourced subsidiary of the violence as impoverished communities continue a Western corporation. The combination of geograph- to be affected by contamination, disease, and lethal ic size, massive diverse populations, varied resources living conditions. “South Africa is in a state of ecolog- and ecosystems, and economic competition make Asia ical collapse moving towards ecological catastrophe,” with “[m]ost black South Africans continu[ing] to live on the most damaged land, in the most polluted ripe3.6 Not for inopportunities My Backyard – NIMBY to extort its local populations.

- Throughout time and space, a common theme that rienceneighbourhoods of black South near coalAfricans fired is power far from stations, an abnor steel- keeps arising is NIMBY, an acronym for Not in My malmills, representation incinerators and of the waste conditions sites”. Sadly, suffered the by expe the Backyard (Bullard 2008). In short, those who pol- indigenous people of Africa (Cock 2015). The Ogoni lute are sure to place the waste or damage in an area people were victims of environmental racism when that will not directly impact or inconvenience their Environmental racism throughout the history of economic globalization 111 lifestyles. Reviewing the evidence researched, it is and human destruction with the introduction of Agent fair to argue that environmental racism continues to impact the underserved and under-represented. The the overall destructiveness of war (Milne 2008). This predominant cause of the issue is a desire to save approachOrange by to corporate economic influence development of Monsanto has been as proven, well as - time and again, to be opportunist and elitist, not to ing large segments of the population who do not have mention unsustainable. money at the expense of the environment, thus affect Still, a neoclassical movement evolved to advocate (Albareda 2008). for free markets and accountability through private theWithout resources an byawareness which to of fight the issueslarge corporations facing these under-represented communities, environmental predominant theory in practice to date, inherently racism will continue to plague the global commu- itinvestment is problematic and market because efficiency. the investors Although logically this is arethe nity. Most realistically, I contend that the means by those who have the means to pay into the system in which to combat environmental racism lies in making people aware of how the mistreatment of the under- marginalized and their environments persists with- outorder the make ability an influence. to advocate The fornegative themselves effect on beyond those a limited grassroots effort. pollutionserved will, in in areas turn, that affect do those not havewho benefitthe representa from the- Unlike the previous two theories, the social theory tionproducts to advocate created forby thethemselves. corporations While exacerbating the idea of of development holds the most promise for the glob- NIMBY is convenient for ignoring the state of global al community. This philosophy emulates the desire pollution, showing people that the negative effects to view commodities within a framework of sustain- of production, in fact, do harm everyone forces those ability and cultural milieu. As Ernst Friedrich Schu- controlling resources to acknowledge that environ- macher advocated in Small is Beautiful: A Study of Eco- mental racism is not sustainable. The results may not nomics as if People Mattered (1999), individuals need be seen immediately but will be profoundly obvious meaningful work for proper human development and when clean water and air become scarce, nutrients in “production from local resources for local needs is the soil are depleted, and diseases spread from minor- the most rational way of economic life” (Schumacher ity areas to those who control economic supply and 1999). Instead of solely relying on economic growth demand. Making the consequences of environmental as the key measure of success, social economic theo- racism relative to the entire population so that there is rists contend that addressing systemic issues such as an impetus to reform corporate mishandling of waste poverty, inequality, population migration, premature treatment and overseeing conservation initiatives in death rates and other social problems with positive order to manage and restore an ecological balance is outcomes is just as important. of the utmost importance of the future of society. Localization and decentralization lead to more access for all parties involved to have a say in the allocation of resources, which is not to say that globaliza- 4. Theories of Application tion is a bad thing or that the interconnectedness of global production networks is a blight on the future Those who have power wield it over those who do of the planet. Rather, the social theory of develop- not, monopolizing access to resources and strategi- ment suggests that taking the time to assess local and cally withholding it from those who need support the regional assets and have them managed by the locali- most. The question lies in how to adequately deal with the unequal distribution of resources globally. While personal interest to what is often a distance transac- theorists debate the merits and best practices of eco- ty is beneficial for everyone because it adds a layer of nomic development, it is imperative to remember that real effects of globalizing processes are felt not at the the past is the key to the present. Humans repeatedly globaltion. As or Peter the national Dicken (2015)level but so at aptly the localexplains, scale: “The the choose to ignore past iniquities, continuing to make communities within which people struggle to meet the same mistakes. It is imperative to note that case the needs of their daily lives”. Affording localities studies which qualitative data, mentioned throughout the ability to make choices, and applying this mode of management universally, ensures a better chance continued to be released. Environmental racism per- of a checks and balances system requiring entities to siststhis discussion, despite years have of existed study. since the early 1980s and work with one another to solve issues. Though clear- Classical liberal economists argue for a more tra- ly not a panacea, utilizing local interest is an effec- ditional view of economic development, ignoring the tive means by which to improve circumstances. The fact that viewing developing nations with a primitive result may not be the cheapest, fastest, nor the most lens that is often condescending and, in fact, reinforc- technologically advanced, but there is a better chance es an imperialist mentality. Walt Whitman Rostow, of sustainability of mankind. Most importantly, the after all, strongly supported efforts by the United social theory of development engages stakeholders at States in Viet Nam which led, not only to failure and myriad levels to create a conversation set apart from a highly corrupt government, but to environmental other efforts to confront environmental racism. 112 Chelle McIntyre-Brewer

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